Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437

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Geoderma
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / g e o d e r m a

Soil mineralogy trends in California landscapes

R.C. Graham a,, A.T. O'Geen b
a
Soil & Water Sciences Program, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521-0424, United States
b
Department of Land, Air, and Water Resources, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: California's diverse environmental gradients serve as natural experiments for examining controls on soil
Received 17 August 2008 mineral distribution in landscapes. In this paper we use example soilscapes from throughout California to
Received in revised form 12 May 2009 examine how lithology, climate, topography, and duration of pedogenesis interact to produce distinctive
Accepted 18 May 2009
weathering environments and characteristic suites of soil minerals. Seven soil-geomorphic sequences were
Available online 26 June 2009
assembled from the literature to illustrate major soil mineralogical trends: 1) granitic terrain of the Peninsular
Keywords:
Ranges, 2) granitic terrain of the central Sierra Nevada, 3) andesitic terrain of the northern Sierra Nevada,
Mineral weathering 4) uvial terraces on the east side of the Great Valley, 5) marine terraces of the central coast, 6) ultramac
Toposequence terrain of the Klamath Mountains, and 7) an alluvial fan in the Mojave Desert. Results of this analysis show that
Chronosequence kaolin is present in virtually all pedons, irrespective of climate, parent material, age, or topographic position.
Climosequence Kaolin does not form in ultramac soils due to insufcient aluminum. Many secondary clay minerals reect the
Lithosequence state's strong climatic inuence, with palygorskite, smectite, and vermiculite in the dry, hot environments;
hydroxy-interlayered minerals, gibbsite, and short range-ordered minerals in the cool, moist environments.
In arid and semi-arid regions, the distribution of calcite, gypsum, and soluble salts is strongly related to patterns
of eolian dust deposition and water inltration and leaching.
2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction In order to address society's needs related to soil resources, it is

The diverse geologic, topographic, and climatic settings within the
state of California create distinct landscapes with highly contrasting
pedogenic processes. The resulting wide variety of soils and soil min-
erals plays a critical role in ecosystem function, land management, and
quality of life. Inherent soil fertility issues are often directly linked to
soil mineralogy (e.g., Page et al., 1967; Murashkina et al., 2007). Soil
water behavior and irrigation management, so critical in arid and
semi-arid California, are controlled to a large degree by the amount and
kind of soil clays (Frenkel et al., 1978). Soil aggregation and carbon
sequestration potential vary with mineralogy (Rasmussen et al., 2005).
Many water quality issues begin with soil erosion, which is controlled
in part by soil mineralogy (Le Bissonnais and Singer, 1993). Eroded
soil particles can carry with them adsorbed pesticides and other
agricultural chemicals (Agassi et al., 1995). Wind erosion, generated
from such sources as agricultural operations, off-highway vehicle use,
and dry lakebeds, causes health hazards due to inhalation of ne
mineral particulates (Baker et al., 2005; Reheis, 2006). The amount and
kind of soil clays determine slope stability (Moody, 1989). Soil minerals
can be used to help understand the current behavior of wetlands
(O'Geen et al., 2008) and aridlands (Reid et al., 1993), interpret paleo-
environmental conditions (Amundson et al., 1989), and assist in forensic
investigations (Stam, 2004).
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: robert.graham@ucr.edu (R.C. Graham).
important to understand the landscape distribution of soil minerals
and the processes responsible for their occurrence. The gradients be-
tween environmental extremes in California provide effective natural
experiments for determining the controls on soil mineral distribution.
In this paper we use example soilscapes from throughout California to
examine how lithology, climate, topography, and duration of pedo-
genesis interact to produce distinctive weathering environments and
characteristic suites of soil minerals. The relevance of this understanding
extends beyond the state, because analogous environments and soil-
related issues are found worldwide.
2. Environmental setting
California is divided into eleven physiographic provinces (Fig. 1).
Each of these regions exhibits distinctive natural features of geology,
topography, climate, and vegetation assemblages. In the broader view
of plate tectonics, most of California is on the North American plate,
but its western margin is positioned across the boundary with the
Pacic plate (Norris and Webb, 1990). As a result of the plate move-
ments, sediments have been accreted onto the western margin of the
continent so that much of coastal California consists of sedimentary or
metasedimentary rocks (Fig. 2). Amid these accreted sediments are
patchy intrusions of ultramac rocks (peridotites and serpentinites)
derived from mantle material. Metamorphic rocks cap the granitic
batholith throughout the low- and mid-elevations of the northern
Sierra Nevada. Much of this covering has been removed by erosion at

0016-7061/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.018
 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437 419

Fig. 1. Physiographic regions of California (map source: U.S. Geological Survey). Locations of the soil mineralogy landscape examples highlighted in this review are indicated:
(1) granitic terrain of the Peninsular Ranges, (2) granitic terrain of the central Sierra Nevada, (3) andesitic terrain of the northern Sierra Nevada, (4) uvial terraces on the east side of
the Great Valley, (5) marine terraces of the central coast, (6) ultramac terrain of the Klamath Mountains, and (7) alluvial fan in the Mojave Desert.

high elevations and to the south, where uplift has been more extensive.
Granitic rock comprises about 20% of the state's land area, primarily in
the Sierra Nevada, but also in the Transverse and Peninsular Ranges of
southern California, and scattered throughout the Mojave Desert, Basin
and Range, Klamath Mountains, and the central Coast Ranges. Volcanic
deposits are concentrated in the Cascade Range and Modoc Plateau, but
also are scattered throughout the Mojave Desert, Basin and Range, and, to
a lesser extent, the Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges. The long
geosynclinal trough of the Great Valley contains a vast expanse of
Holocene alluvium, but older alluvial terraces remain in places along its
margins. Alluvium is also abundant in intermontane valleys and basins
bounded by faults in southern and eastern regions. High elevations,
mostly in the Sierra Nevada, were subjected to extensive alpine
glaciation during the Pleistocene, so glacial deposits are present
in those regions and the valleys that lead down from them.
California is subject to a variety of climatic conditions originating from
marine, topographic, and latitudinal inuences. Generally, precipitation-
bearing storms move down from the north and west from the Pacic
Ocean during the winter, associated with extratropical cyclones and
associated troughs of the jet stream (Minnich, 2007). Since the jet
stream tends to be positioned off the coast of the Pacic Northwest
extending to northern California, more storms reach the northern part
of the state and storm frequency decreases with increasing distance
to the south (Minnich, 2007). As a result, mean annual precipitation
decreases toward the south (Fig. 3). At any given latitude, rainfall is
relatively high along the coast, increases with elevation in coastal
mountains and then decreases in rain shadows to the east. The highest
mean annual precipitation occurs in the north coastal mountains, which
receive over 2750 mm, mostly as rain. Precipitation increases drama-
tically as the storms pass over the high elevations of the Sierra Nevada.
At lower elevations the precipitation is dominantly rain, whereas several
meters of snow fall annually at the higher elevations. The southeastern
deserts have particularly low mean annual precipitation, less than
50 mm in Death Valley and the Imperial Valley. Limited summer
precipitation is occasionally delivered to some parts of southern and
southeastern California by monsoonal weather patterns.
Mean annual temperatures vary as a result of latitude and position of
the jet stream (Fig. 4). Coastal regions remain cool in summer and mild
in winter due to the exchange of heat between tropical and polar
latitudes by the California Current and associated air mass (Miller and
420 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437

Fig. 2. Generalized geologic map of California. California Department of Conservation, Division of Mines and Geology. Map scale 1:750,000.

Hyslop, 2000). Onshore winds maintain cool conditions in the summer
in the Coast Ranges within 100 km of the coast. Temperatures increase
substantially in the inland valleys (Fig. 4). At mean sea level, January
temperatures are approximately 5 C warmer in southern California
compared to northern California. Most coastal valleys and the Great
Valley have a frost-free season of 225 to 300 days. Temperatures
decrease dramatically with increasing elevation. The average frost free
period is less than 100 days above 1500 m in the Modoc Plateau, Sierra
Nevada, and Transverse Ranges (Minnich, 2007). In desert regions,
mean air temperatures range from 7 to 11 C in January and 24 to 38 C
in July (Western Regional Climate Center, accessed 2008).
Nine of the 12 soil orders from the USDA soil taxonomic system
(Soil Survey Staff, 2006) are sufciently abundant to be displayed at
the scale depicted in Fig. 5. Entisols and Aridisols cover most of
the desert regions, Basin and Range, and the southern Great Valley.
Mollisols are common on the Modoc Plateau, the Coast Ranges, the
Transverse Ranges, and the Great Valley. Alsols are prevalent in the
semi-arid, mid- to low-elevation mountains and on alluvial terraces.
Inceptisols and Entisols are common in mountainous terrain and on
Holocene and late Pleistocene alluvial deposits. Ultisols are found in
the mid-elevations of the northern Sierra Nevada, Klamath Mountains,
and northern Coast Ranges. Andisols are predominantly in the Cascade
Range and Modoc Plateau. Vertisols are scattered over much of the
state, but are concentrated in the Great Valley, the Modoc Plateau, the
Peninsular Ranges, and the southern Coast Ranges. Histosols predomi-
nate in the Sacramento Delta region of the Great Valley, but also are
 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437 421

Fig. 3. Distribution of mean annual precipitation in California. USDA-NRCS PRISM dataset mapped at a horizontal resolution of 800 m.

Fig. 4. Distribution of mean annual temperature in California. USDA-NRCS PRISM dataset mapped at a horizontal resolution of 800 m.
422 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437

Fig. 5. Distribution of soil orders in California. The spatial extent of regions containing Oxisols and Spodosols was small and impossible to depict at this scale. Gelisols have not been
identied in California. USDA-NRCS STATSGO Database. Map scale 1:250,000.

present in localized wet areas of mountain meadows. Spodosols and
Oxisols occur in areas too small to show on the map in Fig. 5. Gelisols
apparently have not been found, but may be present on some high
elevation north-facing slopes.
3. Soil mineralogy landscape relationships
Seven examples of soil mineralogylandscape relationships through-
out the state (Fig. 1) are presented here. The sources of the data are
mostly from published work, but in some cases they are based on unpub-
lished reports or dissertations. All sources are cited. We note that some of
the studies were done several decades ago using soil morphological
designations that have been superseded. We have converted those desig-
nations to ones that are currently used (Soil Survey Staff, 2006).
3.1. Granitic terrain of the Peninsular Ranges
The Peninsular Ranges in southwestern California are dominated
by tonalite (quartz diorite), a granitic rock of intermediate composi-
tion. While some peaks in these ranges exceed 2700 m, much of the
landscape has less relief, with rolling uplands and hills interspersed
with alluvial valleys at elevations ranging from 150 to 500 m. The soils
of this region have a xeric moisture regime and thermic temperature
regime. This region has been renowned for its agricultural production,
particularly citrus and avocados. It is also a heavily populated region
that continues to experience suburban development.
Soil mineralogical trends in this region are well represented by a
toposequence study in San Diego County (Nettleton et al., 1968, 1970).
The toposequence extended from upper slopes (smooth hilltops, upper
 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437 423

Fig. 6. Landscape in Peninsular Ranges granitic terrain (Fig. 1) (photo credit: P. Sternberg).

backslopes) through middle and lower backslopes to footslopes, encom-
passing an elevation difference of 18 m across a horizontal distance of
about 150 m. A similar landscape is shown in Fig. 6. The soils on the
footslopes are formed in alluvium of variable thickness, while the upland
soils are formed in residuum or colluvium over residuum. The mean
annual precipitation at the site is 380 mm, occurring as rain in late fall
through early spring. The upper slope soils formed under chaparral
shrubs while the lower slope soils formed under grassland with scat-
tered California live oaks (Quercus agrifolia). The tonalite underlying
the toposequence is composed of 56% andesine (An43), 8% orthoclase,
9% quartz, 14% biotite, and 13% hornblende.
Some of the properties of three of the soils along the toposequence
are presented in Table 1. Soils on the upper slopes are in the Vista
series (coarse-loamy, mixed, superactive, thermic Typic Haploxerepts).
Fallbrook soils (ne-loamy, mixed, superactive, thermic Typic Haplo-
xeralfs) are on the middle and lower backslopes, and soils of the Bonsall
series (ne, smectitic, thermic Natric Palexeralfs) are on the footslopes
The Vista and Fallbrook soils formed primarily in tonalite residuum,
whereas the Bonsall soils formed in pedisediments as well as the under-
lying weathered tonalite. The tonalite bedrock underlying the soils has
weathered such that it is friable and can be crushed by hand and
excavated with some difculty using a spade. This weathered bedrock
has 10 YR hues, as do the soils on the upper slopes. These hues are
suggestive of goethite (Schwertmann, 1993). Soils on the middle and
lower backslopes have much redder (5 YR hues) B horizons, while those
on the footslopes have mostly 7.5 YR hues. Although pedogenic Fe
oxides are not particularly abundant (16 g/kg), presumably there is
sufcient hematite to impart the reddish hues via grain coatings in these

Table 1
Properties of soils in a toposequence on granitic terrain in the Peninsular Ranges (Nettleton et al., 1968).

Horizon Depth (cm) Dry color Texturea Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) O.C. (g kg 1) pH (1:1) CEC8.2 (cmol kg 1) Fed (g kg 1) Clay mineralogyb
Upper slopes: Vista series (coarse-loamy, mixed, superactive, thermic Typic Haploxerept)
A1 07.5 10 YR 4/2 COSL 73 17 10 9.6 6.9 17 10 M4 K2 HBt
A2 7.523 10 YR 4/3 COSL 71 18 11 5.6 6.6 19 9 V3 K2 HB1
A3 2348 10 YR 4/3 COSL 70 18 12 3.4 6.8 20 10 V3 K2 HB1
Bw1 4871 10 YR 4/3 COSL 69 19 12 2.8 6.7 19 9 V3 K2 HB1
Bw2 7189 10 YR 5/4 COSL 71 18 11 1.0 6.9 23 11 K3 V2 HB1 Mt
Cr1 89112 10 YR 5/4 ROCK 82 13 5 0.3 7.1 15 7 V4 K2 HBt
Cr2 112155 10 YR 5/3 ROCK 83 12 5 0.3 7.4 16 8 V4 K2 HBt

Middle and lower backslopes: Fallbrook series (ne-loamy, mixed, superactive, thermic Typic Haploxeralf)
A1 05 10 YR 5/3 SL 73 19 8 7.3 6.6 10 8 M4 K2 HBt
A2 515 10 YR 5/3 SL 72 20 8 5.0 6.5 9 7 M4 K2
AB 1530 5 YR 5/3 L 66 21 13 3.0 6.8 11 7 HB4 K2 M1
Bt 3071 5 YR 5/4 SCL 53 18 29 2.6 6.9 19 14 K3 HB2 M2 V1
BC 71119 5 YR 6/4 L 72 13 15 0.7 7.4 19 9 K4 M2 Vt HBt
Cr 119173 2.5 YR 4/4 ROCK 80 11 9 0.2 7.6 17 7 K3 M2 V1 HBt

Footslopes: Bonsall series (ne, smectitic, thermic Natric Palexeralfs)

A1 015 10 YR 5/3 SL 68 23 9 7.0 6.6 9 7 M4 K2 Vt HBt
A2 1525 10 YR 5/3 SL 63 25 12 2.8 6.8 10 8 HB2 K2 Sm2 Vt
Bw 2536 7.5 YR 5/4 CL 42 19 39 4.7 6.8 26 16 K3 Sm2 V1 Mt HBt
Bt 3669 10 YR 5/4 C 41 21 38 2.1 8.0 25 10 Sm3 K3 Vt Mt HBt
Btkn 6997 10 YR 6/4 C 48 23 29 1.1 8.1 27 9 nr
BCn1 97122 7.5, 2.5 YR 5/4 SL 64 17 19 0.2 8.0 23 13 Sm3 K2 Mt HBt
BCn2 122152 7.5 YR 4/4 SL 70 11 19 0.2 8.0 20 12 nr
CBn 152226 7.5 YR 6/4 SCL 52 27 21 0.2 8.0 25 12 Sm3 K2 Mt HBt
2Cr1 226279 10 YR 8/3 ROCK 57 29 14 <0.1 8.3 37 14 nr
2Cr2 279305 2.5 Y 78/4 ROCK 51 33 17 <0.1 8.1 31 13 Sm3 K2 M1 HBt
a
C = clay, CL = clay loam, COSL = coarse sandy loam, L = loam, ROCK = rock fabric, SCL = sandy clay loam, SL = sandy loam.
b
HB = hydrobiotite, K = kaolin, M = mica, Sm = smectite, V = vermiculite; t = trace, 1 = minor amount, 2 = moderate amount, 3 = major amount, 4 = dominant; nr = not
reported.
424 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437
coarse-textured soils. Maximum clay content increases downslope,
ranging from 12% in the Bw1 horizon of the Vista soil to 38% in the Bt
horizon of the Bonsall soil. Organic carbon content is <10 g kg 1 in the
A horizons and decreases with depth. Soil pH generally increases with
depth and the maximum pH increases downslope, from a high of 7.4 in
the Vista soil to a high of 8.3 in the Bonsall soil. The upper and middle
slope soils (Vista and Fallbrook) do not contain calcium carbonate or
appreciable exchangeable Na, but the footslope soils (Bonsall) contain a
few percent calcium carbonate and exchangeable sodium percentages
up to 20 in subsoil horizons (data not shown). The Na on the exchange
and the Ca in CaCO3 are derived from the weathering of andesine. These
weathering products are leached from upper slope soils to the Bonsall
soils on lower slopes where they are incompletely removed because
the clayey subsoil textures there impede leaching. Amorphous silica
accumulates in the Bonsall subsoil for the same reasons (data not
shown).
The initiation of soil formation in this landscape hinges upon a
simple mineralogical transformation; that is, the transformation of
biotite to vermiculite. This transformation involves replacement of
interlayer K with hydrated, exchangeable Mg and the release and
oxidation of octahedrally coordinated Fe. The transformation increases
the volume of the micaceous grains, since the d001 spacing of biotite is
1.0 nm, while that of vermiculite is 1.4 nm. The expansion of biotite
produces many small cracks within the general rock fabric (Frazier and
Graham, 2000), increasing its porosity from <1% to between 20 and
35%. This increase in porosity allows water to percolate easily through
the rock material (Graham et al., 1997) and it greatly decreases its
structural integrity (Clayton and Arnold, 1972; Jones and Graham,
1993). As a result the bedrock becomes much more susceptible to
chemical weathering and to physical disruption by burrowing ground
squirrels.
On the summit and backslope positions (Vista and Fallbrook soils),
biotite weathers to vermiculite, hydrobiotite (regularly interstratied
biotite/vermiculite), and kaolinite. These weathering reactions pro-
ceed throughout the proles producing pseudomorphic replacements
of the original biotite grains. It is the vermiculite in sand-size biotite
pseudomorphs that gives such high CEC values to the Cr horizons,
which have low clay contents. The biotite weathering products enter
the clay fraction (Table 1) through physical disruption or dispersion
of the pseudomorphs. In the Vista soils, which have relatively low clay
contents, most of the weathering products remain in the silt- and
sand-sized biotite pseudomorphs, again contributing to relatively
high CEC values. Feldspar grains are only slightly weathered and do
not have any associated weathering products. Hornblende appears
unweathered.
Somewhat lower on the backslopes, Fallbrook soils are more intensely
weathered, sola are thicker, and illuviation has contributed to an argillic
horizon with nearly 30% clay. Weathering intensity is greater on these
lower slope positions because of water ow from upslope and increased
water retention in the ner textured soil material. Mineral components
are the same as in the upslope Vista soils, but kaolin is more abundant in
the clay fraction of the subsoil horizons. In situ weathering of vermiculite
and disaggregation of biotite pseudomorphs contribute to the increased
clay, and kaolin, content of the B horizons.
Soils on the footslopes (Bonsall soils) are wet for long periods of
time as moisture accumulates via water ow from upslope. Not only
do these soils receive soluble weathering products from upslope, but
they are also intensely weathered due to their relatively high moisture
status. The pedogenic environment is rich in silica, sodium, and mag-
nesium, which favors smectite formation. Feldspars weather pseudo-
morphically to smectite and, although biotite weathering products are
the same as in upslope soils, formation of kaolin is generally less favored
in these more silica-rich soils. Hornblende weathering contributes to
the formation of smectite and Fe oxides.
Notably, mica is a major component of the clay fraction in the
surface horizon of all of the soils in the toposequence (Table 1). This
mica has formed through a process involving the biocycling of K. Plants
scavenge K from deeper within the soil, incorporate it into their bio-
mass, and return it to the soil surface in litter. The K released by litter
decomposition is then incorporated and xed in the interlayer of
vermiculite, transforming it back to a mica with a d001 spacing of 1.0 nm.
This vermiculte-to-mica transformation is common in dryland soils of
California (Nettleton et al., 1973) and occurred within 41 years in
lysimeter soils in southern California (Tice et al., 1996).
3.2. Granitic terrain of the central Sierra Nevada
The Sierra Nevada is the dominant mountain range in California
(Fig. 1). It is 640 km long and 65 to 160 km wide and reaches elevations
exceeding 4250 m. In the central and southern parts of the range,
multiple intrusions of granitic rock dominate the lithology (Norris and
Webb,1990). As a result of active tectonism, the Sierra Nevada as a whole
is tilted so that the east-facing scarp is exceptionally steep, whereas
the west side slopes comparatively gradually toward the Great Valley.
The winter storms that deliver the bulk of the precipitation (>75%)
generally move in from the west and encounter the Sierra Nevada as
an orographic barrier. As the moisture-laden air rises up the western
slope, it cools and releases its moisture as rain at the lower elevations
and as snow at the higher elevations (Hornbeck, 1983). Thus, the west-
ern slope of the Sierra Nevada presents an elevational transect along
which temperature decreases and precipitation increases with increas-
ing elevation. Changes in vegetation are coincident with the climatic
changes such that the lower elevations support an oak savannah and
successively higher elevations support characteristic conifer species. The
western slope of the Sierra Nevada contains the key watersheds that
provide water to the vast agricultural endeavors of the Great Valley
as well as to major metropolitan areas. The forests have also contributed
valuable timber resources.
Soil mineralogical trends along an elevational transect in the central
Sierra Nevada (Fig. 1) have been documented by Dahlgren et al. (1997).
The transect begins at an elevation of about 200 m and extends to
2865 m (Fig. 7). With increasing elevation the mean annual precipita-
tion increases from 330 to 1270 mm. Above an elevation of 1594 m
most of the precipitation falls as snow, while at lower elevations precip-
itation is as rain or snow that melts between storms. Soil temperature
regimes progress through thermic, mesic, frigid, and cryic with increas-
ing elevation. The soil moisture regime is dominantly xeric, but probably
is udic above about 2100 m. Four distinct vegetation zones occur: oak
woodlands (<1008 m), oak/mixed conifer forest (10081580 m), mixed
conifer forest (15802626 m), and subalpine mixed-conifer forest (2626
3200 m). While the western slope of the Sierra is dissected by deep river
canyons, the intervening ridges often present relatively subdued terrain.
Soils in this transect were sampled within these landscapes on knoll-crest
positions with 9 to 15% slopes to the south. All of the soils sampled are
underlain by bedrock; granodiorite at the higher elevations (1390 m)
and tonalite at the lower elevations.
Four of the seven soils that make up the elevational transect will
be discussed here. The low elevation (198 m) soils are in the Vista
series (coarse-loamy, mixed, superactive, thermic Typic Haploxerepts).
They support annual grasses with an open oak woodland (Fig. 7a).
Soils of the Musick series (ne-loamy, mixed, semiactive, mesic Ultic
Haploxeralfs) are found at a mid-elevation (1390 m), but below the
winter snowline. The vegetation here is dominated by ponderosa pine
(Pinus ponderosa), incense cedar (Calocedrus decurrens), and California
black oak (Quercus kelloggii). Soils at mid-elevation but above the
winter snowline (1800 m) are in the Shaver series (coarse-loamy, mixed,
superactive, mesic Humic Dystroxerepts). They support a mixed conifer
forest with white r (Abies concolor), sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana),
ponderosa pine, and incense cedar (Fig. 7b). At the highest elevation
along the transect (2865), the soils have not been assigned a series name,
but will be referred to here as Cryepts (sandy-skeletal, mixed Typic
Humicryepts). These soils support relatively open stands of lodgepole
 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437 425

Fig. 7. Granitic terrain in the central Sierra Nevada (Fig. 1) showing (a) annual grasses and open oak woodland at an elevation of about 200 m and (b) mixed conifer forest at about
2200 m with high alpine peaks in the background (photo credit: R. Amundson).

pine (Pinus contorta murrayana) and western white pine (Pinus
monticola).
Selected properties of the soils are presented in Table 2. At the
highest elevation, soils are underlain by hard bedrock, but at all other
elevations they are underlain by a zone of friable, weathered bedrock
(Cr horizon). The soils and the weathered rock zone are relatively thin
over hard bedrock at the lowest elevation, but at the mid-elevations
soils are much thicker and Cr horizons, though not measured in this
study, are often several meters thick. These zones of weathered granitic
bedrock, formed by the same mechanisms described for the tonalite of
the Peninsular Ranges, have substantial water-holding capacities and
are critical to the survival of the forest ecosystems in this summer-dry
region (Anderson et al., 1995; Hubbert et al., 2001; Rose et al., 2003;
Witty et al., 2003).
Most of the soils in the elevational transect have 10 YR hues, indic-
ative of goethite as the predominant iron oxide, but the Musick soils
426 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437

Table 2
Properties of soils in an elevational transect on granitic residuum in the central Sierra Nevada (Dahlgren et al., 1997).

Horizon Depth (cm) Dry color Texturea Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) O.C. (g kg 1) pH (1:1) CEC7 (cmol kg 1) Fed (g kg 1) Alo (g kg 1) Clay mineralogyb
198 m elevation: Vista series (coarse-loamy, mixed, superactive, thermic Typic Haploxeralf)
A 014 10 YR 5/4 COSL 79 11 10 27 6.3 12 4 <1 M3 K2
Bw1 1419 10 YR 6/3 LCOS 80 12 8 4 7.4 7 5 <1 nr
Bw2 1934 10 YR 5/3 LCOS 79 13 8 3 7.3 7 5 <1 nr
Bt 3456 10 YR 5/3 COSL 76 14 10 3 7.0 7 5 <1 M3 K2
Crt 5671 ROCK nr
R 71+ ROCK

1390 m elevation: Musick series (ne-loamy, mixed, semiactive, mesic Ultic Haploxeralf)
O 140
AE 029 10 YR 6/3 SL 60 27 15 16 5.6 12 8 1 K3 M2 HIV1
EBt 2938 10 YR 6/4 SL 62 24 16 8 5.8 9 9 <1 nr
Bt1 3854 10 YR 5/8 SCL 64 14 27 3 5.2 9 14 <1 K3 M1 HIV1
Bt2 5469 2.5 YR 5/6 SCL 63 16 25 2 5.1 8 12 <1 nr
BCt1 6996 7.5 YR 6/8 SL 67 18 17 1 5.0 9 10 <1 nr
BCt2 96180 7.5 YR 7/3 SL 76 17 11 1 5.0 8 7 <1 nr
Cr 180+ ROCK

1800 m elevation: Shaver series (coarse-loamy, mixed, superactive, mesic Humic Dystroxerepts)
O 40
A1 04 10 YR 5/3 LS 80 15 5 39 6.2 18 4 6 HIV2 K2 M1 G1
A2 418 10 YR 5/3 LS 79 17 4 16 6.0 11 4 7 nr
A3 1846 10 YR 5/3 LS 83 13 6 8 6.1 10 4 4 nr
A4 4670 10 YR 5/3 LS 80 15 8 6 6.0 9 5 5 K3 HIV3
Bw1 70102 10 YR 6/3 LS 80 15 8 5 5.9 9 4 4 nr
Bw2 102172 10 YR 5/2 LS 83 13 6 1 5.7 5 4 <1 nr
Cr 172+ ROCK 85 12 3 1 5.7 6 4 <1 nr

2865 m elevation: Cryepts (sandy-skeletal, mixed Typic Humicryepts)

O 30
A1 06 10 YR 2/2 LCOS 80 16 4 45 4.4 14 2 3 HIV3 K2 G2
A2 615 10 YR 2/2 LCOS 81 15 4 34 4.8 12 3 4 nr
A3 1529 10 YR 3/3 LCOS 81 15 4 32 4.9 11 3 4 nr
A4 2942 10 YR 3/3 LCOS 81 15 4 25 4.9 10 3 4 nr
Bw 4263 10 YR 5/4 LCOS 84 13 3 11 5.2 6 2 5 K3 G3
BC 6381 10 YR 6/6 LCOS 83 13 4 11 5.1 6 2 5 nr
R 81+ ROCK
a
C = COSL = coarse sandy loam, LCOS = loamy coarse sand, LS = loamy sand, ROCK = rock fabric, SCL = sandy clay loam, SL = sandy loam.
b
G = Gibbsite, HIV = hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite, K = kaolin, M = mica; 1 = minor amount, 2 = moderate amount, 3 = major amount; nr = not reported.

(mid-elevation, below winter snowline) have hues as red as 2.5 YR,
suggesting the additional component of hematite (Schwertmann,1993).
The Musick soils also have the highest clay contents (27%) and
pedogenic iron (Fed) concentrations (14 g kg 1), both of which occur
in the strongly expressed argillic horizon. The other soils have much
lower clay and Fed concentrations. The Musick soils, then, are the most
intensely weathered and morphologically developed along the eleva-
tional transect. This is attributed to an optimal combination of tem-
perature and moisture at this elevation, whereas weathering is inhibited
at lower elevations by lack of moisture and at higher elevations by cold
temperatures.
At the lowest elevation (Vista soils), the clay mineralogy consists
of mica and kaolinite. The mica is mostly biotite inherited from the
parent rock and the kaolinite is derived from plagioclase weathering.
At somewhat higher elevations (data not shown), some of the mica
has transformed to vermiculite and halloysite occurs with kaolinite.
Halloysite has been shown to be the initial weathering product of
plagioclase in forest soils with xeric moisture regimes in California
(Southard and Southard, 1987; Takahashi et al., 1993). The halloysite
subsequently dehydrates to exhibit x-ray diffraction behavior diag-
nostic of kaolinite.
In the mid-elevation soils (Musick series), kaolin minerals are the
most abundant clay mineral group, with predominantly halloysite in
the subsoil and kaolinite in the surface. This trend is consistent with
the halloysite dehydration mechanism for the formation of kaolinite.
Plagioclase sand grains are pseudomorphically replaced by tubular
halloysite, as described in soils about 170 km to the north by Southard
and Southard (1987). While mica is still a component of the clay
fraction, some of it has weathered to vermiculite that has been
hydroxyAl interlayered in the more acid conditions at this elevation.
In the soils above the winter snowline (Shaver series and Cryepts),
hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite becomes a dominant component of
the clay fraction, along with kaolin and, in the Cryepts, gibbsite. The
predominance of Al-rich and Si-depleted secondary minerals attests
to the strong leaching regime that results from the melting of the
winter snowpack each spring. Leaching intensity was interpreted to
be the major factor determining the degree of desilication and mineral
weathering along the transect.
3.3. Andesitic terrain of the northern Sierra Nevada
Northeastern California is dominated by volcanic terrain, compris-
ing all of the Cascade Range and the Modoc Plateau, and large parts
of the northern Sierra Nevada (Figs. 1 and 2). An elevational transect
similar to the central Sierra Nevada transect on granitic terrain has
been studied in the northern Sierra Nevada on volcanic materials
(Rasmussen et al., 2007) and is discussed here to illustrate mineral-
ogical trends in volcanic soils of northern California. Soils were inves-
tigated on pyroclastic mudows of andesitic composition (lahars) at
elevations ranging from 160 to 2700 m. The mean annual precipitation
here is somewhat higher than in the central Sierra Nevada, ranging
from 460 mm at the lowest elevation to 1520 mm at the highest
elevation. Precipitation is dominantly snow at the sites above 1590 m
and predominantly rain at the lower sites. The relationships between
elevation and soil temperature and moisture regimes are similar to
those in the central Sierra Nevada, as described above, as are the
 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437 427

elevation vegetation relationships. All of the soils in the transect
were sampled on summit positions with 10 to 15% slopes to the west
or southwest.
Four of the seven soils in the elevational transect will be high-
lighted here. At the lowest elevation (160 m), Xerolls (loamy-skeletal,
mixed, superactive, thermic Ultic Haploxerolls) support oak woodlands
dominated by blue oak (Quercus douglasii). At an intermediate elevation
(1150 m) below the winter snowline, Humults (ne, parasequic, mesic
Andic Palehumults) have a mixed conifer forest dominated by pon-
derosa pine (Pinus ponderosa). At a mid-elevation (1700 m) just above
the winter snowline, the soils are Xerands with white r (Abies concolor)
dominating the conifer forest. In the subalpine forest at 2450 m ele-
vation, Cryepts support red r (Abies magnica), Jeffrey pine (Pinus
jeffreyii), and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta).
The parent material mineralogy, as judged from very ne sand
fractions and a rock sample, consisted of hornblende, plagioclase
(andesine and albite), a chlorite-like mineral, cristobalite, tridymite,
and quartz. Volcanic glass is present in relatively small amounts
(<5%) in the soils at elevations <1500 m. In the higher elevation soils,
volcanic glass makes up 10 to 30% of the very ne sand fraction.
Volcanic activity in the Cascade Range and the eastern Sierra Nevada
has persisted through the Holocene and may account for the occur-
rence of glass in these soils.
Selected soil properties are presented in Table 3. The low elevation
soils (Xerolls) are underlain by hard bedrock (R horizon) at a shallow
depth, have 10 YR and 7.5 YR hues, and clay contents of between 15
and 20%. Soils above the winter snowline (Xerands and Cryepts) are
moderately deep over weathered bedrock and also have 10 YR and
7.5 YR hues but clay contents are generally 5 to 15%. The mid-elevation
soils below the winter snowline (Humults) are very deep and red
(5 YR hues) with a clayey argillic horizon (43% clay) extending
below 200 cm. Dithionite-extractable Fe is also highest in these red-
dest soils. Here, as in the elevational transect on granitic rock, the mid-
elevational soils immediately below the winter snowline are found
to be the most intensely weathered and morphologically developed.
The soils in this transect on andesite are generally redder and contain
more clay and pedogenic iron oxides than soils at comparable ele-
vations in granitic terrain to the south. It should be noted that, in
addition to mac mineral weathering, wildres contribute to soil red-
dening through the thermal transformation of goethite to hematite or
maghemite in places where large fuel items (e.g., logs) are thoroughly
combusted on the soil surface (Ulery and Graham, 1993; Goforth et al.,
2005).
The clay mineralogy of the low elevation soils (Xerolls) is domi-
nated by kaolinite, with a trace of vermiculite. The mid-elevation soils
below the winter snowline (Humults) are also dominated by kaolin,
occurring as halloysite in the subsoil and as kaolinite or dehydrated
halloysite near the surface. The kaolin at both sites is derived from
the weathering of plagioclase, with halloysite as the initial weathering
product, which is subsequently dehydrated under warmer, drier con-
ditions (near surface or lower elevation). The Humults also contain
gibbsite, derived from feldspar weathering, and hydroxy-interlayered
vermiculite. This mineral assemblage, reective of intense desilication,
is consistent with soil morphologic indications of intensive weathering
at this elevation. Only soils above the winter snowline (Xerands) con-
tain an appreciable amount of short range-ordered aluminosilicates
(allophane and imogolite). The abundance of allophane and imogolite
was identied by selective dissolution analysis (e.g., high Alo levels in
Table 3), lack of distinct XRD peaks from the clay fraction, and char-
acteristic spheres (allophane) and tubes (imogolite) observed using
transmission electron microscopy. These short range-order minerals
constitute the bulk of the clay fraction, but are accompanied by traces
of kaolin (halloysite) and hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite. The high
elevation Cryepts have relatively low levels of short range-ordered
minerals. The clay fraction of these soils is dominated by a hydroxy-
interlayered smectite (HIS) with a lesser amount of kaolin. The HIS
in this soil, and the HIV at the other sites, is likely derived from the
chlorite-like mineral in the parent material. Pyroclastic materials often
contain 2:1 layer minerals that are chloritized to some degree due to
hydrothermal alteration (e.g., Glasmann, 1982; Pevear et al., 1982).

Table 3
Properties of soils in an elevational transect on andesite in the northern Sierra Nevada (Rasmussen et al., 2007).

Horizon Depth (cm) Dry color Texturea Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) O.C. (g kg 1) pH (1:1) CEC7 (cmol kg 1) Fed (g kg 1) Alo (g kg 1) Clay mineralogyb
160 m elevation: loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, thermic Lithic Ultic Haploxeroll
A1 05 10 YR 5/4 L 43 40 17 36 6.2 30 16 2 nr
A2 514 7.5 YR 5/4 L 43 39 18 20 6.2 24 16 2 nr
Bw1 1425 7.5 YR 5/4 L 47 34 19 12 6.2 22 17 2 K3 Vt
Bw2 2542 7.5 YR 5/4 L 47 34 19 7 6.4 22 16 2 nr
R 42+ ROCK

1150 m elevation: ne, parasequic, mesic, Andic Palehumult

A 010 7.5 YR 3/3 L 38 38 24 89 6.2 44 37 15 nr
ABt 1040 5 YR 4/4 CL 34 35 31 27 6.4 22 44 17 nr
Bt1 4060 5 YR 4/6 CL 42 23 35 17 6.3 20 48 15 K2 HIV1 G1
Bt2 60100 5 YR 4/6 C 35 25 40 5 6.1 17 53 6 nr
Bt3 100158 5 YR 5/6 C 33 24 43 3 5.9 16 49 5 nr
Bt4 158200 5 YR 5/6 C 35 22 43 2 5.8 15 47 4 nr

1700 m: medial-skeletal, amorphic, mesic Humic Haploxerand

A1 019 7.5 YR 4/3 SL 62 34 4 120 6.3 40 13 31 nr
A2 1932 7.5 YR 5/4 SL 58 36 6 69 6.2 27 15 37 nr
Bw1 3248 7.5 YR 5/4 SL 66 28 6 46 6.0 23 16 39 SROM3 Kt HIVt
Bw2 4883 7.5 YR 5/4 SL 69 25 6 31 5.9 18 14 34 nr
Cr 83+ ROCK

2450 m elevation: loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive Vitrandic Dystrocryept

A1 07 10 YR 4/2 SL 69 20 11 62 5.8 30 10 6 nr
A2 719 10 YR 5/3 SL 66 22 12 21 5.8 20 10 7 HIS2 K1
AC1 1937 10 YR 5/3 SL 69 18 13 12 6.0 19 10 7 nr
AC2 3762 10 YR 5/3 SL 58 28 14 10 6.0 21 10 6 nr
Cr 62+ ROCK
a
C = clay, CL = clay loam, L = loam, ROCK = rock fabric, SL = sandy loam.
b
G = gibbsite, HIS = hydroxy-interlayered smectite, HIV = hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite, K = kaolin, SROM = short range-ordered minerals, V = vermiculite; t = trace, 1 =
minor amount, 2 = moderate amount, 3 = major amount; nr = not reported.
428 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437

Even though consistency of soil age, and to some extent parent
material uniformity (i.e., variation in volcanic ash deposition), cannot
be fully assured, this elevational sequence shows the marked impact
of climate on pedogenic mineral formation. The warmest, most moist
soils in the mid-elevations are the most intensively weathered. The
mid-elevation soils above the winter snowline, which also have a
substantial amount of volcanic glass, were the only soils dominated by
allophanic materials.
3.4. Fluvial terraces on the east side of the Great Valley
Throughout the Quaternary, materials eroded from the Sierra
Nevada have been transported westward and deposited as alluvium
in the Great Valley. Uplift and base level lowering have preserved
portions of these alluvial deposits and their geomorphic surfaces as a
series of terraces or alluvial fan remnants. The oldest surfaces are at
the highest elevations and the youngest ones are closest to the current
alluvial oodplains. A particularly well-preserved sequence of such
terraces is found along the Merced and Tuolumne Rivers (Fig. 1)
(Marchand and Allwardt, 1981; Harden, 1982). The deposits are pri-
marily glaciouvial sediments from the granitic terrain of the Sierra
Nevada with minor amounts of metavolcanic and other more mac
rocks from the foothills. The soils on these preserved geomorphic
surfaces form a chronosequence spanning a time period of three
million years. Elevations are less than 200 m and the mean annual
precipitation is about 300 mm. This precipitation occurs as rain

Fig. 8. Fluvial terrace landscapes in the Great Valley (Fig. 1); (a) mid-Pleistocene surface in the foreground and higher early Pleistocene surfaces on the horizon; (b) view across the
early Pleistocene surface showing mima mounds. Note the swale (vernal pool) in the foreground collects water in the rainy season (photo credits: R. Amundson).
 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437 429

between October and May. The soils have a xeric moisture regime and
a thermic temperature regime. The native ecosystems are grasslands
with scattered oaks on the Holocene and late Pleistocene surfaces
(Arkley, 1962). Most of the younger surfaces are valuable for cultivated
crops, vineyards, and orchards. The older landscapes are grasslands used
for cattle grazing (Fig. 8a). Slope gradients are nearly level (05%).
Three of the soils from the chronosequence are discussed here to
illustrate soil mineralogical trends on landscape positions of different
ages in the Great Valley. The soil on a 40 ka geomorphic surface is
a coarse-loamy, mixed, active, thermic Typic Haploxeralf, the one on
a 600 ka surface is a ne-loamy, mixed, semiactive, thermic Mollic
Haploxeralf, and the soil on a 3000 ka surface is a ne, kaolinitic, semi-
active, thermic Ultic Palexeralf. All indications of soil morphological
development increase with age, including clay concentrations, subsoil
redness, and dithionite-extractable iron (Table 4). Both Haploxeralfs
have pH values near neutral, but the pH of the Palexeralf ranges between
4.0 and 4.9 (Harden, 1987, 1988). Some soils on the 3000 ka surface
have silica-cemented duripans (Marchand and Allwardt, 1981).
The parent materials of the soils are arkosic sands and gravels
derived from the granitic terrain of the central Sierra Nevada. As such,
they are dominated by quartz, sodium-rich plagioclase (~An0.32), and
K-feldspar, with lesser amounts of hornblende (510%), biotite (~5%),
and other heavy minerals (Marchand and Allwardt, 1981; Harden,
1987; White et al., 1996). The inuence of the parent material on
the soil clay mineralogy is apparent throughout the chronosequence.
Mica (biotite) and its weathering products (vermiculite, interstrati-
ed mica/vermiculite) are major components in the coarse-loamy
Haploxeralfs (40 ka), but decrease in relative abundance in the older
soils (Table 4). Kaolinite, a weathering product of feldspars, increases
in relative abundance with soil age, becoming particularly abundant in
the Palexeralf. Smectite is not present in the coarse-loamy Haploxeralf
and is a minor component in the ne-loamy Haploxeralf, but in the
lower part of the Palexeralf it is very abundant. All of the clay fractions
contain very small amounts of quartz and feldspar.
Hornblende and biotite are the only signicant sources of Fe and
are the most readily weathered components of the parent material
(White et al., 1996). The iron oxides produced by the weathering of
these minerals are responsible for the soil colors. The 10 YR hues of the
Haploxeralfs indicate goethite, which likely predominates throughout
the chronosequence even as hematite becomes the main pigmenting
agent and produces redder hues in the ne-loamy Haploxeralf and
the Palexeralf. Plagioclase weathers more quickly to kaolinite than
does K-feldspar, but in the oldest soils (Palexeralfs) K-feldspar has
contributed substantially to kaolinite production (White et al., 1996).
Plagioclase is essentially depleted in the ne-loamy Haploxeralfs
(600 ka), while signicant K-feldspar persists in the 3,000 ka Palexeralfs.
Morphologic development, specically the formation of clay-rich
argillic horizons and duripans, changes the hydrologic behavior of
the soils as they age (White et al., 2005). Soil solutions in the younger
soils become seasonally concentrated by high evapotransporational
ux and are occasionally ushed during high precipitation events. In
contrast, the clayey argillic horizons and duripans in the older soils
isolate the deeper zones from major changes in water content, inhib-
iting both leaching and evaporative concentration. As a result, mineral
weathering in the deeper horizons of the oldest soils is controlled
more directly by thermodynamic solubility relationships. Because it is
protected from leaching, this subsoil environment attains concentra-
tions of silica and base cations that favor smectite formation.
Surface water hydrology is also affected by the clayey argillic hori-
zons and duripans in the soils of the older terraces. These landscapes
often have a distinctive microtopography consisting of mima mounds
with intervening swales (Fig. 8b). Due to the low-permeability of the
argillic horizons and duripans, the swales collect water during the
rainy season and are known as vernal pools (Rains et al., 2006; O'Geen
et al., 2008). Soils in the swales are smectite-rich Alsols and Vertisols.
Pore waters in the Haploxeralfs are generally undersaturated with
respect to opal-A, except for periods of time, usually in the summer,
when solute Si reaches opal-A saturation within and immediately
below the argillic horizons. During the winter months, silica cemen-
tation appears to dissipate, apparently because the soil solution is then
undersaturated with respect to opal-A and it dissolves. Some amor-
phous silica persists through the seasonal precipitation/dissolution

Table 4
Properties of soils on uvial terraces in the Great Valley (Harden, 1987).

Horizon Depth (cm) Dry color Texturea Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) O.C. (g kg 1) pH (1:1) CEC7 (cmol kg 1) Fed (g kg 1) Clay mineralogyb
40 ka terrace: coarse-loamy, mixed, active, thermic Typic Haploxeralf
A1 015 10 YR 5/3 LFS nr nr nr nr nr nr nr nr
A2 1581 10 YR 6/3 LS 80 14 6 2 6.5 3 3 M4 K3 Q2 F1
2Bt1 81102 10 YR 5/4 LS 87 2 11 2 6.9 4 4 nr
3Bt2 102170 10 YR 5/6 SL 79 4 17 1 6.7 8 5 K3 V3 M2 HIV1 M/V1 Q1 F1
4BC 170201 10 YR 6/6 LS 86 8 6 4 7.0 6 4 nr
5C 201231 10 YR 6/4 S 91 6 3 4 7.3 4 4 V3 K2 M/V1 M1 Q1 F1

600 ka terrace: ne-loamy, mixed, semiactive, thermic Mollic Haploxeralf

Ap1 05 10 YR 5/2 LS 79 14 5 nr 6.8 11 4 nr
Ap2 511 10 YR 5/3 SL 74 16 7 6 7.0 4 6 K3 V2 M2 C1 CM1 Sm1 Q1 F1
AB 1120 7.5 YR 5/4 SCL 63 15 21 nr 6.9 7 11 nr
Bt1 2033 5 YR 4/6 SCL 58 12 29 nr 6.7 10 11 nr
Bt2 3380 5 YR 5/6 SCL 64 9 26 nr 6.6 10 9 K4 V2 M2 CM1 Q1 F1
BCt1 80191 5 YR 5/6 SCL 76 3 20 nr 6.9 9 8 nr
BCt2 191256 5 YR 6/6 SL 79 3 18 nr 7.1 7 9 nr
BC 256292 5 YR 6/6 SL 85 1 14 nr 7.0 7 5 nr
CB 292375 7.5 YR 6/6 SL 84 1 14 nr 7.0 7 5 nr

3000 ka terrace: ne, kaolinitic, semiactive, thermic Ultic Palexeralf

A 012 7.5 YR 6/6 L 37 46 17 3 4.8 7 14 K4 Q2 V1 M1 Sm1 F1
AB 1253 7.5 YR 6/6 L 34 43 23 3 4.9 7 16 nr
2Bt1 5388 5 YR 4/8 C 25 32 43 1 4.6 12 24 nr
2Bt2 88140 5 YR 4/8 C 25 20 55 3 4.4 12 33 K4 Sm2 V1 M1 Q1 F1
2BCt1 140234 2.5 YR 4/8 C 31 26 43 2 4.0 12 33 nr
2BCt2 234310 2.5 YR 4/8 C 24 21 55 2 4.0 16 21 K4 Sm4 Q1 F1
a
C = clay, L = loam, LFS = loamy ne sand, LS = loamy sand, S = sand, SCL = sandy clay loam, SL = sandy loam.
b
C = chlorite, CM = chloritized mica, F = feldspar, HIV = hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite, K = kaolin, M = mica, M/V = interstratied mica/vermiculite, Q = quartz, Sm =
smectite, V = vermiculite; 1 = minor amount, 2 = moderate amount, 3 = major amount, 4 = dominant; nr = not reported.
430 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437
cycles, leading to the less soluble opal-CT that cements duripans in
some of the 3,000 ka soils (White et al., 2005). Amorphous silica has
been shown to progressively accumulate with age in similar soils in
southern California (Kendrick and Graham, 2004).
3.5. Marine terraces of the central coast
Along much of coastal California, previous shorelines are marked by
marine terraces (e.g., Merritts et al., 1991; Moody and Graham, 1995;
Muhs et al., 2007). These terraces are wave-cut platforms that have
been raised above sea level either by a lowering of sea level or tectonic
uplift of the land. The platforms are cut into bedrock and subsequently
covered by various beach and near-shore sediments and eolian depo-
sits. Soils that develop on these marine terraces have been the subject
of chronosequence studies because each terrace in a suite of marine
terraces marks a discrete period of time at which soil formation began,
the highest terraces being the oldest. The coastal climate of California
has remained nearly constant since the late Pleistocene, with only
somewhat cooler, wetter conditions during glacial periods (Johnson,
1977). Thus, climate change has not been a signicant confounding
factor in these chronosequences.
A well-characterized marine terrace chronosequence is found on
the central coast at Santa Cruz (Figs. 1 and 9). The mean annual
precipitation ranges from about 800 to 880 mm, increasing with
elevation. The soils have a xeric moisture regime and a mesic moisture
regime. The terrace surfaces slope slightly (<5%) toward the sea and
have grassland vegetation. Soils from three of the terraces are dis-
cussed here. At an elevation of 14 m, soils are coarse-loamy, mixed,
active, mesic Typic Argixerolls and are about 65 ka. The marine terrace
at 116 m is about 137 ka and its soils are ne-loamy, mixed, semiactive,
mesic Ultic Argixerolls. The oldest terrace (about 226 ka) is at 159 m
and has ne, mixed, semiactive, mesic Typic Haploxerults (Pinney
et al., 2002; Aniku and Singer, 1990; White et al., 2008). The sediments
from which the soils are derived contain primarily quartz, plagioclase
(An25An33), and K-feldspars (White et al., 2008). There are lesser
amounts of biotite and hornblende.
Fig. 9. Oblique aerial view of the Santa Cruz marine terraces (Fig. 1) (photo credit: copyright (C) 20022009 Kenneth & Gabrielle Adelman, California Coastal Records Project, <http://
www.Californiacoastline.org>www.Californiacoastline.org).
Several soil properties presented in Table 5 show progressive
changes expected in such a chronosequence. The maximum redness
increases from 10 YR hues in the Typic Argixerolls to 5 YR in the Ultic
Argixerolls and 10 R in the Haploxerults. Maximum clay contents
increase from 17 to 48 to 56% in the same sequence. Minimum soil
pH values change from near neutral in the youngest soil to 4.8 in the
oldest. Dithionite-extractable Fe concentrations increase from <10 g kg 1
in the youngest soil to >40 g kg 1 in the oldest.
Clay fraction components are relatively consistent throughout the
chronosequence (Pinney et al., 2002). Kaolinite is the predominant
phyllosilicate, followed by interstratied chlorite/vermiculite. Mica
and gibbsite are minor components. Quartz and minor amounts of
feldspar and Fe-rich dioctahedral smectite are inherited from the parent
material (White et al., 2008). While the major clay fraction components
are relatively constant, certainly their total amounts, as reected by the
increase in clay content, change considerably. Kaolinite production is the
result of the weathering of smectite and feldspars (White et al., 2008),
such that the oldest soils are appreciably depleted of smectite and the
calcic phases of plagioclase. Presumably, the chlorite/vermiculite is a
weathering product of chlorite in the initial deposits.
In contrast, kaolinite is a minor component in the soils of a marine
terrace chronosequence on San Clemente Island, 550 km to the south-
east of Santa Cruz. In those soils, mica and smectite are the dominant
clay minerals (Muhs, 1982). The soils are formed in eolian material,
which includes mica, that is blown from the Mojave Desert and
southwestern California (Muhs et al., 2007). As the soils weather, the
mica is transformed to smectite.
The prominent colors of the subsoils in the Santa Cruz chronose-
quence are due to Fe oxides that form coatings on the silicate grains.
So even though the Fe oxides are present in relatively small amounts
(<5%), their presence is highly visible. The change in soil redness with
age suggests changes in Fe oxide mineralogy. As the 10 YR hues
indicate, goethite is the only Fe oxide mineral in the Typic Argixerolls
(65 ka). A small amount of hematite is present in the older soils, but,
since hematite is such a strong pigmenting agent (Schwertmann,
1993), it is sufcient to redden the soils even though goethite is still
 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437 431

Table 5
Properties of soils on marine terraces of the central coast (Pinney et al., 2002).

Horizon Depth (cm) Dry color Texturea Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) O.C. (g kg 1) pH (1:1) CEC8.2 (cmol kg 1) Fed (g kg 1) Clay mineralogyb
65 ka terrace: coarse-loamy, mixed, active, mesic Typic Argixeroll
A 029 10 YR 4/2 SL 69 22 9 11 6.8 5 5 nr
E 2950 10 YR 5/2 SL 70 20 10 3 7.2 5 4 K3 C/V2 Q2 M1 G1 Sm1 F1
BE 5090 10 YR 6/3 SL 68 17 15 1 7.3 7 5 nr
Bt1 90106 10 YR6/3, 7.5 YR 6/6 SL 67 16 17 2 7.4 10 5 K3 C/V2 Q2 M1 G1 Sm1 F1
Bt2 106170 2.5 Y 6/4 LS 84 3 13 <1 7.4 13 7 nr
C1 170200 5 Y 7/2 S 96 2 2 <1 7.3 5 6 K1 M1 C/V1 G1 Sm1 Q1 F1

137 ka terrace: ne-loamy, mixed, semiactive, mesic Ultic Argixeroll

A1 02.5 10 YR 4/3 SL 58 25 17 41 6.1 17 10 nr
A2 2.525 7.510 YR 4/3 SCL 53 25 22 16 6.4 13 14 K3 C/V2 Q2 M1 G1 F1
BA 2560 7.5 YR 5/4 SCL 49 22 29 8 6.5 11 20 nr
Bt1 6085 7.5 YR 5/6 SC 48 13 39 5 6.5 12 23 nr
Bt2 85111 5 YR 4/3, 5/8 C 41 11 48 4 6.6 15 28 K3 C/V2 Q2 M1 G1 Sm1 F1
Bt3 111158 7.5 YR 6/6 SCL 53 15 32 3 5.4 10 24 nr
BC1 158220 7.5 YR 5/8, 10 YR 6/1 SCL 57 13 30 3 5.3 8 21 K3 C/V2 Q2 M1 G1 Sm1 F1

226 ka terrace: ne, mixed, semiactive, mesic Typic Haploxerult

A1 02 10 YR 5/4 nr nr nr nr 23 5.5 18 13 nr
A2 216 10 YR 5/3 SCL 52 27 21 15 5.3 12 18 K3 C/V2 Q2 M1 G1 Sm1 F1
E 1624 10 YR 6/4 SCL 48 27 25 14 5.1 12 21 nr
Bt1 2443 10 YR4.5/4 SCL 46 27 27 6 5.1 11 22 nr
2Bt2 4374 10 YR 4/4, 10 R 4/6 C 38 13 49 3 5.1 15 37 K3 C/V2 Q2 M1 G1 F1
2Bt3 7496 10 YR 4/4, 10 R 4/8, C 38 6 56 5 4.9 16 43 K3 C/V2 Q2 M1 G1 Sm1 F1
2.5 YR 5/6
3BC1 96185 7.5 YR 6/6, 2.5 YR 3/6 SCL 60 14 26 3 4.8 11 17 nr
a
C = clay, LS = loamy sand, SC = sandy clay, SCL = sandy clay loam, SL = sandy loam.
b
C/V = interstratied chlorite/vermiculite, F = feldspar, G = gibbsite, K = kaolin, M = mica, Q = quartz, Sm = smectite; 1 = minor amount, 2 = moderate amount, 3 = major
amount; nr = not reported.

the predominant Fe oxide (Aniku and Singer, 1990). Another Fe oxide
phase that increases with age in these soils is maghemite. This pedo-
genic ferromagnetic mineral is largely concentrated in nodules asso-
ciated with the argillic horizons of the two older soils (Fine et al., 1992;
Singer et al., 1995). These nodules contain up to half of the total Fe in
those horizons (White et al., 2008). Maghemite has a reddish brown
color (2.5 YR5 YR hues) (Schwertmann, 1993), so in a nely divided
form it would contribute to soil reddening. Maghemite is formed by
heating goethite under slightly reducing conditions, as under large
fuels in wildres, or by oxidation of magnetite (Bigham et al., 2002).
The latter is the more likely origin in the Santa Cruz soils, where
magnetite is present in all of the soils, but is depleted by weathering at
shallower depths and with increasing age (Fine et al., 1992).
In marine terraces 210 km to the southeast, opaline silica is an
important soil component. Along with Fe oxides and clay, opal-A plugs
the matrix pores in the deeper regolith (2050 m) so that water ow
is diverted to fractures and channels, which then become depleted of
Fe oxides (Moody and Graham, 1994). Opaline silica also concentrates
at and near the scarps of terrace edges (Moody and Graham, 1997).
Water ows laterally through soils toward drainages that dissect the
terrace surface. Evaporation from the terrace scarps concentrates the
soil solution such that it is supersaturated with respect to opaline
silica. Silica precipitates at the scarp surface and several meters back
into the soil, cementing the soil material in such a way that blockfall is
the predominant form of erosion along the terrace edges. Sources of
silica in these materials include the weathering of feldspars and chert.
3.6. Ultramac terrain of the Klamath Mountains
The largest area of ultramac terrain in North America is in the
Klamath Mountains, a steep, rugged region with relatively high rainfall
(Lee et al., 2004). The ultramac rocks there consist of peridotites and
serpentinites in several ophiolite belts that roughly parallel the con-
tinental margin. The minerals that make up the rocks contain abundant
Mg and Fe, but very low levels of Ca and Al, and virtually no K. Soils
derived from these ultramac rocks are of interest because they repre-
sent a geochemical extreme that has a dramatic impact on secondary
mineral formation and on ecosystem composition and productivity.
While much of the Klamath Mountains is underlain by non-ultramac
lithology, such as granitic and metasedimentary rocks, and is densely
forested, the ultramac areas typically have sparse and relatively
stunted trees. This characteristic of low biomass and low productivity,
together with the occurrence of endemic species, is referred to as the
serpentine syndrome (Alexander et al., 2007). Landslides are common
in the Klamath serpentinite areas because of the steep slopes, high
rainfall, and structural instability imparted by serpentine and smectite.
Smectite, a common weathering product of serpentine minerals,
expands when wet, thereby reducing the shear strength of the materials
in which it is found. Large, stabilized rotational slumps are common
landscape features in this region.
The relationships of soil mineralogy and geomorphic position were
studied in an area of serpentinized peridotite encompassing a sta-
bilized landslide bench and surrounding slopes (Figs. 1 and 10) (Lee
et al., 2003, 2004). The study site is within the Trinity ophiolite
complex, the largest ultramac body in the Klamath Mountains. The
elevation of the site is about 1200 m and the mean annual precipitation
is 1000 mm, falling as rain and snow almost entirely between October
and May. Several small springs and ephemeral creeks from the head-
wall scarp deliver water to the landslide bench where it is ponded
behind the landslide bulge to form a seasonally wet meadow. The
vegetation in the meadow consists of grasses, sedges, rushes, and forbs.
The surrounding slopes support open stands of Jeffrey pine (Pinus
jeffreyii) and incense cedar (Calocedrus decurrens) with a scattered
understory of buckbrush (Ceanothus cuneatus) and California fescue
(Festuca californica). Slopes range from >30% on the scarp to 10% on
the landside bench.
Two soils from a toposequence across the ultramac landslide terrain
are used here as an example to illustrate weathering and secondary
mineral formation (Table 6). The soils on the backslope of a ridge
anking the wet meadow are Argixerolls (clayey-skeletal, magnesic,
mesic Aquic Argixerolls). Soils on the toeslope within the wet meadow
itself are Endoaquolls (ne, magnesic, mesic Cumulic Endoaquolls).
432 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437

Fig. 10. Ultramac terrain in the Klamath Mountains (Fig. 1) showing open Jeffrey pine incense cedar forest on slopes surrounding a wet meadow (photo credit: B. Lee).

The Argixerolls are formed in 100-cm-thick colluvium which overlies
>60 cm of soft, weathered bedrock (Cr1 and Cr2 horizons). The brown
colors are suggestive of goethite, the common Fe oxide produced from
serpentinite weathering. Clay content increases from about 30% in the
A horizon to a maximum of 40% in the Bt3 horizon, then drops sharply
to 6% in the Cr horizon. The pH increases with depth, from 6.3 in the
A horizon to 7.8 in the Cr2. The Endoaquolls have formed in deep
landslide colluvium. Low chroma colors are produced by predominating
reducing conditions and relatively high organic matter contents (35
121 g kg 1 organic C). Clay content is high (4558%) throughout and
pH is between 6 and 7. Dithionite-extractable Fe is higher in the more
oxidizing environment of the upslope Argixerolls than in the Endoa-
quolls. In both soils, Mn oxide content (Mnd) increases upward in the
soil, reecting the more oxidizing environment near the surface.
Within the Klamath Mountains, and ultramac terrain elsewhere
in the state, a mix of yellow-brown and reddish colors can be observed
in the landscape. The cause of this color variation is related to the
mineralogical source of Fe (Alexander, 2004). While serpentinite and
peridotite may contain roughly the same amount of Fe, the Fe in
peridotite is contained within easily weathered minerals, such as
olivine, whereas in serpentinite Fe is mostly in magnetite, which is
very resistant to weathering. Thus, in peridotite-derived soils the Fe is
released rapidly and abundantly, favoring the formation of hematite
(Bigham et al., 2002) which imparts red coloration. In serpentinite-
derived soils, the recalcitrant magnetite is minimally weathered and
only low levels of Fe are released from serpentine weathering, a
situation that favors goethite formation and corresponding yellow-
brown colors.

Table 6
Properties of soils in a toposequence on serpentinized peridotite in the Klamath Mountains (Lee et al., 2003).

Horizon Depth (cm) Dry color Texturea Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) O.C. (g kg 1) pH (1:1) CEC7.0 (cmol kg 1) Fed (g kg 1) Mnd (g kg 1) Clay mineralogyb
Backslope/forest: clayey-skeletal, magnesic, mesic Aquic Argixeroll
O 20
A 06 1 Y 4/2 CL 35 36 29 65 6.3 42 21 0.9 Sp3 C3 SmL3 T2 A1
Bt1 624 1 Y 4/2 CL 35 33 32 46 6.2 39 21 0.8 nr
Bt2 2443 1 Y 5/2 CL 32 31 37 24 6.4 39 24 0.6 SmL4 C2 Sp3 T1 A1
Bt3 4369 2 Y 5/3 CL 31 29 40 12 6.7 48 22 0.4 nr
BC 69100 5 Y 5/3 SCL 50 26 24 3 7.2 56 14 0.3 SmH,L4 T1 Sp1 C1
Cr1 100134 3 Y 5/2 ROCK 64 30 6 2 7.7 50 2 0.1 nr
Cr2 134161 8 Y 6/2 ROCK 61 32 7 2 7.8 46 2 <0.1 SmH,L V C C/V

Toeslope/meadow: ne, magnesic, mesic Cumulic Endoaquoll

A 04 10 YR 4/1 C nrc nr nr 121 6.6 53 11 0.7 nr
Bw 416 2 Y 4/1 C 30 25 45 46 6.7 51 13 0.8 SmL4 Sp3 T2 C2
Bg1 1638 2 Y 4/1 C 22 20 58 42 6.7 60 13 0.6 nr
Bg2 38100 2 Y 4/1 C 27 24 49 35 6.8 56 13 0.4 SmL4 Sp3 T2 C1
Bg3 100156 2 Y 4/1 C 17 25 58 40 6.9 58 17 0.5 SmL4 Sp3 T2 C1
Bg4 156200 2 Y 4/1 C 15 28 57 54 6.1 62 12 0.2 nr
a
C = clay, CL = clay loam, ROCK = rock fabric, SCL = sandy clay loam.
b
A = amphibole, C = chlorite, C/V = interstratied chlorite/ vermiculite, SmL = low-charge smectite, SmH = high-charge smectite, Sp = serpentine, T = talc, V = vermiculite; 1 =
minor amount, 2 = moderate amount, 3 = major amount, 4 = dominant; nr = not reported.
c
nr = not reported.
 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437
In the study by Lee et al. (2003), serpentine and Fe-rich chlorite
are the two main primary minerals in the parent material, but talc,
amphibole, and quartz are minor and variable components as well.
Chlorite, serpentine, talc, and amphibole persist into the clay fraction
in these soils. Smectite is the dominant secondary mineral, but it is
not a single phase. A high-charge smectite forms through the trans-
formation of chlorite. The chlorite weathers via loss of the interlayer
hydroxide sheet, yielding both regularly and randomly interstratied
chlorite/vermiculite and, with complete loss of the interlayer sheet,
vermiculite. The chlorite-derived vermiculite further alters to high-
charge smectite in the lower horizons of the Argixeroll. On the other
hand, most of the smectite in these soils is a low-charge, poorly
ordered, Mg-rich, dioctahedral phase interpreted to have precipitated
from the abundant Mg and silica released into solution by serpentine
weathering. A stability diagram plotted with soil solution concentra-
tions indicates that Mg-rich montmorillonite is stable in these soils.
The occurrence of clayey, smectite-rich soils in lower slope posi-
tions is typical of serpentinitic landscapes (Istok and Harward, 1982),
because the main products of serpentine dissolution, Mg and silicic
acid, are water soluble and are transported downslope where they
concentrate to create conditions favorable for smectite precipitation.
Other studies have found the smectite to be saponite (trioctahedral
with Mg in the octahedral sheet) (Wildman et al., 1968; Senkayi,
1977), but at this site the neoformed smectite was dioctahedral.
Apparently, there was sufcient Al in the system to allow formation
of montmorillonite.
Some soils in ultramac terrain support vegetation that is incon-
sistent with the serpentine syndrome. Laboratory analyses show that
these soils have atypically high exchangeable Ca:Mg ratios and contain
Ca-rich primary minerals. Soils such as these have at least some con-
tribution from a non-ultramac source, such as colluvium (Lee et al.,
2001) or lithologic inclusions McGahan et al., 2008).
3.7. Alluvial fan in the Mojave Desert
Alluvial fans are characteristic geomorphic features in the Mojave
Desert, and in deserts around the world. A fan forms at the mouth of
an intermittent stream channel where it emerges from a mountain
canyon into a valley. The materials in an alluvial fan are a mix of the
lithologies present in the watershed. Sediments in the alluvial fan are
sorted by particle-size as a function of distance from the mountain
front. The coarsest (heaviest) material is deposited rst, at the apex of
Fig. 11. Alluvial fan landscape in the Mojave Desert (Fig. 1). Note desert pavement in the foreground (photo credit: A. Ohtomi).
433
the fan, and the ner material is transported farther into the valley.
Transport is by stream ow, debris ow, and mud ow processes.
Soils along a 7.5-km-long alluvial fan in the western Mojave Desert
(Figs. 1 and 11) were studied by Strathouse (1982) and three of them
are used here to illustrate soil mineralogical trends for the region
(Table 7). The elevation of the fan ranges from 838 to 914 m. The area
has cool winters and hot, dry summers. Mean annual precipitation
is about 220 mm, most of which falls as rain in the winter, though
scattered thunderstorms do occur in the summer. The soil moisture
regime is aridic and the temperature regime is thermic. Vegetation
includes creosote bush (Larrea tridentata), hop-sage (Grayia spinosa),
burro-weed (Ambrosia dumosa), Joshua tree (Yucca brevifolia), and, on
the lower parts of the fan, shadscale (Attriplex canescens). The alluvial
fan contains a mix of lithologies including granite, quartzite, marble,
and basalt.
Calcic Petrocalcids (sandy-skeletal, mixed, thermic, Calcic Petrocal-
cids) are found on the upper part of the fan (Table 7). These soils contain
25 to 37% rock fragments and mostly 5% clay. The pH is 8.7 to 8.9,
reective of sodium carbonate presence. Exchangeable Na percentage
(ESP) is mostly 3 to 7 dS m 1 and salinity, as indicated by EC, is also
low (1 dS m 1). There is a petrocalcic horizon, with its upper surface
at the 79 cm depth, in which clay content (14%) is somewhat higher than
in the horizons above. This is also true for ESP (18%) and CaCO3 (38%).
Soils on the middle part of the fan are Xeralc Petrocalcids (loamy,
mixed, thermic, superactive, shallow Xeralc Petrocalcids). They contain
<1% rock fragments and have clay contents that range from 6% in the
A horizons to a maximum of 16% in the argillic (Btk) horizon. The pH is
8.4 throughout, and is nearly one unit higher in the petrocalcic and
underlying horizon, suggestive of Na carbonates. The ESP is 4 above
the petrocalcic, but is 36 in the petrocalcic and 78 in the underlying
horizon. The EC is 1 dS m 1, except in the horizon below the
petrocalcic, which has an EC of 5 dS m 1. The CaCO3 content of the
petrocalcic horizon is 42%, whereas in the other horizons it is 15%.
Natrargids (ne, smectitic, thermic Xeric Natrargids) are found on the
lower, distal part of the fan. For the most part, they contain <10% rock
fragments. Clay content increases from 4% in the uppermost horizon to
a maximum of 50% in the natric (Btn) horizon. The pH ranges within
values indicative of CaCO3. The ESP is mostly within the range of 30 to
45, but is much lower in the surface horizons. The CaCO3 content is
relatively low except in the Btkn horizons (2629%). The surface A
horizons of the soils contain vesicular pores, a common feature of desert
soils. These vesicular horizons reduce inltration and leaching so that
434 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437

Table 7
Properties of soils along an alluvial fan transect in the western Mojave Desert (Strathouse, 1982).

Horizon Depth (cm) Dry color Texturea Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) O.C. (g kg 1) pH (1:1) CEC8.2 (cmol kg 1) ESP EC (dSm 1) CaCO3 (%) Clay mineralogyb
Upper fan: sandy-skeletal, mixed, thermic Calcic Petrocalcid
Avk 010 10 YR 6/4 COSL 73 22 5 1.3 8.7 6 3 <1 16 Q4 Sm3 K2 C1 M1
Bk1 1051 10 YR 6/4 COS 91 6 3 0.3 8.9 3 7 <1 22 Q3 Sm3 K2 M1 P1 C1
Bk2 5179 10 YR 6/4 COS 91 5 4 0.8 8.8 3 6 <1 21 Q3 Sm3 P2 K2 M2 C1
Bkkm 79147 10 YR 8/1 COSL 64 22 14 0.8 8.9 6 18 1 38 P4 Q3 Sm2 K2 C1 M1

Middle fan: loamy, mixed, thermic, superactive, shallow Typic Petroargid

Avk 013 10 YR 6/3 LS 77 17 6 1.0 8.4 7 nrc <1 5 nr
Ak 1330 10 YR 6/3 COLS 83 11 6 0.6 8.5 6 3 <1 3 Q4 K3 M2 C2
Btk 3041 10 YR 6/4 SL 66 18 16 1.6 8.4 10 4 <1 15 Q4 Sm3 P3 K3 M2
Bkkm 4181 10 YR 8/1 SL 54 32 14 1.3 9.3 4 36 1 42 P4 Q2 Sm1 C1 M1 K1
BCk 81135 10 YR 6/4 COSL 75 15 10 0.2 9.2 5 78 5 10 P4 Q3 Sm2 K2 C1 M1

Lower fan: ne, smectitic, thermic Typic Natrargid

Avk 025 10 YR 6/4 LS 82 14 4 0.8 8.6 6 3 <1 nr nr
Ak 2541 10 YR 6/4 SL 59 22 19 0.9 8.8 11 14 <1 <1 Q4 Sm2 M2 K2 C1
Bkn 4151 10 YR 5/4 SCL 56 16 28 1.5 8.8 18 29 2 4 Q4 Sm3 M2 K2
Btkn 5174 5 YR 5/6 C 44 8 48 1.5 8.2 37 33 7 2 nr
Btn 7484 7.5 YR 5/6 C 42 8 50 1.0 7.9 38 39 14 <1 Q4 Sm3 M2 K1
Btkn1 84104 10 YR 7/3 CL 37 26 37 1.1 8.0 21 44 13 26 Sm3 Q3 P2 M2 K2
Btkn2 104119 10 YR 6/6 CL 42 30 28 1.2 7.9 20 44 13 29 Sm3 Q3 P1 M1 K1
BCkn1 119137 10 YR 6/4 COSL 63 21 16 0.3 8.1 20 38 14 2 nr
BCkn2 137152 10 YR 6/6 SL 53 33 14 0.7 8.0 22 41 14 9 Sm4 Q2 M1 K1
a
C = clay, CL = clay loam, COLS = coarse loamy sand, COSL = coarse sandy loam, COS = coarse sand, LS = loamy sand, SCL = sandy clay loam, SL = sandy loam.
b
C = chlorite, K = kaolin, M = mica, P = palygorskite, Q = quartz, Sm = smectite; 1 = minor nt, 2 = moderate amount, 3 = major amount, 4 = dominant; nr = not reported.
c
nr = not reported.

salts tend to accumulate in the underlying subsoils (Young et al., 2004; All of the soils along the alluvial fan transect contain CaCO3 in the
Wood et al., 2005; Graham et al., 2008). The dominant hue for soils along form of calcite (Table 7). Calcite is present in most soils in the Mojave
the transect is 10 YR, with only the Btkn and Btn horizons being Desert and it becomes more abundant with soil age (Harden et al.,
appreciably redder. The high concentration of nely divided CaCO3 in 1991). Much of this calcite is deposited as dust (Reheis and Kihl, 1995),
the petrocalcic horizons makes them white. but it is also derived in situ from carbonate rock detritus (e.g., lime-
Dust deposition is a ubiquitous process in the Mojave Desert, stone, marble) if it is present. The dust is translocated into the soil
delivering on the order of 2 to 20 g m 2 of sediment annually (Reheis, (Anderson et al., 2002), where the calcite is dissolved and then
2006). The dust originates from playas and active uvial channels. The
mineralogy of the dust varies with the source, but its clay fraction is
consistently dominated by smectite and mica, with variable amounts
of quartz, and lesser amounts of kaolinite and chlorite (Reheis and
Kihl, 1995). This same suite of minerals occurs in the clay fraction of
the soils on the alluvial fan highlighted here (Table 7). Some portion of
these minerals has been inherited from the alluvium or, in the case of
kaolin and smectite, derived by weathering in situ. Feldspars, biotite,
and hornblende in rocks and sand grains extracted from the soils were
partially altered to clay minerals. On the other hand, dust has certainly
contributed signicantly, at least on the upper fan where a desert
pavement (Fig. 11) acts to trap dust (McFadden et al., 1987; Anderson
et al., 2002). At a site 180 km to the east, soils developed on alluvial
fans of various lithologies and ranging in age from 4 to 200 ka, had
relatively uniform clay mineralogies and little evidence of primary
mineral weathering (Deng and McDonald, 2007). The uniform clay
mineralogy across age and lithology was interpreted to indicate that
weathering of the alluvium contributed relatively little to soil clay
mineralogy compared to eolian dust inputs, which with time are trans-
located into subsoils.
In the study by Strathouse (1982) highlighted here, x-ray diffrac-
tion patterns of the clay fraction of some of the horizons contained
a 1.08-nm peak, which was especially intense in the petrocalcic
horizons. This peak was originally identied as a partially altered mica, Fig. 12. The occurrence of major pedogenic clay minerals in California subsoils in relation to
but is reinterpreted here as palygorskite (Table 7). Palygorskite was mean annual temperature and precipitation. Kaolin minerals are not included, but they
occur (and often dominate) at all sites, except in ultramac terrain. Study sites are
not widely recognized as a pedogenic mineral at the time of the study
indicated by numbers as in Fig. 1: (1) granitic terrain of the Peninsular Ranges, (2) granitic
(Zelazny and Calhoun, 1977), but is now understood to commonly terrain of the central Sierra Nevada, (3) andesitic terrain of the northern Sierra Nevada,
form in or immediately under petrocalcic horizons, including those in (4) uvial terraces on the east side of the Great Valley, (5) marine terraces of the central
the Mojave and adjacent desert regions (McFadden, 1982; Graham and coast, (6) ultramac terrain of the Klamath Mountains, (7) alluvial fan in the Mojave
Franco-Vizcano, 1992; Reheis et al., 1992; Brock and Buck, 2007; Deng Desert. Mineral abbreviations: C/V = interstratied chlorite/vermiculite, G = gibbsite,
HIS = hydroxy-interlayered smectite, HIV = hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite, NA = not
and McDonald, 2007). The high pH values and high Mg and Si activities applicable (kaolin was the only pedogenic clay mineral), P = palygorskite, Sm = smectite,
in the localized petrocalcic environment are conducive to palygorskite SROM = short range-ordered minerals, V = vermiculite. Hyphen between letters indicates
neoformation (Singer, 2002). local variation due to topography or age.
 R.C. Graham, A.T. O'Geen / Geoderma 154 (2010) 418437
Table 8
Origin of soil clay minerals in representative California landscapes.a
Peninsular R. Sierra Nevada
Granitic Granitic Andesite
Inherited
Initial material M M C M, C
Eolian
Transformed M HB, V V M M HIV C V, HIV, HIS
Neoformed K, Sm K, G K, G, SROM
a
C = chlorite, C/V = interstratied chlorite/vermiculite, G = gibbsite, HB = hydrobiotite, HIS = hydroxy-interlayered smectite, HIV = hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite, K = kaolin,
M = mica, P = palygorskite, Sm = smectite, SmH = high-charge smectite, SmL = low-charge smectite, Sp = serpentine, SROM = short range-ordered minerals, T = talc, V =
vermiculite.
reprecipitated at a depth that reects the depth of leaching (McFadden
and Tinsley, 1985). Both the stable isotope composition and crystal
morphology of pedogenic calcite vary with elevation on an alluvial fan
and associated stream terraces 250 km northeast of the site addressed
here (Amundson et al., 1989; Chadwick et al., 1989).
Opaline silica is a common component of carbonate-rich horizons in
the Mojave (e.g., Boettinger and Southard, 1991; Eghbal and Southard,
1993), often to the point where it is the primary cementing agent. Such
horizons are a kind of duripan (Soil Survey Staff, 1999) that cannot be
visually distinguished from a petrocalcic horizon (cemented by CaCO3).
The soluble salt content increases down the fan (Table 7) and
gypsum (data not presented) was found only in the lowest part of
the fan, in the Natrargid. Soluble salts and gypsum are also widely
delivered to Mojave landscapes in dust (Reheis and Kihl, 1995), then
dissolved and redistributed into soils with inltrating water and to
lower landscape positions with runoff water. The landscape distribu-
tion of soluble salts also depends on the direction of prevailing winds
relative to the sources, which are playa surfaces (Hirmas, 2008). The
depth distribution of salts, including chlorides, sulfates, and nitrates,
depends on the degree of leaching that the soil experiences. Soils with
minimal leaching, such as those mantled by desert pavement, have
salts near the surface (Wood et al., 2005; Graham et al., 2008). Soils
with high water tables, such as wet playas, have evaporite desposits
on the surface and contribute salts to the eolian dust load (Reheis,
2006).
4. Synthesis and conclusions
The observation that kaolinite is the most ubiquitous phyllosilicate
in soils (White and Dixon, 2002) is certainly relevant in California.
Kaolin is present in all of the soils reviewed in this paper, irrespec-
tive of climate, parent material, age, or topographic position, except
for those soils derived from ultramac rocks. The investigations
summarized here found ample evidence of kaolin forming via feldspar
weathering, and that is probably the major source, but it can also form
through weathering of other aluminosilicate minerals and by neo-
formation. It does not form in ultramac soils because the parent
materials contain insufcient Al.
The occurrence of secondary clay minerals other than kaolin reects
a climatic inuence (Fig. 12). Palygorskite, smectite, and vermiculite
occur in soils of dry, hot environments, whereas hydroxy-interlayered
minerals, gibbsite, and short range-ordered minerals are in soils of
cool, moist environments. Hot, humid and cold, dry environments are
not well represented in California; nevertheless, the spectrum of clay
minerals is displayed because broad relationships of soil clay mineralogy
are often best correlated with mean annual precipitation, rather than
temperature (Birkeland,1999). The amount of precipitation is important
because percolating water leaches silica from soils and differentiates
the kinds of clays that can form.
The origins of minerals in soils can be placed into three general
categories, (i) inheritance from parent materials, (ii) transformation
from primary minerals, and (iii) neoformation (e.g., precipitation from
solution) (Allen and Hajek, 1989). These three general sources con-
435
Great Valley Central Coast Klamath Mts. Mojave Desert
Fluvial terraces Marine terraces Serpentinite Alluvial fan
Sm, M, C Sp, C, T M, C
Sm, K, C, M
M V, HIV C C/V C SmH C V, C/V M Sm
K, Sm K, G SmL P, Sm, K
tribute clay minerals to all of the pedogenic settings examined in this
review (Table 8). Mica, particularly biotite, and chlorite are commonly
inherited clay minerals. They are readily transformed to vermiculite,
smectite, hydroxy-interlayered minerals, or interstratied minerals.
Kaolinite, halloysite, gibbsite, short range-ordered minerals, smectite,
and palygorskite are neoformed in various soil environments.
Iron oxides in California soils have been less studied, but several
trends are apparent. Goethite is the most common and abundant
pedogenic Fe oxide, imparting yellow brown colors. Those colors can
be over-ridden by the strong red-pigmenting characteristic of hematite,
which is evident in soils that are highly weathered due to age or a
favorable weathering environment. The presence of easily weathered
Fe-bearing minerals promotes the formation of hematite. Maghemite
forms via oxidation of magnetite, but both it and hematite are also
produced by thermal transformation of goethite during forest res.
Calcite and opal-A occur in semi-arid and arid regions, whereas
gypsum and the more soluble salts are found in the most arid land-
scapes. The landscape distribution of these minerals is often strongly
related to patterns of eolian dust deposition and water inltration and
leaching.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Craig Rasmussen, Marjorie Schulz, and
Jennifer Harden for providing additional information relative to their
work on California soils. We also thank Judy Turk for preparing Fig. 1
and assisting with Fig. 12. Two anonymous reviewers provided com-
ments that substantially improved the manuscript.
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