SOURCE OF HEAT IN METAL CUTTING: During metal cutting, heat is generated in

three region (1) Around Shear Plane, (2) Tool Chip Interface, (3) Tool Work piece
Interface. AROUND SHEAR PLANE: It is the region in which actual plastic
deformation of the metal occurs during machining. Due to this deformation heat is
generated. A portion of this heat is carried away by the chip, due to which its
temperature is raised. The rest of the heat is retained by the work piece. It ios
known as primary deformation zone. TOOL CHIP INTERFACE: As the chip slides
upwards along face of the tool friction occurs between their surfaces, due to whichh
heat is generated. A part of this heat carried by the chip, which further raises the
temperature of the chip. And the rest transferred to the tool and the coolant. This
area is known as secondary deformation zone. The amount of heat generated due to
friction increases with the increase in cutting speed. It is not apprerciably effected
with the increase in depth of cut. When the feed rate is increased the amount of
frictional heat generated is relatively low. But, in that case, the surface finish
obtained is inferior. TOOL WORK PIECE INTERFACE: The portion of tool flank which
rubs against the work surface is another source of heat generation due to friction.
This heat is also shared by the tool, work piece and coolant used. It is more
pronounced when the tool is not sufficiently sharp.

Figure shows the distribution of the heat generated during metal cutting, neglecting
the heat flowing to the atmosphere. On an average, about 70% of the total heat is
carried away by the chip about 15% is tranferred to the tool and the remaining 15%
to the work piece. With ann increase in the cutting speed a higher amount of heat is
absorbed by the chip and lesser amount is transferred to the tool and the work
piece. It is an abvious advantage in high speed machining. Some of the heat
generated is also shared and carried away by the flowing cutting fluid, when used.
The shear angle also effects the heat generation. A larger share angle leads to a
smaller heat generatiopn in the primary deformation zone. In metal cutting, the
amount of heat generated per unit of time is given by the thermal equivalent of the
mechanical work done. The mechanical work done is given by WD = Cutting force
(kkgf) X Cutting Velocity (m/min) = Fc x Vc Kgf m / min. If Q be the amount of total
heat generated in cutting the metal, then Q = WD in (kgf m / min) / 427 = (Fc x Vc) /
427 Kcal / min.

TOOL FAILURE: A properly designed and ground cutting tool is expected to perform
the metal cutting operation in an effective smooth manner. If, however, it is not
giving a satisfactory performance it is indicative of the tool failure and the same is
reflected by the following adherse effects observed during the operation. (1)
Extremely poor surface finish on the work piece. (2) Higher consumption of power.
(3) Work dimensions not being produced as specified. (4) Overheating of cutting
tool. (5) Appearance of a burnishing band on the work surface. **During the
operation, a cutting tool may fail due to one or more of the following reasons: (1)
Thermal cracking and softening. (2) Mechanical chipping. (3) Gradual Wear.
THERMAL CRACKING AND SOFTENING: During the process of metal cutting a lot of
heat is generated. Due to this heat the tool tip and the area closer to the cutting
edge become very hot. Although the cutting tool material is quite hard to withstand
this temperature, still every tool material has a certain limit to which it can withstand
the eleveated temp: without losing its hardness. If that limit crossed, the tool
material starts deforming plastically at the tip and adjacent to the cutting edge
under the action of the cutting pressure and the high temperature. Thus the tool
loses its cutting ability and is said to have failed due to softening. The main factors
responsible for creating such conditions of tool failure are cutting speed, high feed
rate, excessive depth of cut, smaller nose radius and choice of a wrong tool
material. The temperature ranges within the common tool materials can sucessfully
operate without losing their hardness are Carbon Tool Steels (200 0C to 2500C), High
Speed Steels (5600C to 6000C), Cemented Carbides (8000C to 10000C). On account of
fluctuations in temperatures and serve temperature gradients the tool material is
subjected to local expansion and contraction. This gives rise to the setting up of
temperature stresses or thermal stress, due to which cracks are developed in the
material. These cracks, known as thermal cracks. The tool failure due to this aspect
is known as failure due due to thermal cracking or due to thermal stresses.
MECHANICAL CHIPPING: Mechanical chipping of the nose and / or the cutting edge
of the tool are commonly observed causes of tool failure. The common reasons for
such failure are too high cutting pressure, mechanical impact, excessive wear, too
high vibration and chater, weak tip and cutting edge, etc. Mechanical chipping
failure is more prounouned in carbide tipped and diamond tool due to the high
brittleness of tool material. GRADUAL WEAR: When a tool is in use for some time it
is found to have lost some weight or mass, implying that it has lost some material
from it, which is due to wear. The following two types of wears are generally found
to occur in cutting tools (1) Crater Wear (2) Flank Wear. CRATER WEAR: The
principal region where wear takes places in a cutting tool is its face, at a small
distance from its cutting edge. This type of wear generally takes place while
machining ductile materials, like steel and steel alloys, in which continous chip is
produced. The resultant feature of this type of wear of a crater or a depression at
the tool chip interface. This type of wear, or the formationn of crater on the tool
face, is due to the pressure of the hot chip sliding up the face of the tool. The metal
from the tool face is supported to be transferred to the sliding chip by means of the
diffusion process.

TEMPERATURE MEASURMENT: The feasible experimental methods are Calorimeter

method, Decolorizing Agent,Tool work Thermocouple, Moving Thermocouple
Technique, Embedded Thermocouple Technique, Using Compound Tool, Indirectly
from Hardness and Structural Transformation, Infra ray detection Method.
TOOL WORK THERMOCOUPLE: Principle: In a thermocouple two dissimilar but
electrically conductive metals are connected at two junctions. Whenever one of the
junction is heated, the difference in temperature at the hot and cold junctions
produce a proportional current which is detected and measured by a milli-voltmeter.
In machining like turning, the tool and the job constitute the two disimilar metals
and the cutting zone functions as the hot junction. Then the average cutting
temperature is evaluated frm the mV after through calbraton for establising the
exact relation between mV and the cutting temperature.

MOVING THERMOCOUPLE TECHNIQUE: Principle: This simple method enables to

measure the gradual variation in the temperature of the flowing chip before, during
and immediately after its formation. A bead of standard thermocouple like chrome
alumel is brazed on the side surface of the layer to be removed from the work
surface and the temperature is attained in terms of mV.

EMBEDDED THERMOCOUPLE TECHNIQUE: In operations like milling, grinding etc.

Where the previous methods are not applicable, embedded thermocouple can serve
the purpose. Principle: The standard thermocouple monitors the job tempertaure at
a certain depth, h1 from the cutting zone. The temperature recorded in oscilloscope
or strip chart recorder becomes maximum when the thermocouple bead comes
nearest to the grinding zone. With the progress of grinding the depth, h1 gradually
decreases after each grinding pass and the value of temperature 0m also rises. For
getting the temperature exactly at the surface i.e., grinding zone h1 has to be zero,
which is not possible. So the 0m vs h1 curve has to be extrapolated up to h1 = 0 to
get the actual grinding zone temperature log om log h1 plot helps such
extrapolation more easily and accurately.

MEASURMENT OF CHIP TOOL INTERFACE TEMPERATURE BY COMPOUND TOOL:

In this method a conducting tool piece (carbide) is embedded in a non conducting
tool (ceramic). The conducting piece and the job form the tool work thermocouple,
which detects temperature 0i at the location (Li) of the carbide strip. Thus 0i can be
measured along the entire chip tool constant length by gradually reducing Li by
grinding the tool flank. Before that calibration has to be done as usual.

PHOTO CELL TECHNIQUE: This unique technique enables accurate measurment of

the temp: along the shear zone and tool flank. The electrical resistence of the cell,
like PbS cell, changes when it is exposed to any heat radiation. The amount of
change in the resistence depends upon the temp: of the heat radiating source and is
measured in terms of voltage, which is calibrated with the source temp:. The cell
starts receiving radiation through the small hole only when it enters the shear zone
where the hole at the upper end faces a hot surface. Receiving radiation and
measurment of temp: continues wntil the hole passes through the entire shear zone
and then the tool flank.

INFRA RED PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE:This modern and powerful method is

based on taking infra red photograph of the hot surface of the tool, chip, and / or job
and get temperature distribution at those surface. Proper calibration is to be done
before that. This way the temp: profiles can be recorded in PC. The fringe pattern
readily changes with the change in any machining parameter which affect cutting
temperature.

CUTTING FLUIDS: The use of the metal working fluids is essential in all metal
working operations. In metal macining, a lot of heat energy is generated proves
harmful to the tool or work or both. These fluids help in minimizing these adverse
effects and thus help to increase the tool life and surface finish. A few prominent
metal working processes involving the use of these fluids are: Metal machining,
blanking, grinding, molding, lapping, forging, horning, rolling, stapping, extrusion,
drawing, galvanizing, spinning, thinning etc.
SOURCES OF HEAT GENERATION DURING METAL CUTTING: FRICTION: A lot of
friction is always takes place between the cutting tool and the work piece and
between tool face and chips passing over it. The total amount of heat generated
depends on many factors like, cutting speed, feed, tool material. Depth of cut and
metal being cut. The heat is also called hea of friction. PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF
METAL: As the cutting is started, the cutting tool exerts significantly high pressure
on the adjacent metal grains. This cause defortmation or slipping of these grains
over adjacent grains in contact causes friction between them. This friction leading
to heat generation is known as heat of deformation. The total amount of heat
generated depends on many factors like cutting speed, feed, tool material, depth of
cut and metal being cut. CHIP DISTORTION: In metal machining, as the cutting
proceeds and the clips curl out, the inside and outside grains of the chip metal are
subjected to compression and tension respectively. This causes distortion of the
chip grains leading to internal friction among them results the generatiion of heat.
The heat is also called heat of chip distortion. The amount of heat generated
depends largely on feeds and depth of cut.
FUNCTIONC OF A CUTTING FLUID: TO COOL THE TOOL AND WORK PIECE: The
cutting fluid employed at low temperature, as compared to the temperature of the
tool, work and chips, The heat generated flows from them outwards the fluid, which
absorbs ad drives it away along with it. TO PROVIDE ADEQUATE LUBRICATION
BETWEEN THE TOOL AND THE WORK PIECE AND THE TOOL AND CHIPS:It implies
the reduction of friction between the tool and work piece and tool and chips. This
helps in preventing a direct metal contact amongst the work piece, tool and the chip
at the point where the three meet and also at the tool face. Which results in
appreciable reduction in friction amongst these. A lesser amount of heat is
generated and less power is consumed in the machine in metal cutting operation.
TO PREVENT THE ADHESION OF CHIPS TO THE TOOL OR WORK OR BOTH: To
prevent this, the adfdition of chemically active agents like compounds of sulfur or
chlorine are made to the cutting fluids. The compounds produce soapy films
between the work and tool and chip and tool face. Which prevents the direct metal
to metal contact and hence the chaces of welding or adhesion. This film also
provide lubrication called metal lubrication between the mating surface.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD CUTTING FLUID: It must carry away the heat generated
during the process and thus cool the tool and work piece both in order to minimize
the tool wear and prevent distrotion of the work piece. It must provide sufficient
lubrication between the tool and work and tool and chips. It should be capapble of
importing anti-welding properties to the tool and work. It must carry such
constituents which will prevent the finished work surface and the tool from the
being rusted or corroded. It should not discolor the finished work surface. It should
carry a fairly a mild smell. It should not produce fog and smoke during use. It
should be non-poisonous and should not cause skin irritations. Its flash point
should be high enough.
TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS: (1) Cutting oils- which are used neat. (a) Active Cutting
Oils: - highly sulfurised mineral oils, which normally black in colour with a pungent
smell. (b) Faty oil, sulfurised fatty oil or fatty acid mixed with sulfurised min eral oit
which also black in colour and with a pungent smell. (c) Oils (a) and (b) diluted with
low viscosity mineral oil and have lighter in colour. (d) Light transparent mineral oil
carrying sulfar or chlorine and light in colour and suitable for even severe cutting
conditions. (e) Oil at (d) mixed with sulfarised and clorinated or fatty oils or acids
which find in common applications.
SELECTION OF CUTTING FLUIDS: (1) Turning: Selection of cutting fluids depends
upon the cutting speed, feed and material being turned- Emulsions or stright oild
are prefered. (2)Sawing: Cutting fluids is required for cleaning the saw teeth, carry
away the heat generated and prevent adhesion of chips Soluble oil are prefered.
(3) Tapping and Threading: Main requirment is lubrication as the cutting speed are
low - Active type mineral fatty oil. Of course, occasionally, emulsion of soluble oils
are also used. (4) Drilling and Boring: The reequirement are of lubrication and
cooling both, so as to avoid chatter, minimise heat generation and cool the tool and
work- Soluble oils. (5) Reaming: Main requirment is lubrication Soluble oils. (6)
Automatic machining on single and multiple spindle automatic lathes, turret and
capstam: Higher speeds are involved and a large number of different types of
operations are performed A high viscosity active cutting oil with some fatty oil. (7)
Broaching: Heavier cuts are taken Heavy, active type cutting oils, particularly in
horizontal internal broaching. (8) Planing and Shaping: Usually no cutting oil is
used. (9) Milling: The common requirments including cooling, lubrication and
prevention of tool chatter Sulfurised mineral fatty oils or emulsions in ample
quantity. (10) Thread Rolling: Stright mineral oil or emulsions. (11) Gear cutting,
Shaping and Shaving: Active type mineral oils and compounds. (12) Grinding,
Lapping and Honing: Lubrication being the main consideration such as in thread
grinding, form grinding and honing active type mineral oils and compounds.
Where cooling is the main requirments, such as in cylindrical, centreless and
surface grinding Emulsions of soluble oils or paste type. (13) Machining Plastic
Materials: The main requirment is of cooling, particularlyy in operations like drilling,
tapping and threading Brittle materials can be machined dry or with an air blast. If
a fluid is required a dilute emulsion of soluble oil should be used in ample quantity.