Signal Conditioning Systems

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 The output signal from a sensor has generally to be processed or conditioned to
make it suitable for the next stage of operation

Signal conditioning refers to operations performed on signals to convert to a

suitable for interfacing with other elements in the instrumentation process

The raw signal may:

be too small have to be amplified
contain noise have to be removed
be non-linear need linearization SIGNAL CONDITIONING
be analog have to make digital
be digital have to make analog
be hazardous require isolation

The conditioned signal is then transferred to the output stage (for indication,
recording, logging etc.) which provides the value corresponding to the measurand.2
 Elements of Signal Conditioning System

The following are some of the processes that can occur in conditioning a signal:

Conversion getting the signal into the right type of signal

Change of signal level getting the level of the signal right

Eliminating or reducing noise increasing the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)

Linearization making the output linear of the measurand

Impedance/load matching for proper power coupling

Protection to prevent damage to the next element/component

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 Conversion getting the signal into the right type of signal

The circuit to convert one form of signal or physical values into other form

Conversion can mean taking the signal into a DC/AC voltage or current

For example, the resistance change of a strain gauge has to be converted into a voltage
change:

- Resistance to voltage conversion

- This can be done by using a Wheatstone bridge and using the out-of-balance
voltage

Typical conversion is to convert resistance or voltage to 4 20 mA and convert back to

voltage at the receiving end.

- Thus, voltage-to-current and current-to-voltage circuits are essential

Conversion can also mean taking the signal to Digital or Analog

- This would require ADC (A/D Converter) or DAC (D/A Converter)

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 Change of signal level getting the level of the signal right

It means adjusting the level (magnitude) and bias (zero value) of signal

- For example,

0.1 V 0.8 V 0V5V

Signal conditioning circuit

0.1 V 0.8 V 0 V 0.7 V 0V5V

Zero shift Amplification

For example, the signal from a thermocouple might be just a few milivolts. To feed the
signal into an A/D converter for inputting to a microprocessor, it needs to be made
much larger; volts rather than milivolts. Operational amplifier circuits are widely used
for amplification.

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 Eliminating or reducing noise increasing the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)

Noise may come from:

Inherent noise (Internal to the sensor)

Interference (external): main source of noise

Filter or compensation circuits might be used to eliminate or reduce noise from a signal

Example filters:

(a) low-pass
(b) high-pass
(c) Band-pass
(d) Band-stop (notch filters)

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 Linearization making the output linear of the measurand

Often, the characteristic of a sensor is

nonlinear

Special circuit are available to linearize

the signals

Modern approach is to use computer

software to linearize

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 Impedance or load matching for proper power coupling

Connecting a sensor with different impedances causes signal reflection

Need a circuit to match impedance; thus to reduce signal reflection

When a sensor is connected to load, it will introduce uncertainty in the

measurement (amplitude of voltage)
Sensor

RL
Vy Vx
Rx
L
R R x
Vx Vy RL
Rx
Vx 1
R L R x

Output voltage is reduced by the voltage drop

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 Protection to prevent damage to the next element

Normally protection is provided against high current and high voltage which
may damage important components

How to protect?

A series resistor to limit the current The use of a Zener diode circuit
to an acceptable level
A fuse to break if current does
exceed a safe level

Zener diode can also protect against wrong polarity

Opto-isolator can isolate two circuits optically 9

Amplifiers for Instrumentation

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 Introduction

An amplifier is a device that amplifies a signal almost always a voltage

The low voltage output of a sensor, say of a thermocouple, may be amplified

to a level required by a controller or a display.

Amplification may be quite large sometimes of the order of 106 or it may be

quite small or even smaller than one, depending on the need of the sensor.

Amplifiers can also be used for impedance matching purposes even when no
amplification is needed.

Power amplifiers, which usually connect to actuators, provides the power

necessary to drive them.

Amplifiers are sometimes incorporated in the sensor.

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 Desirable Characteristics of an Amplifier

An amplifier should have following characteristics for instrumentation

applications

The amplification factor should be constant (for linear scaling)

The frequency response curve should be flat over the operating band

The power extracted from the measurement system should be as small as

possible

Should not add noise to the sensor signal

It should operate on the least possible auxiliary power

It should have a long operating life and a high degree of reliability

The amplifier should have a very high input impedance and very low
output impedance
Why?
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 Operational Amplifier

Almost always, operational amplifiers (Op-amp) are used for amplification, as

they have almost all the desirable characteristics mentioned earlier.

Vary high gain, more than 106, ideally infinite

Adjustable gain can be achieved by external circuit element
High input impedance (ideally infinite) and low output impedance
(ideally zero, practical values 20-100 )

Internal structure of an op-amp is very complex (made of a number of basic

devices), but it may be though of as a basic device and can be viewed as a
basic building block of a circuit.

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Some Example Circuit Configurations Using Op-Amps

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 Op-Amp as Comparator

The ckt is designed to control temperature with a certain range. When temperature is
below a certain value the thermistor resistance R1 is more than R2. It gives an output at
its lower saturation limit which keeps the transistor OFF. When temperature rises and
R1 falls, the op-amp switch to +ve saturation value and switch the transistor ON.

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Some Example Circuit Configurations Using Op-Amps (2)

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 Differential Amplifier Example

Example: The difference in the emfs of the two junctions of the

thermocouple is being amplified.
A temperature difference of 10 C produces an emf difference of 530 V.
then the values of R1 and R2 can be chosen to give a circuit with an
output of 10 mV.

So if we select , R1 as 10 k Ohm

Then, R2=189 k Ohm

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 Operational Amplifier- Properties

Differential voltage gain (Ad):

- the amplification of the op-amp of the difference between the two
inputs.
- also called the open loop gain
- in a good amplifier it should be as high as possible.
- gains of 106 or higher are common.
- An ideal amplifier is said to have infinite gain.

Common-mode voltage gain (Acm):

- By virtue of differential nature of the amplifier, this gain should be zero.
- Practical amplifiers may have a small common mode gain because of the
mismatch between the two channels but this should be small.

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 Operational Amplifier- Properties

More common to specify the term Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

CMRR is the ratio between Ad and Acm:

Ad
CMRR
Acm
It can also be expressed in dB

In an ideal amplifier this is infinite.

A good amplifier will have a CMRR that is very high

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 Instrumentation Amplifier

It is available in single IC and is designed to have:

Very high input impedance (300 M), very low output impedance
High common-mode rejection ratio (more than 100 dB)
High voltage gain
2 R2 R1 R4
Total differential gain: Gd
R1 R3 20