Chapter-2 Research Methods in Psychology

Research Methods in Psychology

The role of research in psychology
Research is central to all the activities of psychologists as it is to modern life in general.
A key assumption of psychology is that the considered and careful collection of research data is
an essential part of the development of the discipline.
Psychology is not an absolute SCIENCE and is often referred to as a Social Science or a
Soft Science. This is because it deals with human thoughts, feelings, and behavior, and as we
are all aware, humans are not always predictable and reliable. Instead, we interact with our
environment in ways that alter how we behave, how we think, and how we feel. Change one
thing and the domino effect can change everything else.
Nevertheless, research plays an extremely important role in psychology. Research helps
us understand what makes people think, feel, and act in certain ways; allows us to categorize
psychological disorders in order to understand the symptoms and impact on the individual and
society; helps us to understand how intimate relationships, development, schools, family, peers,
and religion affect us as individuals and as a society; and helps us to develop effective treatments
to improve the quality of life of individuals and groups.
In this sense, psychological research is typically used for the following:
1. Study development and external factors and the role they play on individuals mental
health
2. Study people with specific psychological disorders, symptoms, or characteristics
3. Develop tests to measure specific psychological phenomenon
4. Develop treatment approaches to improve individuals mental health
Conducting ones own research is a fast route to understanding research methods. Increasingly,
research is seen as an integral part of the training and work of all psychologists irrespective of
whether they are practitioners or academics.
Four Goals of Psychological research
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Research Methods in Psychology

1. Observation Method
2. Case Study Method
3. Experimental Method
4. Survey Method
Observation Method
Carrying out research in psychology. However, there are different types of observational
methods and distinctions need to be made between:
1. Controlled Observations
2. Natural Observations
3. Participant Observations
In addition to the above categories observations can also be either overt/disclosed (the
participants know they are being studied) or covert/undisclosed (the research keeps their real
identity a secret from the research subjects, acting as a genuine member of the group).
In general observations, are relatively cheap to carry out and few resources are needed by
the researcher. However, they can often be very time consuming and longitudinal.
Controlled Observation
Controlled observations (usually a structured observation) are likely to be carried out in a
psychology laboratory. The researcher decides where the observation will take place, at what
time, with which participants, in what circumstances and uses a standardized procedure.
Participants are randomly allocated to each independent variable group.
Rather than writing a detailed description of all behavior observed, it is often easier to
code behavior according to a previously agreed scale using a behavior schedule (i.e. conducting a
structured observation).
The researcher systematically classifies the behavior they observe into distinct categories.
Coding might involve numbers or letters to describe a characteristics, or use of a scale to
measure behavior intensity. The categories on the schedule are coded so that the data collected
can be easily counted and turned into statistics.
For example, Mary Ainsworth used a behavior schedule to study how infants responded
to brief periods of separation from their mothers. During the Strange Situation procedure infant's
interaction behaviors directed toward the mother were measured, e.g.
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Proximity and contacting seeking

Contact maintaining
Avoidance of proximity and contact
Resistance to contact and comforting
The observer noted down the behavior displayed during 15 second intervals and scored the
behavior for intensity on a scale of 1 to 7.

Sometimes the behavior of participants is observed through a two-way mirror or they are
secretly filmed. This method was used by Albert Bandura to study aggression in children
(the Bobo doll studies).
A lot of research has been carried out in sleep laboratories as well. Here electrodes are
attached to the scalp of participants and what is observed are the changes in electrical activity in
the brain during sleep (the machine is called an electroencephalogram an EEG).
Controlled observations are usually overt as the researcher explains the research aim to
the group, so the participants know they are being observed. Controlled observations are also
usually non-participant as the researcher avoids any direct contact with the group, keeping a
distance (e.g. observing behind a two-way mirror).
Strengths
1. Controlled observations can be easily replicated by other researchers by using the same
observation schedule. This means it is easy to test for reliability.
2. The data obtained from structured observations is easier and quicker to analyze as it is
quantitative (i.e. numerical) - making this a less time consuming method compared to naturalistic
observations.
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3. Controlled observations are quick to conduct which means that many observations can take
place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained resulting in the
findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population..
Limitations
1. Controlled observations can lack validity due to the Hawthorne effect/demand characteristics.
When participants know they are being watched they may act differently.
Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation (i.e. unstructured observation) involves studying the spontaneous
behavior of participants in natural surroundings. The researcher simply records what they see in
whatever way they can.
Compared with controlled/structured methods it is like the difference between studying
wild animals in a zoo and studying them in their natural habitat.
With regard to human subjects, Margaret Mead used this method to research the way of
life of different tribes living on islands in the South Pacific. Kathy Sylva used it to study children
at play by observing their behavior in a playgroup in Oxford shire.
Strengths
1 By being able to observe the flow of behavior in its own setting studies have greater ecological
validity.
2. Like case studies naturalistic observation is often used to generate new ideas. Because it gives
the researcher the opportunity to study the total situation, it often suggests avenues of enquiry not
thought of before.
Limitations
1. These observations are often conducted on a micro (small) scale and may lack a representative
sample (biased in relation to age, gender, social class or ethnicity). This may result in the
findings lacking the ability to be generalized to wider society.
2. Natural observations are less reliable as other variables cannot be controlled. This makes it
difficult for another researcher to repeat the study in exactly the same way.
3. A further disadvantage is that the researcher needs to be trained to be able to recognize aspects
of a situation that are psychologically significant and worth further attention.
4. With observations we do not have manipulations of variables (or control over extraneous
variables) which means cause and effect relationships cannot be established.
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Participant Observation
Participant observation is a variant of the above (natural observations) but here the
researcher joins in and becomes part of the group they are studying to get a deeper insight into
their lives. If it were research on animals we would now not only be studying them in their
natural habitat but be living alongside them as well!
This approach was used by Leon Festinger in a famous study into a religious cult who
believed that the end of the world was about to occur. He joined the cult and studied how they
reacted when the prophecy did not come true.
Participant observations can be either cover or overt. Covert is where the study is carried
out 'under cover'. The researcher's real identity and purpose are kept concealed from the group
being studied.
The researcher takes a false identity and role, usually posing as a genuine member of the
group. On the other hand, overt is where the researcher reveals his or her true identity and
purpose to the group and asks permission to observe.
Limitations
1. It can be difficult to get time / privacy for recording. For example, with covert observations
researchers cant take notes openly as this would blow their cover. This means they have to wait
until they are alone and reply on their memory. This is a problem as they may forget details and
are unlikely to remember direct quotations.
2. If the researcher becomes too involved they may lose objectivity and become bias. There is
always the danger that we will see what we expect (or want) to see. This is a problem as they
could selectively report information instead of noting everything they observe. Thus reducing
the validity of their data.
Recording of Data
With all observation studies an important decision the researcher has to make is how to
classify and record the data. Usually this will involve a method of sampling. The three main
sampling methods are:
Event sampling. The observer decides in advance what types of behaviour (events) she
is interested in and records all occurrences. All other types of behaviour are ignored.
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Time sampling. The observer decides in advance that observation will take place only
during specified time periods (e.g. 10 minutes every hour, 1 hour per day) and records the
occurrence of the specified behaviour during that period only.
Instantaneous (target time) sampling. The observer decides in advance the pre-selected
moments when observation will take place and records what is happening at that instant.
Everything happening before or after is ignored.
2-Experimental Method
The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in
one variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled methods,
random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis.
Types of Experiments
The type of experiment chosen might depend on a variety of factors including the
participants, the hypothesis and the resources available to the researchers.
1. Lab Experiments
Lab experiments are very common in psychology because they allow experimenters more
control over the variables. These experiments can also be easier for other researchers to replicate.
The problem, of course, is that what takes place in a lab is not always identical to what takes
place in the real world.
2. Field experiment
This is an experiment with a low-medium level of control as it is done in a public setting
and the extraneous variables cannot be controlled so such a level. The independent variable is
also directly manipulated in a Field Experiment.
3. Quasi-Experiments
While lab and field experiments represent what are known as true experiments,
researchers can also utilize a third type known as a quasi-experiment. These are often referred to
as natural experiments because the researchers do not have true control over the independent
variable. A researcher looking at personality differences and birth order, for example, is not able
to manipulate the independent variable in the situation. Treatment levels cannot be randomly
assigned because the participants naturally fall into pre-existing groups based on their birth order
in their families.
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Steps of Experimental Method

1. Laboratory. Is a place where the experiments are conducted under standard conditions.
Every good laboratory is fully equipped with necessary apparatus. It is properly managed with the
normal temperature, light and air. It is calm and quiet place for the experimenter to conduct
experiment attentively, here the human behavior, for example learning, intelligence, sensation,
perception, retention, motives and emotions are studied by experimental method.
2. Experimenter. It is one who defines and analyzes the problem to ensure the greatest
possibility to achieve accurate result. His function is to formulate an experimental design for any
research, in which he
1 Defines the problem
2 States the condition under which experiment is being conductive,
3 Formulate the hypothesis
4 Select the apparatus and describe the instruments in detail,
5 Gives instructions to the subject and clarify how the subject is to act in the experiment on
a certain instrument,
6 Makes the procedure clear
7 He presented the independent variable
8 Observes the effects of independent variable on depend variable through its effect on
subjects performance,
9 Analyses the result by using different statistical techniques
10 Present the data in tabular form
11 Interpret the results
12 Accept or reject the hypothesis and draw conclusion from the experiment.
3. Subject. Subject is the person whom the experiment is conducted. The subject function is to
abide by the experimenters instructions honestly and consistently. His trivial negligence or non-
cooperation may affect the results. Therefore, subject should cooperate with his experimenter
and to perform beyond the personal interests and biases.
4. Select a topic. This involves simply identifying an area of interest or general subject.
5. Identify the research problem. Given the topic or subject, the researcher must now identify
specific problems or questions that relate to the subject. The researcher may be familiar with
subject and may already know the problem they want to research. If the researcher is new to the
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topic, it may be helpful to examine literature and previous studies, as well as talk to other
researchers. The problem selected should be important to the field and be of significance to
others in the discipline.
6. Conduct a literature search. Once the research problem is identified, a literature search
should be conducted before proceeding to design the experiment. It is helpful to know what
studies have been performed, the designs, the instruments used, the procedures and the findings.
This information will guide the researcher and help them create a project that extends or
compliments existing research.
7. Construct a hypothesis. In this step, the researcher states the research question as a
hypothesis. This provides the basis for all other decisions in the process and therefore, it is a
critical step.
8. Determine the design of the research. The researcher should review the hypothesis and
verify that an experimental design is the appropriate research design needed to answer the
question.
9. Variables. Variables are the changeable conditions, which affect an individuals behavior. In
experimental method, experimenter studies the effects of variable on subject. The variables can
be divided in three form/types.
I. Independent variable (IV): Variable the experimenter manipulates (i.e. changes)
assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.
II. Dependent variable (DV): Variable the experimenter measures, after making changes to
the IV that are assumed to affect the DV.
III. Extraneous variables These are all variables, which are not the independent variable,
but could affect the results (e.g. dependent variable) of the experiment. Extraneous
variables should be controlled were possible. They might be important enough to provide
alternative explanations for the effects.
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10. Determine the research methods. In this step, the researcher will identify and plan the
details necessary to conduct the research. This includes identifying the test subjects, materials,
data collection instruments and methods, and the procedures for the conducting the experiment.
11. Select the Participants for Experiment
The psychological experiments are conducted not only on one individual but also on group. In
this step, participants are selected for experiment by using two techniques. Probability sampling
/ random method of selection, or non-probability sampling/ non-random selection of
participants in experiment. When the psychologist wants to compare the results of psychological
experiment with the normal functioning under natural conditions, he divides the subjects in to
two groups:
I. Experimental Group
II. Control Group
I. Experimental Group
Is that group on whom the experimenter applies independent variable/ receives intervention and
records the changes in behavior to see the effects of manipulation of independent variable on the
levels of dependent variable in form of subjects performance.
II. Control Group
This group is taken as norm group and works under normal condition. This group never receives
any manipulation from experimenter.
12. Conduct the research and test the hypothesis. The experimental procedures will be carried
out in this phase.
13. Analyze the data. Experimental research data lends itself to a variety of potential statistical
analyses. The research question and the type of data determine the appropriate analysis.
14. Formulate conclusions. Review the data and determine if it confirms or disproves the
hypothesis.
Benefits and Advantages:
I. Experimental research is the most appropriate way for drawing causal
conclusions, regarding interventions or treatments and establishing whether or not one or more
factors causes a change in an outcome. This is largely due to the emphasis in controlling
extraneous variables. If other variables are controlled, the researcher can say with confidence that
manipulation independent variable caused a changed in the dependent variable.
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II. It is a basic, straightforward, efficient type of research that can be applied across a variety
of disciplines.
III. Experimental research designs are repeatable and therefore, results can be checked and
verified.
IV. Due to the controlled environment of experimental research, better results are often
achieved.
V. In the case of laboratory research, conditions not found in a natural setting can be created
in an experimental setting that allows for greater control of extraneous variables.
Conditions that may take longer to occur in a natural environment may occur more
quickly in an experimental setting.
Limitations and Disadvantages:
I. Experimental research can create artificial situations that do not always represent real-life
situations. This is largely due to fact that all other variables are tightly controlled, which
may not create a fully realistic situation.
II. Because the situations are very controlled and do not often, represent real life, the
reactions of the test subjects may not be true indicators of their behaviors in a non-
experimental environment.
III. Human error also plays a key role in the validity of the project as discussed in previous
modules.
IV. It may not be possible to control all extraneous variables. The health, mood, and life
experiences of the test subjects may influence their reactions and the researcher may not
even know those variables.
V. The research must adhere to ethical standards in order to be valid. These will be
discussed in the next module of this series.
VI. Experimental research designs help to ensure internal validity but sometimes at the
expense of external validity. When this happens, the results may not be generalizable to
the larger population.
VII. If an experimental study is conducted in its natural environment, such as a
hospital or community, it may not be possible to control the extraneous variables.
VIII. Experimental research is a powerful tool for determining or verifying causation,
but it typically cannot specify why the outcome occurred.
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Research Biases
Before we can continue, however, we need to be aware of some aspects of research that
can contaminate our results. In other words, what could get in the way of our results in this study
being accurate. These aspects are called research biases, and there are three main biases we need
to be concerned with.
1. Selection Bias occurs when differences between groups are present at the beginning of
the experiment.
2. Placebo Effect involves the influencing of performance due to the subjects belief
about the results. In other words, if I believe the new medication will help me feel better,
I may feel better even if the new medication is only a sugar pill. This demonstrates the
power of the mind to change a persons perceptions of reality.
3. Experimenter Bias The same way a persons beliefs can influence his or her
perception, so can the belief of the experimenter. If Im doing an experiment, and really
believe my treatment works, or I really want the treatment to work because it will mean
big bucks for me, I might behave in a manner that will influence the subject.
Controlling for Biases
After carefully reviewing our study and determining what might effect our results that are
not part of the experiment, we need to control for these biases.
1. To control for selection bias, most experiments use what is called Random Assignment,
which means assigning the subjects to each group based on chance rather than human
decision.
2. To control for the placebo effect, subjects are often not informed of the purpose of the
experiment. This is called a Blind study, because the subjects are blind to the expected
results.
3. To control for experimenter biases, we can utilize a Double-Blind study, which means
that both the experimenter and the subjects are blind to the purpose and anticipated
results of the study.
Case History Method/Clinical Method
Case history method is the most popular method used to record scientific observation of
an individual from birth today in three types:
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1. Day book or diary method used by developmental psychologists, parents, teachers and
M.Ds of an organization to know the developmental changes of personality in different aspects
of individuals environment.
The complete record of an individual including his personal history, background, test
results, rating, interviews, for diagnostic process in clinic is started from past to present situation
is known as clinical method. Whereas the record of ongoing developmental behavior of an
individual made by the school teacher/ psychologist, and M.D of an organization to use the
progress in future is called Day Book Method. Thats why Day Book method is also called the
Developmental method or Genetic Method. In this method psychologist, keep the record of
individual physical, mental, emotional and social development.
2. Biographic method is used for guiding factors of personality development.
Biographical method is used to study the life history of an individual. It is of two types:
Autobiography: written by the individual himself.
Biography: written about an individual by the other authors.
There are certain limitations in the biographical method regarding its authenticity as its
lack scientific methodology of neutral observation. Biographer personal biases effects the
reporting style of information.
3. Clinical method used by clinical psychologists and criminal psychologists for diagnostic
and intervention purpose.
Case history is the detailed account of single individual. This method is often used in
psychotherapy. That is why it is called clinical method as well. The person who comes to a
clinic to seek solution for his physical, psychological and social problems of adjustment meet a
team of three professional having different specialties.
1. A physician who examines the person for physical symptoms of illness and finds out
through the medical checkup that the illness is organic or not. It medical reports indicates
the physiological reasons of illness, he takes the responsibility and treat the patient by
using medications.
2. The psychologist and psychometric administers different diagnostic test to check the
clients emotional and mental health. In addition, if individual is suffering from some
psychological disturbance, clinician used counseling and psychotherapy for management
of client.
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3. Social worker examines the home conditions and the environment of the patient. He
takes the social case histories of the client from his parents, siblings, peers and
colleagues.
The information collected from all three sources is gathered, mutual treatment and management
plan is designed for individual complete recovery.
Strengths of Case Studies
Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
Provides insight for further research.
Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.
Limitations of Case Studies
Cant generalize the results to the wider population.
Researchers' own subjective feeling may influence the case study (researcher bias).
Difficult to replicate.
Time consuming.
Survey Research Method
1. Formulate the survey keeping in mind your overall substantive and analytical needs.
Define the problem you want to examine
Identify the population that will be surveyed
Determine what kinds of variables that you want to measure
What questions do you want to have answered?
Whats the best way to go about getting those answers?
2. Determine specifically what mode of collecting the data will be used.
Personal interviews
Telephone surveys
Mailed questionnaires/drop-off surveys
Web-based surveys and email-based surveys
3. Determine an appropriate sampling plan
What is the sampling frame?
What do I use to select elements of the sample?
Usually a list of names (e.g., class roster)
How many interviews need to be completed? (sample size, sampling fraction)
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What response rate is required?

Who should be included in the sample?
How can the sample be made representative of the population?
Select the sample
No probability samples
Probability Sampling
4. Develop the questionnaire (the survey instrument)
Each question should fit into the overall plan of research
Each question should be suitable for the mode you have chosen to conduct the survey and
for the population that has been sampled.
5. If you are using telephone or personal interviews, be sure the interviewers are carefully trained
Interviewer effects (bias) can wreck otherwise well-designed surveys
6. Conduct an early pretest of the survey, whenever possible
Use these results to refine the instrument and work out any bus in the survey procedures
7. Execute the survey in the field, and be ready to deal with problems such as:
The length of the instrument
Some items may be unnecessary and those questions or others may have been omitted
(missing data)
Some items may turn out to be incompatible for the format you have chosen to carry out
the survey
Some respondents may not have been able to respond to the items as they were presented
People have different degrees of receptiveness to being surveyed
Surveys may be filled out only partially or not at all
Some respondents may not be accessible
Interviewers may have different levels of skill and integrity
8. Edit and process the data
Code responses in a reasonable and useable way
Make data machine-readable
Minimize errors
9. Analyze the data
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Descriptive statistics
Inferential statistics (build modelsANOVA, ANCOVA, regression, SEM)
Develop your findings or conclusions
Write up a summary of what you have found