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Garnet: Common Mineral,

Uncommonly Useful
Garnet crystals are
not only beautiful, but
they can contain a vast
Ethan F. Baxter1, Mark J. Caddick 2, and Jay J. Ague3,4 storehouse of informa-
tion about the evolving
Earth. PHOTO COURTESY
1811-5209/13/0009-415$2.50 DOI: 10.2113/gselements.9.6.415 OF G EORGE R OSSMAN AND
MARK GARCIA

G
arnet is a widespread mineral in crustal metamorphic rocks, a primary and relative resistance to surface
constituent of the mantle, a detrital mineral in clastic sediments, and weathering processes, garnet is
also a common detrital phase
an occasional guest in igneous rocks. Garnet occurs in ultramafic to in the heavy-mineral fraction of
felsic bulk-rock compositions, and its growth and stability span from <300 sediments and sedimentary rocks.
to 2000 C and from atmospheric pressure to 25 GPa. More than merely a Finally, garnet is a useful mineral
in geoscientific inquiry and for its
constituent of these rocks, garnet possesses chemical and physical attributes role in industrial, technological,
allowing it to record, and influence, a diverse suite of tectonic, metamorphic, and societal contexts.
and mantle processes, making it uncommonly useful in geoscientific inquiry. In this issue of Elements, we
Because of its myriad colors, garnet has been used through the ages in jewelry. portray some of the richness and
More recently, nonsilicate crystals with the garnet structure have been fabri- variety of garnet, focusing on its
widespread geological occurrence
cated for sophisticated laser, magnetic, and ion-conducting technologies. (i.e. it is a common mineral) and
KEYWORDS : garnet, mantle, crust, metamorphism, geothermobarometry, its remarkably broad applications
geochronology, technology (i.e. it is uncommonly useful). The
articles in this issue provide an
appreciation of the role of garnet
GARNET IS EVERYWHERE from its place in the deep Earth, up through the crust,
The dark red crystals that frequently adorn common and to its applications in society. Wood, Kiseeva, and
mica schists are garnet (FIG. 1A). The purple-red hue that Matzen begin with a discussion of the largest reservoir
sometimes decorates the crests and troughs of wave ripples of garnet in the planetthe mantlewhere the mineral
at the beach or concentrates in deep red bands and rivulets has profound influence over geodynamic and geochem-
after a winter storm is the result of millions of garnet ical processes. Caddick and Kohn outline the role of
grains (FIG. 1B). A dazzling green gemstone that might be garnet in the metamorphic rocks of the crust, including
mistaken for an emerald is really a garnet (FIG. 1D). That its use as a monitor of evolving metamorphic conditions
red woodworking sandpaper on the workbench and the and underlying tectonic processes. Baxter and Scherer
red side of a common emery board are covered with discuss the growing field of garnet geochronology, whose
garnet grains (FIG. 1F). Garnet has even been documented temporal resolution permits us to know more than just
in meteorites (e.g. Krot et al. 1998) and in association with when garnet grows (and the timing of processes that
microbial life (Mnez et al. 2012). Indeed, garnet is one of may be linked to it), but also how fast and for how
the best-known minerals in the Earth and is particularly long. Ague and Carlson showcase the use of garnet
notable for its commonality in a wide range of environ- crystals to constrain the kinetics of metamorphic processes,
ments, from igneous and metamorphic to sedimentary, such as mineral nucleation, the approach to equilibrium,
from the mantle to the crust, and from nature to industry. and thermal evolution. Geiger reviews how garnet crystal
Most of Earths garnet occurs as a primary ingredient of the chemistry and structure give rise to macroscopic properties,
upper mantle. However, with the exception of xenoliths including those that have driven technological applica-
and scarce, exhumed sections of mantle lithosphere (e.g. tions of synthetic garnets. Last, Galoisy writes about the
Van Roermund and Drury 1998; Keshav et al. 2007; FIG. 1C), cultural and historical relevance of garnet, while describing
garnet is rarely observed in this context. In the crust, garnet different gem varieties and the underlying crystal chemistry
is a common constituent of metamorphic rocks derived from that creates a rainbow of colors.
almost any protolith, from lower greenschist facies rocks
to ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) granulites and ultrahigh- WHAT IS GARNET?
pressure (UHP) eclogites. Garnet can crystallize in igneous According to the updated garnet nomenclature published
rocks, such as peraluminous granites. Due to its density by Grew et al. (2013), the garnet supergroup includes all
minerals isostructural with garnet regardless of what elements
1 Department of Earth & Environment, Boston University
675 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, MA 02215, USA
occupy the four atomic sites. However, in common natural
E-mail: efb@bu.edu occurrences, garnet is a silicate mineral belonging to the
nesosilicate group (i.e. it is constructed of isolated silicon
2 Department of Geosciences, Virginia Tech
4044 Derring Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA tetrahedra [SiO44 ] bound together by other cations). Its
general formula is X3Y2 Si3O12 , where X is an eightfold-
3 Department of Geology and Geophysics, Yale University
P.O. Box 208109, New Haven, CT 06520-8109, USA
coordinated site most commonly filled by a solid solution of
divalent Fe, Mg, Ca, and Mn, and Y is a sixfold-coordinated
4 Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University site typically fi lled by trivalent Al (i.e. the aluminosilicate
New Haven, CT 06511, USA

E LEMENTS , V OL . 9, PP. 415419 415 D ECEMBER 2013


A B C

D E F

FIGURE 1 Garnet in its many settings, both natural (AC) and Some important garnet end-member compositional
TABLE 1
societal (DF). (A) A euhedral, ~3 cm garnet crystal in names and abbreviations
a metamorphic schist from Wrangell, Alaska. (B) Garnet beach sand
near Nome, Alaska. (C) Garnet harzburgite from the Boshoff Road Almandine Fe3Al2Si3O12 Andradite Ca3Fe2Si3O12
Dumps, Kimberley, South Africa. The garnet crystals are up to
3 mm in diameter. (D) Demantoid garnet gemstones. Grossular Ca3Al2Si3O12 Majorite Mg3 (MgSi)Si3O12
(E) Neodymium-YAG rods for use in laser technology. (F) Garnet as Pyrope Mg3Al2Si3O12 Spessartine Mn3Al2Si3O12
an abrasive in common sandpaper. PHOTOS COURTESY OF G EORGE
ROSSMAN (A), EVELYN M ERVINE (B), GRAHAM PEARSON (C), WIMON Uvarovite Ca3Cr2Si3O12
MANOROTKUL /PALAGEMS.COM (D), AND SCIENTIFIC MATERIALS CORP. (E)
YAG Y3Al2 Al3O12 YIG Y3Fe2Fe3O12
Synthetic yttrium Synthetic yttrium
aluminum garnet iron garnet
garnets) or sometimes by Fe3+ or Cr. The formulas and
names of some common species are given in TABLE 1. Many
additional end-member species (32 in total) and elemental At the time of writing, the Web of Science indicated over
substitutions exist in natural garnets; these are reviewed 26,000 published papers (since 1965, when the Web of
in Grew et al. (2013) and several are discussed in Geiger Science database begins) that include the topic of garnet.
(2013 this issue) and Wood et al. (2013 this issue). Synthetic This places garnet (as a topic) behind only five other
crystals with the garnet structure (e.g. YIG and YAG; FIG. 1E, minerals or broad mineral groups that were searched for
TABLE 1) have also been fabricated for industrial use. While (clay, graphite, quartz, diamond, zeolite) and ahead of
such synthetic compositions do not occur naturally (at least important and/or common minerals like feldspar, calcite,
not as sufficiently pure end-members), these crystalline zircon, and olivine. It is noteworthy that these highest-
oxide materials are garnet in the structural sense and thus scoring topic minerals include those with important
share certain key properties with common silicate garnets. industrial or technological applications. Garnet is thus
unusual in providing both geoscientific value and indus-
Garnets wide-ranging chemical composition and its atom- trial, technological, and cultural value.
scale structure manifest themselves in important and/or
desirable physical and optical properties, such as isometric In what ways has garnet been used or applied? A Web of
crystal structure, high bulk modulus, high density (up to Science search for papers that include the topic of garnet plus
4.5 g/cm3 for almandine), hardness (7.5), magnetism, and a one other term yields the greatest number for garnet plus
diverse range of vibrant colors. Garnets large edge-sharing metamorphism and garnet plus mantle/magma/melt,
sites can incorporate significant amounts of heavy rare driving home the importance of garnet in the evolving
earth elements, allowing for the identification of a garnet crust and mantle and in metamorphic and igneous rocks.
signature in the source of mantle melting (e.g. Wood et al. In terms of uses, the list is topped by established industrial
2013) and for sufficient enrichment of radioactive lutetium applications, including garnet plus laser and garnet
(over daughter hafnium) and samarium (over daughter plus magnetism. A Web of Science topic search for YAG
neodymium) to make garnet useful for geochronology (e.g. (yttrium aluminum garnet, important in laser technology)
Baxter and Scherer 2013 this issue). Synthetic oxide garnets alone yields over 40,000 papers! Emerging technologies
may possess properties making them unique and useful in such as Li-stuffed garnets and their use in rechargeable
several applications; such properties include magnetism battery technology have begun to attract significant atten-
(for use in electronics), lasing ability (for use in lasers), tion in recent years (see Geiger 2013 for a discussion of this
and ion conduction (for use in batteries) (see Geiger 2013). and other technological applications). These applications
are followed in number by geoscientific uses, including
UNCOMMONLY USEFUL closely related partitioning and geo/thermo/barometry.
While the former includes the role of garnet in controlling
Just how useful is garnet in comparison to other minerals?
magma compositions, geothermobarometric applications
Usefulness is of course largely subjective, though modern
of garnet, mainly involving the calibrated exchange of Fe
search engines provide a means (albeit imperfect) of quanti-
and Mg between garnet and other minerals in the mantle
fying the scientific usefulness, or frequency of application.
and crust, comprise the top three most cited papers on the

E LEMENTS 416 D ECEMBER 2013


elemental substitutions, including Si in the Y site and Na
in the X site, leading to Si-enriched, Al-poor compositions
collectively known as majorite (see Wood et al. 2013). The
incorporation of Fe3+ in garnet has been used to monitor
the oxygen fugacity ( fO2) of the mantle (see later discussion
and Berry et al. 2013). Garnets physical properties are also
significant (e.g. Hacker et al. 2003). For example, the high
density of garnet-rich eclogites creates the primary slab-
pull driving force for plate motion as subducted oceanic
crust transforms to eclogite and descends into the mantle.
Dense garnet pyroxenites in the roots of continents may
similarly lead to delamination or drips of dense mafic
material from the base of the continental crust, contrib-
uting to the long-term stability and bulk chemistry of the
continents (e.g. Ducea 2011). The high density and bulk
modulus of garnet can be significant in modifying the
seismic wave velocities that are useful in the imaging of
Earths layered interior (e.g. Wood et al. 2013).

GARNET IN THE CRUSTA TECTONIC


TAPE RECORDER
Most of the garnet we see at the surface derives from
metamorphic rocks. Garnet may form in rocks that are
sufficiently rich in Al (or Fe3+ or Cr) and in many metamor-
phic contexts (i.e. contact, regional, and subduction-
related metamorphism). It usually forms at temperatures
above ~400 C and pressures above ~0.4 GPa (e.g. Spear
1993; Caddick and Kohn 2013 this issue), though lower-
temperature Mn- and Ca-rich garnets have been reported
in nature (e.g. at 300 C and 0.10.2 GPa; Coombs et al.
FIGURE 2 Barton Mine at Gore Mountain, New York State, USA,
1977; Theye et al. 1996; Mnez et al. 2012), and spessar-
where garnet has been mined since 1878. Deep red
garnet crystals are suspended in black amphibolite. Crystals nearly tine garnet has been crystallized experimentally from melt
1 meter in diameter have been reported here. Coauthor Caddick at atmospheric pressure (e.g. Van Haren and Woensdregt
for scale. 2001). Garnet can persist up to UHT and UHP conditions
within the hottest orogens (e.g. >1000 C; Harley 1998) or
the deepest subducted materials (well into the diamond
stability field at more than ~4 GPa; e.g. Schertl and OBrien
topic of garnet: Ellis and Green (1979), Ferry and Spear 2013). Garnet may also form as a consequence of anatexis
(1978), and Brey and Kohler (1990). The only other paper (i.e. partial melting at high metamorphic temperatures)
registering over 1000 citations with garnet as a topic is and occurs as an igneous phase in some S-type and
Christensen and Mooney (1995), which illuminates the role peraluminous granites, resulting from the melting of
of garnet in the physicochemical properties of the deep Al-rich sedimentary rocks (e.g. Clemens and Wall 1981).
continental root as manifested in seismic velocity data. In addition, calcic garnets (grossular and andradite) may
Garnet plus spectroscopy, geochronology, and diffu- form in calcsilicate rocks, including skarn-type contact
sion, which are key topics covered in this issue by Geiger metamorphic rocks (e.g. DErrico et al. 2012) and in hydro-
(2013), Galoisy (2013), Baxter and Scherer (2013), and thermal systems (e.g. Mnez et al. 2012). Garnet crystals
Ague and Carlson (2013), round out the most frequently frequently grow in a simple concentric pattern, not unlike
published application areas of garnet. tree rings, such that the chemical, isotopic, textural, and
inclusion records of these zoned crystals can yield invalu-
Predating Web of Science citation metrics, since the
able information about the evolution of Earths crust (e.g.
fi rst commercial development of garnet quarries at Gore
FIGS. 3, 4), sometimes spanning millions or even tens of
Mountain in New York State in 1878 (FIG. 2), the primary
millions of years (e.g. Skora et al. 2009; Pollington and
industrial application of natural garnet has been as an
Baxter 2010; FIG. 4D). Fantastic spiral or snowball garnet
abrasive. Uses have included abrasive powders, water-jet
(FIG. 3) has been interpreted to reflect rotation of growing
cutting, abrasive blasting (garnet replaced quartz in the late
garnet crystals during tectonic deformation (for a discus-
1980s as a sandblasting medium due to health concerns
sion, see Johnson 1993). In many cases, garnet zonation
over airborne crystalline silica), and garnet sandpaper
can be disturbed by cracking, retrogression, fluid processes,
(Olson 2006). Finally, garnet has been a popular gemstone
or thermally activated diffusion, but it still retains records
for thousands of years due to its many colors, its hardness,
of those specific processes (e.g. Angiboust et al. 2012; Ague
its commonality, and its luster (Galoisy 2013).
and Carlson 2013; FIG. 4B). Garnet growth and intracrystal-
line zonation are increasingly used to constrain the timing,
GARNET IN EARTHS DEEP INTERIOR duration, and kinetics of tectonometamorphic processes
Garnet is one of the primary constituents of the deep Earth, (e.g. Ague and Carlson 2013; Baxter and Scherer 2013;
occurring in garnet granulites and pyroxenites at the base FIG. 4C, D).
of the crust and throughout the upper mantle, where it is
the primary storehouse of aluminum. Garnet transforms to GARNET AT EARTHS SURFACE
perovskite and disappears below the 670 km seismic discon-
While garnet is not known to be an authigenic phase,
tinuity. In this context, garnet is stable at temperatures
it may be found in the heavy-mineral fraction in clastic
up to almost 2000 C and pressures as high as ~25 GPa. In
sediments and sedimentary rocks. Garnet in some beach
the mantle, garnets structure can accommodate diverse

E LEMENTS 417 D ECEMBER 2013


communities within cavities in low-temperature hydro-
andradite (Mnez et al. 2012). Garnet in this context
appears well suited for colonization by microbial life and
may have been an important player in early hydrothermal,
prebiotic environments.

GARNET AND THE EARTHS


VOLATILE BUDGET
Garnet is a nominally anhydrous mineral and water
(hydroxyl) does not appear in garnets ideal formula.
However, garnet plays a major role in monitoring and
influencing the Earths water cycle, as well as the cycling
of other important volatiles, like oxygen. In the mantle,
garnet can be a storehouse of a significant amount of water
as a trace constituent, with concentrations up to 0.1 wt%
FIGURE 3 Rotated spiral garnet (~1 cm across) in thin section. (e.g. Bell and Rossman 1992; Mookherjee and Karato 2010).
The photo was taken in transmitted light under In the crust, garnet occasionally incorporates significant
crossed polarizers such that the garnet appears black (isotropic).
The sample is from the garnet zone below the Main Central Thrust,
hydroxyl into its tetrahedral structure (e.g. hydrogarnet;
Nepal Himalaya. IMAGE COURTESY OF SCOTT JOHNSON Rossman and Aines 1991; Grew et al. 2013). In this case,
hydroxyl can reduce the symmetry of the usually isometric
garnet, which changes its crystallographic properties from
sands and alluvial deposits may be sufficiently concen-
isotropic (black in transmitted light under crossed polar-
trated to be mined as an abrasive (e.g. Olson 2006).
izers; e.g. FIG. 3) to anisotropic, imparting a subtle play
Given its large compositional range, detrital garnet has
of dark to light gray colors under crossed polarizers. The
been used by sedimentologists as a powerful provenance
growth of garnet during metamorphism also typically
tracer (e.g. Morton 1985), including use as an indicator
heralds the major dehydration of hydrous minerals such
mineral in diamond exploration (Dawson and Stephens
as chlorite, mica, amphibole, and lawsonite, which are
1975). A recent report on deep-sea serpentinites within
reactants in many garnet-forming reactions (e.g. Spear
shallow oceanic crust reveals the presence of past microbial
1993; Baxter and Caddick 2013). Garnet growth can record

30 20 PRO 10
A
A B
B

FIGURE 4 Garnet zonation records


changing conditions.
(A) Oscillatory zoning of aluminum
in a hydrothermal CaCrFe3+
garnet, refl ecting subtle changes in
hydrothermal fluid composition.
MAP COURTESY OF CHARLES G EIGER.
$O P P 0J (B) Magnesium zonation in an eclog-
itic garnet showing healed fractures
(light blue-green, cutting across
C
C *DUQHWDJH0D
28
D
D darker blue) related to subduction
zone seismicity (from Angiboust et
al. 2012). (C) Complex major
element zonation revealing a growth
26 morphology indicative of garnet
growth far from chemical equilibrium
(Wilbur and Ague 2006).
0J Fe (D) Age-zoned garnet revealed by
PP 24 geochronology of color-contoured
compositional growth zones showing
a 7.5 My duration and pulses (gray
bands) of accelerated garnet growth
(Pollington and Baxter 2010).
(E) Oxygen isotope zonation (18O)
in skarn garnet reflecting infiltration
of meteoric fluids during hydro-
20 *DUQHWUDGLXVFP thermal mineralization (DErrico
0Q Ca 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 et al. 2012). (F) Fe3+/Fe zonation
measured by microXANES, refl ecting
Fe3+)H 0.15 changing oxygen fugacity due to
3.5 Laser FF mantle metasomatism (Berry et al.
1.5 bulk
18O(Grt)

2013).
Stable fluid Meteoric P
-0.5 composition flooding 0.10
-2.5 Rebound
'LVWDQFHP
-4.5
200 600 1000
X
0.05
X

EE
E LEMENTS 418 D ECEMBER 2013
the infi ltration of external fluid in metamorphic or hydro- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
thermal systems, for example, in its major element zoning
We thank Barbara Dutrow and Lawford Anderson for
(FIG. 4A) or in its oxygen isotope composition (e.g. Kohn et
providing thoughtful reviews of this article. We also
al. 1993; DErrico et al. 2012; FIG. 4E), which can now be
thank everyone who contributed to this issue of Elements,
measured at high spatial resolution using a secondary ion
including George Rossman and Ed Grew who offered
microprobe (SIMS) (e.g. Page et al. 2010). Ongoing debate
generous support, discussions, and figure material, all of
about the fO2 of the mantle has been aided by efforts to
the authors and reviewers, and especially Georges Calas and
link the measurement of the Fe3+/Fe2+ ratio of garnet in
Pierrette Tremblay of the Elements editorial team, without
mantle xenoliths to fO2 (see Wood et al. 2013). Recent work
whom this issue would not have been possible. EFB, MJC,
has illuminated possible mantle fO2 variations based on
and JJA acknowledge support from NSF Grants EAR-1250497,
microXANES mapping of Fe3+/Fe2+ in mantle garnet (Berry
EAR-1250470, and EAR-1250269, respectively.
et al. 2013; FIG. 4F).

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E LEMENTS 419 D ECEMBER 2013


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