The Hydrological Basis far Water Resources Management (Proceedings

of the Beijing Symposium, October 1990). IAHS Publ. no. 197,1990.

Hydrological effects of forests

YU YANNIAN
General Hydrologie Service ofAnhui Province, 1 Shuguang Road,
Hefei, 230022, Anhui, China

Abstract This paper uses observed data to quantitatively analyse

the effects of forests on both water quantity and quality in the
hydrological cycle for given basins. In addition, a judgement
criterion concerning the long-debated topic as to whether the
annual runoff tends to increase or decrease due to the forest, is
presented here.

Effets hydrologiques des forts

Rsum La fort est un participant, un rgulateur et un

protecteur de la circulation d'eau dans le cycle hydrologique. Le
prsent article analyse d'une faon quantitative les effets
quantitatifs et qualitatifs de fort dans le mouvement quilibr des
quantits d'eau en ce qui concerne sa circulation dans les bassins.
L'auteur prsente dans cet article les principes du jugement relatif
aux phnomnes de l'augmentation ou de la diminution
d'coulement annuel provoqus par la fort.

INTRODUCTION

Over 70% of the global surface is covered by water and nearly one third of
the land surface by forests. The hydrological cycle in the hydrosphere
depends on solar energy and gravity. The forest plays an important role in
the maintenance of the dynamic balance of the physio-ecosystem, as well as in
the exchange of material flux and energy flux. In the case of the
hydrosphere, for instance, the forest, with its physiological and ecological
behaviour, takes part in the course of the hydrological cycle among
soil-ground surface-organism- atmosphere, so that it has become an active
participant in the hydrological cycle of the hydrosphere and a loyal protector
of the quantative balance of the various components in the hydrological cycle
process in the basin. Therefore, the study of forest hydrological effects are of
great significance in the cause of transforming and protecting the hydrological
cycle and orienting the cycle to the benefit of the human race.

EFFECTS OF THE FOREST ON PRECIPITATION

Forests comprise the main part of vegetation. The biological yield of one
hectare of forest is 20-100 times that of 1 ha of farmland or grassland. The
total photosynthesizing leaf area of a tree is 5-10 times that of grassland

413
 Yu Yannian AU

plants. When chlorophyll photosynthesizes under the influence of solar energy,

six C0 2 molecules and six lf) molecules are absorbed, producing one
glucose molecule and releasing six 0 2 molecules. The process can be
expressed by the equation:

solar energy
6C0 2 + 6H 2 0 C6H120 + 60 2 (1)
chlorophyll

Due to the extended floor, large leaf area, high biological yield and long
growth period, forests exert a more significant influence on precipitation than
other vegetation.
Like other plants, forests feed on soil moisture in order to maintain
theirs life and improve the environment for existence. Forest root systems,
trunks, leaves etc., absorb a lot of moisture from surface, soil and ground and
turn it into bio-water. Then by way of respiration, transpiration, etc., the
forest converts the bio-water into gaseous water, and releases it into the
atmosphere so as to form the hydrological cycle of soil-plant-atmosphere,
maintaining a good precipitation development mechanism (Fig. 1). When the

vapor input
ocean
1 1
vapor i n p u t , < r vapor i n p u t
f o r e s t land
i precipitation
1f o r e s t land
i

transpiration
oc evaporation <>
""orest acticm>
pouring r a i n -
ing)
.

i
interception infiltration s o i l mois-
ture
I

Fig 1 Impact of forest on precipitation.

forest transpires moisture and releases it into the atmosphere, a large amount
of solar energy is consumed. Thus, the temperature-humidity field in the
forest region is such that the temperature is low and the humidity high. Air
is likely to be saturated with water vapour. Thus, there exists a large
difference between surface temperature and air temperature in the forest
region and its surroundings. Hence, a local convergent updraught flow would
easily generate orographic precipitation. The observed data have indicated that
a forest can transpire 50% more moisture than an ocean evaporates, even if
 415 Hydrological effects afforests

the ocean is located at a similar latitude and covers the same area as the
forest. The air humidity above the forest is 10-20% higher than that above
farmland. For example, 50% of the precipitation around the Amazon River
basin is generated by vapour from the forest. Huangshan Mountain and
Tianmu Mountain, both at the same latitude, represent another example;
though Tianmu Mountain is located nearer to the ocean than Huangshan
Mountain thus having the advantage of vapour input conditions, the normal
annual precipitation at Tianmu Mountain is 8.7% lower than that at
Huangshan Mountain because the forest coverage on the former is 16.2%
lower than that on the latter. The amount of rainfall is apparently
interrelated with the forest coverage, as exemplified in Huaibei (flat areas),
Jianghuai (hilly areas), the drainage network along the Yangtze River, and the
Dabieshan and Wannan mountain areas of Anhui Province. It results from
the interaction of the atmospheric cycle and natural geographical conditions
(Fig. 2).

1
^
2000 '

H 1500
S
a
u
o 1000 "
a
g 700
rl
+>
1Huaibei
500 2Jianghui
400 ' 3Dabieshan Mtn Area
rl
o 300 4Drainage Net Along the
(X)
u Yangtze River
o<
H 200 5Wannan Mtn Area
eo X.mean value in whole Anhui
3

1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60
forest coverage ( %)
Fig. 2 Relationship of forest coverage with annual precipitation
normal in Anhui.

EFFECTS OF THE FOREST ON ANNUAL RUNOFF

The effect of the forest on annual runoff is determined by forest coverage,
crown density, forest crop composition and forest age. If these factors are
similar, the effects of different forests would vary with geographic locations,
climatic conditions and forested area (Fig. 3).
The influence of the forest on annual runoff lies mainly in changing the
runoff yield and concentration conditions so as to produce a compensated and
regulated effect. In other words, the forest absorbs a greater part of the
precipitation, soil flow and ground flow. It supplies evaporation and
transpiration and also recharges into the river as dry season runoff. If the
Yu Yannian 416

precipitation ; vapor ,
transpi-
ration evapo-
ration
< forest action> , T
inter- soil ground
ception moisture water
rougimess
variation infil- sub-sur- base
tration face flow flow
surface
runoff
annual
runoff
Fig. 3 Impact of forest on annual runoff.

effect on transpiration or evaporation efficiency surpasses the effect on

compensation runoff efficiency, and the transpired moisture is not able to
develop local precipitation, then the annual runoff would decrease. This
phenomenon is quite evident in arid regions. On the contrary, if the effect on
transpiration efficiency is lower than that on compensation efficiency, which
occurs in humid regions, the annual runoff would increase. Comparative
monitoring was carried out in five basins in the Loess Plateau along the
middle reaches of the Yellow River in China. The experimental results from
five contrasting areas indicated that the annual runoff coefficients in four
forest regions decreased by 23-50% compared with non-forest regions. In
only one of the four regions did the coefficient increase, and that by 9.1%. In
five other experimental regions within the stream systems of Xiangjiang,
Minjiang, Tojiang, Tangbaihe, and Hanjiang etc., in the Yangtze River Valley,
the annual runoff coefficient for forest regions increased by 33-218%
compared with non-forest regions. Figure 4 illustrates the correlation of
forest coverage to annual runoff in Anhui Province.
However, forest compensation and regulation activities improve the
annual variation of runoff and yearly runoff distribution in arid regions and
in humid regions equally. This means that runoff variations between flood
years and drought years and the degree of runoff distribution within a year is
reduced according to the extent of forest coverage.

EFFECTS OF FORESTS ON FLOODS

Interception

When rainfall begins, it is intercepted by the leaves of the crown canopy. For
example, the total needle length of a 100 year old growing pine may be
 417 Hydrological effects afforests

a 100-
O 80-

40'
1*H
30'
=

20'

IU
o
1 2 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60
f o r e s t coverage ( %)
Fig. 4 Correlation of forest coverage with annual runoff coefficient
normal.

estimated at 250 km. The leaf surface area of a hardwood forest may be
perhaps 75-100 times larger than its shadow area. Hence the forest can
intercept rainfall very well. The interception effect is conditioned by crown
density, crop composition, forest age and growth stage (Fig. 5).
The larger the amount of leaf storage per unit area the more rainfall is
needed to wet the leaves and the greater the interception effect. In the case
of forest crops of similar compositions, precipitation intensity would be
inversely proportional to the interception amount, and when the precipitation
intensity reaches a limiting value, the interception amount tends to its limiting
value as well. This relationship can be expressed by the following equation:

I^IJI-VQHK/IJR]} (2)

50
<H >R
o >- 40
a
a
o o
H 30
rt +> liquid precipit-atian-
-P (Si
a, -p
<p H 20
o a,
U rl
<[> o
t-> n> 10
G
M
U solid precipitation
a,
0
40 80 120 160 200
forest age (years)
jFg. 5 Relationship between forest age and interception amount
(crown density = 1).
Yu Yannian 418

where / is the specific interception amount; / is the maximum amount; K is

a coefficient which varies with tree species (largest for needle-leaved trees;
medium for small, broad-leaved trees; and smallest for large, broad-leaved
trees; fluctuating between 0.15 and 0.20); and R is the amount of rainfall.

Infiltration
In forest regions, the ground is usually covered by a thick layer of vegetable
remains. Loose soil structure, good aeration and rich microbial activity
produce excellent water absorption and enhance the function of infiltration.
The infiltration capacity varies with crown density, thickness of forest litter
and the scope of root osmosis. Data have proven that the amount of water
absorbed by the soil covering in a David Poplar forest may be equivalent to
3.16 times more than the covering itself. With the formed tabular pine forest,
it may be 2.2 times. The initial infiltration capacity for forest land is 3.4
times that of grassland, 4 times that of farmland and 10 times that of solid
soil. Figure 6 illustrates the experimental data obtained in China.

a
o

rl
-H
n v ^ f

H
+5 >1
+?
sco
-w o
crt
a a,
o m
o o

25 50 75 100
crown density ( % )
Fig. 6 Relationship of crown density to infiltration capacity.

Lag of flood concentration time

The increase in surface roughness of forest land leads to prolongation of the

concentration time of flood on slope areas. Therefore, peak discharge is
reduced and the period of flood rising is increased. From the viewpoint of
hydraulics, in the case of slope confluence or in the case of channel
concentration, the concentration flood velocity is determined by water surface
gradient, hydraulic radius, surface roughness and other hydraulic factors. As
roughness in a forest region is 10 to 100 times greater than that in a
non-forest region, the forest plays an important part in retarding flood peak,
reducing peak discharge and preventing potential flood disaster. Figure 7
 419 Hydrological effects afforests

presents the relationship between forest coverage and mean annual maximum
discharge of the main rivers in China. The basins have similar characteristics
but different forest coverage.

3000

n 2000
a
M 150
s
1000
a)
cl
SO
u
500
.a
400

300

1 200

1 100
10 20 30 40 60 100 200 300 500 1000
drainage areas ( km )

Fig. 7 Relationship between forest coverage and annual maximum

discharge normal for different drainage areas.

INFLUENCE OF THE FOREST ON SOIL CONSERVATION

Sediment arises from erosion. Generally, soil erosion is maintained in balance

with soil formation due to the weathering of parent rocks. River sediment is
caused by natural erosion and mostly by human activity. Figure 8 indicates
that the volume of generated sediment is an important factor of erosion
intensity and erodibility which is conditioned by land use. When land
resources are used rationally, the degree of erosion will be reduced and
erosion durability of soil strengthened. The forest makes positive con-
tributions to soil conservation. Firstly, it mitigates topsoil erosion by wind,
water, gravity, etc. Secondly, it provides the surface with a litter covering,
strengthening the erosion durability of the surface soil and lessening the
erodibility. The process confirms the following principles: soil is washed away
by rainfall and sediment is carried away by the flow, in agreement with the
laws of hydraulics.
According to the Law of Falling Bodies, the speed of rainfall, which
leads to washing off of the topsoil, is directly proportional to the square root
of the vertical distance fallen by the rainfall. The washing force is referred to
the crown canopy only when the raindrops fall to the ground through the
 Yu Yannian 420

erosion

natural human
erosion factors
weaken "~I

strengthen i 13L I- - ^ rational^

, erosion
action ,, e r o d i b i l i t y

erosion erosion erosion soil forest & land u t i -

by water by wind by gravity property vegetation lization < $ >

regime

sediment
production
strengthen

Fig. 8 Processes of sediment production.

crown canopy. Thus the distance fallen is greatly reduced.

The flow concentration velocity of a sloping surface, V, is directly
proportional to the square root of the slope gradient, S, and inversely
proportional to its roughness, n. Forest vegetation decreases S but increases
n. Hence the degree of erosion of the slope from concentration of flow in a
basin is lessened and the sediment discharge reduced.
If the kinetic energy of water Kg represents wash-off capacity, then
Kg = V2/2 , it is directly proportional to V2.
The amount of soil erosion, i.e. the total sediment discharge of a basin,
R, is directly proportional to F 5 and the size of silt particles carried away by
the flow is directly proportional to V6.
The forest can retard erosion action, and in addition, improve soil
erosion durability. This is due to the following reason: the roots of the
forest and vegetation and other plant cover build up a net-like system
beneath the topsoil, which generates a soil-protective cover, keeping the soil
from being directly washed away by rainfall. The infiltration increases so that
concentration time is retarded. The sediment flow decreases the sediment
content, when it goes through infiltration by the forest litter covering.
Furthermore, the forest humus intensifies microbial activity, improving soil
aeration. All of this is of benefit to soil and water conservation. Figure 9
illustrates the relationship between average annual discharge and annual
sediment discharge from Dabieshan Mountain area and Huangshan Mountain
area, in Anhui Province. The figures clearly demonstrate the great role
played by the forest in preventing water loss and soil erosion.

INFLUENCE OF THE FOREST ON WATER QUALITY

Water balance is based on the water cycle and water quality balance. Forests
are located mostly in mountainous areas, where rivers originate. Therefore,
the forest exerts the following almost unique effects on the regulation and
 421 Hydrological effects afforests

2 3 4 5 10 20 30 50 100
annual average discharge (m3 s'1 }
Fig. 9 Relationship between annual average discharge and annual
average sediment discharge with forest coverage as parameter.

improvement of water source quality:

(a) the forest regulates the balance of atmospheric 0 2 and maintains the
oxygen cycle by means of photosynthesis, thus intensifying the
self-purification of air;
(b) the forest diminishes poisonous and harmful gases, dust loads etc., in
the air by adsorption, assimilation, biochemical activity and
sterilization, thus reducing pollutants dissolved and carried by rainfall
in precipitation;
(c) part of the pollutants in rainfall is dissolved and removed after being
affected by the biochemical action of crown canopy, leaves, branches
and stems; and
(d) the rainfall which falls on the ground is assimilated and filtered by the
litter covering and roots so as to be purified.
Figure 10 illustrates these processes.
It was found from data measured abroad that soluble materials in the
valley flow from non-forested mountain slopes amount to 16.9 t km"2, while
the content in the flow from forests is only 6.4 t km"2. According to average
annual levels of the ions Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, SO2;, Cl", C0 3 and HCO'y and
the degree of water mineralization measured for many years in rivers from
Anhui Province, the author has calculated weighted arithmetic means for
Yu Yannian 422

precipitation
a i r puri-
fication

biochemic oxygen supply in

purification photoyn thesis

< forest action>

X
transpiration intercept! oil I f i l t r a t i o n by f i l t r a t i o n by
<S f i l t r a t i o n f o r e s t - l i t t e r soil & roots

purified flowing
into rivers
Fig. 10 Processes of water purification by forest.

different regions in the Province, which appear to correlate well with forest
coverage (Figs 11 and 12).
Because the observed data are limited, the effect of forests in preventing
pollution in water bodies could not currently be quantitatively analysed, but it
is a subject worth studying in the future.
The forest participates in and protects the water balance in the
hydrological cycle. It not only participates in but also regulates the equilibrium
of quantity, heat, energy and quality. Therefore, it is very important to protect
the forest in order to improve the water balance in the hydrological cycle and

400 v.
c
CD
300 1 ^ \
-P
a
o
200
\ . 2
o
to
a 150 *
o
H

cd 100 4 \ \ 3
+>
o
70
\
3 a 50
d u
a o
3 a
'
2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60
forest coverage {. % )

Fig. 11 Relationship between forest coverage and annual total ion

content normal.
 423 Hydrological effects afforests

20 h

15

.-< 10
-p
05 $ 8
N
t-l
H
of 6
u
<i)
fl
ti
a o
4
t
H 0)
01 PH
H
S sa
0)

1 2 b 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60
forest coverage ( % )
Fig. 12 Relationship between forest coverage and annual
mineralization degree normal.

increase the benefits for mankind. The role of forests can never be replaced
by that of any other structure. In the development of water resources and
the regulation of basins, we could obtain twice the result with half the effort
by weighting structural measures equally as importantly as biological measures.