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ii | P a g e
iii | P a g e
Principles & Practice

Volume 1

Segun R. Bello
[MNSE, R. Engr. COREN]

iv | P a g e
 List of Contributors

Dr. T. A. Adegbulugbe (PhD, Ibadan)

Former Head, Department of Agricultural Engineering Federal College of
Agriculture, Moore plantation, Ibadan

Engr. David Aremu (MSc, Ibadan)

Department of Agricultural Engineering Federal College of Agriculture,
Moore plantation, Ibadan

v|P ag e
Agricultural Engineering
Principles & Practice

Copyright 2012 by: Segun R. Bello

Federal College of Agriculture Ishiagu, 480001 Nigeria
segemi2002@yahoo.com; bellraph95@yahoo.com
http://www.dominionpublishingstores.yolasite.com
http://www.segzybrap.web.com
+234 8068576763, +234 8062432694

All Rights Reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in

any form or by any means, electronics, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Volume 1 2nd Edition

ISBN-13: 978- 1479316144

ISBN 1479316148

First published in September 2012

Printed by Createspace US

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vii | P a g e
 Dedication

To the glory of God Almighty

viii | P a g e
 Acknowledgements

I acknowledged the several authors and researchers whose wealth of experiences

documented and made available in book and journal prints forms, as well as
numerous materials available of the web.

I sincerely thank all students, past and present, of the departments of agricultural
technology, agricultural engineering and engineering technology, Federal College of
Agriculture Ishiagu, Federal College of Agriculture Moor plantation Ibadan, College
of Agriculture Jalingo and Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike and
all who had come in contact with several of my printed matters in various fields of
engineering practice. Your feed-backs and comments on areas of improvement
including suggestions on widening the scope of the book gave birth to this work.

The author deeply appreciate the following contributors; Dr. T. A. Adegbulugbe, and
Engr. David Aremu, both of Federal College of Agriculture Moor plantation Ibadan
and Engr. Mohammed A. Suleiman of the Department of Agriculture and Bio-
Environmental, College of Agriculture Jalingo. Your valuable comments and
criticisms have been used to review and upgrade this work packaged in 2 volumes;
Volume 1 and Volume 2.

My special thanks go to my only dear friend and wife, who had always back-up the
realization of Gods plan for me. She is a virtuous woman indeed and actually my
help meet. I am grateful for her understanding and tolerance in taking full
responsibility of running our home during the entire review and upgrade exercise and
many other works.

I am grateful to my children, Ayomikun, Pelumi Damilola and Adeola, who have

been so wonderful and cooperative during this period. I am encouraged and
strengthened by their prayers, my God shall surely reward them. Amen

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Content

Preface to Volume 1.........................................................................................................xiii

Part 1 AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT ...... xv
CHAPTER 1 Agricultural Engineering Development.......................................... 1
1.0 Engineering profession.......................................................................................... 1
1.1 Hierarchy of engineering profession .................................................................... 3
1.2 Institutional regulatory bodies for engineering family in Nigeria......................... 4
1.3 Roles of engineering professional bodies in Nigeria........................................... 5
1.4 Code of engineering conduct/practice.................................................................. 7
1.5 Introduction to agricultural engineering ................................................................ 9
1.6 Agricultural engineering education in Nigeria ...................................................... 9
1.7 Areas of agricultural engineering specialization ................................................ 13
1.8 Objectives, scope and career opportunities in agricultural engineering .......... 20
1.9 Agricultural engineering and national development .......................................... 23
Further reading .................................................................................................................. 23
CHAPTER 2 Agricultural Mechanization .............................................................. 25
2.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 25
2.1 Mechanization ...................................................................................................... 25
2.2 Motorization and tractorization............................................................................ 42
2.3 Machine and human labour measurement ........................................................ 43
Further reading .................................................................................................................. 44
CHAPTER 3 Management of Engineering Utilities ............................................ 48
3.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 48
3.1 Management processes ...................................................................................... 48
3.2 Organization and authority structure .................................................................. 49
3.3 Management of engineering utilities .................................................................. 51
3.4 Farm records and keeping .................................................................................. 52
Further reading .................................................................................................................. 60
CHAPTER 4 Economics of Machine Use ......................................................... 62
4.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 62
4.1 Definition of economic variables ......................................................................... 62
4.2 Machinery costs and categories ......................................................................... 66
4.2.1 Fixed or ownership costs .................................................................................... 67
4.2.2 Operating costs .................................................................................................... 74
4.2.3 Timeliness costs .................................................................................................. 79
Further reading .................................................................................................................. 79

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CHAPTER 5 Farm Machinery Development ....................................................... 81
5.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 81
5.1 Development of farm machinery ........................................................................ 81
5.2 Decision making in machinery procurement ..................................................... 84
5.3 Machinery selection procedure .......................................................................... 89
5.4 Determination of machinery capacity................................................................. 90
5.5 Field machine performance factors.................................................................... 93
Further reading.................................................................................................................. 99
CHAPTER 6 Farm Power Development ............................................................101
6 Introduction..............................................................................................................101
6.1 Power units on the farm .....................................................................................101
6.2 Power utilization on the farm .............................................................................107
6.3 Agricultural tractors and other considerations..................................................109
6.4 Functional divisions in agricultural tractors.......................................................118
6.4.1 The tractor engine ..............................................................................................118
6.4.2 Tractor power transmission system ..................................................................147
6.4.3 Tractor differential system .................................................................................150
6.4.4 Tractor auxiliary systems ...................................................................................151
Further reading.................................................................................................................157
Part 2 AGRICULTURAL LAND PREPARATION ...............................159
CHAPTER 7 Land Surveying and Geoinformatics...........................................160
7. Introduction..............................................................................................................160
7.1 Surveying ............................................................................................................160
7.2 Surveying equipment .........................................................................................162
7.3 Types of surveying and equipment ...................................................................165
7.4 Recording survey measurements .....................................................................173
7.5 Introduction to geoinformatics ...........................................................................176
Further reading.................................................................................................................177
CHAPTER 8 Land Clearing Development .........................................................178
8 Introduction..............................................................................................................178
8.1 Land clearing ......................................................................................................178
8.2 Land clearing methods and machinery.............................................................179
8.3 Machinery power sources ..................................................................................183
8.4 Land clearing attachments/detachable .............................................................184
8.5 Factors affecting the choice of land clearing ....................................................191
8.6 Estimation of land clearing cost ........................................................................192
8.7 Disposal of vegetation........................................................................................195

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8.8 Landform and development .............................................................................. 202
8.9 Systems of land leveling ................................................................................... 213
8.10 Introduction to distance measurement ............................................................. 220
Further Reading............................................................................................................... 223
CHAPTER 9 Agricultural Practices and Tillage Operations ......................... 226
9 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 226
9.1 Agricultural practices ......................................................................................... 226
9.2 Seedbed preparation ......................................................................................... 229
9.3 Tillage operations .............................................................................................. 230
9.3.1 Seedbed preparation by conventional tillage................................................... 231
9.3.2 Land preparation by conservation tillage ......................................................... 267
9.3.3 Precision agriculture and vehicle guidance ..................................................... 271
Further Reading............................................................................................................... 275
Part 3 CROP PLANTING AND ESTABLISHMENT..................... 278
CHAPTER 10 Crop Planting and Establishment............................................ 279
10 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 279
10.1 Planting operations ............................................................................................ 280
10.2 Types of planting operation............................................................................... 282
10.3 Planting equipments .......................................................................................... 282
10.4 Plant establishment and germination tests ...................................................... 297
10.5 Planting equipment calibration.......................................................................... 300
10.6 Transplanting operation .................................................................................... 302
10.7 Thinning operation ............................................................................................. 309
Further reading ................................................................................................................ 319
CHAPTER 11 Post Planting Operations ........................................................... 321
11 Fertilizer application ............................................................................................... 321
11.1 Fertilizer Spreaders ........................................................................................... 321
11.2 Pest and weed control programme .................................................................. 324
11.3 Crop protection equipment................................................................................ 329
11.4 Chemical injection systems............................................................................... 334
11.5 Chemigation and fertigation .............................................................................. 340
Further reading ................................................................................................................ 345
Index................................................................................................................................. 346
Test Questions ................................................................................................................ 351
Notes ................................................................................................................................ 355

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 Preface to Volume 1

The book Agricultural Engineering principles & practice is packaged in two

volumes; volume 1 and 2 to contribute to knowledge and development through
exposition of the fundamental principles and practice of agricultural engineering.

In this volume, the book gave wider and adequate background knowledge of
agricultural engineering principles and practice on production systems, relevant as
background information in the practice of agricultural engineering undertakings at all
levels of training in the university, polytechnic and colleges.

This volume is in three parts, addressing fundamental aspects of agricultural

engineering practice and profession as enumerated below:

Part 1 has six (6) chapters describing engineering profession, agricultural engineering
development, issues on agricultural mechanization, management of engineering
utilities, economics of machine use, farm power resources and development as well as
agricultural machinery utilization.

Part 2, has three (3) chapters, addressing all aspects of geoinformatics, surveying, land
clearing undertakings, landform development, diverse agricultural practices, and
tillage operations.

Part 3 has 2 chapters on crop planting and post planting operations. Various planting
patterns and characteristics, equipment types and planter descriptions are features x-
rayed in this section. The post planting activities and operations involves crop
thinning, fertilizer application, pest and weed control programme, new developments
in chemical and fertilizer application as well as integrated pest control management.

The scope of agricultural practice is inexhaustible which informs a continual

development and expansion of knowledge as advancements takes place.

Segun R. Bello
480001, Ishiagu, Nigeria

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 Part 1

AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT

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 CHAPTER 1

Agricultural Engineering Development

1.0 Engineering profession

Engineering is an activity other than purely manual and physical work. It brings
about the utilization of the materials and laws of nature for the good of humanity
(Wara, 2011). Prof Samuel Wara in 2011 gave a good review of engineering profession
at a public lecture, however, the most adopted definition of engineering is that given
by Kiddle in 1920:

Engineering is the art or science of utilizing, directing or instructing others in the

utilization of the principles, forces, properties and substances of nature in the
production, manufacture, construction, operation and use of the things or means,
methods, machines, devices and structures

The art of engineering goes well beyond constructing fabricating, installation,

maintenance and repairs.

The engineering family

The law regulating the practice of engineering in Nigeria (Laws of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria, Decrees 55/70 and 27/92 (Now Acts 110)) provides for
registration under the following cadres:

1. Engineers
2. Engineering technologists
3. Engineering technicians
4. Engineering craftsmen

These four cadres form what we refer to as the engineering family. Figure 1 shows the
structure of this family. Recommended ratios satisfying engineering manpower
requirements vary; these are however between 3 to 5 engineering technicians for
every engineer (Wara, 2011).

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 Figure 1: Cadres in engineering practice.

Who is an engineer?

An engineer is a person qualified by aptitude, education, and experience to perform

engineering functions (Smith, 1969, Wara, 2011). He is a member of a versatile team of
specialists possessing complimentary skills and knowledge. Engineering is a mental
activity and the engineers particular responsibility is the solution of abstract
problems involving design, performance, efficiency and cost (Wara, 2011).

Who is a technologist?

Technologists are trained at the Higher National Diploma Levels, and in Polytechnics,
colleges and other monotechnics. Other forms of specialized training like the City and
Guilds of London were accepted for qualification in this technical cadre.

Who is a technician?

Technicians acquire trainings through semi-formal and formal education. Products of

technical secondary schools, Monotechnics, and Polytechnics up to the National
Diploma level are trained technicians.

Who is a craftsman?

A craftsman or artisan will normally acquire training through practical and informal
or formal means, as an apprentice under a trained craftsman in a specialized
workshop or at a specialized craft school or vocational training centre.

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1.1 Hierarchy of engineering profession

Engineering profession is characterized by the following hierarchy with specific

functions.

Professional institutions: Professional institution provides a forum for members of a

particular profession to interact among themselves. The institutions also set ethical
standards and standard of professional conducts for members including benchmarks
and best practices. They are quasi regulatory agencies and can administer
disciplinary actions for members misconducts. For instance, the Nigerian Institution
of Agricultural Engineers (NIAE) provides a forum for Agricultural Engineers within
the country to interact among selves.

Professional society: This is an umbrella association formed by coming together of

several members of professional institutions with the primary objective of providing a
forum where members of the profession can interact to share ideas. This body
provides a wider platform for its operation than the professional institution. The
Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE) for instance is the umbrella association for all
engineering disciplines in Nigeria which provides a bigger forum where they interact
with each other, for example agricultural engineers can interact with other
engineering professionals.

Professional regulatory body: Professional regulatory body is established by a decree or

law whose primary function is to regulate the training of members of a particular
profession such as engineering and the formulation of edicts of professional practice.

There are many professional regulatory bodies in Nigeria that regulate different
professions ranging from accounting to engineering. The list in Table 1-1 below
presents some notable professional regulatory bodies in Nigeria. Some of these
institutions also administer certification examinations to members depending on their
charter. Passing these examinations is seen as symbol of professional
accomplishments and lends credence to the competence of the individuals who have
passed the examinations.

The professional regulatory body for engineering training and practice in Nigeria is
the Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN).

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 Table 1.1: Notable list of professional institutions in Nigeria and websites
S/
Regulatory body Website
N
Council for the Regulation of Engineering http://www.corenng.org/ind
1.
in Nigeria (COREN) ex.html
Nigerian Institute of Safety Professionals
2. http://www.nispnigeria.com/
(NISP)
3. Nigerian Institute of Architects (NIA) http://www.niarchitects.org/
4. Nigeria Institute of Quantity Surveyors www.niqs.org
Nigeria Institute of Estate Surveyors &
5. www.niesv.org
Valuers (NIES)
Institute of Chartered Accountants of
6. www.ican-ngr.org
Nigeria (ICAN)
Chartered Institute of Bankers of Nigeria
7. www.cibnonline.org
(CIBN)
8. Nigerian Institute of Management www.managementnigeria.org
9. Nigeria Bar Association (NBA) www.nigeriabar.com
10. Nigerian Medical Association (NMA) www.nigerianma.org
Science Teachers Association of Nigeria
11. www.stan.org.ng
(STAN)
Source: Black herald: http://blackherald.egoong.com/?p=230

1.2 Institutional regulatory bodies for engineering family in

Nigeria

Notable among several other regulatory organs setup and funded by Federal
government of Nigeria are the Nigerian Universities Commission (NUC) and the
National Board for Technical Education (NBTE). These organs are responsible for the
supervision and coordination of the Universities, the polytechnics, Colleges of
Education, Colleges of agriculture and other monotechnics in Nigeria. Federal
government of Nigeria through these organs funded all the institutions.

Minimum academic standards for all academic programmes in Nigerian institutions

of learning were set by the NUC and NBTE in collaboration with the various
professional bodies. These standards are also regularly reviewed to accommodate
new frontiers of knowledge. Regular visitation to ensure adherence to the minimum
standard is a major responsibility of these bodies.

The Nigerian Universities Commission (NUC)

The National Universities Commission (NUC) was established in 1962 as an advisory

agency in the Cabinet Office. However in 1974, it became a statutory body by decree

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 No. 1 of 1974 which has been amended at various times as the need arises to enable
the commission function effectively under the headship of an Executive Secretary. The
main functions of the Commission include:

i. Granting approval for all academic programmes run in Nigerian universities;

ii. Granting approval for the establishment of all higher educational institutions
offering degree programmes in Nigerian universities;
iii. Ensure quality assurance of all academic programmes offered in Nigerian
universities; and
iv. Channel for all external support to the Nigerian universities.

National Board for Technical Education (NBTE)

The National Board for Technical Education, headed by an executive secretary, is a

principal organ of Federal Ministry of Education (FME) specifically created to handle
all aspects of technical and vocational education falling outside university education. It
was established by Act No. 9 of 11th January, 1977.

In addition to providing standardised minimum guide curricula for technical and

vocational education and training (TVET), the board supervises and regulates,
through an accreditation process, the programmes offered by technical institutions at
secondary and post secondary levels. It is also involved with the funding of
Polytechnics, monotechnics and other specialised development institutions owned by
the government of the federation of Nigeria.

1.3 Roles of engineering professional bodies in Nigeria

Professional organizations and associations provide a wide range of resources for

planning and navigating a career in engineering profession. These groups can play a
key role in members development and keep them abreast of happenings in the
industry. They equally promote the interests of their members and provide a network
of contacts that can help them find jobs and move their career forward.

They can offer a variety of services including job referral services, continuing
education courses, insurance, travel benefits, periodicals, meeting and conference
opportunities.

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The Nigerian society of engineers (NSE)

The Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE) is the national umbrella organization for the
Engineering Profession in Nigeria. It was founded in 1958 with the objective to
promote the advancement of engineering education, research and practice in all its
ramifications. This is with a view to maintaining and enhancing the professional
capabilities of its members so as to better equip them to fulfill the needs of the
profession for the good of the public and the nation.

Membership of the Society is open to all those who possess qualifications that are
acceptable to the Council of the Society and registrable by the Council for the
Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN). There are seven grades of
membership namely Honorary Fellow, Fellow, Corporate Members, Associate,
Graduate, Student and Corporate Firm. The highest policy making body in the Society
is the Council which is elected by Corporate Members and headed by the
PRESIDENT. The Society operates a Secretariat, currently housed at the National
Engineering Centre, Lagos. A full time Executive Secretary heads the Secretariat.
Overall Co-ordination of the Society's activities is carried out from the Secretariat.

The council for the regulation of engineering in Nigeria (COREN)

The Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN) is not a society but
a regulatory body established under the Federal Government of Nigeria Decree No.
55 of 1970 and amended by Decree No. 27 of 1992, to control and regulate the practice
of the engineering profession in Nigeria.

The primary responsibility of this body is to determine who can be engineers through
the screening of academic qualifications; evaluation of practical experience and
performance in a written examination and/or oral interview. Those found suitable are
admitted as engineers and their particulars included in the Register of Engineers, which
is a register that contains the names of all persons who have been considered by the
Council as satisfying the requirements for registration as professional engineers.

To be qualified for registration as an Engineer by COREN, a candidate must have

attended an approved course of training in any of the branches of Engineering in an
approved Institution within or/and outside Nigeria at the end of which the candidate
has been successful and is awarded a certificate or degree recognized by the Council.
Candidates intending to be registered as Engineers obtain relevant application forms
from the Council which when duly completed are returned along with a Post-
graduate engineering experience report of the candidate. Such candidates may be

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required to sit for an examination and an interview the successful outcome of which
would determine their registration.

As the regulatory body for engineering practice in Nigeria, it is an offence for an

individual who is not registered with this Council to address himself as an Engineer,
hold an engineering position in any establishment or supervise the execution of
engineering projects.

1.4 Code of engineering conduct/practice

Every member is expected in his general conduct to uphold and enhance the honour
and dignity of the Engineering profession and the reputation of the Nigeria Society of
Engineer and to act always in consonance with that interest. The purpose of the
society is clearly stated in the memorandum of association and so therein stated under
article 80 of the memorandum is the code of conduct of engineering practice which
were highlighted as follows:

a. A member shall make available his professional knowledge and experience in

accordance with the code as a consultant or adviser, or a salaried employee, or a
teacher of Engineering Science, or in design, or manufacture, or construction as a
faithful agent trustee of the client, employer, or other people connected with the
works.
b. A member shall not practice in a dual capacity as a consultant and as a contractor
for the same project except with the prior written consent of the client.
c. It shall be considered unprofessional and inconsistent with honorable and
dignified conduct and contrary to the public interest for any member of the
Nigeria Society of Engineer:

i. To exert undue influence or to offer, solicit or accept compensation for the

purpose of affecting negotiations for an engineering engagement.
ii. To use the advantages of a salaried position to compete unfairly with other
engineer.
iii. To accept remuneration for services rendered other than from his clients or his
employer.
iv. To attempt to supplant another Engineer in a particular engagement after
define steps have been taken towards his employment.
v. To review the work of another Engineer for the same client except with the
knowledge of such Engineer, unless such Engineers engagement on the work
which is subject to review has been terminated.

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 vi. To attempt to injure, falsely or maliciously, the professional reputation,
business, or employment position of another Engineer.

d. A member shall no place orders on his own behalf in respect of a project on which
he is engaged but shall only do so explicitly on behalf of his client.
e. A member shall not be the medium of payments made on his clients behalf
unless especially so requested in writing by his client, but shall only issue
certificate for payments.

The oath: Faith of engineer

The following profession is described as the faith of an engineer which could be

regarded as an oath of ethics and conducts of engineer in order to hold the profession
into a high esteem.
I am an engineer. In my profession, I take deep pride, but without vainglory; to
it I woe solemn obligations that I am eager to fulfill. I will participate in none
but honest enterprises. To him that engaged my services, as employer or client, I
will give the utmost of performance and fidelity.
When needed, my skill and knowledge shall be given without reservation for
the public good. From special capacity springs the obligation to use it well in
the service to humanity; and I accept the challenge that this implies.
I will strive to protect the interests and the good name of any engineer that I
know to deserve; but will not shrink should duty dictate, from disclosing the
truth regarding anyone that, by unscrupulous act has shown himself unworthy
of the profession.
I promise to dedicate myself to the dissemination of engineering knowledge and
especially to the instruction of younger members of my profession in all its art
and tradition.
To my fellows, I pledge integrity and fair-dealing; tolerance and respect, and
devotion to the standards and the dignity of our profession; with the
consciousness, always that our special expertness carries with it the obligation
to serve humanity with complete sincerity.
Im proud to be associated with engineering profession and the Nigeria Society
of Engineers (NSE)

8|Page
1.5 Introduction to agricultural engineering

Agricultural engineering

Agricultural engineering can be defined from two perspectives; the scientific and
professional:

Scientifically, agricultural engineering is expressed as the application of principles

gained from the knowledge of basic (natural) sciences and mathematical modeling, to
the solving of agricultural based operations involving primary, secondary and tertiary
production processes. It is concerned with the utilization of the knowledge of basic
sciences; physics, chemistry and biology, social sciences such as economics,
geography etc, and technology in the art, and business of crop production, animal
handling and husbandry as well as handling, processing and preservation, storage,
manufacture and distribution of food products, shelter and their benefits to mankind
for survival.

Professionally, agricultural engineering is the technological processes involved in the

application of scientific principles for the optimal conversion of natural resources into
agricultural land, machinery, structure, processes, and systems for the benefit of man.
Machinery, for example, multiplies the tiny power (about 0.07 kW) of a farmer into 70
kW power or more of a tractor which made possible the production of food several
hundred times more than what a farmer can produces manually. Processing
technology reduces food loss and adds much more nutritional values to agricultural
products than they originally had.

Role of agricultural engineering

The role of agricultural engineering has increased with the dawn of the century.
Agriculture will have to supply not only food, but also other materials such as
alternative power supply, bio-fuels, and organic feed stocks for secondary industries,
and even medical ingredients. Furthermore, new agricultural technology is also
expected to help solve perennial off-season crop production as well as reduce
environmental destruction and improve conventional agricultural practices.

1.6 Agricultural engineering education in Nigeria

Agricultural engineering education in Nigeria started in the colleges of agriculture

and polytechnics, with training in farm mechanization with emphasis on
tractorization which was later expanded to cover all aspects of agricultural

9|Page
engineering. Agricultural engineering training was substantially done overseas until
about the early 1960s when local opportunities started to be available. In the early
days of agricultural engineering services, the first set of Nigerian agricultural
engineers was produced through the re-training of professionals in civil engineering
and agronomy.

Prior to the 1960s, the expertise and services of agriculturists and civil engineers were
used to solve engineering problems on Nigerian farms. The interest and challenges of
engineering services on the farm, made some of them to seek for opportunities to
retrain themselves in what today forms the agricultural engineering curriculum. Some
of the pioneer agricultural engineers in Nigeria then were therefore also specialists of
other disciplines.

Gradually, the relevance of agricultural engineering began to be appreciated both by

the government and those engaged in agricultural practices and local opportunities
for full-fledged training of agricultural engineers were considered desirable. Local
training of agricultural engineers in Nigeria started with the teaching of parts of the
present day agricultural engineering curriculum to students in the schools and
colleges of agriculture such as in Akure, Ibadan and Zaria, and faculties of agriculture
in some universities. Some of such graduates were awarded degrees, diplomas and
certificates in agricultural mechanization but not agricultural engineering (Mijinyawa,
2005).

The agricultural engineer

Agricultural engineers apply the knowledge of basic sciences and engineering

principles to the design of systems as solutions to engineering problems encountered
in agricultural production process. They design agricultural machinery and facilities
such as tractors, implements, animal confinements, storage and handling facilities,
irrigation and drainage systems, and soil conservation measures.

Agricultural engineers are hired by builders of storage facilities, farmsteads, and

commercial buildings; agricultural machinery companies; irrigation and drainage
system manufacturers; federal, state, and local research, regulatory, and educational
agencies; manufacturers of control systems and measuring devices; consulting firms;
power utilities; and alternate fuel producers.

To be an agricultural engineer, you should enjoy solving problems and have the
ingenuity to envision new designs or solutions. You must have a good understanding
of physical and chemical properties of agricultural materials well enough to apply

10 | P a g e
them as you solve specific problems. In the high school/college/university (training
programme), you will take courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry,
communications, computer science, economics, and a wide variety of engineering
sciences including heat flow, mechanics of machine and dynamics, environmental
engineering, soil-water management, fluid mechanics, instrumentation and controls,
properties of agricultural materials, engineering analysis and design etc.

History of agricultural engineering professional body in Nigeria

The professional institution overseeing agricultural engineering conduct in Nigeria is

known as the Nigeria Institution of Agricultural Engineers (NIAE). The history and
roles of this professional institution in Nigeria is highlighted below.

Attempts to have a forum for agricultural engineers in Nigeria dated back to

1965.That year, Professor Cargill of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Mr. Hewitt of
BEWAC Nigeria Limited, Dr. Layide Onafeko, Engr. Deji Osobu and Professor F. O.
Aboaba got together to start a professional society to be known as the Nigerian Society
of Agricultural Engineers (NSAE). It was decided to include non-graduates such as
technologists with National Diploma or certificate in agricultural engineering as
members. Such members included Messrs Achike, Otuyalo and Solagbade. Mr.
Hewitt was elected chairman while Professor Aboaba was the secretary.

The society took off with regular holding of meetings and held the first conference in
Benin City in 1967. It was during the conference that the state of Biafra was declared
which marked the beginning of the Nigerian civil war from 1967 to 1970. The
Nigerian civil war prevented the society from functioning until 1975 when with the
incoming of a crop of young and dynamic Nigerian agricultural engineers
resuscitated the society with Professor Ayo Makanjuola as president. The society
effectively took off once again with the following objectives:

i. To promote the science and art of engineering in agriculture.

ii. To encourage agricultural research.
iii.To foster and promote agricultural engineering education.
iv. To advance in every possible ways the standards of agricultural engineering.
v. To promote the intercourse of agricultural engineers among its members and with
allied technologies.
vi. To encourage the enhancement of professional competence of its members.

Membership: Membership of the society is opened to those who have either undertaken
or are undergoing a professional Agricultural Engineering Curriculum and others

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who may not necessarily be Agricultural Engineers by training but who in the course
of their employment or research have contributed or are contributing to the
advancement of Agricultural Engineering. Between when it was founded and 1999,
the institution existed as a society and was then known as the Nigerian Society of
Agricultural Engineers (NSAE).

Considering the benefits derivable from being a division under the umbrella
organization for the engineering profession in Nigeria; a merger with the Nigerian
Society of Engineers (NSE) was, a formal merger agreement was signed on the 27th
July 1999 between NSE and NSAE. Upon signing the agreement, the name was
changed to The Nigerian Institution of Agricultural Engineers (NIAE) and it became a
Division of the NSE with national secretariat within the premises of the National Centre
for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM), Ilorin, Kwara state. The Institution
organizes annual conferences, which have transformed into an international event.
Since 2003, the Institution also started an annual public lecture series. The Institution
has a journal, the Journal of Agricultural Engineering Technology, which is published
biannually and a quarterly newsletter.

Other notable professional organizations outside Nigeria include:

Examples include:

a. West African society of agricultural engineers (WASAE): This body comprises of

agricultural engineers drawn from some West African countries including
Nigeria.
b. American society of agricultural and biological engineers (www.asabe.org) The
American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers is an educational and
scientific organization dedicated to the advancement of engineering applicable to
agricultural, food, and biological systems. Founded in 1907 and headquartered in
St Joseph, MI, ASABE comprises 9,000 members in more than 100 countries.
c. The Canadian society for bioengineering (www.csae-scgr.ca) The Canadian society for
engineering in agricultural, food, environmental, and biological systems.
d. European society of agricultural engineers (www.eurageng.net) The European Society
of Agricultural Engineers (EurAgEng) exists to promote the profession of
Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering and the people who serve it. The Society
is active in Conferences, Special Interest Groups, Publications, Networking and
International lobbying.
e. International commission of agricultural engineering (www.cigr.org) The International
Commission of Agricultural Engineering (CIGR, Commission Internationale du
Gnie Rural) was set up by a Constituent Assembly on the occasion of the first

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 International Congress of Agricultural Engineering, held in Liege, Belgium in
1930. It is an international, non-governmental, non-profit organization
regrouping, as a networking system, Regional and National Societies of
Agricultural Engineering as well as private and public companies and individuals
all over the world.

1.7 Areas of agricultural engineering specialization

The following areas of agricultural engineering specialization is identified in Nigeria

today

1. Farm power and machinery engineering (FPME)

Farm power and machinery engineering is concerned with the development and
utilization of power and machinery in agricultural production. This option is divided
into farm power and farm machinery: Farm power deals with power generation and
availability on the farm while machinery deals with other machine other than farm
power for job delivery on the farm. Most fruits and fiber comes from the farm, which
means that plants must be grown and animals produced to supply mans needs.
Anyone who has grown plants or worked with any of the sources of power in
preparation of seedbed, planting, cultivating, irrigation, thinning etc. has done a hard
work. It is generally agreed that there will be some elements of drudgery to such tasks
the farmer will strive to lessen the work to reduce drudgery. Progress was then made
by the application of power-operated machinery.

2. Soil and water conservation engineering (SWE)

Soil and water conservation engineering employs principles of engineering in solving

soil and water management problems. The conservation of these vital resources
implies utilization without waste so as to make possible a high level of production,
which can be, continued indefinitely. The agricultural engineers and other scientists
have humorous duty in developing new practices that will permit storage in the soil
profile of greater percentage of the available precipitation. Design of effective level
bench terrace system with special water catchments areas, tillage practices that
modifies the soil surface configuration so as to refrain precipitation and reduce the
total evaporation potential and surface evaporation control through the use of
mulching and films are all challenges for engineers.

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3. Irrigation and drainage engineering

Irrigation is defined as the application of water to land using means other than the
natural rain, the purpose of which is to provide sufficient water for plant growth and
productivity. Irrigation is necessary to provide enough water to fill the deficit arising
from the depletion of soil moisture from the combine action of two separate
phenomena of evaporation and transpiration.

Land drainage deals with the control of water logging and soil salinization in
agricultural lands. In flatlands, a first problem emerges if soil infiltration rates are low
and rainfall or irrigation water stands on the ground surface in small depressions or at
the edges of the irrigation basin. This problem can be solved by leveling and
smoothing the land and providing it with a uniform slope for excess water to flow
through furrows or shallow ditches toward the surface drainage outlet. Surface water
is discharged into a collector drain through pipes to prevent the erosion of the open
ditch bank.

4. Post harvest systems engineering

This deals with the processes and machines required to convert agricultural raw
materials or products into finished consumer goods. It involve, harvesting,
transporting, handling, storage, processing and packaging

5. Farm structures and environmental engineering

Farm structures include farmstead, settlements, animal houses, storage structures

farm and allied products, machinery and processing equipment house etc. These
structures need specialized designs. Control of environmental factors, external and
within in the structures, waste disposal systems, biogas generation etc are also
involved. Operations and management of food processing machines such as rice mills,
flourmills, vegetable oil processing outfits, beverages and biscuit manufacturing,
bread and other confectioneries.

6. Wood products engineering

This branch of engineering has not been fully developed in Nigeria educational
curriculum. It involves the study of engineering properties of woods, composite
products from wood and associated wood products processing; design of machines
required for forestation projects, exploiting forestry products and management of

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wood waste products. This includes machines for planting, pruning, logging,
transporting, milling, densification and other wood processing machines.

Advancements is areas of agricultural engineering specialization

Agricultural engineering have advanced in content to the extent that the scope had
been widened to embrace various emerging technologies within the field and thus the
following specialized categories have been identified:

a. Biological (Bioresources) engineering

Biological engineering is one of the most rapidly growing sub-disciplines of

agricultural engineering that applies engineering practice to problems and
opportunities presented by living things and the natural environment. Areas of
interest range from environmental protection and remediation, food and feed
production, medicine and plant-based pharmaceuticals and packaging materials.
Others may develop techniques and strategies for natural pest control and treatment
of hazardous wastes, for composting, and for enzyme processing of biomass, food,
feed, and waste

b. Agricultural and environmental engineering

These engineers are equipped with expertise in agricultural and environmental works
to better understand the complex mechanics of these resources, so that they can be
used efficiently and without degradation. These engineers determine crop water
requirements and design irrigation systems. They are experts in agricultural
hydrology principles, such as controlling drainage, and they implement ways to
control soil erosion and study the environmental effects of sediment on stream
quality. Natural resources engineers design, build, operate and maintain water control
structures for reservoirs, floodways and channels. They also work on water treatment
systems, wetlands protection, and other water issues.

The outlook for employment in agricultural engineering and environmental

technology continues to be very good. There are more people consuming more food
and agricultural products with more preparatory processing than ever before. This
leads to a greater need for trained professionals to design environmentally sound
production systems. This means more jobs in service, sales, development and
application of mechanical systems in agriculture and in protection and management
of water, soil and air resources.

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c. Power systems and machinery design engineering

These agricultural engineers focus on designing advanced equipment, making it more

efficient and less demanding of our natural resources. They develop equipment for
food processing, highly precise crop spraying, agricultural commodity and waste
transport, and turf and landscape maintenance. This is in addition to the tractors,
tillage equipment, irrigation equipment, and harvest equipment that have done so
much to reduce the drudgery of farming. Their work remains challenging as
technology advances, production practices change and equipment manufacturers
expand globally.

d. Structures and environmental engineering

These agricultural engineers understand the importance of creating and maintaining a

healthy environment for growing agricultural commodities and for the labourers who
produce them. They also understand that our natural resources must not be
diminished, in quality or availability, by agricultural operations. Toward these ends,
these agricultural engineers are equipped with expertise in structures and
environment to design animal housing, storage structures, and greenhouses, with
ventilation systems, temperature and humidity controls, and structural strength
appropriate for their climate and purpose.

They also devise better practices and systems for storing, recovering, reusing, and
transporting waste products.

e. Food and bioprocess engineering

Food, fiber, and timber are only the beginning of a long list of products that benefit
from efficient use of our natural resources. The list includes biomass fuels,
biodegradable packaging materials, pharmaceutical and other products. These
engineers understand microbiological processes and use this expertise to develop
useful products, to treat municipal, industrial and agricultural wastes, and to improve
food safety. They are experts in pasteurization, sterilization, and irradiation, and in
the packaging, transportation and storage of perishable products. Food and
processing agricultural engineers combine design expertise with manufacturing
methods to develop economical and responsible processing solutions for the industry
as well as look for ways to reduce waste by devising alternatives for treatment,
disposal and utilization.

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f. Information and electrical technologies engineering

The application of information and electrical technologies in agriculture is very

versatile. It is applied to virtually all the other sub-disciplines of agricultural
engineering, from machinery design to soil testing to food quality and safety control.
Geographic information systems, global positioning systems, machine
instrumentation and controls, electro-magnetics, bio-informatics, bio-robotics,
machine vision, sensors, spectroscopy are some of the exciting information and
electrical technologies being developed and used today in agriculture and agro-based
industry.

g. Forest engineering

Agricultural engineers apply engineering principles to solve natural resource and

environment problems in forest production systems and related manufacturing
industries. Engineering skills and expertise are needed to address problems related to
equipment design and manufacturing, forest access systems design and construction;
machine-soil interaction and erosion control; forest operations analysis and
improvement; decision modeling; and wood product design and manufacturing.
Forest engineers are involved in a full range of activities in natural resource
management and forest production systems.

h. Energy engineering

Energy is needed to power the machines, devices, and systems in our homes and
workplaces. But many of the energy sources are nonrenewable and create undesirable
byproducts. Agricultural engineers are at the forefront of the effort to identify and
develop viable energy sources such as biomass, methane, and vegetable oil and to
make these and other systems cleaner and more efficient. These engineers also
develop energy conservation strategies to reduce costs and protect the environment,
and they design traditional and alternative energy systems to meet the needs of
agricultural operations.

i. Aquacultural engineering

As natural fish supplies are threatened, agricultural engineers are needed to help
design farm systems for raising fish and shellfish, as well as ornamental and bait fish.
They specialize in water quality, biotechnology, machinery, natural resources, feeding
and ventilation systems, and sanitation. They seek ways to reduce pollution from
aquacultural discharges, to reduce excess water use, and to improve farm systems.
They also work with aquatic animal harvesting, sorting, and processing.
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j. Nursery & greenhouse engineering

Nursery and greenhouse operations just like large-scale production agriculture have
many similar needs of advancement in technology such as irrigation, mechanization,
disease and pest control, nutrient application etc. However, other engineering needs
also present themselves in nursery and greenhouse operations such as equipment for
transplanting; control systems for temperature, humidity, and ventilation; and plant
biology issues, such as hydroponics, tissue culture, and seedling propagation
methods.

k. Safety and health in agricultural engineering

Farming is one of the few industries in which the families work and live on the
premises and are at risk for injuries, illness, and death. Agricultural engineers analyze
health and injury data, the use and possible misuse of machines, and equipment in
compliance with standards and regulation. They constantly look for ways in which
the safety of equipment, materials and agricultural practices can be improved and for
ways in which safety and health issues can be communicated to the public.

Emerging technologies in agricultural engineering

The discipline is currently undergoing major and important changes as it responds to

global economy. These emerging technologies (ET) include: Information technology
(IT); Biotechnology Environmental and renewable energy sources. The use of
computer and communication (ICT) equipments for Data acquisition, machine
control, information management and simulation and prediction of agricultural
systems are becoming popular. Biotechnology involves the engineering of biological
systems. Waste recycling, alternative to fossil fuel- vegetable and fruit oil-fuels etc.
Renewable energy resources such as harvesting and utilization of solar, water wind
energy for agricultural production, processing and handling.

Advances in agricultural engineering technology practice

Advances in Agricultural Engineering technologies have been listed by the American

National Academy of Engineering as one of the most significant engineering
achievements of the millennium. These advances in technologies have constituted one
of the most important inputs into agricultural production which are the basis for
human survival. In a world of steadily changing demands, the face of agricultural
engineering has changed dramatically over the last hundred years and new challenges
will have to be faced in future (Lawrence, 2000).

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Few among many areas in which Agricultural Engineering technology have made
significant advancement include.

a. Education and training: Education and training in agricultural engineering has

provided platforms for further development through academic curricula updates
for better correspondent to market demands, better food security and expected
rapid developments in the agro-industrial sector. For example, Japan and the
United States of America and many more EU institutions have modified and are
expanding in the areas of the names of their faculties, to such names as Natural
and Land resources, Bioresources/biosystems engineering, or Biological systems
engineering etc.
b. Farm implements and machinery: Various developments and advances have been
made in such areas as land leveling with the laser-beam technology (laser-guided
leveler). This technology has recorded 73% variation in the land levels before and
after bed preparation. Without the laser-guided beam technology, percentage
variation in the levels documented was only 8% before and after the test. Other
recent developments include two-row vegetable transplanter, Flail-type Forage
Harvester-cum-Chopper which could harvest forage of 80-mm size. Flail-type
Chopper-cum-Spreader. Cultivator frame Banana-Clump Remover has been
developed for removing banana suckers, Light-weight power-tiller for hill side
agriculture etc
c. Self-propelled and animal-drawn machinery: Eight-row Pre-germinated Rice-seeder,
Walking-type Sprayer- A 8-row pre-germinated rice-seeder, IISR Bullock-drawn
Single-row Potato Planter, Bullock-drawn Groundnut-planter, Bullock-drawn
Cultivator/Blade-harrow among order innovations has been recorded.
d. Stationary machinery High-capacity Pigeon pea Thresher, Pedal-operated Potato-
slicer, cassava lifter, grain cleaners etc. Design-refinement in Mills etc was other
areas of rapid developments which are indigenous to Nigerian engineers.
e. Ergonomics studies have also increased in the evaluation of the commercially
available human-machine interface systems such as pedal operated systems,
Manually-operated Hanging-type equipments etc.
f. Post-harvest engineering and technology has led to the development of candies and
bars from mango, guava, banana and pineapple with different combinations of
soymilk, soyflour, cashew nut, pilot-scale puffing machine to process 20-kg raw-
potatoes. a stepwise-expanding pitch-fruit grader, solar air-heater to dry high
moisture rice, Colour Meter to measure maturity of mango on the tree ,
determining maturity of intact mango on tree etc
g. Electronics and mechatronics systems: Replacing mechanical functionality with
electronic functionality might also reduce manufacturing costs. Just as
electromechanical servomotors are computer-tuned to get responses based upon

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 their industrial application; agricultural equipment components can be similarly
adjusted. For example, the same electro-hydraulic valves might give different
optimal performances in different applications.
h. Other advances: This include plastic mulch for economizing irrigation-water in baby
corn resulting in 36.0% increase in yield over ridge-planting, Bio-rational approach
for integrated pest management (IPM), Processing of jute-sisal blends in jute
machinery machine for compaction of cotton-stalks. Bio-diesel from oil of non-
edible plants etc.

1.8 Objectives, scope and career opportunities in agricultural

engineering

Objectives of agricultural engineering

The overall objectives of Agricultural Engineering is to provide a conducive working

environment for the farmer and assure him that there is dignity in farming, improve
his economic situation and make food available in adequate quantity and quality at
the right time of need and at a reasonable cost to consumers. These objectives are
pursued but not limited to one or more of the following:

1. Reduction in farm hazards: The causes of these hazards are identified and solutions
given. This ensures that the farmers labour is not in vain.
2. Reduction of drudgery in agricultural operations: Agricultural engineering
intervention is to develop machines and equipment that can be used in
performing agricultural operations to reduce stress on farmers.
3. Ensuring the availability of agricultural products all year-round: To meet all year-
round demand of seasonal crops, they have to be processed and stored. Structures
for long term storage have to be built.
4. Enhancement of the quality of life for the farmer: Agricultural engineering provides
conveniences on the farm, such conveniences include farm houses, good farm
roads etc.

Scopes of agricultural engineering

In the course of the career of an agricultural engineer, he received training in

mechanics of machine heat transfer and thermodynamics of engine, fluid mechanics
and dynamics, theory and design of machine and machine elements, engineering
drawing design of structures, thermal environment, energy utilization, hydrology, soil
and water conservation, surveying, systems control and analysis, principles of crop

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