DELTA

Delta Facies
What is a delta?
A delta, as defined by the USGS (U.S. Geological Survey), is the fan-shaped
area at the mouth, or lower end, of a river, formed by eroded material that has
been carried downstream and dropped in quantities that can not be carried off by
tides or currents.
Boggs defines a delta as any deposit, subaerial or subaqueous, formed by fluvial
sediments that build into a standing body of water.

Where are deltas found?

Deltas can occur in lakes and inland seas as well as in the ocean, but they are
most important in the open ocean (Boggs). Deltas are particularly common in the
modern ocean owing to post-Pleistocene sea-level rise coupled with high
sediment loads carried by many rivers. They often contain extensive wetlands,
whose high biological productivity makes them vital nursery grounds for fisheries.
Huge amounts of coal, oil, and natural gas are found in subsurface ancient deltaic
deposits. Deltas seldom form on active, subducting continental margins because
there is no stable shallow shelf on which sediments can accumulate. Twenty-five
(25) of the worlds largest deltas are found on passive margins of continents.
They are categorized according to features within the delta plain and by energies
acting on the delta (tide, wave, and fluvial). The size of a delta is dependent on
the size of the drainage basin, the elevation of the land, and climate.
What does a typical delta look like?
What are the different types of deltas?
 Tide-Dominated Deltas

The shape of a delta is influenced by sediment input, wave energy, and tidal energy. Deltas
which undergo strong tidal interaction are classified as tide-dominated deltas. As sediment
travels out of the delta into the sea, high tides and flood tides confine sediment on the delta
plain and low tides carry sediment seaward. Tide-dominated deltas typically occur in
locations of large tidal ranges or high tidal current speeds. In situations such as these, where
the sediment supply is over powered by strong tidal currents, the delta tends to be very
small. Another resulting feature of a tide-dominated delta is that it has many linear structures
parallel to the tidal flow and perpendicular to the shore (shown below).
Tide-Dominated Deltas

These tidal sand ridges are characteristic of the subaqueous delta plain. They may
reach relief heights of up to 15-20 meters close to the shoreline. Relief of the ridges
decrease with increasing distances from the distributaries. Ridges are also greater in
relief and size when there is more tidal discharge than fluvial discharge. Sediments
that make up the sand ridges are fine to medium sands. Characteristic of the lower
delta plain are broad tidal flats that grade unidirectionally into the sand bars and the
opposite direction into marshes or evaporative flats (depending on climate).

The delta has a gradational, upward coarsening sequence of muds; interbedded sands, silts,
and muds; and then fine to medium sands. Due to the eroding effect of tides, the sands
display cross-bedding, the sand ridge field can be truncated through erosion, and the
distributary channel sediments contain more slack-water mud drapes than usual.
Wave-Dominated Deltas

An open ocean basin accepts more water input,

which means there is potential for greater wave
energy, making wave-dominated deltas more
likely. High wave interference causes conflicted or
deflected river mouths.
There is less influence from fluvial sources. In wave-
dominated delta regions, breaking waves cause
immediate mixing of fresh and salt water. Typically,
the fresh water flow velocity decelerates rapidly. A bar
may form in the immediate vicinity of the distributary
mouth, often supplemented by landward migrating
swash bars. The wave action reworks the sediment,
making it much sandier than other types of deltas,
coarsening upward. Sediment is delivered by the
river and is transported along the coast. The sediment
is then deposited as beaches and bars and the
development of distributaries is limited
Wave-Dominated Deltas

Geometry:
1. More lobate and have smooth, arcuate to sharp margins.
2. Longshore drift may rework sediment along coastline.
3. Lobes strung out parallel to shoreline.

Controls on the Geometry:

1. substrate gradient
2. wave energy vs. tidal energy
3. sediment supply vs. accommodation volume: supply-dominated areas
produce allochthonous shelves characterized by more rapid
sedimentation and thick muddy sequences in which barrier sand bodies
maybe encased while accommodation-dominated areas are associated
with allochthonous shelves that have sandy sediments and experience
extensive reworking.
4. rates of sea level change
 Fluvial-Dominated Deltas

Fluvially-dominated deltas are primarily controlled by the water density

difference between the inflowing river water and the standing water on the basin.

Different flow types that determine the distribution of sediment and sedimentary
structures formed in the delta are homopycnal flow, hyperpycnal flow, and
hypopycnal flow

Homopycnal flow occurs when the density of the river water is equal to the density of the
standing water in the basin..
Hyperpycnal flow is produced when the density of the river water entering the basin is
greater than the density of the standing water in the ocean basin. This higher density river
water will flow below the standing water in the basin because of the difference in density.
Hypopycnal flow is associated with a lower river water density entering a higher density
standing water in the basin. Under these conditions, the river water will flow out over the
standing water, gradually depositing the suspended clay portion of the sediment load on the
prodelta.