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Parentteacherpupil interactions in instrumental music

tuition: a literature review

Andrea Creech and Susan Hallam

British Journal of Music Education / Volume 20 / Issue 01 / March 2003, pp 29 - 44

DOI: 10.1017/S0265051702005272, Published online: 20 March 2003

Link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0265051702005272

How to cite this article:

Andrea Creech and Susan Hallam (2003). Parentteacherpupil interactions in instrumental music
tuition: a literature review. British Journal of Music Education, 20, pp 29-44 doi:10.1017/
S0265051702005272

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 B. J. Music Ed. 2003 20:1, 2944 Copyright

C 2003 Cambridge University Press
DOI: 10.1017/S0265051702005272

Parentteacherpupil interactions in instrumental

music tuition: a literature review
Andrea Creech and Susan Hallam

s.hallam@ioe.ac.uk

This paper considers the literature that may inform our understanding of parentteacher
pupil interactions in instrumental music. It draws on research directly concerned with
instrumental music learning and that from the wider psychological, sociological and
educational literature concerned with conceptions of effective learning and teaching;
conceptions of effective parenting; and dimensions of interpersonal relationships. Finally,
a systemic, dynamic model is proposed which may serve to guide future research in the
field.

Introduction

Within the domain of musical instrument learning, little research has been undertaken that
specifically explores the qualities of teacherpupilparent relationships. Our knowledge of
instrumental teaching and learning has largely been informed by research that has attempted
to describe, quantify or evaluate specific behaviours within the context of instrumental
learning, such as parents attendance at lessons and supervision of practice (Brokaw, 1982;
Davidson et al., 1995; 1996), teacher strategies and style (Hendel, 1995; Gholson, 1998),
and use of lesson time (Kostka, 1984; Siebenaler, 1997; Duke, 1999; Colprit, 2000). While
this body of research tells us much about how musical skills may be acquired, it does
not tell us about the qualities of interaction between the parent, the teacher and the
pupil which may significantly influence the broad outcomes for all three participants
in terms of personal and professional satisfaction, enjoyment of music, and musical
achievement.
Morgan (1998) explored teacherpupil relationships from the perspective of
instrumental teachers. He concluded that these relationships were heavily influenced by
the teachers own life histories, and in particular past relationships with their own teachers.
Hallam (1998) makes the point that although the pupilteacher relationship is crucial in
determining the level of expertise a pupil is able to acquire, little is known about how
instrumental teachers actually interact with their pupils. Analyses of violin lessons taught
by the Suzuki method (Duke,1999; Colprit, 2000), which holds the parentteacherpupil
triangle as fundamental for effective learning, might have been expected to produce some
interesting data regarding interaction between the three participants. Not so: Colprits study
makes no mention of parental input, and Duke recorded very few interactions between the
parent and either the teacher or the pupil; less than 1 per cent of his observations included
any overt behaviour directed by the parent.

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 Andrea Creech and Susan Hallam

Furthermore, while previous research has investigated many aspects of instrumental

learning, few studies have been concerned with how conflict within these learning part-
nerships, which may lead to cessation of musical study, may be resolved, with the potential
for positive outcomes. Finally, research has seldom been concerned with the changing
nature of the parentteacherpupil relationship, a particular challenge within the context
of instrumental learning, where a single teacher may be involved with a pupil for a
time period spanning many life transitions. Perhaps researchers have concentrated on
too narrow a concept of factors leading to musical achievement, and, as proposed
by MacGilchrist et al. (1997) in relation to general educational research, we have
consequently tended to value what we measure rather than measure what we value
(ibid.: 5).
An overview of the literature related to parentteacherpupil interaction, in the context
of instrumental learning, includes several diverse bodies of research. This review draws
on three key research areas: those concerned with (a) concepts of effective learning
and teaching, (b) concepts of effective parenting, and (c) dimensions of interpersonal
relationships. Within each of these broad areas more specific issues, such as parental
involvement, teaching and learning strategies, attitudes, roles, outcome expectations, and
motivation, have each served as the focus of research which contributes to an exploration of
the parentteacherpupil triangle. The review concludes with a proposed model describing
effective learning partnerships.
The literature review reveals that very similar concepts have emerged from each of the
three largely separate and distinct areas of research. Repeatedly, the findings of research
concerned with learning/teaching, parenting, and interpersonal relationships alike place
emphasis on the importance of both (a) shared purpose, goals and role expectations and
(b) collective efficacy amongst the human actors involved. Furthermore, both of these
concepts are characterised throughout the literature as functions of the dimensions of
responsiveness and control . Van Tartwijk et al. (1998) present a model of effective teaching
which is virtually identical to Birtchnells new interpersonal theory (Birtchnell, 1993),
and dimensions of both models strongly echo Baumrinds conception of parenting styles
(Baumrind, 1989). It would seem reasonable to propose, then, that the matter at hand an
investigation of parentteacherpupil interaction will be informed by literature concerned
with the themes of purpose, role expectations, and collective efficacy amongst the human
constituents of an educational partnership, and more specifically with the exploration of
dimensions of responsiveness and control which may be present within these educational
microsystems.

Parental involvement in the learning partnership

Music education research to date has provided much compelling evidence that parental
involvement in the early years of instrumental learning is indeed linked to musical
achievement. Educational research, theory and experience sustain this view, strongly
suggesting that parents involvement in childrens formal schooling is vital for academic
achievement (Baker & Soden, 1997).
Early research on the influence of parents on instrumental learning reported positive
relationships between musical home environments and the musical responsiveness of

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 P a r e n t t e a c h e r p u p i l i n t e r a c t i o n s i n i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c t u i t i o n

children from these homes (Kirkpatrick, 1962; Shelton, 1965; Wermuth, 1971). These
findings have been elucidated by more recent research which has approached the sub-
ject from a number of different perspectives, including (a) parents musical background,
(b) musical home environment, (c) supervision of practice, (d) attendance at lessons,
(e) parental aspirations and values, (f) parental efficacy, and (g) family interaction
(Brokaw, 1982; Sosniak, 1985; Addison, 1990; Manturszewska, 1990; Power, 1990;
Klinedinst, 1991; Sloboda & Howe, 1991; Zdzinski, 1992; Davidson et al., 1995, 1996;
Hurley, 1995; Hallam, 1998; Davidson & Scutt, 1999; Creech, 2001; Davidson &
Borthwick, 2002).
Some difficulties nevertheless exist in assessing the impact of parent involvement, not
least of which is the lack of a precise definition of the term. That the assorted research
foci, noted above, together fall under the umbrella term parent involvement is a reflection
of a problem inherent to the larger body of research concerned with parent involvement
in education. In their comprehensive review, Baker & Soden (1997) draw attention to the
fact that the term parent involvement is variously used to refer to parental aspirations,
parental expectations, parental assistance with homework, parental attendance at parent
teacher meetings and lessons, general parenting style, and family interaction patterns. They
also highlight the need for research that will examine relationships among different types
of involvement, the relative importance of different aspects of involvement at different
points in the students life, and the complex processes whereby types of involvement
interact.
Thus, music education research reflects trends in more general educational research,
where in recent years parent involvement has become something of a buzz phrase,
attracting a great deal of interest and receiving wide acceptance as a benefit to edu-
cation. The British Education White Paper Choice and Diversity (DfE, 1992) stated that
Parents know best the needs of their children . . . Better even than our mostly excellent
teachers (Stanley & Wyness, 1999: 134). In the UK, Plowden (1976), Warnock (1978),
Bullock (1975), Taylor (1977) and the Education Act of 1981 all encouraged parents
to become partners in their childrens education, and supported parental participation
in decision making. Meanwhile, the American National Commission for Excellence
in Education (1983) identified parents as childrens first and most influential teachers,
emphasising parents roles in fostering childrens inquisitiveness, creativity and self-
confidence while actively participating in their schoolwork (Wallace & Walberg, 1991:
131).
Irrespective of the rather diverse approaches to parent involvement outlined above,
it would seem that interaction of one sort or another between parent, pupil and teacher
is an inevitable characteristic of all parental participation in education. Grolnick et al.
(1997) describe parent involvement not as a unitary phenomenon, but rather as a broad
and multidimensional concept, which includes emotional and personal aspects. This wide-
ranging definition provides a useful framework for examining parent involvement in the
multifaceted context of parentteacherpupil interactions.
Whilst few researchers have been directly concerned with exploring the qualities of
parentpupilteacher interaction, particularly within the context of musical instrument
teaching, some investigations have indirectly contributed to knowledge in this area.

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Parentchild interaction super vision of home practice and attendance at lessons

An experimental study involving beginning band students (Brokaw, 1982) designated a

group of parents who undertook supervision of home practice, and found that while it
was not surprising to discover a strong relationship between the amount of time a student
spends practising and the students achievement in performance . . . the amount of time
spent by parents in supervising home practice is even a better predictor of successful
achievement in the initial stages of development (Brokaw, 1982: 97). Doan (1973) had
already produced similar results in his study of seventh- and eighth-grade violin students.
Amongst a number of factors, parental supervision of practice and parent attendance at
the childs concerts were identified by Doan as being significantly correlated to student
achievement on the violin, and he concluded that a significant relationship (.001) was
observed between Parental Involvement scores and Inventory of Performance Ability
scores (ibid.: 79).
Other research has elucidated Doan and Brokaws findings. In a study of American
concert pianists, Sosniak (1985) found that although many of the parents of her cohort
had little involvement in music, they were highly supportive of their childrens efforts.
Their role, which included stimulating and supporting practice, had been vital. Sloboda
& Howe (1991) concurred with Sosniak: they found that high-achieving students in a
specialist music school had benefited from the support and encouragement of parents
who may not have had any formal knowledge of music, but who did take responsibility
for helping with home practice and for encouraging their children to gain and maintain
good practice habits. Davidson et al. (1995) demonstrated that parental commitment to
assisting, encouraging and supporting the child in the early stages of learning was a
more important predictor of successful musical outcomes than any specialist knowledge
on the part of the parent: An important educational implication of these findings is that
the development of musical excellence cannot be seen as something relating solely
to teacher and student behaviours and interactions. Without the positive involvement
of the parent in the process, the highest levels of achievement are likely to remain un-
attainable (ibid.: 44). How, then, might one characterise the behavioural and com-
munication patterns that are typical of these learning partnerships that are deemed to be so
successful?

Parentteacherpupil communication and responsiveness

Some educational researchers have concerned themselves with the qualities and objectives
of parentteacherpupil interactions, concluding that a fundamental and essential element
of effective teaching is good communication: There is instructional communication linked
to the subject matter and the learning process, and interactive communication linked to the
relationship with the learners (MacGilchrist et al., 1997: 48). MacGilchrist et al. identified
the capacity of participants to work cooperatively, allowing the feelings of teacher, pupil
and parent to be respected (ibid.).
An exploration of the perceptions of parents and pupils associated with highly effective
piano teachers (Duke, 1999) found close agreement amongst the parents, pupils and
teachers with respect to objectives and outcomes of piano study. Although Duke cannot

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claim a causal connection, it is perhaps significant that the respondents in this research,
who perceived a mutual sense of purpose, considered their piano study to be successful.
This could be seen as demonstrating an agreement of aims between educative partners,
which has elsewhere been identified as a characteristic of effective schools (MacGilchrist
et al., 1997).
Likewise, Jorgensen (1998), in her examination of features of instrumental teacher
and student decision making, found that the level of agreement on expectations and
preferences was related to the intensity of conflict or cooperation between the human
actors. Interpersonal communication research suggests that human values, expressed by
Jorgensen as expectations and preferences, are fundamental and stable, and questions the
degree of differences that may be tolerated before value differences become an obstacle to
effective group functioning (Tubbs, 1984). Jorgensen employed the term zone of tolerance
to describe the margin within which a certain amount of incompatibility in expectations
and preferences within the instructional triad (in this case, teacherstudentstudent) may
be borne (Jorgensen, 1998).
The interactive nature of educative partnerships is emphasised by Johnson (1991), who
makes the challenging contention that to treat parents as consumers on behalf of their
children is to devalue children, treating them as the private property of parents, with no
individual preferences. Her view that students need to be included in negotiations between
family and school reflects an understanding of parent involvement as a corporate enterprise.
A concept of curriculum as an interactive process between teacher, student, subject
matter, and social conditions inside the classroom, as well as the out-of-school community
(including the family and other microsystems to which the student belongs), has been
explored (Hulsebosch, 1991; Melnick, 1991). It seems reasonable to suggest that an
examination of the interactive nature of learning requires an evaluation of levels of
involvement on the part of all constituents. Whilst music education researchers have
investigated the behaviours of highly involved parents, few have applied the notion of
high involvement to teachers of musical instruments. This concept, however, has been
investigated in related research.
Through in-depth interviews, Hulsebosch (1991) explored the perceptions and
motivations of high involvement teachers teachers who maintain a dynamic dialogue
between the in- and out-of-school lives of their pupils and found that these teachers
demonstrated dimensions of mutual control, responsiveness and involvement, dimensions
which are acknowledged throughout the literature as qualities of effective interpersonal
communication (Doan, 1973; Downie et al., 1974; Tubbs, 1984; Baumrind, 1989;
Hulsebosch, 1991; Melnick, 1991; Hendel, 1995; Henry, 1996; Baker & Soden, 1997; Duke
& Henninger, 1998; Van Tartwijk et al., 1998; Crozier, 1999a, 1999b; Rife et al., 2001).
High involvement teachers typically acknowledge and respect the childs out-of-school life,
regard the parents as an asset, and describe instances in which the skills, knowledge and
abilities of the parents are integrated into the classroom curriculum (Hulsebosch, 1991:
191). Teacher strategies identified by Melnick include communication with parents, to
find out the parents hopes and expectations for their children, which may be different from
what the students want or what [the teacher] anticipates (Melnick, 1991: 201). In pursuing
shared objectives with their pupils, high involvement teachers share control with the pupil
and parent, even where this stance may require working out strategies to deal with the

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complexity of mutual control. High involvement teachers were likely to convey images of
themselves as engaged in relationships with parents in which there is sharing, reciprocity,
mutuality, and even intimacy. Low involvement teachers, on the other hand, tended to
portray themselves as isolated and distant from parents, not only in time and space, but
also ideologically (ibid.: 192). While low involvement teachers considered the concepts
of autonomy and intimacy in their interactions with parents to be mutually exclusive, high
involvers . . . have a reconstructed view of autonomy that allows for closeness, not only
in their relationships with their students, but also with parents and even the community in
which they teach. High involvers have interwoven the strands of intimacy and autonomy
into their practice, thereby enabling them to develop links to the mothers and homes of
their students (ibid.: 199).
Of particular relevance to the present review is the work of Henry (1996), who
examined the fundamental needs of young children, parents and professionals and
proposed a model of parentprofessionalchild interaction which reflects the concepts
of circularity and change. Depending on the presence of the qualities of responsiveness,
mutual control and involvement, Henry contends that the three-way interaction has the
potential to meet the basic human needs for trust, autonomy and control for all participants.
Henrys model is unusual in that it moves the focus away from the child. Whereas
much research examines parent involvement, teacher behaviour, and parentteacherpupil
relationships in terms of the outcomes for the developing child, Henry looks at the parent
professionalchild relationship from many angles, and acknowledges the possibilities for
change to be experienced by each agent.

Collective efficacy
Parents who believe that their own presence and effort are important in effecting their
childs achievement tend to act on this belief, and are controlling and facilitative in the
development of the childs interests (Georgiou, 1999). Bandura (1997) suggests that self-
efficacious parents regard education as a shared responsibility: The higher their sense
of efficacy to instruct their children, the more they guide their childrens learning and
participate actively in the life of the school. In contrast, parents who doubt their efficacy
to help their children learn turn over their childrens education entirely to teachers (ibid.:
246).
In the context of their childrens violin study, recent research (Creech, 2001) has
suggested that parents who, irrespective of their own musical ability, possess a strong
sense of self-efficacy construct a role for themselves whereby, in addition to choosing the
instrument and facilitating the child to receive tuition, they may engage in behaviour and
activities which, as noted earlier, have been linked to musical achievement (i.e. providing
external motivation for the child, supervising practice, instilling focus and discipline in
practice, attending lessons, communicating with the teacher, and responding to the childs
wish for parental help and support). Whilst approximately 50 per cent of respondents
indicated that they felt less efficacious as the child progressed and matured past age 11, a
mere 8 per cent of parents surveyed believed that the child would have progressed equally
with or without parental involvement. These results suggest that parental efficacy may have
been a factor in sustaining their childrens interest in learning the violin throughout the early

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stages of learning. Furthermore, it would seem that parental self-efficacy possibly changes
as a result of life transitions such as the onset of adolescence, and perhaps diminishes as
the child acquires musical expertise (Creech, 2001).
A review of teacher efficacy literature (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998) identifies two
conceptions of self-efficacy. The first, based on the work of Rotter (1966), defines efficacy as
the extent to which teachers believe they can control student performance and motivation.
This definition of efficacy could perhaps be applied to the sense of self-efficacy experienced
by parents with regard to their childrens instrumental learning, particularly when they have
had control over decisions relating to, for instance, choice of teacher, implementing practice
regimes, or ensemble participation.
A second conception of efficacy, grounded in the work of Bandura (1997), comprises
beliefs which influence how much effort people put forth, how long they will persist
in the face of obstacles, how resilient they are in dealing with failures, and how much
stress or depression they experience in coping with demanding situations (ibid.: 203).
This definition is perhaps more relevant to self-efficacy as experienced by pupils of the
violin. A further important consideration, relevant to this literature review, is that pupil
motivation, which may be a function of self-efficacy, is possibly influenced by the quality
of interpersonal relations between pupil and parent, and between pupil and teacher (Ryan
et al., 1994).
Bandura observes that teacher efficacy has an influence on the level of parental
participation in a childs learning. Teachers who are secure in their perceived capabilities
are most likely to invite and support parents educational efforts. Thus, the stronger
the teachers perceived instructional efficacy, the more parents seek contact with them,
assist them in the classroom, provide home instruction on plans devised by the teacher,
help their children with their homework, and otherwise support the teachers efforts
(Bandura, 1997: 246). By a process of collective efficacy enhancement, self-efficacious
teachers may empower parents with the confidence to help their children learn, and instil
in their pupils self-efficacious beliefs which assist persistence with learning and enhance
student attitudes towards the teacher and the subject matter (Tschannen-Moran et al.,
1998).
One characteristic of teacher efficacy is its circular, cyclical nature. Greater efficacy
leads to greater effort and persistence, which leads to better performance, which in turn
leads to greater efficacy. The reverse is also true. Lower efficacy leads to less effort and
giving up easily, which leads to poor teaching outcomes, which then produce decreased
efficacy (ibid.: 234).
Other characteristics of teacher efficacy are specificity to context and subject matter,
and malleability early in learning, but stability later on (ibid.); it seems reasonable to
propose that an investigation of parent and pupil efficacy may produce similar findings.
Research concerned with learning to play the violin (ONeill & Sloboda, 1997; Davidson
& Borthwick, 2002) demonstrates how a childs self-efficacy beliefs are formed early on in
the learning process, and remain fairly stable. However, the former piece of research also
illustrates the malleability of these beliefs when influenced by altered interaction patterns.
Further research is required which will examine the factors that facilitate or inhibit teacher,
pupil and parent efficacy beliefs, thereby indirectly influencing outcomes for the learning
partnership.

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Interaction and change influenced by parenting style and student age

Not all research lends support to the generally accepted notion that parental involvement
is related to the musical achievement of instrumental students. Zdzinskis (1992) work is
an example. However, his subjects were teenage wind students, and therefore the results
may have been influenced by the age of the students, and also by the fact that they played
wind instruments, which are traditionally started several years later than the piano or violin.
Therefore, an important implication of this and related studies is that parental involvements
effects upon musical achievement may differ with student age (ibid.: 122).
Irrespective of Zdzinskis suggestion that parent involvement may not influence the
musical achievement of teenagers, high levels of support and challenge have been found
to have a positive effect on teenagers across all talent areas. Parents of these accomplished
children typically:
r devote great amounts of time and energy to meeting the needs of their children;
r set high standards;
r encourage productive use of time;
r provide challenging opportunities;
r make sure lessons and materials are available;
r set aside areas of the home where children can work privately (Csikszentmihalyi
et al., 1993: 174).

Researchers have found that children in all age groups, including secondary school
students, welcome interaction between themselves, their parents and their teachers, and
that parental influence on childrens behaviour remains extensive in adolescence (Brown
et al., 1993; Crozier, 1999b). Overall, the majority of the students in all year groups
seemed to value their parents help, interest and support. What does seem to be crucial
here for the students, however, is the need to have some control over parents involvement.
This highlights the importance of negotiation rather than imposition of controlling or
surveillance measures and the need for a tripartite relationship rather than a bipartisan
one (Crozier, 1999b: 124). Crozier here touches on the delicate balance in adolescence
between dimensions of agency (the drive for independence) and communion (the need to
be engaged with others), which has been identified both in the literature relating to parenting
style (Baumrind, 1989; Brown et al., 1993; Noack, 1998) and in that concerned with
interpersonal style (Van Tartwijk et al., 1998) and relationships (Tubbs, 1984; Birtchnell,
1993; Noller et al., 2001). Researchers and theorists argue that people function most
cohesively and confidently in contexts in which they experience significant others as being
both caring and autonomy-supportive (Noack, 1998: 227). It would thus seem reasonable
to suggest that this issue of agency vs. communion may prove to be central to the changing
nature of the parentteacherpupil instructional triad, and that successful negotiation in this
respect could be a crucial factor in determining positive outcomes for the three constituents.
Persson (1995) identified the nature of the teacherpupil relationship as a possible
source of psychological stress for instrumental students. His cohort, however, were
conservatory-level music students, and it is likely that the perspectives of these students
would be rather different from those of students who are considerably younger and still
in the care of their parents. Nevertheless, Perssons data are interesting in terms of the

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changing nature of the teacherstudent relationship. It could indeed be the case that,
as students mature and parents become less influential in the learning process, students
desire a personal, mentoring relationship with the performance teacher. The sense of being
brought up by a musical parent rather than by some informal performance expert was
very important to a majority of the participating students. In fact there was only one student
who did not show such a pressing need to attract the honest and frank interest and support
of her teachers (ibid.: 10). These findings contrast with those of Davidson et al. (1995),
whose student respondents indicated that, as they progressed and matured, having a warm,
responsive relationship with their instrumental teacher became less important, while the
teachers musical expertise became more important.
It has been suggested that members of small groups may communicate most effectively
when they are similar in age (Tubbs, 1984). Clearly, any parentteacherpupil educational
microsystem will include a wide range of ages, and the influence of diverse ages within
the group perhaps represents a further unique characteristic of interpersonal relationships
within this particular context.

Values, roles and attitudes

Bronfenbrenner (1979) provided a framework for examining the changing nature of roles,
and identified role transitions, occurring as a consequence of ecological transitions (i.e.
changing resources, demands and contexts). Data collected in a detailed case study of the
effect of family dynamics on the musical development of children (Davidson & Borthwick,
2002) provide a clear illustration of family role expectations and role transitions influencing
the course of childrens instrumental learning. Davidson and Borthwicks research is
noteworthy within the context of this literature review, as it is uniquely concerned with
dynamics of human interaction in relation to musical development, as opposed to much of
the earlier music education research which investigated specific behaviours and strategies.
Investigating the influence of family interaction patterns on childrens general
educational value orientation, Smith (1991) found the interpersonal family environment to
be an important factor in intergenerational transmission of values and goals. He concluded
that communication regarding educational aims between parents and adolescents, together
with perceived agreement between the two parents, played a part in determining whether
children would incorporate the parents orientation into their personal attitudinal structure.
Bronfenbrenner (1979) used the examples of parent and teacher to illustrate roles which
carry dimensions of responsiveness and control. Both are expected to provide guidance to
the young, who in turn are expected to accept such guidance in a relation characterised
by high levels of reciprocity, mutual affection, and a balance of power in favour of the
adult (ibid.: 85). Emphasising the power of role expectations, particularly with respect
to roles that are associated with strong preconceptions and values, as in his example of
parent and teacher, Bronfenbrenner hypothesised that the placement of a person in a role
tends to evoke perceptions, activities, and patterns of interpersonal relation consistent with
expectations associated with that role as they pertain to the behaviour both of the person
occupying the role and of others with respect to that person (ibid.).
Many dimensions of interpersonal relationships in education, including rights and
duties, roles and attitudes, are addressed by Downie et al. (1974). Downie and colleagues

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 Andrea Creech and Susan Hallam

view is of a reciprocal relationship whereby the attitudes, beliefs and behaviour of each
constituent has a profound influence on each of the others, and on the functioning of
the group and related groups. Others have explored perceptions of teacher (Van Tartwijk
et al., 1998; Crozier, 1999b; Dolloff, 1999; Stanley & Wyness, 1999), pupil (Rutherford &
Edgar, 1979; Shaughnessy et al., 1996; Siebenaler, 1997) and parent roles (Rutherford &
Edgar, 1979; Kent, 1990; Wallace & Walberg, 1991; Davidson et al., 1996; Henry, 1996;
MacGilchrist et al., 1997; Stanley & Wyness, 1999) in the educative process. This body of
research is largely concerned with activities and behaviour perceived to be associated with
particular roles, rather than being concerned with role relationships. Musical instrument
pedagogy would be enhanced by further research concerned with the perceptions held
by pupils, their parents and teachers regarding these concepts of rights, duties, roles and
attitudes within the context of instrumental learning.

The potential for conflict

Considering the obvious potential for conflict amongst those involved with musical
instrument learning, particularly over practice, musical preferences, and time commitment
expectations, it is perhaps rather surprising that little research to date has been directly
concerned with this. However, much may be learnt from the findings of related educational
research.
The lack of a clear definition of parent involvement, previously noted in relation to
potential problems in assessing its influence, may lead to conflict with respect to role
expectations (activities and relations associated with the occupier of a role) within the
arena of the parentteacherpupil relationship. Crozier (1999a), who explored perceptions
of parent involvement held by all three constituents of this triadic relationship, makes
the salient point that where definitions of parent involvement are hazy, a mismatch of
expectations, leading to a breakdown in any constructive learning partnership, becomes
a potential hazard. Crozier found just such a disparity in the perceptions of working-class
parents and teachers she interviewed. While parents involved in her research perceived
themselves as being very interested and supportive in a variety of ways, this support,
which included being concerned about their childrens happiness and welfare, belief in
the importance of qualifications, concern about the importance of school developing the
whole child, and educational aspirations, did not match the teachers expectations of
parent involvement, and thus was not recognised or acknowledged as such. These teachers
demonstrated a strong conception of the ideal type of parent and tended to treat everyone
the same, ignoring different values. Parents who feel unable or just do not wish to match
this unitary standard against which all others are judged are perceived as indifferent or
passive and are thus marginalized (ibid.: 326).
Interestingly, although many parents claimed to want to know more about how they
could be involved, their own frame of reference, which dictated that their role was
not to intervene or take an active and equal role in the learning process, acted as a
constraint. Because teachers took no account of parents frames of reference, and because
teachers strategies to promote parent involvement were essentially constructed from their
own perspectives and value positions, their strategies did little to encourage the greater
participation of working-class parents (ibid.: 327).

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Croziers study demonstrates an entrenched position where patterns of conflict are

reinforced by power relations, strongly held role expectations, and value systems. Parent
teacher conflict arising from similarly entrenched positions was identified also by Rutherford
& Edgar (1979). Many interpersonal conflicts between teachers and parents arise because
they do not clearly understand each others values concerning the goals of the educational
process or the techniques used to achieve them. When a specific school problem already
exists, a misunderstanding between parents and teachers of each others motives or actions
causes the additional problem of interpersonal conflict. In many instances, this conflict
becomes more critical than the original problem (ibid.: 40). A conflict of ideas may
thus become a conflict of personality (Tubbs, 1984). Such discord, associated with the
dimensions of control balanced with the need for autonomy, has the potential to escalate
and lead to negative outcomes (including student drop-out), as in cases of parent and
child arguments rooted in conflict between the task of the parent to be caring and responsive
and the developmental need of the adolescent to break away, or, indeed, parentteacher
and teacherpupil disagreements over resource commitment and musical expectations.
Where responsiveness, negotiation and mutual control are possible, however, conflict may
be resolved.
An opportunity for entrenched positions to be broken down and transformed lies in the
ability of individual agents within the system to reframe their perspectives, thus initiating
change in patterns of interaction. Only by changing our own behaviour can we affect the
behaviour of the other person and thus break the destructive spiral (Creton et al., 1993: 7).
The seed of cooperation, once planted, may have a transforming effect on the interpersonal
relationships involved (Cooper et al., 1994).

Parentteacherpupil interaction and change a systems approach

Employing a systems approach to a study of parent, teacher and student involvement

behaviours and strategies provides scope for involvement behaviour to be interpreted not
as a characteristic of an individual person, but as a characteristic of a communicative system
that the individual forms with others. Circular communication processes develop which
not only consist of behaviour but which determine behaviour as well. When individuals
communicate, their behaviours will mutually influence each other (Van Tartwijk et al.,
1998: 608). Teacher and parent involvement behaviour and interpersonal style may thus
be interpreted not in isolation, but rather as an integral part of the parentteacherpupil
microsystem. From such a stance, there is no intrinsically high involvement teacher,
highly involved parent, or even highly motivated pupil; rather, the individuals particular
style may be seen as both causing and resulting from a web of complex interaction. The
notions of circularity and change, central to a systems approach, imply that all aspects of
a system are intertwined. Behaviour changes in one individual will affect the others and
return like ripples of water moving between river banks . . . The nature of any system,
then, is greatly affected by its response and in some cases, resistance to change (Creton
et al., 1993: 2).
Analysis of parentteacherpupil interaction essentially comprises an investigation of
the behaviour and communication patterns of a small group. Tubbs (1984) defines a small
group as a collection of individuals who influence one another, derive some satisfaction

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 Andrea Creech and Susan Hallam

Outcomes:
Musical achievement
Enjoyment of music
Professional satisfaction
Personal satisfaction
Interpersonal growth
Information sharing

Pupil:
Age
Personality
Attitudes
Values
Role expectations
Ecological transitions

Responsiveness
Mutual control
Involvement

Self-efficacy
Motivation

Conflict resolution Teacher:

Parent: Professional
Parenting style characteristics
Personality Personality
Attitudes Attitudes
Values Values
Ecological transitions Ecological
Role expectations transitions
Resources Role expectations

Fig. 1 The interaction of human variables within a musical context

from maintaining membership in the group, interact for some purpose, assume specialized
roles, are dependent on one another, and communicate face to face (ibid.: 8). The parent
teacherpupil microsystem, in the specific context of musical instrument learning, matches
all the above criteria and offers a rich source of data for understanding complex group
interaction. It includes group members who are of diverse ages and possibly conflicting
beliefs and value systems, and the groups lifespan is often many years, encompassing
several ecological transitions for each of the individual members.
Systems theory provides a framework for understanding how the many variables of
human behaviour and communication work together. A model proposed by Tubbs (1984)

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 P a r e n t t e a c h e r p u p i l i n t e r a c t i o n s i n i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c t u i t i o n

synthesises many earlier systems models and identifies three categories of variables, which
influence the group and are then modified as a result of membership of the group.
His categories are (a) background factors (personality, attitudes and values), (b) internal
influences (style of leadership, language behaviour, interaction roles, decision style), and
(c) consequences (solutions to problems, information sharing, interpersonal relations/
growth amongst group members). As noted earlier, many of these variables have been
identified and researched in the context of musical instrument learning. Figure 1 shows
how they may interact together within a musical context. Such a systems framework may
provide scope for examining these diverse variables in relation to each other within the
broader context of small group interaction.
A central tenet of ecosystemic theory, that change in any part of a system reverberates
throughout that system and associated systems, is reflected in much of the research cited
here, which demonstrates that effective learning, both in schools and in the more specific
context of violin learning, may be significantly influenced, positively or negatively, by
various types of parent participation, teacher strategies, and family interaction patterns.
A systems perspective allows scope for the possibility of the human participants in the
system to reframe expectations, interpersonal style and strategies, which may in turn lead
to conflict resolution, increased efficacy, and consequently a stronger likelihood of positive
outcomes for each of the human actors involved.
Further music education research employing a systems approach may enhance our
understanding of the influence and consequences of human interaction in instrumental
learning, and may also contribute to the larger body of research concerned with
interpersonal communication in small groups.

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