ABIA STATE UNIVERSITY, UTURU

P.M.B. 2000

FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING

ASSIGNMENT TITLE:

WRITE ALL YOU KNOW ABOUT LINTEL, BEAM,

COLUMN, AND WINDOW HOODS

PRESENTED BY:

NAME: MAHAKWA MARY-CYNTHIA .C.

MAT NO: 15/98266

COURSE NAME: BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

LEVEL: 200L

MENTOR: BLDR. OSCAR

DATE: 9TH JUNE, 2017

What is Lintel?

A lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across the openings like doors,
windows etc. It takes the load coming from the structure above it and gives
support. It is also a type beam, the width of which is equal to the width of wall,
and the ends of which are built into the wall. These are very easy to construct
as compared to arches.

Bearing of lintel:

The bearing provided should be the minimum of following 3 cases.

i) 10 cm.

ii) Height of lintel beam

iii) 1/10th to 1/12th of span of the lintel.

Types of Lintels used in Building Construction

Lintels are classified based on the material of construction as:

1. Timber lintel
2. Stone lintel
3. Brick lintel
4. Steel lintel
5. Reinforced concrete lintel
6. Reinforced brick lintel

Timber Lintels

In olden days of construction, Timber lintels were mostly used. But nowadays
they are replaced by several modern techniques, however in hilly areas these
are using. The main disadvantages with timber are more cost and less durable
and vulnerable to fire.

If the length of opening is more, then lintel is provided by jointing multiple

number of wooden pieces with the help of steel bolts which was shown in fig

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(a). In case of wider walls, lintel is composed of two wooden pieces kept at a
distance with the help of packing pieces made of wood. Sometimes, timber
lintels are strengthened by the provision of mild steel plates at their top and
bottom, called as flitched lintels.

Stone Lintels

These are the most common types of lintels especially where stone is
abundantly available. The thickness of these are most important factor of its
design. These are also provided over the openings in brick walls. Stone lintels
are provided in the form of either one single piece or more than one piece.

The depth of this type is kept equal to 10 cm / meter of span, with a minimum
value of 15 cm. They are used up to spans of 2 meters. In the structure is

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subjected to vibratory loads, cracks are formed in the stone lintel because of its
weak tensile nature. Hence caution is needed.

Brick Lintels

When the opening is less than 1m and lesser loads are acting, brick lintels are
used. The depth of brick lintel varies from 10 cm to 20 cm, depending up on
the span. Bricks with frogs are more suitable than normal bricks because frogs
when filled with mortar gives more shear resistance of end joints. Such lintel
is known as joggled brick lintel.

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Reinforced Brick Lintels

If loads are heavy and span is greater than 1m, then reinforced brick lintels are
useful. The depth of reinforced brick lintel should be equal to 10 cm or 15 cm
or multiple of 10 cm. the bricks are so arranged that 2 to 3 cm wide space is
left length wise between adjacent bricks for the insertion of mild steel bars as
reinforcement. 1:3 cement mortar is used to fill up the gaps. Vertical stirrups
of 6 mm diameter are provided in every 3rd vertical joint. Main reinforcement
is provided at the bottom consists 8 to 10 mm diameter bars, which are cranked
up at the ends.

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Steel Lintels

If the superimposed loads are heavy and openings are large then we can go for
steel lintels. These lintels consist of channel sections or rolled steel joists. We
can use one single section or in combinations depending up on the requirement.

When used singly, the steel joist is either embedded in concrete or cladded with
stone facing to keep the width same as width of wall. When more than one
units are placed side by side, they are kept in position by tube separators.

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Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintels

At present, the lintels of R.C.C are widely used to span the openings for doors,
windows, etc. in a structure because of their strength, rigidity, fire resistance,
economy and ease in construction. R.C.C lintels are suitable for all the loads
and for any span. The width of lintel is equal to width of wall. Depth of lintel
is dependent of length of span and magnitude of loading.

Main reinforcement is provided at the bottom and half of these bars are cranked
at the ends. Shear stirrups are provided to resist transverse shear as shown in
fig.

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R.C.C lintel over a window, along with chhajja projection is displayed in below
fig.

R.C.C boot lintels are provided over cavity walls. These will give good
appearance and economical. A flexible D.P.C is provided above the lintel as
shown in fig.

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Beam (structure)

A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the
beam's axis. Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to the
beam result in reaction forces at the beam's support points. The total effect of all the
forces acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending moments within
the beam, that in turn induce internal stresses, strains and deflections of the beam.
Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-section),
length, and their material.

Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural

elements, but any structures such as automotive automobile frames, aircraft
components, machine frames, and other mechanical or structural systems contain
beam structures that are designed to carry lateral loads are analyzed in a similar
fashion.

Historically beams were squared timbers but are also metal, stone, or combinations
of wood and metal[1] such as a flitch beam. Beams can carry vertical gravitational
forces but are primarily used to carry horizontal loads (e.g., loads due to an
earthquake or wind or in tension to resist rafter thrust as a tie beam or (usually)
compression as a collar beam). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to
columns, walls, or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural
compression members and eventually to ground. In light frame construction joists
may rest on beams.

In carpentry a beam is called a plate as in a sill plate or wall plate, beam as in a

summer beam or dragon beam.

Classification based on supports

In engineering, beams are of several types:

1. Simply supported - a beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and
have no moment resistance.
2. Fixed - a beam supported on both ends and restrained from rotation.
3. Over hanging - a simple beam extending beyond its support on one end.

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 4. Double overhanging - a simple beam with both ends extending beyond its
supports on both ends.
5. Continuous - a beam extending over more than two supports.
6. Cantilever - a projecting beam fixed only at one end.
7. Trussed - a beam strengthened by adding a cable or rod to form a truss.

Area moment of inertia

In the beam equation I is used to represent the second moment of area. It is

commonly known as the moment of inertia, and is the sum, about the neutral axis,
of

2 ,
where r is the distance from the neutral axis, and

dA is a small patch of area.

Therefore, it encompasses not just how much area the beam section has overall, but
how far each bit of area is from the axis, squared. The greater I is, the stiffer the
beam in bending, for a given material.

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Stress

Internally, beams subjected to loads that do not induce torsion or axial loading
experience compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the loads applied to
them. Typically, under gravity loads, the original length of the beam is slightly
reduced to enclose a smaller radius arc at the top of the beam, resulting in
compression, while the same original beam length at the bottom of the beam is
slightly stretched to enclose a larger radius arc, and so is under tension. Modes of
deformation where the top face of the beam is in compression, as under a vertical
load, are known as sagging modes and where the top is in tension, for example over
a support, is known as hogging. The same original length of the middle of the beam,
generally halfway between the top and bottom, is the same as the radial arc of
bending, and so it is under neither compression nor tension, and defines the neutral
axis (dotted line in the beam figure). Above the supports, the beam is exposed to
shear stress. There are some reinforced concrete beams in which the concrete is
entirely in compression with tensile forces taken by steel tendons. These beams are
known as prestressed concrete beams, and are fabricated to produce a compression
more than the expected tension under loading conditions. High strength steel tendons
are stretched while the beam is cast over them. Then, when the concrete has cured,
the tendons are slowly released and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial
loads. This eccentric loading creates an internal moment, and, in turn, increases the
moment carrying capacity of the beam. They are commonly used on highway
bridges.

The primary tool for structural analysis of beams is the EulerBernoulli beam
equation. This equation accurately describes the elastic behaviour of slender beams
where the cross sectional dimensions are small compared to the length of the beam.
For beams that are not slender a different theory needs to be adopted to account for
the deformation due to shear forces and, in dynamic cases, the rotary inertia. The
beam formulation adopted here is that of Timoshenko and comparative examples
can be found in NAFEMS Benchmark Challenge Number 7. Other mathematical
methods for determining the deflection of beams include "method of virtual work"
and the "slope deflection method". Engineers are interested in determining
deflections because the beam may be in direct contact with a brittle material such as
glass. Beam deflections are also minimized for aesthetic reasons. A visibly sagging
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beam, even if structurally safe, is unsightly and to be avoided. A stiffer beam (high
modulus of elasticity and/or one of higher second moment of area) creates less
deflection.

Mathematical methods for determining the beam forces (internal forces of the beam
and the forces that are imposed on the beam support) include the "moment
distribution method", the force or flexibility method and the direct stiffness method.

General shapes

Most beams in reinforced concrete buildings have rectangular cross sections, but a
more efficient cross section for a beam is an I or H section which is typically seen
in steel construction. Because of the parallel axis theorem and the fact that most of
the material is away from the neutral axis, the second moment of area of the beam
increases, which in turn increases the stiffness.

Thin walled

A thin walled beam is a very useful type of beam (structure). The cross section of
thin walled beams is made up from thin panels connected among themselves to
create closed or open cross sections of a beam (structure). Typical closed sections
include round, square, and rectangular tubes. Open sections include I-beams, T-
beams, L-beams, and so on. Thin walled beams exist because their bending stiffness
per unit cross sectional area is much higher than that for solid cross sections such a
rod or bar. In this way, stiff beams can be achieved with minimum weight. Thin
walled beams are particularly useful when the material is a composite laminate.
Pioneer work on composite laminate thin walled beams was done by Librescu.

It should be noted that the torsional stiffness of a beam is greatly influenced by its
cross sectional shape. For open sections, such as I sections, warping deflections
occur which, if restrained, greatly increase the torsional stiffness.

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Column

A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element

that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other
structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member. The
term column applies especially to a large round support (the shaft of the column)
with a capital and a base or pedestal[1] and made of stone, or appearing to be so. A
small wooden or metal support is typically called a post, and supports with a
rectangular or other non-round section are usually called piers. For the purpose of
wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed to resist lateral forces.
Other compression members are often termed "columns" because of the similar
stress conditions. Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on which
the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture, "column" refers to such a
structural element that also has certain proportional and decorative features. A
column might also be a decorative element not needed

Structure

Early columns were constructed of stone, some out of a single piece of stone.
Monolithic columns are among the heaviest stones used in architecture. Other stone
columns are created out of multiple sections of stone, mortared or dry-fit together.
In many classical sites, sectioned columns were carved with a centre hole or
depression so that they could be pegged together, using stone or metal pins. The
design of most classical columns incorporates entasis (the inclusion of a slight
outward curve in the sides) plus a reduction in diameter along the height of the
column, so that the top is as little as 83% of the bottom diameter. This reduction
mimics the parallax effects which the eye expects to see, and tends to make columns
look taller and straighter than they are while entasis adds to that effect.
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Nomenclature

Most classical columns arise from a basis, or base, that rests on the stylobate, or
foundation, except for those of the Doric order, which usually rest directly on the
stylobate. The basis may consist of several elements, beginning with a wide, square
slab known as a plinth. The simplest bases consist of the plinth alone, sometimes
separated from the column by a convex circular cushion known as a torus. More
elaborate bases include two toruses, separated by a concave section or channel
known as a scotia or trochilus. Scotiae could also occur in pairs, separated by a
convex section called an astragal, or bead, narrower than a torus. Sometimes these
sections were accompanied by still narrower convex sections, known as annulets or
fillets.

At the top of the shaft is a capital, upon which the roof or other architectural elements
rest. In the case of Doric columns, the capital usually consists of a round, tapering
cushion, or echinus, supporting a square slab, known as an abax or abacus. Ionic
capitals feature a pair of volutes, or scrolls, while Corinthian capitals are decorated
with reliefs in the form of acanthus leaves. Either type of capital could be
accompanied by the same moldings as the base. In the case of free-standing columns,
the decorative elements atop the shaft are known as a finial.

Modern columns may be constructed out of steel, poured or precast concrete, or

brick, left bare or clad in an architectural covering, or veneer. Used to support an
arch, an impost, or pier, is the topmost member of a column. The bottom-most part
of the arch, called the springing, rests on the impost.

Equilibrium, instability, and loads

As the axial load on a perfectly straight slender column with elastic material
properties is increased in magnitude, this ideal column passes through three states:
stable equilibrium, neutral equilibrium, and instability. The straight column under
load is in stable equilibrium if a lateral force, applied between the two ends of the
column, produces a small lateral deflection which disappears and the column returns
to its straight form when the lateral force is removed. If the column load is gradually

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increased, a condition is reached in which the straight form of equilibrium becomes
so-called neutral equilibrium, and a small lateral force will produce a deflection that
does not disappear and the column remains in this slightly bent form when the lateral
force is removed. The load at which neutral equilibrium of a column is reached is
called the critical or buckling load. The state of instability is reached when a slight
increase of the column load causes uncontrollably growing lateral deflections
leading to complete collapse.

Column elements are considered to be massive if minimal side dimension is equal

or more than 400 mm. Massive columns have ability to increase concrete strength
during long time period (even during exploitation period). Taking into account
possible loads onto structure increase in future (and even threat of progressive
failure, terroristic attacks, explosions etc.) massive columns have advantage
comparing with not ones. A little economy today has no sense as usual for future.
Moreover, relatively small sections are not technological for reinforced structures
during their production. Balance between economy, mass of structures and so called
"sustainable" construction is necessary.

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Foundations

A column that carries the load down to a foundation must have means to transfer the
load without overstressing the foundation material. Reinforced concrete and
masonry columns are generally built directly on top of concrete foundations. When
seated on a concrete foundation, a steel column must have a base plate to spread the
load over a larger area, and thereby reduce the bearing pressure. The base plate is a
thick, rectangular steel plate usually welded to the bottom end of the column.

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Window Hoods

Hood. You might see hoods every day, but not realize the feature has a specific name
and purpose. A hood is the piece found above window openings, typically of an
ornate design, and only covers the top third of the opening. Hoods are commonly
placed above arched or curved openings and can be included on both windows and
doors. I frequently see hoods of stone in Indianapolis, this derives from its use as a
drip-stone to project rainwater away from the opening. The decoration of the hood
can range from simple to elaborate, while most hoods just cover the upper third of
the opening, others can wrap around the entire window or door. Although the
concept of the drip-stone can be seen in earlier architecture, the hood as a feature
came into frequent use in the Italianate style.

In architecture, a hood mould, label mould (from Latin labia, lip), drip mould or
dripstone, is an external moulded projection from the wall over an opening to throw
off rainwater. This moulding can be terminated at the side by ornamentation called
label stop.

The hood mould was introduced into architecture in the Romanaesque period,
though they become much more common in the Gothic period.

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