Hand Out 112 Filled

P5-Electromagnetic Fields and Waves
Prof. Andrea C. Ferrari

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CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY NANOMATERIALS

ELECTRONIC AND
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DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING AND MATERIALS GROUP
SPECTROSCOPY GROUP 1 1
6 Lectures
3 Main Sections
~2 lectures per subject
I Transmission Lines
I.0 The wave equation
I.1 Telegraphers Equations
I.2 Characteristic Impedance
I.3 Reflection
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DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING AND MATERIALSGROUP
II Electromagnetic Waves in Free Space
II.1 Electromagnetic Fields
II.2 Electromagnetic Waves
II.3 Reflection and Refraction of Waves
III Antennae and Radio Transmission

III.1 Antennae
III.2 Radio

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OBJECTIVES
As the frequency of electronic circuits rises, one can no
longer assume that voltages and currents are instantly
transmitted by a wire.
The objectives of this course are:
Appreciate when a wave theory is needed

Derive and solve simple transmission line problems
Understand the importance of matching to the
characteristic impedance of a transmission cable
Understand basic principles of EM wave propagation in

free space, across interfaces
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This course deals with transmission of electromagnetic waves
1) along a cable (i.e. a transmission line)
2) through free space (the ether).
In the first half of these lectures, we will derive the differential equations
which describe the propagation of a wave along a transmission line.
Then we will use these equations to demonstrate that these waves exhibit
reflection, have impedance, and transmit power.
In the second half of these lectures we will look at the behaviour of waves
in free space.
We will also consider different types of antennae for transmission and
reception of electromagnetic waves.
Reference: OLVER A.D.

Microwave and Optical Transmission
John WileyUNIVERSITY
CAMBRIDGE NANOMATERIALS
& Sons, 1992, 1997ELECTRONIC AND
DEVICES
Shelf Mark: NV 135 SPECTROSCOPY GROUP 5 5
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slides from
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AND
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I.0 The Wave Equation
Aims
To recall basic phasors concepts
To introduce the generalised form of the wave equation
Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to recognise
the generalized form of the wave equation, its general solution,
the propagation direction and velocity

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I.0.0 Introduction
An ideal transmission line is defined as:
a link between two points in which the signal at any point
equals the initiating signal
i.e. transmission takes place instantaneously and there is

no attenuation
Real world transmission lines are not ideal, there is

attenuation and there are delays in transmission
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A transmission line can be seen as a device for
propagating energy from one point to another
The propagation of energy is for one of two general

reasons:
1. Power transfer (e.g. for lighting, heating, performing

work) - examples are mains electricity, microwave
guides in a microwave oven, a fibre-optic illuminator.
2. Information transfer. examples are telephone,

radio, and fibre-optic links (in each case the energy
propagating down the transmission line is modulated
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in some way).
Examples
Power
Plant
Consumer
Home

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Antenna CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY Optical Fibre
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ELECTRONIC Link
AND
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12
Pair of wires Co-ax cable

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PCB tracks DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING AND MATERIALSGROUP
SPECTROSCOPY GROUP
IC interconnects
12
Waveguides

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Mircostrip
Dielectric of thickness T, with a conductor deposited on the

bottom surface, and a strip of conductor of width W on the top
surface
Can be fabricated using Printed Circuit Board (PCB)

technology, and is used to convey NANOMATERIALS
microwave AND frequency
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY ELECTRONIC DEVICES
signals DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING AND MATERIALSGROUP
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Microwave Oven
Optical Fibres

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Phasor Notation
A means A is complex
Im
A = e{ A} + Im{ A} j = A e j A I m{ A}
A A
e{ A} e
A=A
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Ae j x is short-hand for {
e Ae j ( x + t ) }
which equals: (
A cos x + t + A )
Proof
j ( )
e = cos( ) j sin( )
then
Ae j ( x + t ) = Ae j A e j ( x + t ) = Ae j ( x + t + A )
(
j x + t + A )
Ae A cos( UNIVERSITY
= CAMBRIDGE x + t + A ) + ELECTRONIC
jA sin( DEVICES
t + A)
x +AND
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I.0.1 The Wave Equation
The generalised form of the wave equation is:
2
A 2 2
2
=v A
t
Where the Laplacian of a scalar A is:
2 2 A 2 A 2 A
A= 2
+ 2 + 2
x y z
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We will be looking at plane waves for which the wave

equation is one-dimensional and appears as follows:
2 A 2 2
A 2 A 1 2 A
=v or 2
= 2 2
t 2
x 2 x v t
Where A could be:
Either the Voltage (V) or the Current (I)

as in waves in a transmission line
Or the Electric Field (E) or Magnetic Field (H)

as in electromagnetic waves
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY in
free space
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There are many other cases where the wave equation is used
For example
1) Waves on a string. These are planar waves where A

represents the amplitude of the wave
2) Waves in a membrane, where there is variation in both x and y,

and the equation is of the form
2 A 2 A 2 A
2
=v 2 + 2
t 2 x y
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The constant v is called the wave speed.
This comes from the fact that the general solution to the
wave equation (DAlembert solution,~1747) is
A = f ( x vt )
Note
A = f ( x vt ) Forward moving
A = f ( xCAMBRIDGE
+ vt ) UNIVERSITY
Backward moving
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Direction of travel
f ( x vt ) f ( x +) vt )
F(t+x/v
x x
P
t t+t t+t t
x x
Consider a fixed point, P, on the moving waveform, i.e. a
point with constant f
f(x-vt) will be constant if x-vt is constant
If t increases (tt+t), x must also increase if x-vt is to be
constant
An x increase implies that the wave is moving to the
right (Forward)CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY NANOMATERIALS
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Similarly, for x+vt wave is moving toSPECTROSCOPY

GROUP
left (Backward) 23 23
Verify that A = f ( x vt ) is general solution
A 2 A
= vf '( x vt ) = v 2 f ''( x vt )
t t 2
A 2 A
= f '( x vt ) 2
= f ''( x vt )
x x
2 A 2 2
A
2
=v
t x 2
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I.1 Electrical Waves
Aims
To derive the telegraphers equations
To account for losses in transmission lines
Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to recognise
when the wave theory is relevant; to master the concepts of
wavelenght, wave velocity, period and phase; to describe the
propagation of waves in loss-less and lossy transmission lines

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I.1.1 Telegraphers Equations

Let us consider a short length, x, of a wire pair
x
This could, for example, represent a coaxial cable
For a small x, any function A(x) can be written as
A( x)
A( x + x) A(CAMBRIDGE
x) + x NANOMATERIALS AND
x UNIVERSITY ELECTRONIC DEVICES
SPECTROSCOPY GROUP
In our case A can be Voltage (V) or Current (I) 26 26
Let us define
L series/loop inductance per unit length [H/m]
L x
I
VL
x
I
V = L x
L
NANOMATERIALS
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t
C parallel/shunt capacitance per unit length [F/m]
IC
VC
C x
x
VC
I C = C x
t
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DEVICES
I
VL = L x
t I
I IF = I + x
B x
I
IC = x
x
VL VC VC = V +
V
x
x
V = VC + V L
x
VC V V V 2 V
I C = C x C x (V UNIVERSITY
= CAMBRIDGE + x ) = C x + C (
NANOMATERIALSx )
AND
ELECTRONIC DEVICES C x
t DEPARTMENT
t OF ENGINEERING
x tAND xt GROUP
MATERIALS
SPECTROSCOPY GROUP t
29 29
V I
VC = V VL V+ x =V L x
x t
I V
I F = I IC I+ x= I C x
x t
V I
= L (1.1)
x t
I V
= C (1.2)
x t
Eqs. (1.1),(1.2) are known as the telegraphers equations
They were derived in 1885 by Oliver Heaviside, and were crucial in the
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early development of long distance telegraphy
(hence the name)
AND MATERIALS GROUP
SPECTROSCOPY GROUP 30
30
I.1.2 Travelling Wave Equations
Let us differentiate both (1.1) and (1.2) with respect to
x
2V I 2V
2
= L = LC 2 (1.1a)
x t x t
2
I V 2I
= C = LC 2 (1.2a)
x 2 t x t
I
Then in (1.1a) substitute using (1.2)
x
V
Then in (1.2a) substitute
using (1.1)
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AND
AND
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x SPECTROSCOPY GROUP 31 31
2 2
V V
2
= LC 2 (1.1a)
x t
2 2
I I
2
= LC 2 (1.2a)
x t
Same functional form as wave equation:
2 A 1 2 A 2 1
2
= 2 2 v =
x v t LC
We try a solution for V in (1.1a) of the form
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY NANOMATERIALS AND
j x j tELECTRONIC DEVICES
V = Ae
DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING e AND MATERIALSGROUP
2 Ae j x e j t = 2 LC Ae j x e j t
Hence
= LC Phase Constant (1.3)

Since can be positive or negative, we obtain expressions for
voltage and current waves moving forward (subscript F) and
backward (subscript B) along the transmission line
{(
V = R e V F e j x + V B e j x e j t ) } (1.4)
I = R e {( I F e j x
+ I
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY B e j x
e ) }
j t
NANOMATERIALS
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(1.5)
AND
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I.1.3 Lossy Transmission Lines

Thus far we considered a lossless transmission line. Therefore we
did not include any resistance along the line, nor any conductance
across the line.
If we now define
R= series resistance per unit length [/m]
G= shunt conductance per unit length [S/m]
To derive the relevant expressions for a lossy transmission line our

equivalent circuit would become :

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R x L x I
I I+ x
B x
V
V VR VL VC = V + x
x
G x C x
V VR VL VC = 0
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I V
V R xI L x (V + x) = 0
t x
V I
= RI + L
x t
For simplicity we assume
I
I = f ( x)e jt = j f ( x)e jt = j I
t
Then
V
= ( R + j L) I
x
V I
Compare with (1.1) = L
=AND
j LI
NANOMATERIALS
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DEVICES
MATERIALSGROUP
GROUP
x t SPECTROSCOPY 36 36
Similarly, using Kirchoffs current law to sum currents:
I
I G xV j C xV ( I + x) = 0
x
I
= (G + jC )V
x
I V
Compare with (1.2) = C = j CV
x t

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Thus, we can write the expression for a lossy line starting

from that of a lossless line, if we substitute
L in a lossless line with:
( R + j L) in a lossy line
L' =
j
C in a lossless line with:
(G + jC ) in a lossy line
C'=
j
Then = LC In a lossless line corresponds to:
1
'= ( R + j L)(G + jC )
j
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY in a lossy line
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Substituting into (1.4) and (1.5) and defining
= ( R + j L)(G + jC ) = + j
We get
{(
V = R e VF e
( + j ) x
+ VB e ( ) }
+ j )x
e j t (1.6)
I = R e {( I )e }
( + j ) x
+ I B e( )
+ j x j t
Fe (1.7)
is called propagation constant

is the phase constant
The real term corresponds to the attenuation along the line

the attenuation
and is knownDEPARTMENT
asCAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
OF ENGINEERING
constant
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AND
AND
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For a forward travelling wave:
V = VF e jt e-x = VF e-x e j(t-x) V = VF e x

amplitude factor phase factor
time variation
Voltage
VF

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Note:
At high frequencies: L >> R and C >> G :
= ( R + j L)(G + jC ) 2 LC = j LC
Thus
0 LC
The expressions approximate back to those for

lossless lines
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I.1.4 Wave velocity: v

Our expressions for voltage and current contain 2 exponentials
The one in terms of x: e j x

gives the spatial dependence of the wave, hence the wavelength:
2
=

j t
The other: e
gives the temporal dependence of the wave, hence its frequency:

f =
2
NANOMATERIALS
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AND
AND
DEVICES
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For a wave velocity v, wavelength and frequency f:
v= f
then
2
v=
2
since = LC
1
v= (1.8)
LC NANOMATERIALS
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I.1.5 Example: Wavelength

An Ethernet cable has L= 0.22 Hm-1 and C = 86 pFm-1.
What is the wavelength at 10 MHz ?
2 = LC
From = and

2
=
LC
2
Then =
2 10 10 6 0.22 10 6 86 10 12
= 23metres

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I.1.6 When must distances be accounted for in AC
circuits?

2 4
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ELECTRONIC
AND
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MATERIALS GROUP
Large ship is in serious trouble (as you can see) and we cannot ignore the
effect of the waves
A much smaller vessel caught in the same storm fares much better
If a circuit is one quarter of a wavelength across, then one end is at zero,

the other at a maximum
If a circuit is an eighth of a wavelength across, then the difference is

2 of the amplitude
In general, if the wavelength is long in comparison to our electrical circuit,

then we can use standard circuit analysis without considering
transmission line effects.
A good rule of thumb is for the wavelength to be a factor of 16 longer

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L Wave Relevant
16

L Wave Not Relevant
16
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I.1.7 Example: When is wave theory relevant?

A designer is creating a circuit which has a clock rate of 5MHz and has
200mm long tracks for which the inductance (L) and capacitance (C) per
unit length are:
L=0.5Hm-1 C=60pFm-1
2 2
From = And = LC =
LC
2
Then = 6 6 12
= 36.5m
2 5 10 0.5 10 60 10
36.5 m is much greater than 200 mm (the size of the circuit board),
so that wave theory is irrelevant.
Note: The problem is even

CAMBRIDGE less relevant for ELECTRONIC
UNIVERSITY mains frequencies
NANOMATERIALS AND
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50 Hz. This gives ~3650 km 48 48
I.2 Characteristic Impedance
Aims
To define and derive the characteristic impedance for
lossless and lossy lines
Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to describe the
forward and backward waves in a transmission line and
calculate the characteristic impedance

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I.2.1 Lossless Lines

Recalling the solutions for I & V (equations 1.4&1.5):
{(
V = R e V F e j x + V B e j x e j t ) } (1.4)
I = R e {( I F e j x
+ I B e j x
)e } j t (1.5)
Differentiating (1.5) with respect to x

(1.4) with respect to t and multiplying by -C
I
x
{(
= Re j I F e j x + j I B e j x e jt ) } (2.1)
VCAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY j x
C
t
= R e {( Cj V F e
Cj
AND
V e
NANOMATERIALS
ELECTRONIC
B
MATERIALS
SPECTROSCOPY
) }
j x DEVICES
e j t
AND
GROUP
GROUP
(2.2)
50 50
According to the second Telegraphers equation:
I V
= C (1.2)
x t
We can then equate (2.1) and (2.2):
Re {( j I F ) }
e j x + j I B e j x e j t = R e {( C j V eF
j x
) }
C j V B e j x e j t
j ( t x ) j ( t + x )
Since e and e
represent waves travelling in opposite directions, they can
be treated separately.
This leadsDEPARTMENT
toCAMBRIDGE
two independent
UNIVERSITY
OF ENGINEERING
expressions
ELECTRONIC
AND
in
NANOMATERIALS
MATERIALS
V and I
AND
DEVICES
GROUP
j I F e j x = Cj VF e j x
VF
=
I F C
j x j x
I B j e = Cj V B e
VB
=
IB C
Note: If we consider VF and VB to have the same sign
then, due to the differentiation with respect to x,
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I B and I F have opposite signs
The characteristic impedance, Z0 is defined as the ratio
between the voltage and the current of a unidirectional
forward wave on a transmission line at any point, with no
reflection:
VF
Z0 = Z0 is always positive
IF
VF
Since = Z0 =
I F C C
From (1.3) = LC
L (2.3)
Z0 =
ELECTRONIC AND
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C
Units
[ ] = m 1 [ ] = s 1
F 1 A s s H 1 V s s
[C ] = = = [ L] = = =
m m V m m m A m
V L
[ Z0 ] = = =
I C
Z0 is the total impedance of a line of any length if there are no reflections
I and V in phase everywhere. Z0 is real
If there are reflections, the current and voltage of the advancing wave are
again in phase, but not necessarily with the current and voltage of the
retreating wave
The lossless line has no resistors. Yet Z0 has units of .

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The characteristic impedance does not dissipate power. It stores it 54
54
I.2.2 Lossy Lines
{(
V = R e VF e
( + j ) x
+ VB e ( )e }
+ j )x j t
(1.6)
I = R e {( I )e }
( + j ) x
+ I B e( )
+ j x j t
F e (1.7)
= + j = ( R + j L )(G + j C )
Remembering that we can write the expressions for a lossy line starting
from those of a lossless line, if we substitute
L in a lossless line with:
( R + j L) in a lossy line
L' =
j
C in a lossless line with:
(G + jC ) NANOMATERIALS AND
C'=
ELECTRONIC
AND
DEVICES
in a lossy
MATERIALS
line
GROUP
SPECTROSCOPY GROUP
j 55 55
L
Thus Z0 = in a lossless line
C
L'
corresponds to Z0 = in a lossy line
C'
R + j L
Z0 =
G + jC
Note: at high frequencies L >> R and C >> G ,

we recover the expression for lossless lines
L
Z0
C
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I.2.3 Summary
1) For a unidirectional wave:
V = Z 0 I at all points
2) For any wave:

VF = Z 0 I F and VB = Z 0 I B
Hence VF and IF are in phase
VB and IB are in antiphase

3) For a lossless line Z0 is real with units of ohms.
4) For a lossy
CAMBRIDGE Z is complexELECTRONIC
line UNIVERSITY
0
NANOMATERIALS
AND
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AND MATERIALSGROUP
GROUP
SPECTROSCOPY 57 57
I.2.4 Characteristic Impedance Example 1

Q: We wish to examine a circuit using an oscilloscope.
The oscilloscope probe is on an infinitely long cable and
has a characteristic impedance of 50 .
What load does the probe add to the circuit?
A:
1) Since the cable is infinitely long there are no reflections
2)For a unidirectional wave with no reflections Z0=V/I

at all points, hence the probe behaves like a load of
50 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY NANOMATERIALS
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I.2.5 Characteristic Impedance Example 2
Q: A wave of VF = 5 volts with a wavelength =2 metres
has a reflected wave of VB = 1 volt
If Z0 = 75, what are the voltage and current 3 metres from the
end of the cable?
A: From Equation 1.4: V = VF e j x + VB e j x

2 2
= = = [ m 1 ]
2m
x = - 3m therefore: V = 5e + j 3 + 1e j 3 [volts]
VF VB
Since IF = and IB =
Z0 Z0
5 j 3 1 j 3 NANOMATERIALS AND
Then I = eOF+UNIVERSITY
CAMBRIDGE
DEPARTMENT e
ENGINEERING
ELECTRONIC DEVICES
[amps]
AND MATERIALSGROUP
SPECTROSCOPY GROUP
75 75 59 59
I.3 Reflection
Aims
To introduce the concept of voltage reflection coefficient and
its relation to the reflected power at the load
Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to calculate the
voltage reflection coefficient, the incident and reflected power
on the load, the conditions for ringing and quarter wave
matching

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I.3.1 Voltage reflection coefficient
Consider a load added to the end of a transmission line
From Equation 1.4: V = VF e j x + VB e j x

From Equation 1.5: I = I F e j x + I Be j x
At the load x=0, thus
V = VF + VB = VL
I = I + I = I L AND
F B
NANOMATERIALS
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AND
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GROUP
But: V = VF + VB = VL = Z L I L = ZL IF + IB ( )
From our derivation of characteristic impedance:
VF VB
IF = IB =
Z0 Z0
IF and IB have opposite signs relative to VF and VB
VF VB
Hence: (
VF + VB = Z L I F + I B = Z L ) Z0
VB Z L Z 0
=
VF Z L + Z 0
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The Voltage Reflection Coefficient, L , is defined as
the complex amplitude of the reverse voltage wave
divided by the complex amplitude of the forward voltage
wave at the load:
VB
L = (3.1a)
VF
Z L Z0
L = (3.1b)
Z L + Z0
ELECTRONIC AND
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I.3.2 Power Reflection

At the load
{ }
V (t ) = Re V e j t = V cos( t + V )
{ }
I (t ) = Re Ie j t = I cos(t + I )
Instantaneous power dissipated at the load:
P (t ) = V (t ) I (t ) = VI cos( t + V ) cos( t + I )
Remembering the identity:
1
cos( A)cos( B) = [cos( A + B) + cos( A B)]
2
we get:
1 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
cos(2OF
P (t ) = VIDEPARTMENT t + V + I ) + cos( NANOMATERIALS
V I
ELECTRONIC
) AND
DEVICES
2 ENGINEERING AND MATERIALS
SPECTROSCOPY GROUP
GROUP 64 64
Mean power dissipated at the load:
1
{ }
T *
1 1
PAv = P (t ) dt = VI cos( V I ) = Re V I
T 0 2 2
*
Where I is the complex conjugate of I
*
Thus I = e{I } + Im{I } j = I e j I I = e{I } Im{I } j = I e j I
At the load:
V = VF + VB
But, from (3.1a):
VB = L VF
V = VF (1 + L )
NANOMATERIALS
ELECTRONIC
AND MATERIALS
AND
DEVICES
GROUP
Similarly:
At the load:
1 VF VB
I = IF + IB = (V F V B ) = 1
Z0 Z0 V F
VF
I= (1 L )
Z0
Hence: 2
VF
1
2
* 1
2
(
*
V I = 1+ L 1 L
Z0
)( )
2
VF
=
2Z
0
(1 + L
*
L L
2
)
NANOMATERIALS
ELECTRONIC AND
DEVICES
*
But L is the complex conjugate of L
*
L L is imaginary
2
VF
so:
1
2
{ }
*
Re V I =
2Z0
1 L ( 2
) power dissipated in the load
Therefore: 2 2
VF 2 VF
Incident power= Reflected power= L
2Z 0 2Z 0
The fraction of power reflected from the load is:

2 NANOMATERIALS AND
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY ELECTRONIC DEVICES
L AND MATERIALS GROUP
I.3.3 Standing Waves

Reflections result in standing waves being set up in the
transmission line. The Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is a
measurement of the ratio of the maximum voltage to the minimum
voltage.
Maximum voltage V + V F B
VSWR = =
Minimum voltage V V F B
The VSWR can be stated in terms of the reflection coefficient L
VV B
1+ 1+ B
V FV 1+
VSWR = = = F L
V V 1
1
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Or alternatively (and more usefully) the reflection coefficient L
can be stated in terms of the VSWR (which can be measured)
VSWR 1
=
L
(3.2)
VSWR + 1
If there is total reflection then L = 1 and VSWR is infinite.
Zero reflection leads to VSWR=1

ELECTRONIC AND
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I.3.4 Summary
Full power transfer requires L = 0
When L = 0 a load is said to be matched
The advantages of matching are that:

1) We get all the power to the load
2) There are no echoes
The simplest way to match a line to a load is to set
Z0 = Z L
i.e. so that the load equals the characteristic impedance
Z L Z0
Since, from (3.1b): L =
ELECTRONIC AND
DEVICES
Z L + Z0
2
Fraction of power reflected = L
Reflections will set up standing waves.
The Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is given by:
1+
VSWR = L
1 L

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P5-Electromagnetic Fields and Waves

Prof. Andrea C. Ferrari

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY NANOMATERIALS

III Antennae and Radio Transmission

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY NANOMATERIALS

The objectives of this course are:

Appreciate when a wave theory is needed

Understand basic principles of EM wave propagation in

Reference: OLVER A.D.

The handouts have some gaps for you to fill

You will be able to Download a PDF of the complete

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i.e. transmission takes place instantaneously and there is

Real world transmission lines are not ideal, there is

The propagation of energy is for one of two general

1. Power transfer (e.g. for lighting, heating, performing

2. Information transfer. examples are telephone,

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Pair of wires Co-ax cable

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Dielectric of thickness T, with a conductor deposited on the

Can be fabricated using Printed Circuit Board (PCB)

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY NANOMATERIALS

We will be looking at plane waves for which the wave

Where A could be:

Either the Voltage (V) or the Current (I)

Or the Electric Field (E) or Magnetic Field (H)

1) Waves on a string. These are planar waves where A

2) Waves in a membrane, where there is variation in both x and y,

The constant v is called the wave speed.

Similarly, for x+vt wave is moving toSPECTROSCOPY

Verify that A = f ( x vt ) is general solution

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY NANOMATERIALS

I.1.1 Telegraphers Equations

C parallel/shunt capacitance per unit length [F/m]

= LC Phase Constant (1.3)

I.1.3 Lossy Transmission Lines

To derive the relevant expressions for a lossy transmission line our

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Thus, we can write the expression for a lossy line starting

is called propagation constant

The real term corresponds to the attenuation along the line

For a forward travelling wave:

V = VF e jt e-x = VF e-x e j(t-x) V = VF e x

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At high frequencies: L >> R and C >> G :

The expressions approximate back to those for

I.1.4 Wave velocity: v

The one in terms of x: e j x

I.1.5 Example: Wavelength

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If a circuit is one quarter of a wavelength across, then one end is at zero,

If a circuit is an eighth of a wavelength across, then the difference is

In general, if the wavelength is long in comparison to our electrical circuit,

A good rule of thumb is for the wavelength to be a factor of 16 longer

I.1.7 Example: When is wave theory relevant?

Note: The problem is even

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I.2.1 Lossless Lines

Differentiating (1.5) with respect to x

The lossless line has no resistors. Yet Z0 has units of .

Note: at high frequencies L >> R and C >> G ,