Pagei

FunctionalJobAnalysis
AFoundationforHumanResourcesManagement

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SERIESINAPPLIEDPSYCHOLOGY

EdwinA.Fleishman,GeorgeMasonUniversity
SeriesEditor

TeamworkandtheBottomLine:GroupsMakeaDifference
NedRosen

PatternsofLifeHistory:TheEcologyofHumanIndividuality
MichaelD.Mumford,GarnettStokes,andWilliamA.Owens

WorkMotivation

UweE.Kleinbeck,HansHenningQuast,HenkThierry,andHartmutHacker

PsychologyinOrganizations:IntegratingScienceandPractice
KevinR.MurphyandFrankE.Saal

HumanError:Cause,Prediction,andReduction
JohnW.SendersandNevilleP.Moray

ContemporaryCareerDevelopmentIssues
RobertF.MorrisonandJeromeAdams

JusticeintheWorkplace:ApproachingFairnessinHumanResourceManagement
RussellCropanzano

PersonnelSelectionandAssessment:IndividualandOrganizationalPerspectives
HeinzSchuler,JamesL.Farr,andMikeSmith

OrganizationalBehavior:TheStateoftheScience
JeraldGreenberg

PolicePsychologyintothe21stCentury
MartinI.KurkeandEllenM.Scrivner

BenchmarkTasksforJobAnalysis:AGuideforFunctionalJobAnalysis(FJA)Scales
SidneyA.FineandMauryGetkate

StressandHumanPerformance
JamesE.DriskellandEduardoSalas

ImprovingTrainingEffectivenessinWorkOrganizations
J.KevinFord,SteveW.J.Kozlowski,KurtKraiger,EduardoSalas,andMarkS.
Teachout

TeamPerformanceAssessmentandMeasurement:Theory,Research,andApplications
MichaelT.Brannick,EduardoSalas,andCarolynPrince

JobFeedback:Giving,Seeking,andUsingFeedbackforPerformanceImprovement
ManuelLondon

TheRussianTheoryofActivity:CurrentApplicationstoDesignandLearning
GregoryBednyandDavidMeister

FunctionalJobAnalysis:AFoundationforHumanResourcesManagement
SidneyA.FineandStevenF.Cronshaw

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FunctionalJobAnalysis
AFoundationforHumanResourcesManagement

SidneyA.Fine
SidneyA.FineAssociates
StevenF.Cronshaw
UniversityofGuelph,Canada

LAWRENCEERLBAUMASSOCIATES,PUBLISHERS
1999Mahwah,NewJerseyLondon

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Copyright1999byLawrenceErlbaumAssociates,Inc.Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyform,byphotostat,microfilm,retrieval
system,oranyothermeans,withoutpriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher.

LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,Inc.,Publishers
10IndustrialAvenue
Mahwah,NJ07430

CoverdesignbyKathrynHoughtalingLacey

LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData

Fine,SidneyA.,1915
Functionaljobanalysis:afoundationforhumanresources
management/SidneyA.Fine,StevenF.Cronshaw.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN0805812741(cloth)
1.Jobanalysis.I.Cronshaw,StevenF.II.Title.
HF5549.5.J6F5631999
658.3'06dc21 9920566

CIP

BookspublishedbyLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesareprintedonacidfreepaper,andtheirbindingsarechosenforstrengthanddurability.

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
10987654321

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InfondmemoryofDr.MauryGetkate

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CONTENTS

SeriesForeword ix
EdwinA.Fleishman

Preface xiii

1 1
Introduction

PartI:LearningandUnderstandingtheFJAModel

2 13
TheWorkDoingSystem

3 24
TheWorkOrganization

4 34
TheWorker

5 45
TheWork

6 55
ReducingFrictionintheWorkDoingSystem

PartII:GeneratingtheFJAData

7 71
GeneratingTaskDataWithWorkers:TheFJAFocusGroup

8 84
ConsultingWithManagementtoIntroduceFJAIntotheWorkDoing
System

9 90
TheUseofFJAinTQM

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PartIII.UsingFJAinHRMApplications

10 101
RecruitmentAttractingaWorkforce

11 115
SelectionTestingApplicants

12 128
SelectionInterviewingApplicants

13 139
TrainingImprovingWorkerSkill

14 156
PerformanceAppraisalAcknowledgingWorkerContributions

15 177
CareerDevelopmentandCoachingEncouragingWorkerGrowth

16 190
PayRewardingWorkerPerformanceandGrowth

17 207
JobDesignBuildingBetterWork

18 220
FJAandtheLawMeetingtheLegalTest

AppendixA:FJAScales 240

AppendixB:SelectingFunctionalJobAnalysts 255

AppendixC:TrainingandAccreditingFunctionalJobAnalysts 258

AppendixD:FJATaskBankEditingManual 270

References 299

AuthorIndex 303

SubjectIndex 305

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SERIESFOREWORD
EdwinA.Fleishman
SeriesEditor

Thereisacompellingneedforinnovativeapproachestothesolutionofmanypressingproblemsinvolvinghumanrelationshipsintoday'ssociety.Suchapproachesare
morelikelytobesuccessfulwhentheyarebasedonsoundresearchandapplications.ThisSeriesinAppliedPsychologyofferspublicationsthatemphasizestateof
theartresearchanditsapplicationtoimportantissuesofhumanbehaviorinavarietyofsocietalsettings.Theobjectiveistobridgebothacademicandapplied
interests.

Inanearlierbook,TaxonomiesofHumanPerformance:TheDescriptionofHumanTasks(withMarilynQuaintance),Itriedtoshowthecentralityofhuman
taskstoourunderstandingofhumanbehaviorandtheneedforgeneralizableconstructsinthisdomainofstudy.Inourbookwecomparedalternativewaysof
describinghumantasksandstressedhowthepurposeofthetaskanalysisshapesthekindsofconstructsanddescriptionsthataremostappropriate.Prominentamong
thejobanalysissystemsdiscussedinourbookwastheFunctionalJobAnalysis(FJA)systemdevelopedbySidneyFine.

Formorethan40years,SidneyFinehasbeenamajorcontributortotheory,research,andpracticeinthefieldsofjobanalysisandoccupationalclassification.In
1940,he,alongwithErnestPrimoff,joinedCarrollShartle,thenDirectoroftheOccupationalResearchSectionoftheUnitedStatesEmploymentService.Fine
remainedwiththeSectionfor20years,whereheformedtheFunctionalOccupationalResearchProject.FJAdevelopedfromthetheoreticalformulationsand
empiricalfindingsthatgrewoutofthisproject.Sincethoseyears,FineandothershaveextendedandrefinedtheconceptsandmethodsofFJA,andhaveapplied
themtomanycriticalhumanresourcefunctions.AlthoughDr.Finehaspublishedanumberofhis

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ideasandfindingsandhisworkiswidelycited,thisbookisthemostcomprehensivetreatmentofthetopic.Itrepresentsthecapstoneofacareerthathasbecome
increasinglyhumanisticinitsorientation.Wearefortunatetohavehisinsightsontheapplicationsoftheseconceptstosomanyaspectsofhumanresource
management.Inthisbook,FineandCronshawshowhowacomprehensivedescriptionofworktaskscansatisfytheneedsoftheorganizationforeffectivestaffing,
training,compensation,careerplanning,andjobdesign.

TheybringintofocusideasthatFinefirstgeneratedshortlyafterWorldWarII.Hiselaborationoftheseideasinthe1950sand1960sservedasthebasisforthe
fourtheditionoftheDictionaryofOccupationalTitlesoftheU.S.DepartmentofLabor.Themajordevelopmentoftheseideasforhumanresourcemanagement
tookplacewhileFinewasworkingasaresearchscientistattheW.E.UpjohnInstituteforEmploymentResearch,laterattheAdvancedResearchResources
Organization,andinhisownconsultingworkforawidevarietyofcompanies,governmentagencies,unions,andinstitutions.

Fineconceptualizedthestructureanddynamicsofwork,study,andleisureactivityasablendofthreecomponentsofhumanskills:Functional,SpecificContent,and
Adaptive.Eachcomponenthasadifferentoriginandservesadifferentobjective.FunctionalSkilloriginatesinthephysical,mental,andinterpersonalcapacitiesofthe
individualandmanifestsinhowindividualsgrapplewiththeThings,Data,andPeopleintheirenvironment.Althoughfewinnumber,theseare"enablingskills"essential
inprocessinganinfinitenumberofspecificcontentareasintheworldofwork.SpecificContentSkillsoriginateprimarilyinanactivitysituation(work,study,orleisure)
andarethecompetenciesnecessarytomastertherequirementsandstandardsofparticularcraftsand/orareasofknowledge.AdaptiveSkillshavetheirorigininan
individual'sexperienceingrowingandadjusting,andlikeFunctionalSkills,enableanindividualtodealeffectivelywiththephysical,social,andinterpersonal
environmentinwhichactivitiesarepracticed.

Itmighthelptounderstandthesignificanceofthisseminalconceptbyrecognizingthatyearsbeforethecomputerrevolution,Fine,ineffect,haddistinguishedthebasic
operatingsystem(functionalandadaptiveskills)fromthemultitudeofsoftwareprograms(specificcontentskills)runbytheoperatingsystem.Thedistinctionisof
considerablepracticalimportanceinsuchhumanresourceoperationsaspersonnelselection,training,andperformanceappraisal,delineatedinparticularchaptersin
thisbook.

Anothercentralideaisthatworkisaholisticexperience.Workersbringallofthemselvestotheworkplace.Eachindividualworkerhasauniquepatternofneedsand
capabilitieswithregardtophysical,mental,andinterpersonalinvolvement.Dependingontheopportunities,facilities,andchallengesavailableinthejobworker
situation,eachworkerjugglestheseneedsandcapabilitiestoachievebalance,satisfaction,andwholeness.

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AthirdbasicideaisFine'sconceptionoftheworkdoingsystem,consistingofthreemajorsubsystemsWork,Worker,andWorkOrganizationinteractingto
achieveproductivityandworkergrowth.AccordingtoFine,thisfundamentalnotionofpairingworkergrowthandproductivityservesasthebasisforvalidating
MacGregor'sTheoryYapproachtohumanresourcemanagement.Agreatdealoftoday'scommentaryandresearchinmanagementandindustrial/organizational
psychologypointstotheimportanceofestablishingtrustaqualityrelationshipbetweenmanagementandworkers.Perhapsthisisareactiontothevastlyincreased
instabilityandreducedtenureofworkersintheirjobs.Ontheotherhand,perhapsitisarecognitionthattheproductivityandqualityrequiredtocompeteintoday's
globalmarketplaceisnotlikelytobeattainedandsustainedwithoutworkerswhotrustmanagementtorecognizeandmeettheirneeds.Manystudiesshowthat
managementknowsthisandisstrugglingtoachievecompatibilitybetweenthisrecognitionandthedemandsofthebottomline.FineandCronshawmakeadistinctive
contributiontothisprocess,especiallyasitrelatestorespectingandacknowledgingthepremisesofMacGregor'sTheoryY.

Itisinterestingtonotethattheseideaswerepromulgatedlongbeforethecurrenttrendtoachievetrustandhumanisticgoalsinindustry.Asoftenstatedinannual
reports,managementviewsworkersasitsmostvaluableasset.FineandCronshawpresentwaysmanagementcanmakethemostofthisasset,beginningwithanopen
andwholesomeinteractioninanFJAfocusgroup.However,asamplydemonstratedinthisbook,afocusgroupisseenonlyasthestartingpointforbuildingatrusting
relationshipbetweenmanagerandworker.ForFJAtotakefulleffect,anorganizationmustchanneltheenergyprovidedbythefocusgroupintothewidestpossible
rangeofHRMapplications.Indescribingtheseapplications,FineandCronshawgowellbeyondtheconventionaldescriptionofHRtechniques.Theycapturethe
excitementandvitalitythespiritofFJAandJRactivitiesasdiverseasrecruitment,jobdesign,careerdevelopment,andindividualaccommodationsfordisabled
workers.FineandCronshawfeeldeeplythatthisspirit,whichreflectsthewholenessoftheindividualintrustingandhealthyorganizations,representsabetterfuturefor
Americansatwork.TheirhopeisthatFJAwillhavearoletoplayinbringingaboutthatbetterfuture.

Thisbookwillbeofspecialinteresttoindustrialandorganizationalpsychologists,humanresourcemanagementpractitioners,counselors,andtoresearchersand
teachersintheseareas.Alongwithitscompanionbook(BenchmarkTasksforJobAnalysis:AGuideforFunctionalJobAnalysisScales)inthisSeries,it
providesacomprehensiveunderstandingofanimportantapproachtotheanalysisandunderstandingofworkbehaviorandperformance.

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PREFACE
Sometimespeoplehavetheexperienceofdiscoveringajewelwithouthavinglookedforit.Theygoabouttheireverydaybusinessandsuddenlytheybecomeawareof
itandagleamoflightilluminatestheirlife.Somepeoplediscovertheloveoftheirlifethisway.Othersbecomeawareofaremarkabletalentpreviouslyunknowntothe
public.Stillothershaveaninsightthatchangesthecourseoftheirwork.Itisawonderfulexperiencethathasthepowertochangelives,togivelifeitsdirectionand
motivation.

Thishappenedtomeinthelate1960s.WhileworkingattheW.E.UpjohnInstituteforEmploymentResearch,Iwasaskedtodoajobanalysisofsocialworkersfor
theRehabilitationServicesoftheU.S.DepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare(nowtheDepartmentofHealthandHumanServices).Theneedforsocial
servicespersonneltostaffthewelfareagencieswasgreatthroughoutthecountry.Therewerenotenoughprofessionalsocialservicepersonnelavailable.Thequestion
was:Wouldananalysisoftheworkbeingdonebythesocialworkersindicateshorterroutestotrainthepersonnelneeded?

Withmorethan20yearsofjobanalysisexperience,Iwasdissatisfiedwiththeexistingprocedures.Atthattime,avariantofachecklistwasinuseessentiallyan
impersonalinstrumentthatpresumedtoknowwhatjobinformationwasimportant.Thechecklistwasconstructedbyinterviewingasampleofincumbentsand
formulatingitemsfromtheinformationobtained.Althoughdissatisfiedwiththechecklist,Iknewitsappealwasinitsapparenteconomy.Onceconstructed,the
checklistcouldbeadministeredtoverylargesamplesofincumbentstoprovidemassiveamountsofdatathatcouldthenbeevaluatedstatistically.

Mydissatisfactionwiththechecklistderivedfromintensiveresearchinoccupationalclassification.Duringthisresearch,Ifoundthatmostofthe

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datagatheredwithchecklistshadtodowiththeworkthatwascompletedanddescribedverylittleofwhatworkersdidtogetitdone.Itwasasthoughtheworker
wassimplyanadjuncttothetechnologyinvolved.Yetwhatworkers''did''isthekeytothevarioushumanresourcemanagement(HRM)operations.Iwas
determined,therefore,tobeinnovativeinmystudyofsocialworkers.Iwantedtolearnnotonlywhatgotdone,whichIhadaprettygoodideaaboutanyway,but
howsocialworkerswentaboutdoingit,taskbytask.

Iarrangedtointerviewsixsocialworkersofjourneymanstatus,allmoreorlessdoingthesamework.Ibuilttheinterviewaroundtheneedtolearnwhatgotdone,the
knowledgesrequiredtogetitdone,theskillsandabilitiesinvolvedinapplyingtheknowledges,andtheperformancestandardstowhichtheworkneededtobedone.
These,ofcourse,weretraditionalcategoriesofinformation.Inaddition,Iaskedwhateverquestionswerenecessarytodeterminehow,taskbytask,theincumbents
functioned,usingasaguidelinethefunctionalcategoriesrelatingtoThings,Data,andPeople(TDP)thathadbeendevelopedaspartofmyearlierclassification
research.Thislineofinquiry,Ihoped,wouldleadtobetteritemsforachecklistifthatturnedouttobethewaytogo.Thisexploratoryinterview,whichextendedover
severaldays,wastheplaceandtimewhereIdiscoveredmyjewel.Thejewel,thebrilliantlight,wasthatIdidnotneedtoconstructachecklist.Icouldusethe
focusedgroupinterviewtoservethesamepurposewithmuchmorepowerfuleffect.Hereiswhy.

Thegroup,whichcametobecalledafocusgroup,hadfarmoretosayabouttheworktheydidthancouldeverbelearnedfromachecklist.Forexample,in
describingthestandardsaccordingtowhichaparticulartaskneededtobeperformed,theparticipantswoulddescribetheproblemstheyfacedinachievingthose
standardsandtheadaptationstheyneededtomake.Atthesametimetheysuggestedthingsthatmanagementcoulddotomakeiteasiertoachievethosestandards.

Managementhadaverysuperficialideaofwhatpeopleactuallydidintheirassignmentstogetworkdone.Eveninhighlystructuredsituations,workerswere
innovative.Theyextendedthemselvesbeyondthestandingoperatingprocedures(SOP).

Whentheanalystfunctionedasafacilitator,askedopenendedquestions,andinnowaypresumedtoknowtheworkoftheparticipantsrelinquishingcontrolofthe
jobanalysistotheparticipantstheywereveryopenabouttheirwork,willingtoshare,andnotpronetoexaggerate.

Theresultingtaskbank,ineffectaninventoryoftasks,couldbevalidatedwithotherincumbentshavingmoreorlessthesameassignments.

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Inadvertently,IhadstumbledonafactIhadbeenawareofsubliminallyfrommyresearchinclassification:Workerswerewholepersonsandwhenchallengedand
givensupport,functionasthoughtherewerenoboundariesontheirproductivity.Ihadaninsightintoacentraltruthofparticipatorymanagement,atruththatwould
colormyreflectionsoneveryaspectofHRM.

Thisinsightiscentraltowhatfollowsinthisbook.InitStevenCronshawandIjoinotherwritersandHRMresearchers,forexample,DruckerandArgyris,Bennis
andMacGregor,inunderstandingworkasacollaborativeeffortbetweenworkersandmanagement,producingitsgreatestfruitshighproductivity,highreturnon
investment,andhighsatisfactionwhenspurningthetraditional,adversarial,negativerelationship.

FunctionalJobAnalysis(FJA)isintendedtoprovideamaptotheworldofwork.Thisbookcontainstheknowledgeneededtoreadthatmapandbeginthejourney
throughtheworldofwork.InlearningtoreadandusetheFJAmapyoucanputshapeandcoherencetotheindistinctandjumbledlandscapethatisoureveryday
understandingofwork.AsPolanyiandProsch(1975)saidintheirbookMeaning:
Touseamaptofindourway,wemustbeabletodothreethings.Firstwemustidentifyouractualpositioninthelandscapewithapointonthemap,thenwemustfindonthemap
anitinerarytowardourdestination,andfinally,wemustidentifythisitinerarybyvariouslandmarksinthelandscapearoundus.Thusmapreadingdependsonthetacitknowledge
andskillofthepersonusingthemap.Successfulidentificationofactuallocationswithpointsonamapdependsonthegoodjudgementofaskilledmapreader.Nomapcanread
itself.Neithercanthemostexplicitpossibletreatiseonmapreadingreadamap.(p.30)

ThisbookintroducesyoutoarichlanguageofjobdescriptionandprovidesbasicnavigationaltermsandacoordinatesystemintermsofTDP.Youprovidethe
itinerary,pickingoutlandmarks(somefamiliar,somenewlyapprehended)fromthepanoramathatistheworldofworkperhapsusingyourownjobasthestarting
pointandwalkingaboutintherealworldwheretheworkgetsdone.Hopefully,afteryouhavedigestedthecontentsofthisbook,yourjudgment,yourskill,and
yourtacitknowledgeinreadingandinterpretingtheFJAmapwillimprovewithexperience.Youmustwalktheworkterrainyourselfandvisitthevariedpeopleand
placesalongyourchosenroute.Althoughanyjourneyrequiresaninvestmentintimeandenergy,webelieveyouwillfindtheeffortexpendedonstudyingFJAmore
thanworthwhile.

SIDNEYA.FINE

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Acknowledgments
WewouldliketoexpressourgratitudetoEdwinA.Fleishman,SeriesEditor,andtothepeopleatLawrenceErlbaumAssociates(especiallyAnneDuffyandLane
Akers),fortheirworkinputtingthisbookintoprint.Theirencouragementandpatienceisgreatlyappreciatedandhasbeeninstrumentaltothecompletionofthis
work.SidneyFinewouldliketoacknowledgeFredaBernotaviczandWrethaWileyfortheircontributionsearlyintheconceptionoftheFJAfocusgrouptechnique.
MarilynGordonRoss(wifeofSidneyFine)devotedendlesshourstoquestioningandeditingthematerialandtoachievingtheclarityandlucidityithas.Ifmurky
sectionsremain,thereadercanattributethemtotheoriginalwritingthatsomehowmissedhereditorialacumen.Iamforeverindebtedtoher.StevenCronshawwould
liketofondlythankhisfamily,Kayla,Kristjan,andKentonforsacrificingfamilyweekendsandeveningsasheworkedonthisbook.Dr.DavidJacksonpointedout
MihalyCsikszentmihalyi'swork,whichhelpedinexpandingandenrichingtheApplicationssection.Dr.JohnMunnsteeredtheresearchtowardEdwardShapiroand
A.WesleyCarr'sconceptofthesharedinterpretationofexperience,whichispickedupasanimportantthemeinthisbook.StevenCronshawalsothanksthe
DepartmentofPsychologyattheUniversityofGuelphforprovidingthesupportiveenvironmentneededforalengthyprojectofthistype.

SIDNEYA.FINE
STEVENF.CRONSHAW

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Chapter1
Introduction

DoesHRMHaveaFuture?

Ithasbecomeaclichethatweliveinatimeoftumultuousandrapidchange.Andalthoughthewindsofchangecanbeexhilarating,manyofusfeeltheneedforan
anchortokeepfromcapsizing.DepartmentsofHRMarefacedwithsuchapossibilityandsuchaneed.Stewart(1996)statedinaFortunearticle:

Nearlyeveryfunctionofthisdepartment(humanresources)canbeperformedmoreexpertlyforlessbyothers.Chancesareitsleadersareunabletodescribetheircontributionto
valueaddedexceptintrendy,unquantifiable,andwannabeterms....Whynotblowthesuckerup?(p.105)

HereportedonastudybytheCorporateLeadershipCouncilofWashington,DC,thatconcludedthatfourbigdollopsofhumanresource(HR)workhave"significant
potentialtooutsourcefully:benefitsdesignandadministrationinformationsystemsandrecordkeepingemployerservicessuchasretirementcounseling,
outplacement,andrelocationandhealthandsafety(workerscompensation,wellnessprograms,drugtesting,andOSHAcompliance)."Hecontinued:
Whystopthere?AslewofothertraditionalHRfunctionscanalsobeoutsourcedordevolvedfromHRtotheline.Takerecruiting.EverywhereI'veworkedwhereIhadtohire
people,theruleofthumbamongmanagerswastoinvolveHRaslittleaspossibleintheprocess.WhenHRprofessionalsarethemselveslookingforwork,twothirdsofthetime
theyfinditbynetworkingorusingsearchfirms(aformofoutsourcing)accordingtoasurveyoftheHRjobmarketbyManchesterPartnersInternational,aPhiladelpiabased
coalitionofoutplacementandexecutivecoachingconsultants.(pp.105106)

StewartquotedVikeshMahendroo,vicepresidentofWilliamM.Mercer,theHRconsultingfirm,assaying,"Humancapitalmanagementhas

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becomeimportantenoughthatitisanacceptablecareerpathforanupandcomer.However,manypeopledoingtheworknowcan'tcutitintheHRofthe
future"(pp.105106).

AlthoughStewartmaybecaughtupinthedriveofthepast10yearsfordownsizingandreengineering,weareinclinedtotakehimseriously.Whathehastosayisnot
veryencouragingfortheexistingHRbureaucracy.WeknowfromthedownsizingalreadytakingplacethatStewart'sobservationsarenotacademicormerewishful
thinking.Theconfrontationalideasheexpressesarealreadybeingimplemented.Nucor,thesteelgiantwith6,000employees,runsHRwithaheadquartersstaffof
threepeople,asecretaryandtwootheremployeesreportingtoplantgeneralmanagers,nottocorporatemanagers.HRis,inshort,alinefunction.

TheHRDisciplineNottheHRDepartmentistheIssue

IsthistheharbingerofthefutureHRadministrativedetailoutsourced,andstaffing,training,performancemonitoring,anddesignofjobandteamfunctionsshiftedto
lineactivity?

Possibly.However,thecontinuanceoftheHRdepartmentisnottheissue.TheissueiswhetherthedisciplineofHR,itsprinciplesandpractices,hasaroletoplayin
achievingprofitableproductivity,effectiveorganizations,andgrowing,satisfiedworkforces.

Thisissueloomslargeintheseturbulenttimes,clicheornot.Thesedaysfeworganizationsremainunaffectedbyglobalizationandinternationalcompetitionformarkets
andresources.Privateenterprisesoperatingwithintheconfinesofasinglecountrymustdealwithoffshorecompetitorsthattakeadvantageofrelaxedtariffrules.
Companiesseekingmarketsinothercountriesmustadapttolocalconditionsandfacecompetitionfromfirmsbasedinthehomecountries.Evengovernmentsand
nonprofitagenciesprovidingserviceswithoutanydirectcompetitorsintheboundariesofasinglecountryhavefelttheneedtorestructureinresponsetothetrendin
theprivatesectorforflatterorganizationstructuresandgreateraccountabilityforcustomerorienteddeliveryofgoodsandservices.

Theglobalmarketplacehasplacedaspecialpremiumonorganizationstohaveskilledandadaptableworkforcesinordertosurviveandcompetesuccessfully.
Organizationsmustbeespeciallysharpintheirrecruitmentandtrainingofemployeeswhoworkwillinglywithmanagementinachievinggoalsthatareoftenmutuallyset.
Howwillthisbedone?Whowilldothis?

Inresponsetothesedevelopments,themanagementofprivatesectorcompanieshasadoptedvariousmeanstodealsuccessfullywiththeuncer

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tainenvironmentsbroughtaboutbyglobalcompetition,includingthefollowing:

aretreatfromhierarchical,bureaucraticorganizationstructurestowardflatterorganizationstructurestoincreaseresponseflexibility.

increasedworkerparticipationandautonomy,particularlyontheshopfloor,therebydrawingmoreheavilyonworkerknowhow.

computerizationofinformationflow,eliminatingbottlenecksfrequentlyonmiddlemanagementlevels.

computerizationofdesignandproductiontomeettheneedforgreaterprecisionandadaptabilityinproductionprocesses.

increasedmergersandacquisitionsamongcompaniesbothwithincountriesandacrossnationallinestoconsolidateoperations,reduceoverheadbyeliminatinglarge
portionsoftheirworkforce,andincreaseprofitability.

intensificationofresponsivecustomerorientedsystemsrequiringahighdegreeofadaptabilitytochangingmarketconditions.

intensificationofthedemandbyindustrythatgovernmentsdomoretoupgradetheireducationalandtrainingresourcesandequipworkerswiththeskillsrequiredby
anincreasinglycompetitiveworldeconomy.

CanitbeStewartisunawareofthesignificantroleplayedbypractitionersoftheHRdisciplineinpromotingflatterorganizationstructures,increasedworker
participationandautonomy,andamoreflexibleapproachtotheuseofworkerskills(e.g.,asstatedbyPetersenandHillkirkinAbetteridea)?WhenHRpersonnel
havetheopportunitytoimplementprogressivenotionsthathaveemergedfromtheirresearchandpractice,theyaddsignificantvaluetotheproductivityand
profitabilityoftheirorganizations.

HRMhasawealthofresourcestodrawoninthethinkingandwritingofMacGregorandArgyris,DruckerandPeters,BennisandMaslow,amongothers,tomeet
thechallengesofglobalization.Thesethinkerssetforthacentraltheme:Theworkerneedstobeviewedasawholepersonandnotasanadjuncttoamachine.Only
withthisapproachcanthefullpotentialandadaptabilityoftheworkersbetapped.

FJA,indevelopmentduringthelast40years,picksuponthistheme.Itsmethodssystematicallyandconsistentlydistinguishbetweenwhatgetsdoneandwhat
workersdotogetitdonetaskbytask.FJAcastsaclearlightontasksthatcontributetoproductivityandthosethataresuperfluous.Itdoessobydocumentingthe
knowledges,skills,andabilities(KSA)requiredtoperformthetasksandhowthetasksmeshwithoneanothertoachievetheoutputs.FJAthusaddsvalueto
informeddecisionmakingand

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communicationwhereverajob'scontentandcontextfigureprominentlyintopersonneloperations.

FJA

TheconceptualideasthatarereferredtoasFJAweredevelopedduringtheyearsfrom1950to1960attheU.S.EmploymentServiceandservedastheguiding
hypothesesforresearchonanewoccupationalclassificationsystemfortheDictionaryofoccupationaltitles1965.Itisstillineffecttoday,morethan30yearslater.

Duringthe1960s,theconceptswerefurtherrefinedanddevelopedintoajobanalysistool.Thistoolhasbeenusedtoanalyzehundredsofjobsateverylevelofskill
ingovernment,nonprofitorganizations,andprivateindustry.ThefollowingcorepropositionsoftheFJAapproachgivethereaderaninitialsenseofwhythe
informationprovidedbyFJAcanserveasafoundationforHRMinthe21stcentury.Thesecorepropositionsare:

PeopleAreWholePersonsPeopleinvolvedinanyactivity(learning,playing,working)arealwaysfunctioningaswholepersons,instrumentally(actively
performingatask)andlatently(adaptingtothesituationinwhichthetaskoccurs).Contentandcontextualvariablesarealwaysinvolvedsimultaneously.Inordertoget
atruepictureofwhatisgoingon,itisimperativetodescribeperformanceholistically.(Perhapsthereaderisinclinedtosay,"Sowhatelseisnew?"Toooftenthe
inclinationofprofessionalshasbeentouseteststhatfractionateperformanceandindividualqualifications.)

TasksRatherThanJobsAreBasicUnitsofWorkFJAstartswiththetaskratherthanthejobasthecenterofattention.Ataskcanandneedstoconnectwhat
aworkerdoes(behavior)andwhatgetsdone(result).Ataskismorestablethanajob,whichismadeupofseveraltomanytasksallvariableastoscope,
difficulty,andcontent.Jobtitlesareespeciallymisleading.

TheObjectsofWorkAreTDPTDPmakeuptheuniverseofobjectsofwork.Thingsarealltangiblematerials.Dataareinformationandideas.Peopleincludes
personsandliveanimalswithwhichworkersinteract.

FunctionalSkillsDenoteWorkBehaviorsinRelationtoTDP,PersonsFunctioninRelationtoThingsPhysically,toDataMentally,andtoPeople
InterpersonallyThenamesofthesefunctionalrelationshipsareuniquetoeachcategory.Thefunctionalrelationshipsaredefinedasfunctionalskillsandoccurin
behavioralhierarchiesfromsimpletocomplex.

SpecificContentSkillsDenoteKSAAcquiredinParticularJobWorkerSituationsWorkers,whenapplyingfunctionalskillstoTDPobjectsinjobworker
situations,acquirespecificknowledgestoefficientlyandeffec

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tivelyattainspecifiedperformancestandards.Thesespecificknowledges(andassociatedknowhow)constituteaworker'sspecificcontentskills.

TasksAreBasicModulesofaWorkDoingSystemThelinkageofbehaviors(functions),objects(TDP),andresultsproducestasksthatarebasicmodulesof
theinternaltechnologyofaworkdoingsystem.Thesystemhasthreeinteractingcomponents:WorkOrganization,Worker,andWork.Asystemsapproachisapplied
toevaluatethelinkagesamongtasks,theiroverallcontributiontooutput,andthevaluetheyaddtotheproductivityofaworkorganization.

ASystemsApproachInvolvesBothContentandContextAsystemsapproachisnotonlysensitivetotheworkingsoftheinternaltechnologyofaworkdoing
systembutalsotothevariablesintheenvironmentthatcanimpactonitsfunctioning.Thefunctionalandspecificcontentskillscomprehendaworker'sinstrumental
behaviorfocusedonproducingtheorganization'soutputs.Theydonotincludethelatentskillsrequiredtodealwiththeworkorganization'scontext.Theselatentskills
aretheadaptiveskillsthosecompetenciesthatindividualsneedtomanagethemselvesinrelationtoconformityandchangeintheirenvironment.Theyarelargely
invisiblewillingnessesthatactivatefunctionalandspecificcontentskills,contributetowholepersonfunctioning,andplayacentralroleinthequalityofperformance.

AMajorAdaptiveSkillIsHowaPersonRelatestotheInstructionalMixofPrescriptionandDiscretionImplicitineverytask,ineveryconnectionbetween
abehaviorandaresult,isaninstructioninvolvingsomecombinationofprescriptionanddiscretion.Prescriptionanddiscretionaretwoinverselyrelatedcontinua.The
morecomplexthebehavior,themorediscretionitinvolvesinrelationtoprescriptionthesimplerthebehavior,themoreprescriptionitinvolvesinrelationtodiscretion.

WholePersonFunctioningInvolvestheThreeKindsofSkillsSimultaneouslyAllthreekindsofskillsfunctional,specificcontent,andadaptivecomeinto
playsimultaneouslyintheperformanceofanyjobworkersituation.Thisconceptualframeworkcomprehendsthetotalityofhumanworkperformance.

Thesecorepropositionsdescribeinformationthatisnotlikelytobeforthcomingfromjobanalysischecklistscontainingpredigestedsnippetsofjobdata.Innoway
canchecklistsindicatehowworkersengagetheproblemstheyfaceintheirworkandimproviseandinnovatetogobeyondtheirtrainingandspecifiedproceduresto
getworkdone.Thiskindofinformationneedstobeobtaineddirectlyfromtheworkers.

ThepurposeofthisbookistodescribeanddemonstratehowFJAimplementsthesecorepropositions,gatherstheinformationinstructuredfocusgroups,andapplies
theinformationinpersonneloperations.

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TheOrganizationoftheBook

Inthisbook,wedescribeboththetheoryandapplicationofFJA.Toaccomplishthis,thebookisorganizedintothreemajorparts.InPartI,whichspanschapters2
to6,thetheoryandconceptsunderlyingFJAarediscussedindetail.Particularemphasisisgiventotheholistic,unifyingnatureofFJA.InPartII,consistingof
chapters7to9,theFJAprocessisdescribedindetailincludingthegenerationofthetaskbankbytheworkerfocusgroupandthesubsequentreceptionofthat
informationbymanagement.SpecialattentionisgiventotheuseofFJAintotalqualitymanagement(TQM).InPartIII,comprisedofchapters10to18,30yearsof
FJAapplicationsaredescribed.TheseapplicationscoverawiderangeofinterventionsfamiliartoHRmanagers,includingpersonnelselection,trainingcurriculum
design,jobdesign,andcareerdevelopment.AlloftheseapplicationsflownaturallyfromtheFJAtheoryexplainedinPartIandthemethodologydescribedinPartII.
Tomorefullydetailthecontentofthisbook,asynopsesofthechaptersfollows.

Inchapter2,thesystemsconceptforunderstandingworkisexplained.InFJA,theworkdoingsystemiscomprisedofthreesubsystems(Work,Worker,andWork
Organization)focusedonacommonpurpose:productivity,efficiency/effectiveness,andworkergrowth.Thediscussioninchapter2showshowtheHRmanagercan
assisttheorganizationtoachievetherespectivepurposesofthethreesubsystems.Whentheseareinbalanceinanorganization,itcanbemaximallycompetitive.

Inchapter3,weexaminetheWorkOrganizationsubsystem.AfullunderstandingoftheWorkOrganizationisessentialtoaninformedapplicationofFJA.Wediscuss
thestartupofworkdoingsystemsbyprogenitorssometimescalledentrepreneursorcharismaticleadersandhowtheytransformaperceivedneedinsociety
andtheirpersonalvaluestofulfilapurpose.Weshowhow,inordertoachievethepurpose,theprogenitormustbreakthepurposedownintogoals(intermediate
term)andobjectives(shortterm).Finally,wediscusstheinherentrivalryofthetwosimultaneousgoalsoftheworkorganizationtofulfilitsmissionandtomaintain
itselfandtheimpactthisrivalryhasonHRM.

Inchapter4,weexaminethesecondcomponentoftheworksystem,theWorker.TheHRmanagermustrecognizeandacknowledgeworkers'capacities,education,
training,experience,interests,andculturalbackgroundsotheycanbemosteffectivelyintegratedwithorganizationalandtechnologicalneedstoachievethe
organization'scompetitivepositionintheglobalmarketplace.WenotethatthemergerofWorkerwithWorkOrganizationismostsuccessfulwhenthereisa
recognitionofmutualinterest.Thisbecomesevidentwhenaspecialemphasisisgiventothe

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developmentofworkerskillsandtheneedtodrawonworkers'multiskillpotentialtogivetheorganizationacompetitiveedge.

Inchapter5,wediscussthethirdcomponentoftheworksystemWork.AnunderstandingofWork,itsstructureanddynamics,isessentialtotheefficientand
effectiveuseofbothtechnologicalandhumanresources.WeshowthatworkcontentacrossallorganizationscanbeanalyzedintermsoftheTDPoutputsthatWork
isdesignedtoproduceandthefunctionsworkersperformtoproducetheseoutputs.ThefunctionsperformedinrelationtoThingsareuniquetoThingsand
correspondtoaworker'sphysicalcapacitiessimilarly,thefunctionsperformedinrelationtoDataareuniquetoDataandcorrespondtoaworker'smentalcapacities
andfinally,thefunctionsperformedinrelationtoPeopleareuniquetoPeopleandcorrespondtoaworker'sinterpersonalcapacities.Ineachinstancethefunctionsare
hierarchicalandformordinalscalesthathelpquantifytheworkcontentofanyjobinrelationtoTDP.

Inchapter6,wediscussthecentralroleoftrustinreducingfrictionintheworkdoingsystem.Iftrustispresent,theworkdoingsystemhasthecapacityforgreat
accomplishment,butwithoutitselfdestructivenesscanoverwhelmthesystem(acrimoniouslaborstoppagesandlockouts,industrialsabotage,lowmorale,etc.).
Manyobstaclescanbefoundtotrustingrelationships,whereastheroadtotrustisnarrowanddifficulttonavigate.Weshowthattrustgrowsoutofashared
interpretationofexperienceaconnectednessbetweenmanagersandworkers.Thisstancerequiressensitivityandskillonthepartofeveryoneintheorganization.
WedescribethevalueoftheFJAprocessforempoweringworkerswithinacommunityofsharedpurpose,freecommunication,andnondependenttrust.

PartII,whichconsistsofchapters7to9,describestheprocessofgeneratingFJAdatabythefocusgroupmethodandconnectingmanagementgoalstotheFJA
effort.Chapter7discusseshowtheHRspecialistcanproduceanFJAtaskbank.Examplesofthestatementsthatmakeupataskbankaregiven.Thetaskbankis
thefollowthroughontheideathattheTaskisthefundamentalunitofanalysisandtherebyprovidesthebasicinformationforHRinterventions.Theintentofthis
chapteristopresenttheFJAdatagatheringprocessthefocusgroupinterviewinsufficientdetailtoserveasastudyguideforanyonewishingtopreparetoqualify
asanFJAfacilitator.AmongthetopicsdiscussedaretheplanningandconductingofanFJAfocusgroup,thegroupdynamicsinvolved,thewritingoftheallimportant
taskbank,andtheskillsrequiredofanFJAfacilitator(analyst).

Chapter8coverstheconsultationwithmanagementtoarrangefortheFJAfocusgroup(time,place,subjectmatterexperts[SME],facilities)andhowtheresults
(FJAtaskbank,observationsconcerningworkeradaptations)mightimpactontheworkorganization.Theconsultationshould

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seektoobtainanunderstandingofthepurpose,goals,andobjectivesoftheorganizationsothattheoutputsandresultsgeneratedinthefocusgroupcanbelinkedto
them.Thisinformationcanbeespeciallyusefulinadvisingmanagementaboutitsallocationofhumanresourcestomissionandmaintenancegoals.Oftencalledstrategic
HRplanning,thisprocessisacrucialareaforHRMtodemonstratethevalueitaddstoanorganization.

Chapter9relatesFJAtotheTQMmovementthathascapturedmanagementimaginationinthelatterhalfofthe20thcentury.WediscussthebasicsofTQMandthen
showhowFJA,asatheoryandmethodology,fitsseamlesslywiththisapproachandoffersapowerfulmeanstopursuetotalqualitygoalswithintheworkdoing
system.

PartIII,theFJAapplications,beginswithchapter10.TheseapplicationsdrawdirectlyontheFJAtheoryandconceptscontainedinPartIofthebookaswellasFJA
methodologydescribedinPartII.EachoftheninechaptersinPartIIIdescribesaninterventionthatcanbeundertakenusingFJAasamodel.Chapter10showshow
FJAcanbeappliedtorecruitingthebestpersonforthejob.WedrawheavilyonthecapacityofFJAtoprovidejobseekerswiththeinformationneededtoselfselect
intopositionsthatbestsuittheirskills,temperaments,andinterests.

Chapter11usestheFJAtaskbanktodevelopemploymenttestsforassessingthecapabilitiesofjobapplicantsasanadjuncttotheemploymentinterview.Emphasis
isgiventotwotypesoftests:workhistory/experiencequestionnairesandworksamples.WeshowhowFJAjobanalysisdatameetstherequirementsoftest
developmentandprofessionalpsychologyforreliableandvalidmeasures.SomeconsiderationisgiventotheuseofFJAforgeneratingcriterionrelated,construct
related,andcontentrelatedvalidationevidenceinsupportofemploymenttests.

Inchapter12,wediscusstheuseofFJAconceptsinthedevelopmentofstructuredemploymentinterviewsforthehiringofnewworkers.Theinterviewconsistsof
behaviordescriptionandsituationalquestionsderivedfromtaskbankdatacollectedduringthejobanalysisfocusgroupsession.Thesequestionsarethenbuiltintoa
structuredinterviewpatterncapableofbeingscored.Exampleofinterviewquestionsaregivenalongwithsuggestionsonhowtousethesequestionsproperlyinthe
hiringprocess.

Inchapter13,theuseofFJAfordesigninganddeliveringtrainingisdiscussed.Weshowhowthetaskbankdatacanbeusedasthebasisforthedesignoftraining
anddevelopmentprogramsastheyrelatebothtojobcontentandjobcontext.Thetaskbankisespeciallyusefulforthispurposebecauseitconnectsknowledgesand
skillsrequiredoftheworkertothebehaviorstheworkermustperformandtheresultsheorshemustachieve.Italsoindicatestheperformancestandardsandquality
standardstheworkerandproductmustmeet.Thuswithregardtojobcontent,FJAprovidesanswerstothefundamentalquestionsoftrainers:WhatexactlyamI

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totrainfor,wheredoesitfitintothejobassignment,andwhatarethestandardstowhichIneedtotrain?Withregardtojobcontext,thechapterpointstotheneed
fortheorganizationtobesensitivetoadaptiveskillrequirementsandthatsuchsensitivitybuildsarelationshipthatcandrivethefunctionalandspecificcontentskills.

Chapter14isdevotedtotheuseofFJAinperformanceassessment.PerformancestandardsareeasilyderivedfromFJAtaskstatementsandcanbeintegratedinto
thedesignofperformancemeasurementsystems,especiallythoserequiringjudgmentalratingsofworkerperformancebypeer,supervisor,orself.

Chapter15considershowFJAtaskdatacanbeusedincareerdevelopmentandcoachingforindividualemployees.Theintensecompetitionassociatedwith
globalizationhasradicallyalteredtheoutlookoncareers.Nolongerdoesitseemfeasibletocountonacareerwithasinglecompanyorevenonasinglecareer.More
andmoreindividualshavetoassumepersonalresponsibilityfortheircareerandnotbedependentonasingleorganizationforcareerfulfillment.Thismeansthat
counselorsneedtohelpindividualsbecomeawareofopportunitiesforskillgrowthinwhateverpositiontheyareinandcoachtheminhowthoseskillsmighttransferto
positionsbothwithinthecompanyandelsewhere.UsingFJAtaskbankdata,itispossibleforworkerstoseebothhowtheyarefunctioningwithrelationtothe
specificcontentoftheorganizationofwhichtheyareapartandhowthosefunctionsgeneralizetootherjobsinthelabormarket.

Chapter16showshowFJAcanbeusedtorewardworkerperformanceandgrowththroughthedesignofjobevaluationsystems.TheobjectiveofFJAbasedjob
evaluationistopayemployeesbothequitably(basedon''equal''or"similar"levelsofskill,complexity,andtraining)andfairly(basedonrecognitionofuniqueor
exceptionalfactorsintheworksituationsuchasmeritperformanceandenvironmentalhazards).AdetailedexampleisgiventoshowhowFJAbasedjobevaluationis
appliedtoevaluatingjobs.

Chapter17dealswiththeproblemofjobredesignfromtheFJAperspective.Webeginwiththepremisethatworkersfrequentlyexerciseinitiativetoredesigntheir
jobsoftenwithoutmanagement'sknowledge.FJAcanbeusedtobuildonthispositivetendencybyfacilitatinganongoingdialoguebetweenworkersandmanagers
aboutthejobimprovementsneededtoimproveproductivityandfacilitateworkergrowth.Thetaskbank,updatedregularlyandkeptaccessibletotheworkstation,
providesthebasictoolforthispurpose.

Inchapter18weexamineFJAandthelaw.Inthepresenteraofequalemploymentopportunity(EEO),legalconcernsimpactonmuchthatHRtechniciansand
managersdo.InthischapterwedemonstratenotonlyhowFJAcontributestothelegaldefensibilityofvariousinterventions,buthow

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itcanbeusedproactivelytomeettheletterandspiritofimportantlegislationandprogramsnowimpactingonHRM,includingtheAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct
(ADA)andAffirmativeAction(AA).

Insummary,the18chapterspresentasystematicdevelopmentandexplanationofFJA,beginningwiththeoryandconceptsinthefirstsixchaptersofPartI,explaining
FJAmethodologyinthethreechaptersofPartIIand,buildingonthefirsttwoparts,withFJAapplicationsinthelastninechapters.Theresultisthedefinitiveworkon
FJA.ThisbookisintendedtocontinueandreinforcetheuseofFJAasoneofthepremiereHRtoolsavailabletobusiness,industry,andgovernment.Morethanthat,
itisintendedtoreinforcetheconceptofholismintheHRMfieldaswellasthehumaneandinformedmanagementofpeopleinthiseraofglobalcompetitiveness.

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PARTI
LEARNINGANDUNDERSTANDINGTHEFJAMODEL

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Chapter2
TheWorkDoingSystem
AworkdoingsystemconsistsofthreeinteractingcomponentsWork,Worker,andWorkOrganization.Theinteractionhasitsstartinthepurposeoftheprogenitor
oftheWorkOrganizationwhoseaimistoproduceaproductorservice.Workersarerecruitedtohelp,whichtheyarewillingtodobecausetheyhavetheirown
purposes,namely,tomakealivingand/ortopromotetheirowngrowth.Theseseveralpurposesmeetinthework,theresultsofwhicharefocusedonrealizingthe
progenitor'spurpose.Thispurposeandthoseoftheworkersaremosteffectivelyachievedwhentheyaremergedandbecomeamutualendeavor.Thesystems
approachisamethodologyformeshinganddiscipliningthesepurposessothatboththeworkorganizationandworkersachievetheirpurposesoptimumproductivity
andworkergrowth.

Thischapterexplorestheconceptsofthesystemsapproachanddiscussesitsadvantagesandlimitationsastheyrelatetoplanningforaworkdoingsystem.Thisis
followedbytheFJAconceptualizationofthethreecomponentsWork,Worker,andWorkOrganizationofaworkdoingsystem,layingthegroundworkfortheir
elaborationinchapters3,4,and5.

AnExampleofaWorkDoingSystem

Earlyin1989,asaresultofasteadystreamofinquiriesandrequestsforandbookFinewroteaboutFJA20yearsearlier,heconcludedtherewasagenuineinterest
inFJA.Thebook,however,wasoutofprintandneededupdating.Heassumedtheinquirieswerepartoftheincreasedinterestintherolejobanalysiswasplayingin
equalopportunitylitigationandalsoarecognitionoftheinadequacyofthejobanalysesdonefortestdevelopment.Practitionerswerelookingforabettermousetrap.
FJAcouldbethatmousetrapandhewouldprovideit.Becausehewasretired,hecouldself

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publishthebookandperhapsearnasmallprofit.Healsolikedtheideaofbeingincontrolofthepublicationandkeepingthepricedownbyavoidingmiddlemen.

Hebroachedtheideatohiswife,apublicationsspecialist,andshesupportedthenotion,especiallybyofferinghertechnicalhelp.Heproceededtoresearchthe
feasibilityofthisidea.Hefirstsketchedoutwhatthefinalproductwouldbelike(scope,numberofpages,etc.),mentallydecidingtheamountoftimeitwouldtakeand
whetherheandhiswifecouldhandleit,giventheirothercommitmentsshehadherjobandhedidoccasionalconsultingandtrainingworkshops.Hedidnotwantto
getinvolvedwithhiringoutsidelabor.

Hetransformedhisspeculationsintotentativespecificationsandobtainedestimatesfromseveralprintersaboutthecosttoproduceasmallbookinanattractive
format.Healsoinvestigatedcostsformailingthefinalproductandforadvertisinginprofessionaljournalsandbydirectmail.Withthisinformationinhand,hehada
prettygoodideaofthecapitalneededandsetuptheTDPpublishingcompanywithaninvestmentof$3,000.

Thusbeganhisworkdoingsystem.Hehadaclearshorttermpurpose,riskcapitalof$3,000,laborresourcesconsistingofhimselfandhiswife'stechnicalhelp
(editingandpreparationofcamerareadycopy),acomputerandprinter,anofficeinhishome,atentativelistofsubcontractorsforprintingandadvertising,andhis
visionofandenthusiasmforwhatwasneeded.Hewasalsoawarethattheworkwouldhavetofitinwiththefamily(eightgrownchildrenandthreegrandchildren)and
theworklifeoftworatheractiveandbusypeopletherewouldbecompetingsystems.Hesetaschedule,apublicationdateinOctober/November1989,andwent
towork.Thefirstthinghedidwastousehistraininginasystemsapproachtoplanhisproject.

AdvantagesofaSystemsApproach

Thisordinaryexampleofasmallbusinessventurehasalmostallthecharacteristicsofaworkdoingsystemandillustratestheadvantagesandlimitationsofasystems
approach.Theadvantagescanbesummarizedintwowords:focusedeffort.Thelimitationsofasystemsapproachinhereinregardingitasapanacea,whichitisnot,
andinbecomingtoofocused.Thisbecomesapparentasthediscussionproceeds.Webeginwithdefinitionsofsystemandsystemsapproach.

System:Asequenceorseriesofinterrelatedactivitiescoordinatedaccordingtoamasterpurposeandviewedasaholisticundertakingtoprocessorconvertinputs(resourcesof
variouskinds)intooutputs(productsorservices).

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SystemsApproach:Aconceptualtoolusedtoorganizeandmarshalresources(technologies,material,workers)togetworkdonewithoptimumefficiencyandtoachieveamaster
purposethatmeetsspecifiedstandards.

Inbothofthesedefinitions,thecentralcharacteristicsare:amasterpurpose,theresourcesnecessarytoachieveit,anoutputthatmeetsqualitystandards,and
acoordinatedeffortthatachievesoptimumefficiency.Letusconsidereachofthesecharacteristicsinturn,beginningwiththemasterpurpose.
MasterPurpose:Themasterpurposeisgeneratedbyitsprogenitoronthebasisofperceivedneeds.Personalvaluesandunderstandingsofhowthoseneedsshouldbedealt
witharebroughttobearonthoseneeds.Themasterpurposebecomesthefocusaroundwhichresourcesandeffortaremarshaled.

Itisimportanttoexplorethemasterpurposethoroughly.Afterall,ithasbeenabstracted,pulledoutofanexusofneedsandassociatedvalues.Itisthusinevitably
intertwinedwithotherpurposes,othervalues.Intheexample,therecognizedneedwasforavailabilityofahandydeskaidversionoftheFJAscalesforpractitioners.
However,almostsimultaneously,anotherpurposeintrudedproductionofsomeincome.Thesetwopurposeswereinconflictinarrivingatapriceforthepublication.
Stickingtotheinitialpurposehelpedtodetermineareasonablepriceforanyinterestedbuyerandonethatwouldalsoreturntheinvestmentandyieldasmallprofit.
Underlyingthepragmaticaspectofthetwopurposeswereopposingvalues:serviceandgreed.Inthisinstance,servicewonout.Valuessuchasthesetendtoplaya
hiddenrolebehindstatementsofamasterpurpose.

Letusnowconsiderthesecondmajorcharacteristicofaworkdoingsystem:resources.

Resources:includescapital,rawmaterials,technology(machines,equipment,procedures),workers,andhousing.Inevitably,alongwithresources,itisnecessarytoconsider
constraints,becauserarelyareresourcessufficientoraperfectmatchforachievingthepurposewithinagiventimeframe.

Itishelpfultobreakdownthemasterpurposeintothecomponentpartsandassociatedresourcesnecessaryforitsrealization.Thisresultsinseeingtheworkdoing
systemasanagglomerationofsubsystems,allcontributingtotherealizationofthemasterpurpose.Aprinterwasneeded,advertisinghadtobearranged,andshipping
anddistributionprovidedforasnotedintheexample.Eachofthesecomponents,althoughasubsystemforthemasterpurposeinthepublishingventure,isinfacta
competingsystem,amasterpurposetoitsownprogenitor.Thusneedsandvaluesim

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posetheirownconstraintsonachievingthemasterpurposeoftheTDPpublishingventure.(Anyonewhohasevertriedtodohisorherowncontractingwhen
remodelingahouseapersonalmasterpurposeandthelineupandcoordinationofvariousconstructionspecialistsnecessarytoachieveit,hashadafirsthand
experiencewiththerelativityofmasterpurposesandtheircompetitionwithoneanother.)

Thematterofcomponentsrequiresmoreattention.Toaconsiderabledegreethesuccessofthesystemtheachievementoftheoverallpurposedependsonhow
wellthecomponentsaredefinedandtheirperformancecharacteristicsfittedintotheoverallsystem.Becausethemasterpurposedefinesthewholenessofaparticular
undertaking,itisessentialtodefinethecomponentpartsaspartofthatwholeness.Intheexample,nomatterhownaturalthecomponentpartsmayseemfor
example,printing,advertising,marketingasfarascontributingtotheultimatepurposeofproducingapublication,theyhavethepotentialofassumingaseparate
existence.Thishappenswhencomponentspursuedindependentlypresentunexpectedoptionsthatappearquitelogical,evenenhancing,butonesthatareoutofline
withthestatedmasterpurpose.Forexample,iftheprinteroftheplannedpublicationsuddenlycameforthwithproposalsforadifferentpaperstock,adifferentfont,
andafourcolorjobmeritoriousinthemselvesthatwouldbetotallyoutoflinewithwheretheprojectsetouttogo.(Wereturntothediscussionofcomponentsin
thecontextofthelimitationsofthesystemsapproach.)

Wenowconsiderthethirdcharacteristicofthesystemsapproach,achievingqualityperformance:

Fulfillingthepurposeaccordingtoqualitystandards:Theoutputisaproductorservice.Thequalitystandardsoftheoutputareboththosethatdefinetheintrinsicnatureofthe
productorserviceandthosenecessarytomeetthecompetitiverequirementsofthemarket.

Actually,havingamasterpurposeandliningupresourcesinrelationtoconstraintstoaccomplishitareunderlyingconditionsforachievingqualitystandards.Inthe
exampleproducingadeskaidtofacilitatetheuseofFJAScalestheissuewas:Couldaqualityproduct,bothtechnicallyadequateandeffectivelycommunicative,
beproducedwiththelimitedresourcesavailable?Breakingdowntheventureintocomponentsmadeitpossibletoseeifthestandardsforeachaspectoftheproject
couldbeachievedandadduptothequalitydesiredforthefinalresult.

Itisasimportanttospecifystandardsasitistodescriberesources.Thestandardsbecomethebasisformeasuringprogresstowardgoalachievementandthe
measurementsmakeitpossibletotrackfailurebynotingwhenprojectionshavenotbeenmet.Whenthistrackingoccursonacomponentbycomponentbasis,it
enablesfeedbackofinformationintothesys

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temandconsequentcorrectionoforiginalspecificationsandstandards.Intheexample,theoriginalcalculationsofthevolumeofreturnsfromdirectmailadvertising
calledforrentingapostoffice(P.O.)box.Thevolumedidnotmaterializeandsothe6monthP.O.boxrentalprovedunnecessaryandwasnotrenewed.

Thefinalcharacteristicrequiringelaborationisoptimumefficiency:
OptimumEfficiency:Thisisthebalancebetweenefficiencyandeffectivenessinworkdoingsystemsresultinginproductsand/orservicesatthemostreasonablecostusingthe
resourcesavailable.

Thesystemsapproachisfrequentlyidentifiedwithefficiency.Becausethesystemsapproachisasmuchconcernedwitheffectivenessasitiswithefficiency,thisisa
mistake.Eitherefficiencyoreffectivenesscanbepursuedtothedetrimentoftheotherinanintenselycompetitivemarket.Nevertheless,efficiencygetsspecialattention
becauseofaprevailingsuspicionmostthingsarenotbeingdoneaswellastheycouldbe,andare,infact,beingmismanaged.Iftherewasawill,itisbelieved,there
wouldbeawaytoreducecosts.Thisbeliefisheldespeciallyfortaxsupportedpublicservices.Althoughitmaybetruethatoneoranotheractivitycouldberunmore
efficiently,thatisnotthepoint.Thepointiswhetherthelargersystem,ofwhichtheactivityisapart,canberunmoreefficientlyandstilldelivertheproductorservice
intended.Andthatisamatterofoptimization.

IncarryingoutvariousactivitiesofFine'ssmallpublishingbusiness,itquicklybecameapparentthathewassacrificingefficiencyforeffectiveness.Forexample,heis
notanefficientwordprocessor.Shouldhehavecontractedouthiswordprocessing?Whenheconsideredwhatwasinvolvedinfindingaqualifiedwordprocessor,
gettingtheworktothatperson,retrievingit,proofingandcorrectingit,hedecidedthatalthoughhistimemayhavebeenworthmore,hewouldgainverylittleby
subcontracting.Furthermore,hetoldhimself,itwastimehedidsomethingtoimprovehiswordprocessingskills.(Inasystemsapproachitisalwaysnecessaryto
watchoutforthesecontaminatingsecondarypurposes.Typicallytheyarerationalizations.Ifhereallywantedtoimprovehisskills,hecouldhaveregisteredfora
trainingcourse.Thatwouldhavebeenmoreefficient,butitwouldhaveconsiderablydulledhisenthusiasmandprobablyquashedhispublishingventure.)

SummaryofAdvantagesofaSystemsApproach

Onthebasisofthediscussionofthesecharacteristicsofasystemsapproach,wecannowsummarizeitsadvantages.Itchannelsvision,gives

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direction,providesabasisfororganizingresourcesandmeasuringperformance,andithelpstoallocateworksothepurposecanbeachievedaccordingtospecified
standardswithinasettimeframe.Inshort,itunifiesandfocuseseffort.Wenowproceedtoadiscussionofthelimitationsofthesystemsapproach.

LimitationsofaSystemsApproach

Thefundamentallimitationofthesystemsapproachisitsunderlyingandinadvertent"arrogance"(Churchman,1968).Oncesetupittendstoassumeexaggerated
significance.Itbecomesallimportanttothepointofminimizingotherpurposes,commandeeringresourcesregardlessoftheneedsofthoseotherpurposes.

Almostanydefinedandfocusedsystemisabstractedfromsomelargersysteminwhichitisembedded.Thelargersystemispartofanenvironmentthatcontainsmany
variablesoverwhichtheabstractedsystemdoesnothaveanycontrol,andthatofcourse,canhaveagreatdealofinfluenceonit.Thesevariablespresentoutside
limitations.Inaddition,weneedtoreconsiderthewholematterofthecomponentbreakdownofthesystemthatisnecessarilyarbitrary.Thereareusuallyoptionsin
howthecomponentsaredetermined.
Environmentallimitations:Environmentallimitationsofthesystemsapproachincludethelargersystemsofwhichtheymaybeapart(e.g.,thevariablesofthepublishingworld
thatcouldimpacttheproductionaspectsofthepublishingproject)andoftheprofessionalworld,whereexistenceofcompetitiveproductscouldaffecttheneedandvalues
relatingtotheproject.Anotherlimitationistheoveralleconomicenvironment(e.g.,depressionorprosperity),whichcouldhaveanimpactontheneedforasystemthatis
designedtoimproveHRMoperations.

Componentlimitations:Sometimesthecomponentsthataredecidedonseemtobeanaturalchoice,naturalspecializations.However,sometimestheyaresospecializedtheygo
theirmerrywaywithoutproperconsiderationforwhereandwhentheirparticularoutputfitsin.Forexample,inthebookpublishingenterprise,illustrativechartswereneeded.
Similarchartswerealsoneededforanupcomingtrainingprogram.Thetwodifferentneedsbecameinterwoven,seeminglybecomingonegoal:newcharts.This,ofcourse,slowed
downthebook'sprogress.Toavoidfurtherdelayonthebook,thetwoneedshadtobeuntangledandtwoseparategoalsestablished.Instanceslikethiscanblindsidethewhole
systemseffort.Componentorsubsystemdeterminationshouldbeateameffort,particularlyinlargeundertakingsinvolvingvarious

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componentspecialistsandmonitoredbysomeonewhooverseesthewholeproject.Oneofthemostvividanddramaticexamplesofthisteameffortwasthe5yearprogramof
Boeingtobuilditslatesttransportplane,the777.ThisteameffortwasdocumentedinaTVminiseriesforthePublicBroadcastingSystem.

Hiddenpurposes:Amasterpurposeisrarelytheonlypurposeofaprojectinvolvingthesystemsapproach,regardlessofhowstronglyitisasserted.Theotherpurposesmaybe
thepersonalambitionsoftheparticipantsinvolvedincarryingouttheproject.Usually,however,thereareotherpurposes,frequentlyassociatedwithachievingpoweror
satisfyinggreed.Problemsarisewhentheseotherpurposesarehidden.Ifthehiddenpurposesarenottobecomedistractionsordiversionsofeffortandresources,theymustnot
behidden.Theymustbeconsideredamongthepossibilitiesattheverystartoftheprojectandprovisionsmustbemadetodealwiththemeitherbyaccommodation(e.g.,special
rewards),bytransferofdisruptiveindividuals,orbyspinoffofadditionalprojects.Inshort,thesystemsapproachmusthaveahumanfaceanddealwiththerealitiesofhuman
functioningandaspirations.

SummaryofLimitationsofaSystemsApproach

Thefocusingaspectofthesystemsapproachisthemainsourceofitsstrength,butitcanalsoprovetobeitsAchillesheel.Itmustnotbeblindtothefactitis
abstractedfromlargersystemswithinitsenvironmentandalsofromsocialandeconomiccontextsthatinvolvesignificantvariablesthatcanimpactonit.Inaddition,it
musthaveahumanface,sensitivetotherealitythatitsmasterpurposecaneasilyhidesubsidiarypurposesinconflictwiththemasterpurposeanddivertresources
fromitsachievement.Thiscallsforcontinuousmonitoringofthesystemanditscomponentsubsystems.

TheWorkDoingSysteminFJA

FJA'suseofthesystemsapproachseekstobuildonitsstrengthsandmoderateitslimitationsasmuchaspossible.Itbringsintofocusthesignificantelementsrelevant
toHRMinaworkdoingsystem.Theseelementsarerepresentedinthethreecomponentsofthesystem,Work,Workers,andWorkOrganization.

Thesethreecomponentsarenotasclearlydelineatedinasmallorganizationsuchastheexampleusedhere.Neverthelesstheyarethere,largely

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embodiedinonepersonwearingthreehats.Onehatisthatofprogenitor/entrepreneuroftheWorkOrganization.Thishatinvolvesprovidingthecapitalestablishing
thepurpose,goals,andobjectivesarrangingfortheworkplaceandnecessaryequipmentandsettingstandards.Thesecondhat,thatoftheWorker,includesthe
determinationofbeingqualifiedtodotheworkthatneedstobedonetoproduceresults.ThethirdhatinvolvesdoingtheWork,includingtheadministrationwork
(arrangingfortheflowoffunds,liningupandnegotiatingwithsubcontractors,purchasingequipmentandservices)theHRMworkofqualifyingoneselfandassistants
andtheproductionworkofresearching,writing,andeditingtheproposedpublication.Obviously,inaoneortwopersonorganizationthismeanstakingonquitea
loadofresponsibilityletalonethepresumptionofadequacy.(Inalaterchapter,wediscussthispresumptionofadequacyunderadaptiveskill.)

IntheFJAtheoreticalframework,thesethreecomponentsareconceptualizedasshowninFig.2.1.Work,Worker,andWorkOrganizationorganizedaroundthe
centralpurposeofachievingproductivitywithefficiencyandeffectivenessandsatisfactionofworkergrowtharepresentinallworkdoingorganizations,regardless
ofsize.Eachofthesecomponentsofthesystemhasinvolvedadifferentdisciplinealongwithadifferentvocabularyand,infact,hasusuallybeentaughtseparately.In
ourview,theybelongtogetherbecausetheyhavesignificantcomplementaryrolestoplayinasystemsapproach.(Totheengineerworkingonthedesignofthe
technologyoftheworkorganization,thisstancecouldberegardedasanarrogantdiversion.)

ThecomplementaryrolesofthethreecomponentsisevenmoreapparentwhenweexaminetheirinterplayintheworksituationasshowninFig.2.2.Figure2.2shows
whatwebelievearethenaturalandongoinginteractionsbetweenthecomponentsandsupportthesystemsconceptionproposed.Eachofthecomponentshas
interestsincommonwiththeother.

WorkersandWorkOrganizationscanbenefitfromconscious,informedinteractionovermattersofcompensation,grievances,promotions,andcompliancewithlegal
requirements.Suchinteractioncanpromotemutualunderstandingandoutlookonthecrucialissuesofproductivityandprofitability.Similarly,theinteractionbetween
WorkOrganizationandWorkcanimprovetechnologicaldesignandproductivity.Jobanalyseshaverevealedthatmanagementisnotaswellinformedasitmaythink
itisabouthowworkisactuallygettingdoneandhowinnovativeworkerscanbe.Workerstypicallyexperienceflawsandinadequaciesinstandardoperating
procedure(SOP).Drawingonthisexperience,workerscanoftencontributetothestateoftheartinaparticularareaofworkwhenthereisapositivechannelof
communicationbetweenthemandmanagement.Finally,theinteractionbetweenWorkerandWorkcancontributetoanim

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FIG.2.1.
Thestructureofaworkdoingsystem.

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FIG.2.2.
Thedynamicsofaworkdoingsystem.

proveddesignofworkassignmentsandamoreinformedapproachtocareeropportunities.Themoreworkersareawareofthesimilaritiesanddifferencesamongjob
tasks,themoreflexibletheycanbeinadaptingtochangingtechnologyandworkingconditions.

Althoughsometimesinconflict,asisperhapsinevitableinanybringingtogetherofseparatesubsystems,thethreecomponentshavemuchtogainfromsharing
informationandconcerns.Thefactremainsthattheseinteractionsarerealandongoingalthoughoftenobscuredbytraditionaladversarialrelationshipsandcompetition
forrecognitionandpower.

SummaryoftheFJASystemsConceptfortheWorkDoingSystem

TheFJAconceptofthesystemsapproachtoworkdoingorganizationsconsistsofthreecomplementarysubsystemsWork,Worker,andWorkOrganization.
Althougheachhasitsownvocabularyanddiscipline,they

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belongtogetherbecauseintherealworldofworkdoingorganizationstheyarealwayspresent,alwaysinteracting.Consideringthemtogetheraspartsofasingle
systemengagedinrealizingthesamemasterpurposeilluminateseach,particularlyinthespecificwaystheyinteractwitheachother.

Inthenextthreechapters,weconsidereachofthesecomponentsindetail.

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Chapter3
TheWorkOrganization
TheWorkOrganizationisthebrainchildofthemarriagebetweenneedandenterprise,avisionembodiedinapurpose.Sometimesitisalsoembodiedinanindividual
withleadershippotential,anindividualwhocaninitiateandinspirethestartupofanorganization.

Inauniverseofinfinitepossibilities,theWorkOrganizationislikeaflickeringpointoflightemergingfromdarkness,slowlygatheringintensity,momentum,and
direction.Everythingprinciples,policies,procedures,technology,publicimagefollowsfromitspurposeasthoughdeterminedbydestiny.Fromtheverybeginning
itneedstointerfacewiththeWorkthatneedstobedoneandtheWorkerswhoarecalledontodoit.

Firstthevisionneedstobetransformedintoamissionwithadestination''amanonthemooninthisgeneration,''or,inthiscase,anFJApublicationinthehandsof
practitionersbytheendoftheyear.Fromthatpointon,theWorkOrganizationtakesformasagargantuanundertaking,aonepersonjob,oranythingimaginablein
between.Thisformservesmanygoals,amongthem:housingtheenterprise,attractingWorkers,providingtheWork,andultimatelyservingasthetouchstoneforthe
achievementofthepurpose.

Inthischapterwewanttounderstandtheworkdoingorganization:howitorganizesitselftobecomeasystem,itsoptions,andtheconsequencesofthoseoptions,and
theenvironmentitneedstocreateinordertoprovidefeedbackforboththeWorkersandtheWorktoflourish.

ExplorationofResourcesandConstraints

PurposesofWorkOrganizationsarenotgenerallystatedinspecifictermsasfarasoutcomesandtimelimitsareconcerned.Typically,thepurposeisstatedmorein
intentionalterms.Thisisespeciallytrueofverylargeunder

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takings,forexample,thepurposeofaconstitutionandbylawsorthepurposeofanewlargeenterprise.Evenasmallenterprise,suchasthepublishingeffort
describedinthepreviouschapter,beganwithasimplestatementofpurpose:topublisharevisededitionoftheFJAscalesinahandyformatforeverydayuseby
practitioners.InordertoplotacoursefortheachievementofaWorkOrganization'sends,itisnecessarytoelaborateonthepurpose.Thiselaborationtypicallybegins
withconsiderationoftheresourcesavailable(e.g.,money,technology,andworkerskills)toachievethequalityproductenvisioned.

However,thisisonlythebeginningintheexplorationofresources,anexplorationthatleadstouncoveringconstraints,theothersideofthecoin.Inevitably,market
considerationscomeupandforcetheissueofwhetherornotthepresumedneedisreal.Assumingitisreal,thecorollaryissuesare:howtoinformpotentialcustomers
oftheexistenceoftheproduct(whatformsofadvertisingwillbeused)andhowwilltheproductreachthecustomer(retailoutlet,postalservice,orcourier)?
Somewhereamongtheseruminations,adeterminationneedstobemadeastowheretheproductwillbeproduced.Willtheentrepreneursdoitthemselvesorcontract
itout?Ifundertakenasaselfcontainedenterprise,whatwillthatentailasfarasstaffing,housing,andlegalrequirementsareconcerned?Andwhenwilltheresultsof
allthiseffortseethelightofday?

Thesequestionsandconsiderationsareenoughtoindicatethatseriousorganizationandcoordinationneedtotakeplaceinorderforthepurposetoberealized.Atthis
pointsettinggoalsandobjectivescanbeseenasnotonlyplausiblebutdesirable.Practicallyeveryquestionthatcomesuphasoptionalanswersandvaryingcostsand
consequences.Thetimehascometogenerateharddatawithrespecttotheoptionsinordertomakehardchoices.

SettingGoalsandObjectives

Someauthoritiesinthefieldofmanagementbyobjectives(MBOPatten,1981)seenopointtodistinguishingbetweengoalsandobjectives,consideringthem
synonymous.Ourinclinationistodistinguishbetweenthem,allowinggoalstoincludelongertimeperiodsandsubsumethemultiplicityofshortertermobjectives
necessarytoachievethem.IntheFJAsystemsapproach,goalsaredescribedas1to3yearefforts,eachsubsumingtwoormoreobjectivesthatachieveresultsin
periodsoftimelessthan1yearandaslittleas1week.Anotheroptionistoformulategoalstoparalleltheannualbudgetingperiodofanorganizationandhavethe
objectivesrealizedinshortertimeperiods,permittingbudgetarylimitsandrestraintstoserveasoneofthemeasurements.

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Thereisanothersubtledifferencethattendstomanifestalthoughnotinanyformulaicmanner.Goalstendtobemoreendsoriented,closertotheendresultimplicitin
thepurpose.Objectivesontheotherhand,tendtobemoremeansoriented,moreinvolvedwiththehowsandtechnologynecessarytoachievethepurpose.This
maybeduetothefactthatgoalsarestatedinbroader,moregeneralterms,moreakintothatofthepurpose.

Thisdifferencebetweengoalsandobjectivesbecomesimportantinmanagingtheworkorganization,particularlyifthereareaspectsoftechnologythattendtobe
incompatiblewiththeavowedaimsofthepurposeandgoals.Theuseoftelevisionineducationisoneexample.Televisioncanandhasbeenusedtoteachthe
alphabet,andlearningthealphabethasbeenincorporatedasanobjectiveinearlychildhoodeducation.However,agoalofearlychildhoodeducationistoteach
childrentobeindependentselfstarters,abletousebooksandothermaterialsincreativeways.Achievingtheobjectivetosomeextentisinconflictwithachievingthe
goalbecausepassivelywatchingtelevisiondiscouragesactiveinvolvementwitheducationalmaterialsformanychildren.Preventingpurposesandgoalsfrombeing
twistedoutofshapebyobjectivesisacontinuousmanagementproblem.ThisproblemisamajorreasonforusingthesystemsapproachintheapplicationofFJA
theory.

Theprimaryreasonsfordefininggoalsandobjectivesareto:

allocateresourcesinamannermostsuitabletoachievethepurpose.

ensurethatallthethingsthatneedtobedonewillbedoneor,ifgapsintheresourcesavailableexist,makecertainsomethingisdonetofillthegaps.

haveallthethingsthatneedtobedonecompletedataspecifiedstrategicdate.

Inthepublicationexampledescribedearlier,thegoalwastohavethepublicationreadyintimeforaprofessionalmeeting.

MissionandMaintenanceGoals

Entrepreneurssoondiscoverthatgoalsareoftwotypes:(a)thosepertainingtothemission(embeddedinthevisionrepresentedbythepurpose)and(b)those
pertainingtothemaintenanceoftheorganizationitselftheentityneededtoputthe"showontheroad."Theselattermaintenancegoalscanstimulatealotofirritation
inunsophisticatedentrepreneurswhentheybecomeawareoftheresourcesthatmustbesiphonedofftosupportthem,resourcestheyfeelcouldbebetterusedfor
missiongoals.Thesemaintenancegoalsaredoomedtobeunderashadow,toleratedasaneces

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saryevilandfrequentlyraidedtosupportmissiongoals.Whendownsizingoccurs,theresourcestheyencumberarethemostvulnerable.Yetthesemaintenancegoals
arethegoalsthatincludeHRMtherecruitment,selection,training,andequippingofanorganization'sworkforce.

Onewayofdealingwiththeinherentrivalrybetweenmissionandmaintenancegoalsistoinvolvetheworkersinsettingthegoalsandallocatingtheresources.Thereis
afundamentalmutualdependencyonecannotexistwithouttheother.Thisdependencycanbeactualizedinteamworkstartingattheverytopoftheorganization,
especiallyinsettingtimetablesastowhenservicesandmaterialneedtobesuppliedforthemissiontobeaccomplished.

Typically,maintenancegoalsaregroupedunderadministration.Administrativepersonnel,especiallyinverylargeorganizations,areoftensituatedsomedistancefrom
theworkofthemission.Inorganizationsdealingwiththeextractionofrawmaterials,suchasforestproductsandpetroleum,extensiveandcontinuousfieldworkto
learntheneedsandproblemsoftheworkerscarryingouttheorganization'smissioncanovercometheseparation.Ifthisisnotdone,bureaucraciesthatostensiblyexist
toserveascommunicationchannelsoftenendupbeingmainlyconcernedwiththeirownsurvival.Whenthishappens,themutualunderstandingthatneedstoexist
betweenmissionandmaintenancebreaksdownandtheorganizationbecomesrigidandunresponsive,eventuallyfailing.Thisisafamiliarphenomenoningovernment
organizationswherethemaintenancebureaucracytendstobecomeanendinitself.Ithaslosttouchwiththereasonforitsexistence,namely,toserveasavehiclethat
facilitatestheexecutionofspecificmissions.

TheMeasurementofAchievement:Feedback

Breakingdownthepurposeofaworkdoingsystemintogoalsandobjectivesnotonlyenablesmanagementtogettheworkdone,italsofacilitatesthetrackingof
successand/orfailure.Eachgoalandeachobjectiveissetupwithmeasurableindicatorsofwhetheritisbeingaccomplished.Ifthisisallthatisbeingmeasured,the
systemsapproachwouldnotbenecessary.MBOwouldbequitesufficient.

Butthisisnotall.Foranorganizationtoremainhealthyandviableintoday'sworld,itisequallynecessarytodeterminehowbothWorkersandWorkfareinthe
pursuitofresults.WorkersandWorkinevitablyentertheequationforproductivity.Forexample,aretheresultsachievedwithexcessiveovertime?Dotheyinvolve
unusualstressesfortheworkers?Aretheworkersinvolvedinsettingtheobjectivesanddeterminingthemeasurementindicators?Istheworkperformedintheusual
manner,ordothe

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workersmanifestinnovativeapproachestogettheworkdone?Dotheseinnovativeapproachessuggestnewwaysofplanningtheworkinthefuture?Isteamwork
involved?Isthetechnologyappropriateforthequalityandproductiongoalsanticipated?

Thesearemorethanhumanistic,dogoodquestions.Infact,thefailuretopayattentiontotheseandsimilarquestionsandtheiranswershadalottodowithU.S.
industryfallingbehinditsEuropeanandJapanesecompetitorsduringthe1970sand1980s.ThereengineeringofmuchofU.S.industryispromptedbytheseand
similarquestions.HammerandChampy(1993)wrote:
Companiesneedpeoplewhocanfigureoutwhatthejobtakesanddoit,peoplewhocancreatetheslotthatfitsthem.Moreover,theslotwillkeepchanging.Inanenvironmentof
flexibilityandchange,itisclearlyimpossibletohirepeoplewhoalreadyknoweverythingthey'reevergoingtoneedtoknow,socontinuingeducationoverthelifetimeofajob
becomesthenorminareengineeredcompany.(p.72)

Resultsfromthetrackingofsuccessandfailureinachievingthegoalsandobjectivesbecomesignalsforexamining:(a)theplanninganddesignprocess,(b)thequality
andtrainingoftheworkers,and(c)thedesignandassignmentoftaskstheyperform.Thefeedbackindicatorsthataretrackedincludetimesofcompletion,qualityof
output,numberofrejects,andthroughput(Goldratt&Cox,1984).Theseindicatorsmustbechoseninsuchawaythatthewholesystemcomesunderscrutiny.

SensitivitytotheSystem:TheFour"P"s

ThesystemsaspectsoftheWorkOrganizationaremanifestedinitsprinciples,policies,procedures,andproblems.

Principles

Organizationsaresetuptorealizeapurposethatpresumablywasformulatedtomeetaneed,realorimagined.Ineithercase,inthemindsandheartsofthe
progenitors,valuesareassociatedwiththepurpose.Thesemaybeovert,butfrequentlytheyarenot.Anexampleofanovertlyexpressedvalue,isthatofSchultzwho
"hasmastermindedanempirebasedonthenotionthateventhoughtheterm`coffeebreak'ispartofthevernacular,there'straditionallybeennoplacetoenjoy
one"("ByWayofCanarsie,"1994).Schultzfeltthereshouldbesuchaplace''anextensionofpeople'sfrontporch."Starbucks,hiscompany,owned1,006retail
storesasofOctober1,1996(amazingly,Starbuckshadonly17storesin1987).Net

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salesfor1996rocketedto$696million,theninthyearinarowrevenueincreasedby50%ormore(Balaban,Kieta,Lunger,Lutz,&Wachiralapphaithoon,n.d.).

Schultzcontinued:"Myparents...gavemegreatselfesteemandasenseofwhatwaspossible.Ialwayssawmyselfwantingtodosomethingdeemedsuccessfuland
goodatthesametime.Ineverwantedtolosemythreadtomypast(achildhoodinBrooklyn,NewYork).IunderstandwhereIcamefrom."Thearticlecontinued,
"Thesearenotjustwords.OnereasonforthesmilesbehindhiscountersisthatStarbucksisthefirstcompanyinthecountrytogiveitsparttimeemployees(65%of
itsworkforce)fullhealthcarebenefitsandstockoptions."Webelievethatthisisagoodexampleofapurposeimbuedwithvaluestranslatedintopositiveprinciplesfor
operatingabusiness.

Anexampleofhiddenvaluesandanissueinthenewsfromtimetotime,hasbeentheglassceilingthataffectsupwardmobilityforminoritiesandwomenintheranks
ofmanagement.Similarhiddenvaluesshowupwhenachoicehastobemadebetweenprofitsandquality,orprofitsandtiestoacommunity.Frequently,profitsare
givenfirstpriorityinthesesituations.Thisvaluegetstranslatedintoprinciples,statedornot,andsendsasubtlemessagetoworkers,givingthempermissiontocut
cornersinthequalityoftheirworkortheirintegrationinthecommunity.Thepointistheprinciplesarethereandtypicallyshowupinthepoliciesofanorganization.

Policies

Thesearethewrittenstatementsdeclaringtherulesbywhichtheorganizationwilloperate.Theyderivefromtheprinciples.InthecaseofStarbucks,themattersof
healthinsuranceandprofitsharingarestatedpolicies.Inthecaseofthehiddenvalues,theydonotnecessarilyappearinapolicystatement.Theymaysimplybepart
oftheinformalcultureoftheorganizationandonlydiscoveredwhenaproblemmanifests.ThisseemedtobethecaseforDenny's,oneofthelargestrestaurantchains
inthecountry.Themanagementofanumberofitsrestaurants,particularlyinCalifornia,wereallegedlydiscriminatingagainstselectedminoritygroups,demanding
paymentforfoodinadvanceand,insomeinstances,refusingtoservethem.Finally,followingprotestdemonstrationsatsomeofthesites,topmanagemententeredthe
situation,insistingitwasnotapolicyofthechainandclaimingtherewasamisunderstanding.Negotiationsfollowed,apolicyofnondiscriminationwasdeclaredwith
theinsistencethatitwasaprincipleofmanagement.Disciplinarymeasuresweremetedouttotheoffendingrestaurantsandminorityownershipofsomerestaurants
wasprovided.Notuntilproblemarousingmassiveconsumerfeedback

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emergeddidaclearlystatedprincipleandpolicybecomepartofanegotiatedagreement.

Organizationshavevolumesofpolicystatements.Thesepoliciesare,ineffect,itsoperatingsystemandpertaintoeveryaspectofitsoperations,forexample,housing
(buyingvs.leasing),purchasing,accounting,depreciationofequipment,consultingservices,outsourcingofvariousproductionoperations,printing,hiring,reimbursing
travel,takingleave(sickandvacation),coveringhealthinsurance,compensation,parking,takingworkbreaks,andworkingovertime.Thesepoliciesareusuallyon
looseleafpaperandstoredinbinderswithdatesoneverysheet.Policiesareconstantlybeingrevised.

Policysettinghastodowithmissionandmaintenancegoals.Asanactivity,itisestablishedclosetotheveryheadoftheorganizationwhereapersonorgroupreceives
thefeedbackofthefunctioningofalltheorganization'ssubsystems.Onthebasisofthisfeedback,adeterminationismadeifthingsarehappeningastheyshould,andif
not,whynot,andwhatrevisionsinpoliciesandproceduresarenecessarytomakethemhappen.Thesepersonsmustbehighlyawareandsensitivetothe
purpose/values/principlessometimesreferredtoasthecultureoftheorganizationiftheyaretorespondpromptlyandconsistentlytothefeedback.

Inonepersonundertakingsthisrequiresthattheentrepreneurwearaspecialhatlabeled"honestyandobjectivity"that,whenworn,enableshimorhertoevaluate
whatisgoingonandruthlesslytakerequiredaction.Thisisclearlyaverydifficultthingtodoandmaypartiallyexplainwhymanysmallundertakingsdonotsurvive.

Procedures

Thesearethedaytodayoperatinginstructionsthatfollowfromthepolicies,often,ifnotalways,specifyingthetechnologythatistobeusedinachievingthedesired
results.Proceduresdefinewhatanorganizationdoestoestablishuniformity,consistency,andpredictabilityinitsoperations.

Forexample,whenanorganizationdeclaresthegenerallyacceptedaccountingprinciples(GAAP)tobeitsbasicbookkeepingpolicy,certainfundamentalprocedures,
understoodbyanyauditorcanbeexpectedtobeinuse.Theseproceduresarereferredtoasstandardoperatingprocedure(SOP)forthatorganization.Someof
theseproceduresaremoreorlessuniversal,suchastheGAAP.Mostproceduresare,ofcourse,specifictotheorganizationperformanceappraisalcomesto
mindalthoughtheymayhavemanysimilaritiestowhatgoesoninotherorganizations.Organizationsalmostalwayshaveapolicyofappraisingtheperformanceof
theirworkersbuttypicallyhavetheirownuniqueproceduresforcarryingthisout.

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Proceduresneedtobeunderstoodasinstructions,management'swayofdistinguishingbetweenprescriptionanddiscretion,tellingworkerswhattheywantdoneand
howtheywantitdone.Theyareprovidedtoworkersduringorientationandspecificjobtraining.Itisoneofmanagement'swaysofprovidingleadership,particularlyif
theproceduresandtheirmethodofpresentationandfollowupareconsistentwithpoliciesandprinciplesanddonothavehiddenjokers.Hiddenjokersreferstothe
oftrepeatedadjurationtousejudgment(discretion)atcriticalplacesintheworkmeaningonlycorrectjudgmentwithoutspecifyingwhatthatcorrectjudgment
mightbe.

Toeffectthestandardizationandcontrolforwhichproceduresaredesigned,theyarepresentedinaspecificformatconveyinginformationforaparticularactiontobe
taken.Theactionmaybeonlyonestepinaseriesofstepsortheentireseries.Onceformalizedinthismanner,proceduresneedtobefollowedexplicitlytoachieve
theirobjectives.Hencetherigidityofbureaucracy.Sometimesexceptionsmaybemadetoaformalizedprocedure,butinthatcasethemannerofmakinganexception
isalsoformalized.

Inasystemscontext,aprocedureislikeahardwiredcircuit.Itensurespredictability.Therefore,proceduresshouldbecarefullytestedbeforebeingintroduced,
usuallyoncasesrepresentingtheextremesofthesituationsforwhichtheprocedureisdesigned.However,itwouldbenaivetoimaginethatprocedures,nomatter
howwellthoughtout,cananticipateallpossiblecontingencies.Computerprogramsareacaseinpoint.Inthemaintheyareextremelywellthoughtoutandtestedfor
"bugs."Neverthelesstheyneedtobeconstantlymonitored.

Problems

Problemsareinevitabletheyareendemictoanysystem.Theyarebestregardedascontingencyfeedbackandconstructivefailureandreflectthesimplefactthatan
organizationcannotanticipateeverythinglikelytogowrong.AsMurphy'sLawstates,"Whatevercangowrong,will."Herearesomeoftheproblemsthataresureto
occur.

Principles/Policies:Asindicated,theprogenitorsofpurposearecertaintohavevaluesthatnotonlyinhereintheirproductionorservicepurposebutarecharacteristicoftheir
personaandmayhavelittletodowiththebusinesstheyhaveorganized.Progenitorsareconcernedwiththeirvision,withseeingahead,withenlistingsupportitiswhatmakes
themleaders.Theycannotdoeverythingandinanycasetheycannotdoeverythingwell.Oneofthethingstheyneedhelpwithisformulating

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policiesthatareindeedconsistentwiththeirprinciples.Yetanomaliesandinconsistenciesdevelopandrequireconstantsurveillanceoffeedback.Thismaybetruerofrelations
withcustomersandsuppliersoutsidetheorganizationbecausesuchcustomerrelationsinvolvesomegreatersubtletieswithfarlesscontrol.Theremaynotbesecondchancesin
ahighlycompetitiveenvironment.Mistakescanbeverycostly.

Principles/Procedures:Thisisinsidiousproblemareathatoccasionallyoccursincustomerservice.Thefeedbackindicatesthatprocedureswereusedthatwerecontrarytothe
principlesoftheorganizationandcouldbeverycostly,forexample,theDenny'ssituationdescribedearlier.Oftenthisproblemoccurswhentherehasbeenafailurein
communicatinghowproceduresarebasedonfundamentalprinciples.Workerslosetheirtemperwithiratecustomersandtakeaswingatthem.Thisviolatesthe"customeris
alwaysright"imageoftheorganizationaroundwhichithasbuiltupitscustomerservicereputation.Thereisadefinitepolicyonhowtodealwithintemperatecustomersanda
proceduretofollowbutincidentshappen.Suchbreachescouldoccurforavarietyofreasonsextremestress,inexperienceofsalespeople,poorselectionofsalespeople,andso
forth.Problemsofthissortcallforahardlookatexistingproceduresinseveralareasselection,training,security,communicationandmightevencallforsomeadjustmentin
theprinciplesandtheirinherentvalues.

Policies/Procedures:Thisinvolvestheinterfaceofgoalsandobjectives.Asalreadynoted,itisverypossibletoinadvertentlyformulateobjectivesincompatiblewithpolicy.For
example,theproceduresfornegotiatingbankloanscaninadvertentlyviolatepoliciesofconfidentialityandprivacybytryingtogettoomuchinformationfromcustomers,or,
createtroublebygettingtoolittleinformationinthepursuitofcertainclassesofbusiness.Nowadayspoliciesdirectmoreresponsibilitytolinepersonnelandequipthemwith
portablecomputerstofacilitatetheexerciseofthisresponsibility.This,ofcourse,createsawholesloughofproblemswithregardtohowmuchaccessshouldbeallowedtothe
enormousdatabanksthatontheonehandcanbethebasisforinnovationandontheother,formischief.Thiscanbearealchallengetoprocedurewriters.

Policies/proceduresproblemsoccurwhenevernewtechnologyisintroduced.Onelargeareaofsuchproblemsconcernseasingworkersintothenewtechnologywith
aminimumofresistance.Dependingonavarietyoffactorssuchastimepressure,competition,thenatureofthelaborforceanditsmorale,andexperienceinaccepting
change,procedurescanbepreparedthateitherreflectapolicyofpatienceorapolicyoftakeitorleaveit.Obviously,principlesattherootofthepoliciesarealso
challenged.Inany

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caseitislikelytheproceduresmayhavetobealteredfromtimetotimetomeetreality.

SummaryofFJAandtheWorkOrganization

AWorkOrganizationisamanifestationofpurposeandvalues,elaboratedthroughitsgoalsandobjectives.Thegoalsandobjectivesarethemeansfordeterminingthe
resourcesandconstraintsthatmaketheorganizationfly.Theyarethefirststepinmeasurementbecausethegoalsandobjectivesmustcomprehendadduptothe
purpose.Inaddition,acriterionfortheusefulnessofeachgoalandobjectiveiswhetheritprovidesmeasurementindicatorstotrackachievement.Thesemeasurement
indicatorsarethemeansformonitoringfeedback.AlthoughmostoftheseaforementionedconsiderationsneedtobepartoftheinitialplanningprocessfortheWork
Organization,notallofthemcanbeanticipated.Thismakesitimperativeforplanningtobeacontinuousactivity,especiallyresponsivetomeasurementindicatorsand
feedbackmonitors.TheWorkOrganizationalsoneedsanoperatingsystemwithinwhichthegoalsandobjectivescanbeimplementedandtheimpactonWorkersand
Workcanbetracked.Principlesthatreflectvalues,policiesthatimplementprinciples,andproceduresthatimplementpoliciesarethedaytodaynittygrittyofthe
operatingsystem.Aconsciousrecognitionandmeansmustexisttoresolvetheproblemsthatinevitablyoccurbetweenthevariouscomponentsoftheoperating
system.

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Chapter4
TheWorker

WorkersareWholePersons

InFJA,workersareviewedholistically.Althoughindividualsasworkershavetheirparticularpurposeinaworkdoingsystemworkergrowthaswellas
productivitytheyaremorethanjustworkers.Theyareconsumers,familypersons,spiritualbeings.Ineachoftheseincarnations,theyhavedifferentpurposesand
arepartofdifferentsystems.Butthesesystemsarenottotallyseparate.Theyareentwinedinoneanother,spilloverintoeachother,andimpactaworker's
performance.

Asaresult,aconsciousanddeliberateeffortismadeinFJAtoavoidusinglanguagethatwouldpartializeworkers,seethemonlyintheirinstrumentalformtobe
analyzedintermsoffactors,traits,orthelike.Instead,workersareviewedaswholepersons,steadilyaccumulatingknowledges,skills,abilities,andexperience
(KSA/E)inordertoenablethemtofunctionandadapttothejobworkersituation.

ThisholisticconceptisdepictedinFig.4.1.Atthecenteristheworker'sperformanceinthejobworkersituation.Thisperformanceisbasedontheexperienceofthe
workeratanygiventimeandrepresentedbyeverythinginthesurround.TheupperportionofthesurroundincludestheKSAthatcontributetotheinstrumentaland
technicalskilloftheworkerandfocusonjobcontent.Theseskillsencompasstheworker'sfunctionalandspecificcontentskillstheknowhowsandhowtos.The
lowerportionofthesurroundincludestheworker'sadaptationstoself,toinstructions,toresponsibility,andtotheoverallenvironmentandencompassestheworker's
adaptiveskillfocusingonjobcontext.AllofthesecomponentsKSA/Earealwaysintertwinedinperformance.

KSA/EiscomprisedoftermscommontoallplayersintheHRMsystemworkers,managers,technicians,andprofessionals.Thesetermsareasusefultodescribe
workrequirementsastheyaretodescribeworker

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FIG.4.1.
Aholisticconceptofperformanceskillrequirements.

qualifications.Thereis,therefore,noneedtoresorttoabstract,reconditeterminology(factors,traits)andstatisticalmanipulationstoestablisharelationshipbetween
themforHRpurposes.Furthermore,KSA/Econtainthevalidityofrecognition,the''knowingmorethanwecantell"(Polanyi,1983)validityoftacitknowledgein
explainingwhatappearsselfevidentlytobetruewhatworkersknowandwhattheycando.Termsrelatingtopsychologicaldimensionssuchasintelligence,
interests,andtemperament,ortophysicalcapacitiessuchasheight,weight,agility,andvisualacuitycanbeusefulanalyticallytounderstandaspectsofperformance.
However,tousethemasprimaryexplanationsofperformanceislikelytobeadistortionofwhatactuallyisthesituation.

Peopleengagewithandfunctionintherealworldtheworldofthefamily,work,communityaswholepersons.Theyobserve,theylearn,andtheyenlargetheir
physical,cognitive,andinterpersonalbehavior.

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Theybringtotherealworldanditssituationsalltheirproclivitiesatonce,copingand/orinnovatingasthesituationmightdemand.

Theyalsoadapt.Overtime,peoplebuilduparepertoireofadaptivebehavioradaptiveskillsthatreflecttheirbehavioralstyle.Forexample,theymovetoward,
awayfrom,oragainstpeopletheydeveloppreferencesforinstructionsthatarepredominantlyprescriptiveordiscretionarytheygravitatetoauthoritarianor
participativesocialsituations.

Intheirfunctioningtheydonotoftendwell,ifatall,onwhichpartofthemselvesisreallydominantorprimary,althoughtheirsituationcancallforaprimaryeffortinone
oranotherpartofthemselves.Whentheyshovelsnowtoclearapathinfrontoftheirhouses,theyarenodoubtawareofmajorphysicalexertion,buttheirminds
mightbedwellingonotherthingstheyhavetodo,perhapsonsomethingcreativeinwhichtheyareengaged.Whentheysitatadeskwritingareport,theymaybe
mullingoveratroublesomefamilysituation,wonderinghowtodealwithit.

Peopledevelopasenseofself,whotheyareandwhattheywantastheygrow.Somehaveastronger,clearersenseofselfthanothers,buttoonedegreeoranother,
thissenseofselfisthebasisforworkers'decisionmakingduringthecourseoftheirworkhistory.Thissenseofselfiswhatinfluencesthemtopursueonelineofwork
ratherthananother,totakeajobbecauseofneed,tochangejobsbecauseofdissatisfactionwithwheretheyare,andtoundertakefurtherskilltraininginorderto
obtainabetterjob.

KSA/E

Becausethetermsknowledge,skills,abilities,andexperiencecomeuprepeatedlyinthisandthenextchapter,wedefinethemhere.
Knowledge:Knowledgerelatestoinformationandideas,theknowhowsandhowtosinvolvedingettingworkdone.InFJA,botharenamedbyusingthegerundformofthe
verbs,e.g.,welding(knowhow)andprecisionworking(howto).Sometimesthesamegerundnamesboth,e.g.,writing(knowhow)andwriting(howto).Knowhowshavetodo
withknowingtheparts(nomenclature),structure(howthingsfittogether),dynamics(howthingsworktogether),andtheory(theprinciplesofhowtheywork).Howtoshaveto
dowithoperations,forexample,machinesandproceduresandtheskillsforexecutingthem.Itispossibletohaveknowhowaboutthingsingreatdetail,forexample,automobiles
andhowtheyaredriven,withoutbeingabletooperatethem.Ontheotherhand,itispossibletohavethehowtoforoperatingthingswithoutknowingmuchaboutthem,for
example,anelectroniccopyingmachine.Knowledgesshowupasobjectsofactions(skilledbehavior)andareeitherthings,forexample,tools,machines,andmaterialsdata,for
example,informa

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tionabouthowthingswork,whattodoingivensituationsandfordifferentproblemsorpeople,forexample,consumers,customers,clients,patients,orstudents.

Skill:Skillinvolvesacquiredcompetencies,rangingfromrelativelysimpletorelativelycomplexbehaviors,astheyrelatetoTDPobjectsinthejobworkersituation.These
behaviorsoccurinconcretesituationsinvolvingspecificknowhowstheydonotexistintheabstract.However,thesebehaviorscanbeperceivedasoccurringgenerallyina
varietyofconcretesituationsinwhichcasetheyarereferredtoasfunctionalhowtos.Thesegeneralizedbehaviorsapplytotheuseoftools,machines,equipment,andmaterials
invariouscombinationsappropriateforachievingapurposetobehaviorsinvolvingdatatoproducemoredataand/ortosolveproblemsandtobehaviorsinvolvinginteraction
withandrespondingtopeopletosatisfytheirneedsforinformation,treatment,advice,guidance,oragreements.InFJAthesebehaviorsaretheknowhowsandhowtos
expressedasgerunds(verbalnouns)andreferredtoasfunctionalorspecificcontentskills.

Skillsalsoinvolveadaptationstoselfandenvironment.Theseadaptationsinvolvewillingnesstodealpositivelywiththeconditionsthatcomewiththejobworkersituation
willingnesstoprecedestheparticularconditiontowhichanadaptationneedstobemadeasin"willingnesstoabidewithconfidentialsecurityconditions."Adaptiveskillsare
alsoexpressedasperformancerequirements.

Thepersonwhowishestoacquiremoreskillneedsmoreinformationandtrainingtodealwiththemultipleproblemsthatcandevelop,moreexperiencetoachievespecifiedlevels
ofaccuracy,andmoreopportunitiestoexercisethejudgment/discretionnecessaryforachievingadesiredresult.Themoreskillapersonacquires,thelargernumberofvariables
andthegreaterthevarietyofsituationsheorshehastodealwith.(Afurtherdiscussionofskillsfollowsthedefinitionofabilityandexperience.)

Ability:Abilityisconcernedwithlevelofperformanceorhowwellapersonexecutesatask.Levelsofperformancearedeterminedbyand/orevaluatedinrelationtothe
specificationsoftheoutputrequiredandwhatisknownaboutordeterminedtobethestandardsappropriatetothetechniques/methods/processesforachievingtheoutputs.The
termsforexpressingtheselevelsofperformanceare(a)adjectivesoradverbsthatdescribearesultinrelationtoastandardorcomparearesultinrelationtootherrelevantresults
or(b)numbersthatrepresentascalefromlowtohighinsomecharacteristicthatreflectsqualityorquantity.Forexample,awordprocessorisdescribedasbeing"very
accurate"(adjective)and/or"abletoproduce75wordsaminute"(number).Abilityistheresultoftotalpersonfunctioning,theinteractionofskill,knowledge,effort,
responsibility,andworkconditions.

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FIG4.2
Workerfunctionchart

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Experience:Experienceinvolvesapersonaldatabaseconsistingoftheperformanceofassignmentsaccordingtoproceduresinwhichtrainedandlearningthatactual
assignments/eventstypicallypresentuniqueaspectsrequiringthestretchingandbendingofrules/proceduresthroughuseofjudgmenttogetworkdone.Thispersonaldatabase
suppliestheworkerwithcluesfordealingwithuniqueeventsthatarenotyetreadyforgeneralizationintonewrules.

TheJobWorkerSituationCallsforThreeKindsofSkills

Threetypesofskillhavebeenreferredtointhepreviousdiscussionofskill:functionalskillsandspecificcontentskillsthatarefocusedonthespecificcontentofthe
jobworkersituationandadaptiveskillsthatarefocusedonthecontext.Aretheyreallydifferent?Yestheyarein(a)howtheyareacquiredand(b)theirrolein
transferabilitymovingfromoneassignmenttoanother.Letuslookatthemmoreclosely.
FunctionalSkills:competenciesthatenablepeopletoappropriatelyprocessTDPonsimpletocomplexlevels,drawingontheirphysical,mental,andinterpersonalresources.
TheyareexpressedasgerundsandshowninFig.4.2,theworkerfunctionchart.Functionalskillsareacquiredfromthemomentwearebornandstartexercisingourhuman
potentialwithrelationtotheTDPinourimmediateenvironment.Forexample,manipulatingtoolsandutensils,followingmultistepinstructions,andlisteningwithattention
becomefunctionalskills.Later,theyaresharpenedinschool,inplay,andinthepursuitofhobbies.Theyarethegeneralizedbehaviorsthatenablepeopletopickupthespecifics
ofnewsituations.

SpecificContentSkills:competenciesthatenablepeopletoperformaspecificjobtopredeterminedstandardsusingspecificequipment,technology,andproceduresandrelying
onfunctionalskills.Specificcontentskillsarealsoexpressedasgerundsreflectingspecificcontentareas,forexample,welding,riveting,carpentering,bricklaying,filing,recording,
nursing,healing.Sometimestheyareexpressedintermsofbroadprocessessuchasassembling,researching,andmarketing.Thereareasmanyspecificcontentskillsasthereare
uniquespecialties.Specificcontentskillsarelearnedonthejobinconnectionwithspecifictasksorfocusedselfstudytoaccomplishspecificobjectives.

Thecontextofthejobisachallengetoindividuals'behavioralstyle,tothemanagementoftheirpersonalselvesastheyaffecteffortandresponsibilityandrelatetothe
Environment(Fig.4.1).Thisstyleisembodiedinadaptiveskill.

AdaptiveSkills:Competenciesthatenablepeopletomanagethemselvesinrelationtothedemandsofconformityand/orchangeinparticularsituations.

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FIG.4.3.
Rangeoftransferabilityofskillsintheworldofwork.

Adaptiveskillsareacquiredinthecourseoflifeexperience,particularlyearlychildhood,onpracticallyasubconsciouslevel.Theyareintegratedasthevalues,attitudes,and
mannerofrespondingtothephysical,social,andenvironmentalcircumstancesinwhichpersonsfindthemselves.Theyareexpressedasthewillingnesstoadaptto,forexample,
time,space,people(movingtoward,awayfrom,oragainst),prescriptionanddiscretionininstructions,impulsecontrol,authority,initiative,andresourcefulness.Theyarecrucial
inactivatingfunctionalandspecificcontentskills.

Figure4.3illustratestheFJAconceptoftransferabilitywhenthejobworkersituationchangesmarkedly,particularlywhenitinvolvesachangeinenvironment.
Essentially,Fig.4.3showsthatthemosttransferableskillsarepeople'sadaptiveskills,theskillsthatcharacterizetheirbehavioralstyle.Unlessthepersonistransferred
tothesameworkinadifferentworkplace,theleasttransferableskillsarethoserelatingtothespecificcontentofthejob.Iftheneedsofindividuals,asreflectedin
theiradaptiveskills,aremetinthenewworkplace,thentheirfunctionalskillscanbeeffectiveintacklingthespecificcontentofthenewjobworkersituation.

ChoiceProcessforEffectivePerformance

Thethreekindsofskillsfunctional,specificcontent,andadaptivearepresentandinteractingsimultaneouslyinatotalskilledperformance.

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Theyaresimplydifferentaspectsoftheperformance,drawingondifferentpersonalresources.Theytendtoplaysignificantlydifferentrolesinmakingchoicesabout
takingapositionandwhetherornottostayinit.

ReaderscanbestevaluatetheFJAtheorybyapplyingittothemselves,particularlybyreviewinghowtheycametoselectthejobinwhichtheyarepresently
employed.AccordingtoFJAtheory,thefirststepistoselectafieldwherethespecificcontentisrelevanttoone'sbackground,interest,orexperience.Thesecond
stepistoevaluatespecificjobofferingsforappropriatenesstoone'sadaptiveskills,one'swillingnesstoputforththeeffortcalledfor,takeontheresponsibility
demanded,andadjusttothephysical,social,andenvironmentalcircumstancesofthejob.If,followingthisevaluation,thepersonreactsnegativelythecombination
ofadaptationsrequiredmakeanegativeimpressionthenthepersonleavesthefieldandstartsover.If,ontheotherhand,thepersoncomesawaywithfavorable
feelings,heorsheacceptstheoffer.Thisiswhenfunctionalskillscomeintoplay,engagingthespecificcontentofthenewjobworkersituation.Ifthefavorable
impressionisvalidatedonthejob,thepersongrowsintothepositionorevengrows''up"init.Ontheotherhand,ifitfailstofulfillitspromise,theworkertendsto
detachfromtheposition,functionalperformancebecomessporadicordeteriorates,andtheworkerlooksfurtherafield.

TheWorkerasCognitiveProcessor:theGedScales

Centraltotheworker'sobservingandlearningistheacquisitionofcognitive(dataoriented)skills,skillsbuiltaroundreasoning,math,andlanguage.Cognitiveskillsare
centralbecausehumanbeingshaveadvancedintocomplexsocieties,includingtheirworkdoingcomponents,largelyontheirabilitytothinkinsymbolictermsand
processtheresultingdata.Althoughphysicalandinterpersonalskillshaveasignificantcognitiveelement,cognitiveskillsdonotnecessarilyinvolveeitherphysicalor
interpersonalelements.

OneoftherequirementsintheFunctionalOccupationalClassificationProject(FOCP)begunin1950,wastoestablishthegeneraleducationalrequirements(General
EducationalDevelopment,GED)forspecificjobs.Atthattime,itwasfeltthatindicatingtheserequirementsbygradecompletionwouldnotservethepurpose
satisfactorily.Thevariationinabilityamongindividualsrepresentedbygradecompletionwastoogreat.Opinionsweresoughtfrompersonnelpeopleingovernment
andindustryandfromeducatorsastothelevelofreasoning,math,andlanguagerequiredineachofasampleof250jobdescriptions.Onthebasisoftheseopinions,

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threescaleswereconstructedoneeachforreasoning,math,andlanguageconsistingofexamplestakenfromthesamplejobdescriptions.Thesescaleswerethen
usedtorate4,000jobdescriptionsintheDictionaryofoccupationaltitles.

AsisevidentinAppendixA,theseareordinalscalesofthesamenatureastheTDPfunctionalscales.Thesescalescanbeusedtorateboththejobrequirementsand
theworker'sexperience.Areviewofthescalesrevealsthatthedefinitionsofthevariouslevelsrelatetojobcontentandarebehavioralanchors.Evenmoresignificant
maybethefactthatalthoughthesebehaviorsmaybelearnedinschooltheyneednotbe.Theycanbeselftaughtand/orlearnedthroughlifeexperience.For
qualificationpurposes,theworkerneedssimplytodescribeexperiencesinvolvingthebehavioralanchorsandperformanceresults.

Cognitiveskillsplayacrucialroleinanincreasinglytechnologicalsociety.Theyarethespecificvehiclefordefiningandcommunicatingthevariablesthatenterinto
technologyandformasteringitslanguageandinstructions.Theyareparticularlyadaptabletoschooltrainingthroughthemediumofbooks,computers,andother
audiovisualmaterials.Sometimes,theyovershadowtheroleofphysicalandinterpersonalskillsthatrequiremoreinteractivetrainingandexperienceinsimulatedorreal
situationsinordertobeeffectivelylearned.Interpersonalskillstendtobeasheavilyinfluencedbyculturaltraditionsasadmonitionsconcerning"correctness"or
"appropriateness."Althoughthecognitivefactorisimportantinthelearningofphysicalandinterpersonalskills,thereseemstocomeapointwhereitneedstobeset
asidetoallowthetotalpersonnonverbal,instinctual,physical,andculturaltotakecharge.

TheWorkerandJobDesign

OneofthemostmisunderstoodandneglectedareasofHRMhasbeentheroleoftheworkerinjobdesign.Whatisthisroleandhowhastheneglectcomeabout?

Essentially,theroleoftheworkerinjobdesignistoallowhimorheronceorientedandtrainedtotakeoverownershipofthejobworkersituation.Thismeans
thatworkersneedtobetrustedtodotheirbesttoachievetheobjectivesoftheorganization,notonlytofollowprescriptiveproceduresbuttousediscretionandtake
riskswithoutfearofreprisal.Thoserisksincludeadaptationandinnovativenessthatusuallyoccurafterbecomingfamiliarwithasituation.Humanbeingsenhancetheir
selfconceptwhentheytakeresponsibilityforthemselvesineverydaylife,atworkorelsewhere.Iftheyfeelresponsible,competent,important,likeable,theywillbe
morelikelytoexpressthosepartsofthemselves(Patten,1981).

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Whyhasthisbeensopoorlyunderstood?WebelieveitisduetotheHRMfieldbeingintentonmatchingpersonsandjobs.PractitionersofHRMseestaffingasatask
forspecialistswhobelievetheyhavesuperiorknowledgeaboutpeopleandjobsandwhatisgoodforworkersandtheworksituation.Withallduerespecttowhat
hasbeenlearnedthroughtestingresearchinthefieldofindustrialpsychology,thisviewfallsfarshortofwhatcommonsenseandunderstandingofthewholeperson
teachesusabouthumancapacityandmotivation.Onlyrecently,inpartasaresultoftherecognizedinadequaciesofmatchingpractices,andinpartduetointense
competitionfromJapanandwesternEurope,havewebeguntotakeseriouslythefindingsofoursystemsandholisticthinkersMacGregor,Maslow,Bennis,Argyris,
Katz,andKahn.AsinDeming'scase,thesethinkersseemtohavemadeagreaterimpressionabroadthanintheirowncountry.

WhataretheconsequencesforHRMofadoptingtheholisticpointofview?Tobeginwiththeholisticpointofviewplacesfarlessemphasisonthematching
hypothesisforbringingjobsandworkerstogether.Thishypothesisseekstoestablishparalleldimensionsforjobrequirementsandworkerqualificationsandthen
matchthemforatheoreticalgoodoreven"perfect"fit.Althoughindustrialpsychologyhasdefinedsome50orsodimensionsofthistype(Fleishman&Quaintance,
1984Fleishman&Reilly,1992),ithasneverbeensuccessfulinknowingwhichonesandhowmuchofeachtocombineforagoodfit.Thereasonsforthisfailureare
inherentintheweaknessoftheassumptionsofthisconcept.Theassumptionsarethattheindividualisaconstant,themeasurementsarevalid,differentcombinationsof
themeasurementswillhavenosignificanteffectonthefinalscore,andtherequirementsforthejobareconstant.Jobsarenotoriouslyfluidandinconstantsome
more,someless.Workerslikewise,dependingontheenvironmentofthejobworkersituationandtheextenttowhichtheworkerismethalfwaybymanagement,are
quiteflexibleintheirwillingnesstoputthemselvesouttoachievethestandardsofemployers.Consequently,thewholeprocessofmatchingonthebasisofthese
assumptionsandmeasurementsishighlyquestionable.

ApositiveresultoftakingtheholisticpointofviewinthepracticeofHRMhasbeentheincreaseduseofteambuilding,aconfigurationthatdrawsonthewhole
personforgettingworkdone.Teambuildingrevealspotentialitiesoftheindividualthattendnottoemergeonindividualanalysis.Apreconditionforeffectiveteam
buildingisamanagementthathastheintegritytoproceedwithcommitmentandindependenceand"staythecourse."Patten(1981)describeditasfollows:

Thepsychologicalcontractisconstructedoutofreciprocalexpectations,sharednormsandstandards,andmutualcommitments.Managersenforceitthroughtheirpowerand
authorityintheorganization.Employeesenforce

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itbyinfluencingtheorganizationorwithdrawingallorpartoftheirparticipationandinvolvement.Insomewaysthepsychologicalcontractresemblesacollectivelybargained
contract,butitisnotwrittenandexistsinthemindsoftheparticipantsbecauseithasbeennegotiatedinateambuildingatmosphere.Inbuildingateamwithsuchacontract,goals
areunderstoodandsupportedthesenseofbelongingtoagroupisstrong.Trustandopennessarepresentincommunicationandinrelationships.Theresourcesoftheteam
membersaretappedandusedwell.Leadershipisshared.Proceduresaredevelopedtocopewithproblemsandsolvethem.Sensitivity,flexibility,andcreativityarepresentin
groupprocessworkandthegroupcansteadilyimproveitsprocesses.(p.88)

SummaryofFJAandtheWorker

FJAviewsworkersaswholepersonsasconsumers,familypersons,andspiritualbeingsinadditontobeingworkers.Eachincarnationinvolvesuniquepurposes
thatareentwinedwithoneanother.Toreflectthiswholeness,FJAusesholisticlanguagetodescribequalificationsandjobrequirements.Thisholisticlanguageinvolves
theKSA/ErelatedtoobjectsintherealworldTDPthatinturninvolvetheworker'sphysical,mental,andinterpersonalpotential.Thisisthebasisforrecognizing
anddefiningthefunctionalskillsthatareusedtorelatetospecificjobcontentandgetworkdone.

Inaddition,workersdevelopadaptiveskillstomanagethemselvesaswholepersonsinrelationtothecontext(effort,responsibility,andworkconditionsdemands)of
theirjobworkersituations.Theadaptiveskillsplayacrucialroleinaworker'schoiceprocessinselectingajobanddecidingwhethertostayorleave.Despitethe
importanceofcognitiveskillsinourtechnologicalworld,theworker'swholepersonfunctioningnonverbal,instinctual,physical,andculturalneedstobe
consideredascrucialinthelearningandadaptiveprocess.

TheFJAapproachtounderstandingtheworkerintheworkdoingsystemiswellillustratedinjobdesign.UsingtheFJAapproach,aqualificationprocessbasedon
KSA/Eisused,andonceworkersareselected,oriented,andtrainedtheyareallowedownershipintheirjobassignmentandtrustedtodothejobthatneedstobe
donetoachievethegoalsoftheorganization.Atechniquethatbestillustratestheresultsofthisapproachisteambuildingandteamwork,ajobworkersituationthat
drawsonthepotentialofthewholeperson.

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Chapter5
TheWork
Asusedinthisbook,workisahumaneffortexpendedtoachievearesult.Inwork,twothingshappensimultaneously:aworkerisdoingsomethingandsomethingis
gettingdone.Whattheworkerisdoingisfunctioninginsomewayinrelationtoanobject.TheobjectcanbeaThing(somethingthatistangible),Data(information,
ideas),orPeople(orliveanimals).Simultaneouswiththefunctioningoftheworker,aprocedure/technologyisbeingfollowedtoproduceaproductorperforma
service.TherecognitionofthisdualityisthebedrockofFJA.

Thisfundamentaldualitymanifestsinthedifferentvocabulariesusedtoexpresswhattheworkerdoesandwhatgetsdone.Thesetwovocabulariesarebasedona
differenceinperception.Whattheworkerdoesisthevocabularyofbehavior,ofworkeraction.Whatgetsdoneisthevocabularyofresultsandreflectstechnology.
Innowaycanweunderstandhumanbehavioratworkbyusingthevocabularyofresults.Thiswasthemajorproblemwiththe1940editionofTheDictionaryof
occupationaltitlesitsjobdefinitionswerealmostentirelyinthelanguageofresults.Thuswhencounselingworkersaccordingtotheirbehavioralexperienceand
presumedpotentialforplacement,therewerenosatisfactorybehavioralindicatorstovalidateamatch.Anintensivestudyofthekindsofinferencesbeingmadefrom
thedescriptivelanguageofresultsledtotherecognitionoftheduality.

Thischapterdescribestheresultsoftheanalysisofthelanguageusedtodescribejobsandhowsortingoutthedifferentvocabularieshelpsourunderstandingofwork.
Thelanguageofworkerbehavior,whatworkersdo,wasthebasisfortheformulationofworkerfunctionscalesthatreflecttheinherentlyordinalnatureofskill.These
scalesprovedtobeapowerfulanalyticaltoolfordescribingwork.Theconceptofworkerfunctionsalsoledtothedefinitionoftasksasthebasicmodulesofwork.

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TheLanguageofWorkerBehavior

InthejobdescriptionsofTheDictionaryofoccupationaltitles,2ndEd.(1940),someoftheverbsusedinthosedescriptionswereofadifferentnaturefromthe
restofthedictionary'slanguage.Inhundredsofdescriptionsofdrilling,machining,shaping,planing,routing,boring,andthelikeallofwhichdescribedendresultsof
technologytherewerethetermsfeeding,tending,operating,settingup,whichwerenotassociatedwithsomethinggettingdone.Instead,thesetermsexpressed
whattheworkerwasdoing.Whentheusageoftheseverbswascarefullyexamined,itwasfoundtheyconsistentlyreferredtocharacteristicbehaviorsoftheworkerin
relationtothemachine.Whatwasmore,theyspelledoutacontinuumofbehaviorfromsimpletocomplex.Thesebehaviorscouldbedefinedaslevelsofanordinal
scalewhereanyparticularlevelincludedallthesimplerlevelsbelowitbutwasexcludedfromthehigherlevels.Inshort,thedefinitionfortendingincludedfeedingbut
wasexcludedfromoperatingcontrolling(seeFig.4.2).

Thislinguisticfindinghadimmediateusefulnessinassemblinggroupsofjobsthathavedifferentcontentbutinvolvesimilarworkerbehaviors.Couldsimilarconcurrence
ofworkerbehaviorsidentifiedinjobswithdifferentcontentthusleadtomoreeffectiverecommendationsfortransferabilityandtraining?

Avastresearchendeavorwasundertakentoanswerthisquestion.Thenextlogicalplacetolookforverbsassociatedwithwhattheworkerwasdoingwasamong
jobsthatalsoinvolvedthingsbutdidnotobviouslyrequiremachines:assembling,carpentering,plumbing,bricklaying,inserting,folding,packaging,andthelike.A
hierarchyofskillwasfoundamongthesejobs,fromcrudelaboringtoskilledcrafts,anddescriptionsofphysicalbehavior(reaching,handling,fingering,feeling,
climbing,balancing,etc.)butnoreadymadeterminologythathadthesamequalitiesasthosefoundformachines.Therefore,terminologyhadtobeadaptedand
inventedtoserveinthesamewayastheverbsusedtodescribeworkerrelationshipstomachines.Thesetermswerehandling,manipulating,andprecision
working,whichweredefinedtodescribehandtoolworkfromrelativelycrudetopreciseuse,useofafewtoolstouseofthoseofanentiretrade,andtheuseof
increasinglycomplexmeasurement.Ineffect,twoparallelscalesweredevelopedforwhichtheobjectswereThings.Atthesametimedrivingcontrolling(of
vehicles)wasseparatelydistinguishedfromoperatingcontrollinganddefined.

WithregardtoData,therewasalsoadearthoftermsthatappliedstrictlytoworkerbehavior.Howevertherewereverbsinjobdescriptionsofclericaland
professionalworkthatcouldbeusedtoformulateahierar

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chyoffunctions.Asithappened,theycloselycorrespondedtotheevolutionofhowapersonlearns.Thesetermswerecomparing,copying,computingand
compiling,analyzing,coordinating,andsynthesizing.ThedefinitionswerebasicallyoutofWebster'swithmodificationstohavethemconformtoanordinalscale.

ThebiggestproblemoccurredinthesearchforterminologythatwouldnaturallyfallintoascaleoffunctionsthatappliedtoPeople.Partoftheproblemwasthatthe
terminologydescribingworkerrelationshipstopeoplewasnotquiteasmature.Thejobswerenewerandappearedtoclusteratveryloworveryhighskilllevels.
Also,inthe1950swhenthedevelopmentalresearchwastakingplace,therewerenotasmanyjobdescriptionsinvolvingarelationshiptopeopleastherewereto
ThingsandData.Nevertheless,ascalewasdevelopedthatworked,althoughitinvolvedinventinganddefiningsometerminologythatwouldmakeupanordinalscale.
Thetermswere:takinginstructionshelpingandserving,exchanginginformation,coachinganddivertingandpersuading,consultingandtreatingand
instructing,supervising,negotiating,andmentoring.

ExperienceinworkingwiththePeoplescalehasindicatedthatdespitethedefinitionsofthefunctionstorepresentordinality,theordinalityofthisscaledoesnotwork
quiteaswellastheThingsandDatascales.Thereasonmaybethattherearetwoqualitativelydifferenttypesofinterpersonalrelationshipsrepresentedinthescale:
subjectiveandobjective.Theservinghelping,coaching,treating,andmentoringfunctionsexpressanempathetic,caringdimensionwhiletheremainderofthefunctions
inthishierarchyseemtoinvolveconveyingandtransactinginformationinrelativelyimpersonal,increasinglyformalrelationships.

Inthe45yearssincetheworkerfunctionscaleswerecreatedandusedincountlessprojectsallovertheworld,theneedforonlysevenadditionalfunctionshas
manifested.ThreeofthemwerefortheThingsscaleandtosomeextentreflectedthetechnologicalrevolutionthattookplaceduringtheseyears.Theywerea
breakdownoftendingintomachinetendingI(materialproductsprocessing)andmachinetendingII(dataprocessingandduplication)abreakdownofoperating
controllingintooperatingcontrollingI(stationarymachinesandequipment)andoperatingcontrollingII(machinesandequipmentoperatedinmultidimensional
space)andstartingup(complexmobileequipment).

OnlyinnovatingwasaddedtotheDatascale.Thiswasaddedtohelpclarifytheconfusionthatoccurredintheclamorforcreativeworkerswhencompanieswanted
workerstobeinnovatorsandnotnecessarilycreators.

ThreewereaddedtothePeoplescale:sourcinginformation,whichalsocouldinpartbeattributedtotheenormouslyincreasedroleofinformationandits
disseminationinthelast50yearstreating,whichinpartcouldbeattributedtotheproliferationofhealthcareworkandleading(apartfrom

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managing),whichisafunctionthatrarelyappearsinjobdescriptionsbutshowsupasarequirementinthesearchforchiefexecutiveofficers(CEOs)andsimilar
positions.

AllofthefunctionsappearinFig.4.2andaredefinedinAppendixA.

TheSignificanceofWorkerFunctions

Theoriginal26workerfunctionsseemedlikeaverysmallvocabularytodescribealltherelationshipsofworkerstotheworkthattheydid.However,theywerenot
26independentandisolateddescriptives.Theywereorganizedintothreeordinalscalesandthedefinitionswithineachscalediddefine,fromsimpletocomplex,the
skillsinvolvedinrelatingtoTDP.Furthermore,becauseitwasplannedtousethemtoclassifythekindsofbehaviorsinvolvedinwork,itbecameapparentthata
completepicturecouldnotbeattainedbyselectingonlyadominantfunctiontodescribeaworker'srelationshiptotheworkthatgotdone.Itwasnecessarytoselect
onefunctionfromeachhierarchyTDPthatbestsuitedajobdescriptionandthengiveeachfunctionanestimatedproportionateweight(thethreeproportionshad
toaddupto100%)reflectingthefunction'sproportionateinvolvementinthejob.WeightingoffunctionsaccordingtotheirinvolvementwithTDPwascalledajob's
orientation.

Designatingfunctionlevelandorientationofajobturnedouttobeapowerfulclassificationdevice,conveyingatremendousamountofbehavioralrelevantinformation
forcounselingandplacement.InfactthisbecamethebasisfortheoccupationalclassificationsystemsoftheUnitedStatesandCanada.

Readerscanquicklytestthesignificanceofthesetwomeasuresfunctionallevelandorientationbyapplyingittothemselves.Supposeyouareatrainerforan
organization,andhaveawellequippedtrainingfacilitythatincludesanoverheadprojector,a35millimeterprojector,aVCRandtelevision,flipchartsoneasels,and
thelike.Andsupposeyouworkfromcurriculathathavealreadypreparedteachingmanualsandcorrespondingtraineeworkbooksbutthatrequiremodificationon
yourpartfromclasstoclass.Furthersupposethatyourmajorinvolvementiswithtrainees,butyoualsohavesomeinvolvementwithcolleaguesandmanagers.This
canbeexpressedinfunctionallanguageasfollows:

Level Orientation
Things MachineTendingII
15%
Data Innovating
30%
People Instructing
55%

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Thefullinterpretationofthesemeasuresincludestheaforementioneddescriptivematerialbutinadditionindicatesthatyouareprimarilyresponsibleforthestandards
associatedwithinstructing,secondarilywiththoseassociatedwithinnovating,forexample,modifyingthelessonplans,andfinallywithtendingtheaudiovisual
equipment.Theorientationpercentagesreflectdifferentdegreesofresponsibility.Notethatinnovatingalsoincludestheanalyzingthatyoudowhenyouevaluatethe
workofyourtrainees.

TheTaskasFundamentalUnitofWork

Despiteaccuratelycharacterizingthehighestfunctionsofthetrainer,thepreviousanalysiswasunsatisfactoryinanimportantrespect.Itdidnotprovideforan
understandingoftherangeofthetrainer'sactivities.Inanalyzingtheworkofthetrainer,oranyotherjobforthatmatter,itwasevidentthejobwascomposedofa
numberandvarietyofelementsthatalsoneededtoberecognizedforsuchreasonsas:whatoccupiedtheworker'stime,andhowweretheworker'sskillsand
knowledgesinvolved?Completeanalysisofajobrevealedtheelementsthatmadeupajobalsoinvolvedfunctionsandorientationsandcouldbequitevaried.On
furtheranalysisofmanyjobs,theseelementswerefoundtoreappearinjobafterjob.Theyhadagreaterstabilitythanthesocalledjob,particularlythejobtitle.The
termavailabletodesignatetheseelements,atermthathadbeencasuallyusedforthatpurposewastask.Taskcouldnowbegivenamorefocuseddefinition.

Thedefinitionofataskwasformulatedasfollows:Ataskisanactionoractionsequencegroupedthroughtime,designedtocontributeaspecifiedendresultto
theaccomplishmentofanobjective,andforwhichfunctionallevelsandorientationcanbereliablyassigned.Thetaskactionoractionsequencemaybe
primarilyphysicalasinoperatingadrillpress,primarilymentalasinanalyzingdata,orprimarilyinterpersonalasinconsultingwithaclient.

TheTaskasaSystemModule

ThefunctionalandorientationconceptsemergedwhensortingoutthelanguageofdescriptionasfoundinthejobdefinitionsintheDictionaryofoccupationaltitles.
Duringthisdevelopmentalprocess,thechallengewas:Couldtheseconceptsnowbeputtopracticalusetomakeoriginalobservations?Theanswerwasyesandthe
startingpointwastheEnglishsentenceformulatedtoanswerbasicinformationalquestions.Figure5.1showsthemodelthatwasusedandthequestionsitwas
designedtoanswer.

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Who? Performs Towhom Uponwhat Usingwhattools, To

whataction? orwhat? instructions? equipment,work produce/achieve
(Sourceof aids? what?(expected
information) output)

Subject Actionverbs Objectofverb Phrase Phrase Inorderto...

FIG.5.1.
Modelsentenceworksheet.

Item1.Who?isthesubjectofthetaskstatement,answeringthequestion,''Whoisdoingthework?"Itis,ofcourse,alwaystheWorkeranddoesnotcallforaparticularanswer
forthegenericjobanalysis.However,whenthejobanalysisisbeingdoneinaparticularworkplace,especiallywhentheissueisjobdesign,thenameoftheincumbentisvery
relevantbecausethetaskmightbereassignedandredesignedtoimproveproductivity.

Item2.Performswhataction?callsforaverborverbsequencethatisasspecificanddescriptiveaspossibleaboutwhattheworkerisdoing.Chapter7goesintogreaterdetail
concerningthechoiceofsuchverbsincludingtheonesthatcaneasilyentraptheanalyst.Thesignificantthingabouttheseverbsisthattheymustbeclassifiableintoworker
functionsandassignedalevelinthescales.Becausethereisadearthofsuchclearcutdescriptiveverbstodescribeworkeractions,itisoftennecessarytousetwoormoreverbs
inatandemarrangement.

Item3.Towhomorwhat?callsforanobjectoftheverb(s).TheobjectisaTDPnouninajobworkersituation.ThingsverbsnaturallycallforthingsobjectsDataverbscallfor
dataobjectsPeopleverbscallforpeopleobjects.Acommonsensenaturalnessneedstobefollowedhere,otherwiseunacceptableincongruitiesresult.Thistendstotakecareof
itselfexceptwheretheverbusedforworkeractionisoverlygeneralandmeaningless,forexample,"processesinformation"insteadof"sorts/compilesclassifiedinformation."

Item4.Usingwhat?callsforthedesignationoftools,machines,equipment,measuringdevices,orworkaidsusedtoimplementtheworkaction.Ifseveralthingsarelisted,then
thismaybeasignalthatmorethanonetaskisbeingperformed.Thiscanbesignificantbecausethedifferenttasksmaycallfordifferentskillsandknowledges.

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Item5.Uponwhatinstructions(sourcesofinformation)?callsforthenontangibleenablers(asopposedtothoseinItem4)oftheaction.Thisisaratherinvolveditem.The
instructionscanbeverbalorwritten,specific(prescriptive)orgeneral(discretionary),proximaltotheassignmentordistal,deliveredinpersonorinwritingasaworkorder.A
commonwayofdesignatinginstructionsisbysaying,''followingSOP,"whichindicatesthatitispartoftheknowledgeandtrainingoftheworker.Anothercommonwayistosay
"dependingonexperience(DOE),"whichindicatesthatfollowingproceduresisnotenoughandthattheskillderivedfromlearningaboutthewaystodealwithspecialcases
(exceptionstoprocedures)isinvolved.Itisimportanttoindicatethebalancebetweenprescriptionanddiscretionrequiredinperformingthetask.Tosomedegreethisbecomes
evidentbyspecifyingthesourcesofinformationthatcanvaryfromveryspecific(tables,scales,etc.)toverygeneral,andincertaininstances,sourcesthatneedtoberesearched
anddiscovered.

Item6.Toproduce/achievewhat?callsforanindicationoftheresult.Again,theresultneedstobeconsistentwiththeactionandtheobject,forexample,Thingsactionsneed
tohavethingsresults.Anadditionalconcernisthattheresultmustbeofthesameorsimilarmagnitudeastheactionverb.Theresultofataskisusuallyonlyapartialcontribution
toalargerobjectiveoftheorganizationortechnology.Itusuallytakestheresultsofseveraltasks,linkedinasystematicway,toachieveanobjective.Forexample,

writesaletteroftransmittaloftheannualreportforthepresident'ssignature...inordertoacknowledgetheaddressee'sspecialinterestinthecollege.

ispreferableto

writeslettersforthecollegepresident'ssignature...inordertoenhancethecollege'scommunicationprocess.

Thefirsttaskislikelytobeonlyoneofmanycontributingtoacollege'scommunicationprocess.

ASimplifiedVersionoftheTaskModel

Althougheffectiveforanalyticalpurposes,thejustdescribedmodelneededtobealteredforcommoneverydayuse.ThemodeladoptedisshowninFig.5.2.

TofacilitateobtainingtheinformationforataskfromSMEsandrecordingitfortheirperusal,thefollowingadditionaldevicesareusedintheorderindicated:

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FIG.5.2.
Simplifiedversionofataskmodel.

enablersrelatingtotools,machines,equipmentandworkaidsareprecededbythetermusing.

enablersrelatingtoknowledgeareprecededbythephrasedrawingupon.

enablersrelatingtoskillsareprecededbythephraserelyingon.

iftheinstructionsareSOP,usefollowingSOP.Iftheinstructionsaremorecomplicated,theyarewovenintothenarrativeofthetaskactionatanearlierpoint,
precedingknowledgeandskill.

resultsareprecededbythephraseinordertoabbreviatedasIOT.

ThesedevicesserveboththeFJAfacilitatorinobtainingallthenecessaryinformationandtheSMEbyprovidingthemwithenoughstructuretocriticallyevaluatethe
informationelicited.

TheInstructionstodotheWork

Theworkerfunctionscaleswerefirsttriedoutinascientificresearchlaboratoryin1959.Itwasfoundthatalthoughtheyworkedwellingatheringandsummarizingthe
informationaboutjobcontent,informationrelatingtotheinitiativewithwhichtheincumbentswentabouttheirworkwaslacking.Numerousinterviewswereconducted
withincumbentsandsupervisorsandthedeterminationmadethattheinitiativeinheredinthevarietyofinstructionsworkersweregiven.Theinstructionsgiventothe
workersatdifferentlevels(laborer,technician,assistantengineer,engineer,scientist,manager)werethenstudied.Thesevariedintheamountofresponsibilitygivento
theworkerasreflectedintheknowledgetheywere

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assumedtohaveandtheamountofjudgmenttheywereexpectedtoexercise.An8levelordinalscale,similartotheworkerfunctionscales,wasformulatedto
expressthesedifferentlevelsofresponsibility.TheinitialFJAjobdescriptionswerereanalyzedandgivenadditionalratingsforworkerinstructions.Thisseemedtofill
thebill.TheFJAratingsplustheworkerinstructionratingsnowfullydescribedthejobsandthedifferencesbetweenthem.

AtaboutthistimeJacques'(1956)bookonMeasurementofresponsibility,whichdescribedresponsibilityintermsoftheprescription/discretionmixinjob
instructions,madeanimpressiononthedevelopmentalwork.Becausethisclassicbookcoveredthesamegroundastheworkerinstructions(WI)scale,thescalewas
modifiedtobringitintoaccordwithJacques'work.Thepresentscaleistheresult(seeAppendixA).

Atthelowestlevelthescalereflectsasituationthatcallsforawillingnesstoacceptoverwhelminglyprescriptiveinstructions,instructionsgiventotheindividualby
managementalongwiththetechnologyforachievingthespecificationsrequired.Verylittlediscretionorjudgmentisrequired.Also,asJacquespointsout,thetime
spanforseeingtheresultofanactionisveryshort,practicallyimmediate.Thecorollarybehaviorsareobedienceandsubmissiontotherequirementsofasystemthat
hasbeendevelopedtothepointwheresuchprescriptionispossible.Theworkerneedstobeabletosuppressjudgmentlestitdisturbtherepetitiveresultsforwhich
thesystemhasbeendesigned.Workdesignedforsuchinstructionsrequiresverylittletraining,agreatdealofselfdiscipline,andpartialization(limiteduse)ofthe
person.Infact,worksuchasthisisreadytobeautomatedorrobotized,andfrequentlyis.Itisreallynotfitforhumanswhowishtobeacknowledgedaswhole
persons.

Atthehighestlevelofthescale,jobinstructionsareforworkthatrequiresmajordecisionmakingsuchasforaCEO.Verylittleisprescribedexceptforthelimitations
placedonauthorityandthereturnsexpectedoninvestment.Infact,theprescriptiveaspectsemergeincidentallyduringthedecisionmakingprocess.Picturethe
managerofahouseholdwhomustestablishabudgetandmakedecisionseverydayaboutmealstobeservedandingredientstobeobtainedrecipestobefollowed
howthehousewillbedecoratedincludingthetypesoffurnitureandaccessoriesthatwillbeprocuredandarrangedformaximumeffecthowthechildrenwillbecared
for,dressed,disciplined,andeducatedhowthehouseholdhelpshouldbemotivated,disciplined,andrewardedifthereissuchhelpandfinallyhowapositive,
pleasing,wholesomeambienceinthehouseholdshouldberealizedasthoughitwasthemostnaturalthingintheworld.Thissituationcallsforafullyfunctioning,
dedicated,holistichumanbeingwillingtousejudgmentconstantly,takerisks,andstretchskillstothelimit.Thetimespanforachievingcompetenceatthislevelisof
coursequitelongandindefinite.

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Level4representsthebehavioralcontextofacraftperson,onefullytrainedinatradeorcraft,asinanapprenticeship,andinfullcontrolofthetechnologyavailable.
AlthoughrequiredtofollowcertainSOPandconformtolocalcodes,craftpersonsusetheirjudgmentindealingwiththeproblemsthatcomeupinaparticular
assignment,drawingonexperience.

Level5issimilartoLevel4exceptthatinthisinstancetheinstructionalbackgroundincludestheoreticaltrainingandprofessionalliteraturethatcanbedrawnonto
understandandsolveproblemsinaparticulartechnologicalfield.

IntheWIscale,wehaveanextremelypowerfultoolfordescribingbehavioralrequirements.Thebehaviordescribedisessentiallyanadaptiveskill,oneofmanyskills
concernedwithhowpeoplemanagethemselvesinrelationtoconformityandchange.Itcorrelateswiththeratingsonthedata,reasoning,andlanguagescalesthus
showingitsunderlyingcognitivecomponent.

Experiencehasshownthatthepreferenceindividualshaveforalevelofinstructionisoftenagoodindicationoftheirneedforstructureintheworksituation.Persons
whoneedand/orpreferagreatdealofstructureandaminimalamountofresponsibilityarequitecontentwithinstructionsonLevels1,2,or3.Personswhoseek
independenceintheirworksituationandarewillingtoassumeresponsibility,aspiretoLevels4,5,and6.Level7representsthesituationpreferredbypotential
explorers,inventors,andresearcherswhostructuretheirownworldofwork.Level8callsforastrongleadershipdrivewhereinthepersonnotonlystructureshisor
herworksituationbutinspiresotherstorealizeamasterpurposeorvision.

SummaryofFJAandtheWork

Workneedstobeunderstoodasadualityofworkersdoingsomethingtogetsomethingdone.Eachpartofthedualityhasitsownvocabulary.Thisisfundamentalto
distinguishbehaviorfromresults.ThebehavioralvocabularyofworkfallsintothreeordinalhierarchiesofTDPfunctions.Thefunctionalhierarchiesareabasefor
definingfundamentalunitsofwork,namelytasks,whicharefarmorestablethanjobs.Selectingonefunctionfromeachhierarchyandestimatingthepercentageof
involvementwitheachonthebasisoftherelativeimportanceofthestandards(orientation),providestwomeasuresthatarepowerfulandreliabledescriptorsofwork.
AnadditionalmeasureisobtainedfromascaleofWI,thelevelsofwhichserveasindicatorsoftheprescription/discretionmixinvolvedinthetask.Thetasksarethe
fundamentalbuildingblocksoftheworkdoingsystem.

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Chapter6
ReducingFrictionintheWorkDoingSystem
Inthepreviouschapterswedevelopedaframeofreferenceanddescribedmeasuresthatenablepractical,proactiveHRMtodealwiththeturbulent,dynamicchanges
intheglobaleconomy.Wehavedrawnapictureofworkersaswholepersonsaccommodatingtothepurposes,goals,andobjectivesofaworkorganizationtoget
workdone.Wehaveshownthattheoverallworkdoingsystemconsistsofthreecomponents,eachwithitsownintrinsicdynamicworkergrowthfortheworkers,
productivityfortheworkorganization,andefficiencyandeffectivenessfortheworkandthatthesecomponentsaremutuallycomplementaryanddependentonone
anothertoachievethemostbeneficialresults.Inthelongrun,theworkofanorganizationiseffectivelyaccomplishedandattainsoptimumproductivity(andhence
profitability)whentheworkersaresatisfiedwiththeirgrowthaspersonsfromthestandpointofincome,skill,andsecurity.

Thereality,ofcourse,isdifferentthantheidealpicturewehavedrawn.Therealityisoftenoneofgreatfriction,oftendestructive.Alltoooftensinglecomponentsof
theworkdoingsystemstrivetorealizetheirpotentialindependently,andevenattheexpense,oftheothersefficiencyforitsownsake,productivity/profitabilityto
satisfyabottomline,workergrowthwithoutregardtothesurvivabilityoftheworkorganization.Oneforcedrivingtheorganizationiscompetitivepressurefromother
firmsseekinghegemonyinthemarket.Anotherforceisconstantinternalrivalryamongthethreecomponents.Athirdisanadversarialtraditionbetweenmanagement
andlaborinNorthAmerica.

Theseforcesplacethesystemunderconstantthreattocomeapartattheseams.Becauseitisadynamicsystemgreatforcesactivelyengagedenormousenergy
canbereleasedinaterriblydestructivemanner,asinastrike,iftheselfcenteredforcesofthecomponentsarenotheldincheck,

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arenotmeshedindynamicequilibrium.Somethingisneededtoreducethefrictionamongtheseselfcenteredforcesthatdonotexistinavacuum.Thekeytoreducing
thisfrictionisrealizingthatalltheseforcesarepersoncentered.Workersarepersonsworkorganizationsaremanagedbypersonstheworkisperformedbypersons.
Thesepersonsareallcreatedoutofthesamemold.Theyallhavethepotentialforselfcenteredalienation.Theyalsoallhavethepotentialforselfrealizationthrough
cooperationaswellascompetition.Istherealubricantthatcanfacilitatethecomponentsofthesystemtoworktogether?Thereis.Itisineffecttodayinmanyplaces
andcandefinitelybeextendedtomanymore.Improbableasitmayseem,itismutualtrustgrowingoutofmutualinterestandpersonalresponsibility.

Trust?Youcan'tbeSerious!

Themerementionofthewordtrustinthesetimesoframpantdownsizingofpeoplewhohavespenttheirlivesidentifyingwithandbeingloyaltoacorporationis
probablyenoughtoraisethereader'sgorge.Thisiswhywehastentoclarifywhatwemeanbytrustanddisassociateitfromblindloyaltytoanimpersonalcorporation.
Bytrustwearereferringtosomethingthatmostofusrelyontomakelifetolerableandlivable.Ithastwosimultaneousaspects:(a)theriskandassociatedvulnerability
ofbelievinginthehonestyandintegrityoffriends,neighbors,vendors,employers,andfamily(Mayer,Davis,&Schoorman,1995),and(b)thecommonsenseofnot
surrenderingtonaiveteandinsteadrecognizingthatone'sfirstresponsibilityistooneself(Morin,1990).Thelatteraspectissimplyamatterofdealingholisticallywith
theriskandvulnerabilityofthefirstaspect.

WilliamJ.Morin,aprincipalintheoutplacementfirm,DrakeBeamMorin,explained:
Intheworkplace,ourfirstloyaltyhastobetoourownneeds.Icomefirst.Youcomefirsttoyourself.Weallcomefirstforourselves.Itsoundsselfish,butit'sreallyanexpression
ofselfness,thecornerstoneofwhatIcallnondependenttrust.Nondependenttrusttakesournaturaldesiretotrustothersandfitsthatinclinationtothebusinessenvironment.
(Morin,1990,p.29)

Morin(1990)writes,whenpushcomestoshove,theimplicitorinformalimplicationexistingintherelationshipbetweentheworkerandworkorganizationisthatthe
lastwordbelongstotheworkorganization.Aworker'ssupervisorhastheresponsibilitytoactinthebestinterestsofthecompany.Morin(1990)notesseveral
commonsituationsinwhichthesupervisormustignorehisorherpersonalfeelingsofcaringfortheindividual.

Whatcanhappen?Yourmanagerpromisesyouaraise,butacorporatewagefreezeisannounced,andnowshe(sic)can'tdeliver.Youexpectand

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deserveapromotion,butyourmanagertellsyouthat,becauseofanemployeedownsizing,youmightbeluckytohaveanyjobnextmonth.Yourmanagerhearsaboutupcoming
cutbacks,doesn'tinformyoubecauseofamanagementdirectivedemandingsecrecy,andleavesthecompanyforanotherjob.Noneoftheseactionsistheworkofanunethical,
unworthyperson.Yettheyreinforcethevalue,orperhapsthenecessity,ofputtingyourowninterestsfirst.(p.31)

Fittingourintereststothebusinessenvironmentmeanstakingresponsibilitytoanalyzethesituationandmakedecisionsbasedonthatanalysis.Totaketheboss'
directionswithoutquestionmaybeloyal,butitistotallyirresponsible.

Morinhassomesageadviceforemployeesbasedonhisyearsofexperienceintheoutplacementbusinessbutmoreparticularly,onasurveyconductedbyhisfirmfor
abilliondollarcompany.
Themajorityofemployeesstatedthattheybelievedinthevaluesoftheircorporation.But70%oftherespondentssaidthattheydidn'ttrustmanagementtorunthebusiness
properly.Amajorityalsofeltveryconfusedaboutwhatwasexpectedofthem.(p.32)

Headvisesindividualstoaskthemselvesthefollowingquestionsaboutthetaskstheyareaskedtoperform.

Doestheinstructionmakesensetome?

IsthisinstructioncompatiblewithsimilartasksIhavedoneinthepast?

DoIunderstandtheinstructionswellenoughtocompletethetask?

DoIknowhowmyperformancewillbemeasured?

DoIunderstandhowmyperformancewillberewarded?

Thesepracticalquestionsarethoseofaresponsibleandindependentworkersomewouldsay,anempoweredworkerandrepresentasearchforinformationthat
reenforcesnondependenttrust.Thedialoguethatcouldbeinitiatedbysuchquestionswouldhavetheeffectofreducingtheriskandvulnerabilityandreenforcingthe
firstaspectoftrust.Forsuchadialoguetooccur,weneedtopauseandconsiderawholesetofassumptions.

AssumptionsAbouttheNatureofPeople:canTheybeTrusted?

Whataremanagement'sassumptionsaboutworkers?Rush(1971)citedapersonnelmanagerforalargeelectronicsfirmengaginginjobdesignforworkermotivation:

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Thebiggesthurdlewehadtoovercomewhenwestartedtobuildjobenrichmentintosomeroutinejobswaschangingattitudesofoursupervisors.Therealproblemwasn'tso
muchinfindingwaystoenrichthelowerleveljobsasinchallengingtheassumptionsthesupervisorshadaboutthepeoplewhoperformthesejobs.Somehowitwasassumed
thatpeoplewhodomenialworkhavedifferentneedsandvaluesfrompeopleinmorehighlyskilledandprestigiousjobs.Untilwedidsomeintensiveorganizationaldevelopment
withoursupervisorswehadlittlehopeofsucceedinginjobenrichment.(p.25)

Suchattitudesstillappeartobewidespread.Despitethefactthat"probablythemostcrucialindividualinmakingnondependenttrustworkisthefrontlinemanager,"
themostcommonmanagementfailureis"forgettingthatacompany'slifebloodrestswithindividualemployeesandtheirabilitytoanalyze,criticize,andbe
creative"(Morin,1990).Thetidemaybeturning.Extensiveadoptionofteamworkandqualitycircleshaveshownmanagementtheextenttowhichtheyhaveignored
andoverlookedtheirhumanresources.

Whatistheworker'sviewpointofmanagement?Notveryfavorable!ElaineKamarck,policyadvisortoVicePresidentAlbertGoreonreinventinggovernment,
describesvisitstoonlineworkersingovernmentagencyaftergovernmentagencies(Kamarck,Goddard,&Riback,1988).Theworkersdetailedtheinefficienciesand
wastefulnessofgovernmentproceduresthattheyhadtofollowbecausetheywerepartofthesystem.Thesesameworkersdescribedhowtheworktheyweredoing
couldbedonemoreeffectively,evenwhenitmeantthattheirownjobswouldbeeliminated.1

Theseillustrationshighlightthemutualdistrustworkersandmanagementhaveforeachother.Inasense,workersandmanagementhavemoreorlesscometoregard
eachother'suntrustworthinessasagiven.McGregor(1960)referredtomanagement'sbeliefsinthisregardasTheoryX.Thisbeliefsystemmanifestsitselfinthe
workdoingsystemasmanagerial"directionandcontrolthroughtheexerciseofauthority"(p.49).HecontrastedthiswithaTheoryYbeliefoperatingunderthe
centralprincipleofintegration,whichMcGregordescribesas"thecreationofconditionssuchthatthemembersoftheorganizationcanachievetheirowngoalsbestby
directingtheireffortstowardthesuccessoftheenterprise"(p.49).TheopposingassumptionsofTheoryXandYaresummarizedinTable6.1.
1
Thisdisillusionandmistrustparallelsthesesamefeelingsanddisgustforgovernment,electedrepresentatives,andevenleadersofcorporationsthatexistsamongthegeneral
publicatthetimeofthiswriting.Pollafterpollindicatesthepublicfeelsthetrusttheyhaveputinthesepeopletodotherightthinghasbeenbetrayed.Thearousedpublic
appearstobereadyto"voteouttherascals"(asfarasgovernmentisconcerned)andpresumablyvoteinthosewhowillrestoretheirtrust.

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TABLE6.1
McGregor'sTheoryXandTheoryYAssumptions
TheoryXAssumptions
1. Theaveragehumanbeinghasaninherentdislikeofworkandwillavoiditifhe(sic)
can.
2. Becauseofthishumancharacteristicofdislikeofwork,mostpeoplemustbecoerced,
controlled,directed,threatenedwithpunishmenttogetthemtoputforthadequate
efforttowardtheachievementoforganizationalobjectives.
3. Theaveragehumanbeingpreferstobedirected,wishestoavoidresponsibility,has
relativelylittleambition,wantssecurityaboveall.
TheoryYAssumptions
1. Theexpenditureofphysicalandmentaleffortinworkisasnaturalasplayorrest.
2. Externalcontrolandthethreatofpunishmentarenottheonlymeansforbringing
aboutefforttowardorganizationalobjectives.Man(sic)willexerciseselfdirectionand
selfcontrolintheserviceofobjectivestowhichhe(sic)iscommitted.
3. Commitmenttoobjectivesisafunctionoftherewardsassociatedwiththeir
achievement.
4. Theaveragehumanbeinglearns,underproperconditions,notonlytoacceptbutto
seekresponsibility.
5. Thecapacitytoexercisearelativelyhighdegreeofimagination,ingenuity,and
creativityinthesolutionoforganizationalproblemsiswidely,notnarrowly,
distributedinthepopulation.
6. Undertheconditionsofmodernindustriallife,theintellectualpotentialitiesofthe
averagehumanbeingareonlypartiallyutilized.
Note.AdaptedfrommaterialreproducedfromD.McGregor,1960,TheHumanSideof
Enterprise.Copyright1960byTheMcGrawHillCompanies.Reproducedwithpermission.

Fromourexperienceinconductinghundredsofjobanalysisworkshopswithworkers,weknowtheirassumptionsaboutmanagementareasunflatteringandunrealistic
asTheoryXassumptionsaboutworkers.Butcanconditionsbesetthatreducemutualsuspicion,buildtrust,andsetthestageforworkergrowthandenhanced
productivity?Inrestatingthisquestion,Porter,Lawler,&Hackman(1975)askedwhetheran"optimalstateofaffairs"canexistconsistingof:

ajob...designedsothatanemployeecouldgainimportantpersonalsatisfactionsindirectproportiontothedegreethathe(sic)workedefficientlyandeffectivelytowardthe
goalsoftheorganization....Ifjobscouldbesodesigned,itmightbepossibletohavesimultaneouslybothhighproductiveefficiencyfortheorganizationandhighpersonal
satisfactionforemployees.(pp.284285)

Webelievethatthisisindeedpossible.Butwhowoulddesignthejobs?Wouldthisstillbeleftentirelytomanagement?Ourview,drawingonMcGregor'sTheoryY
assumptionsofworkersastrustworthyandcreativeaswellasourownexperience,wouldbetoinvitetheworkers'participationinthedesignoftheirjobs.

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Significantresearchsupportsthisview.MillerandMonge(1986),forexample,intheirreviewoftheresearchliteratureonparticipativemanagementlocated47studies
containing''quantifiableestimates"oftherelationshipbetweenparticipationindecisionmakingandeitherjobsatisfactionand/orproductivity.Theirintensive
examinationoftheresultsofthesestudiesshowedtheeffectsofparticipationweregreatestwhentheworkersgenuinelyexperienceditintheworkplaceandwhen
participationwasextendedaswidelyacrosstheworkunitaspossible.MillerandMongedescribedthisasanaffectiveresultofparticipation,onethatsatisfied
workers'higherorderneedsforgrowthandforpositivemotivationonthejobinlinewithTheoryYassumptions.

Thereis,ofcourse,ampleanecdotalevidenceforthistypeofpositiveworkerreactionintheworkplace.Morin(1990)relatedanexperienceofwalkingthroughan
antiquatedprintingplantonitsfinalshutdown.Afterthelastshifthaddepartedhelookedovertheoldfashionedandoutdatedmachinery.
ButInoticedsomethingelse,too:avarietyofchewinggumandbalingwireimprovementsthatemployeeshadapparentlydreamedupontheirowntoimproveoperations,or
perhapsjusttokeeptheplantrunning.Ithought,ifmanagementhadrecognizedtheeffortthathadgoneintotheseRubeGoldberginventions,andhadsupportedthateffortwith
realresources,Iwonderifthisplantwouldhavecloseddowntoday?(p.6)

DonaldPetersen,formerCEOoftheFordMotorCompany,statesthefollowingabouthisexperiencewithworkerparticipation.
AtFord,ouremployeeinvolvementprogramstartedslowlyandhaditsupsanddown.butultimatelyitwasoneofthedrivingforcesbehindthecompany'scomebackinthe1980s.
Bylateinthedecade,easilytwothirdsofFord'semployeeswereparticipatinginanemployeeinvolvementteamofonekindoranother.Theycontributedtensofthousandsof
highlyworthwhileideas,yearinandyearout.(Petersen&Hillkirk,1991,p.25)

Wecanpersonallyattesttothefactthatthisisacommonexperience.Inatleasthalftheplantsinwhichwehavedonejobanalyses,wehavefoundimprovisationand
innovativeness,typicallyunacknowledgedbymanagement.Infact,itisourviewthatworkersmustbeinvolvedinthedesignoftheirjobs,ifthemaximizationofhuman
potentialthatMcGregortalksaboutistobeachieved.

OrganizationalImplementationofaTheoryBasedonTrust

TheimplementationofTheoryYassumptionscouldattheveryleastresultinatruceintheconflictbetweenmanagementandlabor.Inanycase,

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surelyitisevidentthatanenormousamountofdebilitatingstress,forbothworkersandmanagers,wouldbeeliminatedandtrustwouldbecomeapossibility.Patten
(1981)noted:
Intheworldofcomplexorganizations...personnelmanagers,trainingdirectors,andhumanresourceexpertswhofunctionaschangeagents,seekstrategies,models,and
approachesfromthebehavioralsciencesforconsciouslyalteringthestatusquointhedirectionofgreaterindividual,organizationalandsocialhealth.Wordssuchastrust,
authenticity,openness,innovativenessandaproblemsolving,confrontingattitudearerepeatedlymentionedasmissingfrommuchofeverydayorganizationalandindustriallife.
(p.60)

Pattengoesontopointoutthatthesechangeagentstypicallyaddressthedeficienciesintheirteambuildingandorganizationaldevelopment(OD)effortsusinggroup
dynamics.Groupdynamicstechniqueshelpindividualsdevelopawarenessoftheextenttowhichtheyareopenaboutthemselvesandtheirrelationstogroupmembers,
thekindoffacadetheyusetokeepgroupmembersfromknowingwhotheyare,andthewaysinwhichtheyacceptandusefeedbackfromgroupmembersabout
theirinteractions.
Astheleveloftrustincreasesinagroup,thearena(thesharedawarenessofknowledge)exhibitedbythevariousgroupmembersalsotendstoincrease....Themoreone
participatesinagroup,themoreblindspotdata(individualbehaviorofwhichtheselfisunaware)aredisplayedtoothers.Inthiswayindividualsbecomeoffguardandreveal
themselvesandplacethemselvesinapositionforgettingfeedbackaboutaspectsofthemselvesofwhichtheyarenotaware.(Patten,1981,p.23)

Theuseofgroupdynamicsbuildsontheassumptionsthatpeoplecanbetrusted,andthattrust,likedistrust,isalearnedexperience.

ObstaclestoAchievingTrust

Theobstaclestoachievingtrustarelegion.InadditiontothekindsofTheoryXassumptionsnotedinTable6.1,therearethecircumstancesofanindividual's
experienceandsearchforidentityinacomplexworld.Wecanlistonlyafewoftheseobstaclesbeforediscussinganotherapproachthatparallelsteambuilding,draws
ongroupdynamics,andhelpspeople''lostinfamiliarplaces"learntoovercomedistrust(Shapiro&Carr,1991):

Thechangingnatureoftheeconomyfromanindustrialmixthataccommodatedpersonswithrelativelylittleskillandeducationtoonethathasbecomeaknowledge
economyrequiringconsiderablebasicreasoning,math,andlanguageskills.(Personslackingthesebasicskillsareineffectrejectedbytheeconomy.)

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Thetremendousincreaseincompetitivenessamongandwithinorganizationsthatresultsinjobuncertaintyandinsecurity.(Goodworkandloyaltyarenolongera
guaranteeofjobsecurity.)

Thepressuretoachieveidentitythroughaffiliationwithsomesortofgroupfrequentlyrequiringsurrenderofapartofone'spersonalbeliefs.(Thegroupcanbea
gang,areligiouscult,apoliticalpartyprofessingaparticularideology,and/orasocialgroupthroughwhichoneattainsaparticularstatus.Somemeasureof
brainwashingisusuallyassociatedwiththeaffiliation.)

Politicalcampaigns,advertising,andmediathatbrazenlypromotehalftruthsoruntruthsthatmakewinningthebeallandendallnomatterthecost.(Thisparticularly
underminesfaithinnegotiationandmostsourcesofinformationdissemination.)

Thewidespreadcorruptionofpublicservantsandelectedofficialsalongwithpleabargaininginthejudicialsystem.(Thiscontributestotheabilityofskillfuland
expensivelawyerstousethelegalsystemtowinfreedomoratleastlightsentencesforwealthypersonsaccusedofcriminalbehavior,thusunderminingtrustinit.)

Rampantcareerismwherebymanagersareopportunisticandselfinterestedtotheexclusionofworkerwelfare,theworkorganization,andsocietyatlarge.(This
undercutsfaiththatothershaveinindividualmanagerstodoanythingotherthanpromotetheirowncareers.)

Obviously,itisadifficultchallengetofostertrustinthiskindofanenvironment,whichhasashatteringeffectonourrelationshipswithothersandonourbeliefsintheir
integrityandtrustworthiness.Nevertheless,ithastobedone.

AMethodforBuildingTrust

ShapiroandCarr(1991)describedanapproachthatcomplementsteambuildingandisperhapsapreconditionforteambuildingtooccur.Theyfirstdescribe,from
theirpointofview,theconditioninwhichwefindourselves.

Ourindividuallivesarelivedinaseriesofgroups.Someofthesegroupsareobviousandimmediateafamily,aclub,aclassatschool,aneighborhood,aworkorganization.
Othersaremoreamorphousanation,areligioustradition,aprofessionalassociation....Withinthesegroupsindividualsarefacedwiththetaskofdefiningthemselves,
adjustingtheirdistinctivepersonalities,andestablishingidentitiesincontext,identitiesthatcanstandfordeeply(andoftenunconsciously)heldvaluesandbeliefs.Thistaskis
made

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morecomplexbythevarietyofchangingroleswearerequiredtoadoptinoursocialinstitutions....Awashtherefore,inaseaofcomplexandoverlappingcontexts,wetendto
losehopeofbeingabletograspanythingatall.Asenseofpersonalsignificanceandmeaningeludesusinaswirlofsocialchange.(p.4)

Howisonetoachievetrustinaworldstrewnwithobstaclestoit?Howshalltrustmanifestinaworkorganizationinwhichadownsizingisbeingcontemplated?Letus
picturetheworkersfacedwiththisdreadedcontingency,workerswhose"senseofpersonalsignificanceandmeaning"issuddenlythreatenedbyacatastrophefor
whichtheymaynotatallbeprepared.Howcanthethreatofdownsizingbehandledbymanagementsothatindividuals"facedwiththetaskofdefiningthemselvescan
adjusttheirdistinctivepersonalitiesandreestablishanidentityincontext"(Shapiro&Carr,1991)?

ShapiroandCarr,followinginthegroupdynamicstradition,proposeamethodaimedatrestoringconnectednessamongpeopletheycallsharedinterpretationof
experience.Thisisnotaneasythingtodo.ShapiroandCarrask:"Canwedevelopasharedinterpretationofexperience?Andifso,how?"Theygoontodescribea
groupexperienceinvolvingthreebasiccomponentsofequalimportance:

1.theuseofindividualexperience,theirreduciblebasisonwhichwealloperate,

2.thecollaborativetestingofrealitybysharingindividualexperiences,and

3.thediscoveryofalargercontexttowhichtheparticipants'linkedexperiencesrelate.

TounderstandwhatShapiroandCarraregettingat,itmaybehelpfultofollowthroughwithoursuggestedexampledownsizinginalargeorganization.(Tosome
extent,thevalidityofthisexampledependsonthecultureoftheorganization.Itisnotlikelytobeconsideredasaviableapproachinahighlyauthoritarian
organization.)Supposetopmanagementdecidesthatdownsizingisthepathtotaketoachievecertaingoals.Supposeitfurtherarrangesforsmallgroupmeetingsprior
totakingaction.Thesegroupsofnomorethaneightpersonscouldmoreorlesscorrespondtotheorganizationalstructurebydepartmentorbyfunctionalteam.Each
groupwouldincludeafacilitatortrainedinthebasicsofgroupdynamicsandwhoserolewouldbetolisten,toserveasaresourcewithregardtothemeasures
managementiscontemplating,and,onoccasion,tofeedbacktothegroupwhatisbeingsaid.

Thepurposeofthegroupwouldbetoprovideanopportunityforindividualstosharewiththeotherswhatdownsizingandthepossiblelossof

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theirjobmeanstothemtheycouldventtheiranguish,theirbitterness,theirdisappointment,andquestiontheveryneedforthedownsizinganditsmagnitude.Some
mightvoiceproposalsforcounteringtheactionwithneworrevisedtechnology,neworrevisedprocedures,orwillingnesstomakesacrificesofonesortoranotherin
ordertosavetheirjobs.Thepointistheywouldhaveinthissharedexperienceacommonbasisforconnectingwithoneanother,andultimately,withthetop
managementoftheorganization.

Toconnectwiththehighestlevelsofmanagement,eachgroupwouldselectonepersontomeetwithothersimilarselecteesingroupsofeight,eachselecteereflecting
andexpressingthesentimentsoftheoriginalgroup.Inthismannerofsuccessivegroupsofeight,everyonewhowouldbeaffectedbythedownsizingcouldbeheard
from.Individualshavetheopportunitytoexplorethetrust(riskandvulnerability)theyinvestedintheorganization.Throughthesharedexperienceofconnectingwith
oneanotherandexpressingandexploringoptions,theywillalsohavesomepossibilityofrecoveringtheirindependence(nondependenttrust).

Thereisnoreasontobelievethatthesemeasureswillnecessarilyleadtoahappyendingforthegreatmajorityofdownsizedworkers.Whatisoccurringinbusiness
andindustryisahistoricupheavalandinevitablepainfultransition,especiallyforthosewholosetheirjobs.Itisunlikelythatmanagementwilleverbeabletooffer
lifetimejobstothosewhoworkhardandplaybytherules.Globalcompetitionistoointenseforthat.Whatcanbehopedforisthatmanagementwillhandlethe
transitionwithhonestyandintegritysothatitcanstillbetrustedintheconditionsthatseemtobeshapingthefuture.

Itisnotpossibletoplaceanabsolutevalueontheapproachjustdescribedortopredictexactlywhatimpactitwouldhave.Whatdoesseemevidentisthatthe
organizationwouldbedoingwhatitbelievesnecessarytosurvivewhilealsomakinganefforttoobtaininputfromthosewhowouldbemostaffected.Carryingoutthis
extensiveventingandlisteningcouldpossiblycontributetoconstructivetransfersofskillswithintheorganizationaswellasestablishabasisforoutplacementcarried
outwithgrace.Theremainingemployeeswouldgainaclearerpictureoftheorganizationinwhichtheyareriskingtheirvulnerabilityandamoreinformedbasisfor
fosteringtheirindependencetheirresponsibilityforthemselves.Somecommentatorssuggestthatyoungerworkersarealreadyadoptingthesevaluesof
independence,countingonlyontheirownskillsforemploymentsecurity.

NolanandCroson(1995)describedasixstageprocessfortransformingtheworkorganizationtomakeitviableinthecompetitiveenvironmentofthe21stcentury.
Twocomponentsatthecoreofeachofthestagesare:communicationthroughouttheorganizationandtheintegrationoftech

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nologyinthemanagementoftheorganization.InStage2(whichfollowsthefirstdownsizingstage),theydescribetheflexible,continuousnegotiationneededtoachieve
adynamicbalanceamongstakeholders:employees,suppliers,customers,andshareholders.Thiscanbeachievedinpart,theyassert,byallorganizationmembers
havingopenaccesstoinformation.NolanandCrosondescribedthisneed:
Thevolume,accuracyandtimelinessofinformationarevastlydifferentthanwhattheywereevenfiveyearsago,withthetrendcontinuingtowardcheap,perfectinformationin
realtime.Itisextraordinarilyimportantthatmanagementfullycomprehendthisnewreality,andactonit.Thedaysofrelyingonholdingbackinformationtocreatestrategic
advantageinbargainingareoveradvantagenowcomesfromrevealingthatyouareinformed.(p.28)

Extensiveflowofinformationenablesmanagementandlabortoparticipateandcorrectproblemsusinginformeddiscretiontoequitablydistributethebenefitsof
downsizing,thefirm'ssurplus,tostakeholders.

FurthersupportiveevidenceforthemethodproposedbyShapiroandCarr,appearstobeborneoutbyanindependentstudyconductedbyHeckscher(1995),in
whichhetakesacloselookatwhathappenstomanagementloyaltiesduringcorporaterestructuring.Heinterviewed250middlemanagersfrom14firms,amongthem
AT&T,DowChemical,DuPont,GeneralMotors,Honeywell,andPitneyBowes.Tenofthesecompanieswereconsidered"troubled"andfour"dynamic."Inthe
troubledcompanies,Heckscherfoundatraditionalcommunityofloyaltyriddledwithcrisis.Althoughmostofthemanagersinthesecompaniesfeltahighlevelof
overallsupportfortheneedtodownsizeandrestructure,thosewithhighsustainedloyaltywerefoundtoretreatintoaninwardlookingimmobility.Threeto5years
afterthedownsizing,managerswerefoundtolamentthattherewasevenmorebureaucracythanbefore.Forexample,afrequentcomplaintwasalackofsufficient
communicationfromtopmanagementdown.Althoughcommunicatingpersistentlyaboutstrategy,thesetopmanagerswerenotcreatingacontextthatgavetheir
peopleanunderstandingofhowtodosomethingaboutstrategy.Therefore,strategyremaineddisconnectedfromdaytodayimplementationissuesfacedbymiddle
managers.

Ontheotherhand,traditionalloyaltywaslargelyrejectedbymanagersindynamicorganizations.Heckscherfoundthatthesemoresuccessfulorganizations,manyof
whichunderwentthebiggestchanges,tookthetimetoreevaluatetheircorporatevalues.Theytriedtofosterindependenceratherthanobedience,showrespectfor
thepersonalneedsoftheiremployees,encouragehonestdialoguebetweenemployeesandtheirmanagers,andhelpemployeesgaintheskillsandknowledgeneeded
tomain

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tainemployability.Managersintheseorganizationsattemptedtomaintainadelicatebalancewithoutmovingtoeitherthebitternessofunrequitedloyaltyorthecynicism
ofunrestrainedindividualism.

Heckschersoughttoformulatesomerulesthatwouldcharacterizethese"professional"managersindynamicorganizations.Neitherthetraditionalorganizationand
loyalty"contract"norafreeagent(opportunisticselfinterest)anditsalternativeswillmotivatepeopletocooperateundercurrentconditionsofrapidchangeand
downsizing.Heproposesinsteadtheconceptofacommunityofpurpose.Acommunityofpurposeisdefinedasthevoluntarycomingtogetherofindividualswith
commitmentsandanorganizationwithamission.Itisthesharedcommitmenttotheaccomplishmentofamissionortaskwithoutapermanentanddependent
relationshipofemployeetoemployer.

Heckscherdrawstwopicturesforus.Oneisofthemoretraditionalorganizationinwhichemployersfeltamoralobligationtohonortheimplicitcontractwith
employeesbyofferingthememploymentstabilityinreturnfortheirloyalty.Thesecondisofthemoreadaptiveorganizationinwhichthemainmoralobligationofboth
employerandemployeewastobeaboveboardindiscussinginterestsandcommitments.

Perhapswearestretchingitabit,buttousitseemsthatMorin(1990)andhisconceptofnondependenttrust,NolanandCrosonandtheirdescriptionofaflexible
environmentwithafreeflowofcommunication,andHeckscherandhisderivedcommondenominatorofanadaptive,dynamicorganizationhavingacommunityof
purpose,alldescribedifferentaspectsoftheneedforasharedinterpretationofexperienceassetoutbyShapiroandCarr.Weregardthisasmutualtrustgrowing
outofenlightenedselfinterestleadingnaturallytoalevelingofpowerintheworkorganizationandtogreaterworkerparticipation.Thisiswhatwehavein
mindasthelubricantforthesuccessfulfunctioningoftheworkdoingsystem.

HowdoesFJAenablethislubricanttowork?Spreitzer(1996),inresearchonempowerment,suggestedsomeanswerstothequestion.Herworkwith397middle
managersofaFortune500companyshowsthatempowermentisenabledbyaworkunitenvironmentwherethefollowingconditionsaremet:

Everyposition(andjob)shouldhaveaclearsetofresponsibilitiesprovidingexplicitguidanceanddirection.(TheFJAtaskstatementdocumentstheworker's
perceptionoftheprescriptionanddiscretionassignedtotheminexecutingtheirfunctions.Thisenablestracingmiscommunicationamongworkersandbetween
workersandsupervision.)

Supervisorsshouldmanagewithawider,ratherthannarrower,spanofcontrolsothatworkersdonotfeelthatsomeoneisalwayslookingovertheirshoulder.(FJA
enablesthisbyrevealingtheextentworkersuseother

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sourcesofinstructionsandinformation,forexample,networkingorselfstudy,andareinnovative.)

Empowermentisenabledwhenworkersbelievethattheyhavesupportendorsementorlegitimacyfromothersintheorganization,especiallyhighermanagement.
(FJAmobilizesthissupportbygeneratingasharedinterpretationofexperienceamongworkersandwithmanagement.)

Empowermentisfurtherenabledthroughaccesstoinformationespeciallytohoweachworker'sworkcontributestotheobjectivesandgoalsoftheorganization.
(FJAaccomplishesthisbyexplicitlyrelating,taskbytaskwhattheworkerdoestogetworkdoneandbyidentifyingtheresources,taskbytask,usedtodoso.)

EmpowermentcanonlyhappenifmanagementestablishesaparticipativeclimateintheworkunitasnotedearlierintheFordexample.(FJApromotesaparticipative
climatebyinvolvingworkersandmanagementinareciprocalundertakingnamelytheFJAfocusgroupseechap.7.)Thereisacrucialelementof"surrender"that
takesplaceinsofarastheworkersaresharingwhattheyaloneknowhowtheydotheirjobsandmanagementisconfessingadegreeofignorance:"weneedto
knowwhatyoualoneknowtoachieveourproductiongoals."

WeseesomeresearchsupportfortherationaleunderlyingthebasicFJAprocessasameansofempoweringworkers.Thisempowermentworkstogetherwith,andin
factdrawson,thestrengthspresentinacommunityofpurposebetweenmanagementandworkers,activatedbynondependenttrustandfreeflowinginformation.

FJA:ATechnologyBasedonNondependentTrust

FJAisaconceptualsystemandpracticalprocedureinwhichnondependenttrustisacardinalfeature.Itincludesthefollowingpropositions:

1.Workers,includingmanagers,arewholepersons.

2.IncumbentsareSME.Theyknowmoreabouttheirjobsthantheirsupervisorsandinformationaboutthosejobscanandmustbeaccesseddirectlyfromthem.

3.SMEinafocusgroupsession,guidedbyafacilitatorusingFJAlanguagecontrols,canandwillprovidereliableandvalidinformationabouttheirjobs.

4.Thestatements/languageprovidedbySMEabouttheKSArequiredintheirwork,canbedependedonfordeterminingjobrequirementsandworkerqualifications.

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Withinthisframework,FJAdefinesunitsofworktasksintermsofthelevelsofskillandthedemandsmadeonphysical,mental,andinterpersonalpotentials.

FJAisorientedtoefficientandeffectiveproductivity.Efficiencyisbestachievedthroughasystemsapproachthatfocusesonresultsandthatvaluesandconserves
resources.Effectivenessmeansmeetingtheneedsofconsumer,capital,andworkforce.Inthecaseoftheworkforceitmeanscontributingtoworkergrowth,the
fundamentalpremisesofthisorientationbeing:

workinvolveswholepersonsandisbestdesignedforwholepersons.

workersaremostwillingtoworkinenvironmentsthatmeetthemhalfwayinmakingadaptations.

workersaremostlikelytofeelsatisfiedwiththeircompensationwhenitisresponsivetotheirperformanceandneedforindividualgrowth(training,morechallenging
work).

Thesepropositionsareexpandedonandelaboratedinsubsequentchapters.

SummaryofReducingFrictionintheWorkDoingSystem

AlthoughtheFJAandSystemsApproach(SA)thatwehavedescribedasafoundationforHRMprovidesunderstandingandmeasuresforproactiveoperations,itis
indireneedofalubricanttoovercomethenaturalandeverpresentfrictionintheworkdoingsystem.Wehavedescribedthislubricantasnondependenttrustthatis
basedonthefreeflowofcommunicationateverylevelofaworkdoingsystem.Suchafreeflowofcommunicationandinformationmakepossibletheshared
interpretationofexperience,theoperativeconstructfortrusttooccur.FJA,initstheoryandpractice,embodiesthenondependenttrustthattemperstheriskand
vulnerabilityassociatedwiththebeliefinthosewefeelcareforus.

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PARTII
GENERATINGTHEFJADATA

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Chapter7
GeneratingTaskDataWithWorkers:TheFJAFocusGroup

TheChallenge

AnFJAfocusgroupisanexerciseincommunication,groupdynamics,andcreativity.Thejobanalystorasweprefer,thefacilitatorischallengedinthemost
profoundsense.Training,skillandsensitivitytofeelingsareontheline.Thefacilitatoriscalledontobeaconductorofhumanbehaviorandtoproducemusicwitha
verysketchyscore.Themusicisinthepsychesofthefocusgroupparticipants.Theanalyst,functioningasafacilitator,accessesthismusicbyapplyingunderstanding
ofthehumanneedforacknowledgment,recognition,andacceptance.Theanalystasfacilitatorcreatesanenvironmentinwhichexperiencedworkersexpress
personalknowledgetheyalonehaveand''jointlyinterpretsharedexperience"(Shapiro&Carr,1991).

Muchoftheworkers'knowledgeisconscious,obtainedinschools,training,and/oronthejob.Butmuchofitisalsosubconscious,adistillationofexperienceinwhich
personalsolutionstoproblemsencounteredinthecourseoftheworkdaymayormaynothaveworked.Theenvironmentcreatedwithinthefocusgroupisonein
whichtheconsciousknowledgeoftheparticipantscomestogether,andinsightsareexpressedthatmaybenewormayhaveonlyexistedunderthesurface.The
facilitator,throughFJA,providesasharedframeofreference,"apartialshelterfromambiguityanduncertainty"(Shapiro&Carr,1991).Asheorsheleadsthe
workshop,anemergingprideisevidencedbytheparticipantsintheKSAtheyusetodotheirjobstothestandardsrequiredforqualityperformance.

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TheInvitation

FiveorsixparticipantSMEreceiveaninvitationfrommanagementtoattendagroupworkshoptodescribetheworktheydointheirjobs.Itisratherformalindicating
management'spurposeandtheemploymentofthefacilitatortoassisttheminachievingthatpurpose.SMEalsoreceivealetterfromthefacilitatorthankingthemfor
theirwillingnesstocooperate,explaininginafewsimplesentenceshowtheywillfunctionasSMEabouttheirworkandthattheworkshopwilltakeapproximately2
days.TheletteralsonotesthatthemethodusedisFJA,whichrequiresjobinformationobtaineddirectlyfromexperiencedincumbents.

SMEhavebeenselectedbecausetheymoreorlessholdthesamejob(usuallythesamejobtitle),aremembersofthesameprojectteam,andareexperienced,
matureworkersintheworktheyaredoing.Ifinthesamejob,totheextentpossible,theyrepresenttherangeofassignmentsinthatjobcategory.Theinformationthey
provideisusedasfoundationdataforHRoperationssuchasselection,training,performanceappraisal,and/orcareerplanning.

TheSetting

Infrontoftheroom,therearetwoeaselswithlargepadstowriteon.Thenamesoftheworkshopandthefacilitatorarewrittenonone.Inaddition,thefacilitatormay
usetheotherpadtolistthefivequestionsaroundwhichtheworkshopisconducted,sampletasksforlatershowing,andperhapsamodeloftheFJAtaskstatement.
(Sometimesanoverheadprojectorandpreparedtransparenciesareusedforthispurpose.)TheprimaryuseofthepadsistorecordSMEresponsestothequestions.
Thepagesonwhichtheanswersarewrittenarethentapedtothewallsoftheroomsothattheycanbeaddedto,altered,andreferredtothroughouttheworkshop.
ThecumulativeeffectofthisprocedureistoreenforcethefactthatSMEarebeinglistenedtoandthatthereisalotmoretotheirjobsthaneventheybelievedatthe
startoftheworkshop.

Note:Theremainderofthechaptercombinesguidelineswiththenarrativeflowoftheworkofa
focusgroup.Inthiscontextitispreferableforthereadertoidentifywiththeroleofthe
''conductor."Therefore,insteadofreferringtothe"jobanalystor"facilitator"throughout,the
voiceofthenarrativehasbeenchangedtoinvolveyou,thepotentialfacilitator.

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InitialPresentationtoFocusGroup

Followingintroductionsonthemorningofthefirstday,youaskparticipantsiftheyhaveanyquestionsordesireclarificationbeforetheworkstarts.Atthispointthe
workshopsituationisquiteambiguousanduncertainforSME,foritseemslikemanyothersimilarexperiencesinitiatedbymanagement.Usually,nomorethanafew
questionsareasked,primarilyalongthelinesof:

1.Whatistherealpurposeoftheworkshop?Doesithaveanythingtodowithstaffreductions?Thepurpose,mentionedinthelettertoparticipants,isrepeated
andasfarasyouknowtheworkshopdoesnothaveanythingtodowithstaffreductions,althoughmanagementcouldbemakingsuchplanswithoutyourknowledge.

2.Whydoesn'tmanagementuseexistingjobdescriptionsorinformation?Existingmaterialswerenotcreatedbyincumbentsbutratherbypersonnelspecialistsor
industrialengineersofsometypeandusuallyhavelittleresemblancetowhatisactuallygoingoninthejob.

3.Haveyoudonethiskindofjobanalysiswithotherworkersand/ormoreparticularlyworkersdoingthesameworkasourselves?Youneedtoanswerthis
questioninthemoststraightforwardmannerthatappliestoyou.However,youmaynotethatFJAhasbeenconductedwithjobincumbentsateverylevel,fromlow
skilled,forexample,janitors,vandriversandpostalclerks,toskilledprofessionalssuchasmanagers,executives,engineers,socialworkers,physicaltherapistsandso
forth.Theyhavealsobeenconductedwithseveraltypesofbluecollarworkersincludingcontinuousprocesschemicalplantoperators,heavyequipmentoperators,
andbusdrivers.Alltypesofofficejobs,forexample,programmers,dataanalysts,dataadministrators,secretaries,andwordprocessors,theentirepoliceprofession,
andmostoccupationsinhealthandhumanserviceshavealsobeenanalyzedusingFJA.Ifyouareanewfacilitator,yourtrainingincludedobservationandsupervision
inoneoranotheroftheseoccupationalgroups.

Duringthisperiodofinformationgivingandclarification,itisusuallypossibletofeeltheskepticism,disbelief,anddistanceoftheinvitedSME.Theirattitudecanalso
becharacterizedasoneofnoninvolvementor"showme."Thisisquiteunderstandable.Beingaskedtospend2daystalkingabouttheirjobshasneveroccurred
before.Noonehaseverinvitedthemtobeconsultingexpertsaboutwhattheyknowbest:theirjobs.Furthermore,whendealingwithpersonneloperations,typical
experiencesofincumbentsinvolvealotofpaperworkthathasnoimmediateusetothem

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intheirwork.Youneedtobeaccepting,tolerant,andnondefensiveaboutthisattitudewithoutcallingattentiontoit.Astheworkshopprogresses,thisattitudechanges
fromskepticismtooneinwhichtheparticipantsdevelopa"negotiatedinterpretivestance"(Shapiro&Carr,1991)."Thisstancecontainsthreebasiccomponents,of
equalimportance:theuseofindividualexperience...thecollaborativetestingofrealityandthediscoveryofalargercontexttowhichourlinkedexperiences
relate"(p.8).

Immediatelyfollowingthisquestionandanswerperiod,youexplainhowtheworkshopwillbeconducted.Youmakethispresentationfromtwoseparateflipcharts,
onelistingthefivequestionsaroundwhichthefocusgroupisconductedandtheotherdescribingthestructureofanFJAtaskstatement.Thefivequestionsandwhat
theyyieldareasfollows:

Whatdoyougetpaidfor?
1. OUTPUTS
Whatdoyouneedtoknowtodo
2. whatyougetpaidfor?
KNOWLEDGES
WhatSkills/Abilitiesdoyouneedto
3. applyyourknowledges?
SKILLS&ABILITIES
Whatdoyoudotogetworkdone?
4. TASKS
Whatstandardsdoyouworktoward,
5. yoursandyourorganization's? PERFORMANCE
STANDARDS

ThestructureofthetaskisshowninFig.7.1.

Thispresentationtakesverylittletime,perhaps1520minutes.Inconclusionyoucanpointoutthatthefirstthreequestionswillprobablybeansweredbythefirst
morningbreakandthateverythingSMEhavetosaywillbenotedontheflipchartsandthentapedtothewallsotheycanbeaddedtoasoccasionarises.This
concludesthepresentationexceptforansweringanyquestionsthatmightcomeup.

TheStartoftheFocusGroupContributions:Outputs

Youwrite"OUTPUTS"onablankflipchartandalertSMEthatitisnowtheirturntodowhattheywereassembledtodo.

Theworkshopislikelytogetstartedslowly.TheapproachbeingmadetoSMEis,tosaytheleast,unusual,andasalreadynoted,theyarelikelytobeskeptical.After
all,theyfeelyoushouldknowwhattheyarebeingpaidfor.Oneofthemmayevensayso.Atwhichpointyoucouldsay:

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FIG.7.1
Structureofatask.

Yes,ofcourse,Ihaveanideawhatyourworkis.Butaswesaidintheletterinvitingyouhere,wewanttohearitfromyouandnoteitinyourwords.Youaretheexperts.Ingeneral
ourexperiencehasbeenthatthereismuchmoretowhatpeopledothanappearsintheirjobdescriptions.

Youmayneedtotolerateafewmomentsofsilence,butthispasses.Someonewillspeakup.Othersfollowtoamplify,specify,and/orcorrect.Oneofthethingsthat
happensisSMEarestimulatedbythedifferentpointsofviewtheyhearabouttheirwork.Althoughthestartoftheworkshopmayinvolvesomeawkwardness,the
strategyproposedisintendedtostrengthenyourcredibilityaswellastheroleofexpertforSME.

ItisimportanttonoteontheflipchartwhatSMEsayastheysayit.Theytendtobequitegeneraland,almostinthesamebreath,proposeparticularsforthesame
generalstatements.Nevertheless,notethemasoffered.Remember,youarenottheSMEandthereforeyouareinnopositiontocorrectthem.Yourcategoriesarenot
theircategories.Theonlyinterventionnecessaryistoaskforclarificationwherewhatisproposedisvague,expressesanintention,orrelatestooneofthelater
questions.Rememberagain,thisistheSMEinitialexposuretotheideathattheworkshopbelongstothem,anditspurposeistorecordthingsintheirwords.You
needtoreenforcethisideaespeciallyearlyon.ItrapidlyceasestobeanissueasSMEgeneratetheanswerstothefivequestions.Ifsomeofthethingstheysaythey
getpaidforaretoovagueorduplicative,thisemergeslaterwhentheystartdescribingthetaskstheydo.

TheSMEproposalsastowhattheygetpaidforneedtobenoteduntiltheyfeeltheyhavecoveredalltheirwork(intheperspectiveofFJA,"all"is95%).Thelist
usuallycontains5to10categoriesalthoughonafewoccasionstherehavebeenmoreorfewer.Youcanmentallynotewhether"everything"hasbeenlistedby
consideringwhetherbothmissionand

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maintenancecategorieshavebeenincluded.Whenfinished,asmentionedearlier,theflipchartcontainingthelististapedonthewall.

KSA

Forthenextstepitispracticaltohavetwoflipchartstoworkon,oneheadedKNOWLEDGESandtheotherSKILLS/ABILITIES.Proceedinginthismanner
avoidstheneedforSMEtomakethedistinctionbetweenthetwo.Althoughknowledgesaretypicallynounsandskills/abilitiestypicallyverbsorverbphrases,SME
tendtothinkofthemsimultaneously,anditisbestforyoutosortandlistthemasproposedwithoutmajorediting.SMEusuallygraspthedifferencebetweenthetwo
asyousortandlist.ThishastheeffectofcementingthecommunicationbetweenyouandtheSME.Again,youcontinuelistingtheKSAsuntilSMEfeeltheyhave
exhaustedthepossibilities.ItisnotadvisabletopromptSMEonthebasisofpersonalknowledgebecausetodosowouldbreaktheunderstandingthattheyarethe
experts.Oneexception,whererelevant,wouldbetobringupreading,writing,andcalculating,iftheyhavenotbeenmentioned.TheseKSAstendtobeuniversaland
takenforgrantedandcanbelistedonbothcharts.(Incasesomeoneaskswhatthedifferenceisbetweenskillsandabilities,forthepurposeoftheworkshop,ithas
beenfoundadvisabletosay,"It'slargelyadifferenceinhowpeoplehavebeenaccustomedtoidentifythem.Wewillsimplynotethemtogether.Solongasyouthinkit
isamatterofskillorability,wewilllistit."

SMEarelikelytomentionthingsinbroadsubjectcategories,forexample,"thelaw"inthecaseofpolicemenor"electronics"inthecaseofserviceengineers.Inallof
theseinstances,youshouldaskforaclarification/specificationofwhatSMEhaveinmind.Itmaybeusefultoask:"Whatdoyouhaveinmindwithregardtothelaw
orelectronics?Isitwhatalawyeroranelectronicengineerneedstoknow?''Suchquestionsusuallyelicitthedesiredspecification,forexample,''layman's
understandingofthelaw,""local,state,andfederalstatutesrelevanttocriminalbehavior,""therightsofdetainedsuspects"inthecaseofthelaw,or"printedcircuitry
forspecificelectronicfunctions,""theuseofspecialtestequipmentsuchasoscilloscopesandthemeaningofcertainwaveforms"inthecaseoftheserviceengineers.

TheobjectiveofthisformofquestioningistoattainspecificityusefulfortrainingandtohelpSMEremaingroundedinreality.Italsodemonstratesactivelisteningand
positiveinterestandhelpsestablishyourcredibility.Thisisfurtherenhancedwhenyouaskforsomeexplanationoftechnicalterminologyorjargonwhenitcomesup.
Iftheexplanationsprofferedbecometootechnical,thisshouldbeindicatedpromptlytohelpestablishthe

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languageandtechnicallevelatwhichsubsequentdialoguewilltakeplace.Itisimportantinestablishingthelevelofdiscoursethat(a)youdonotappeartobetesting
SMEknowledgeandskillsand(b)youarenotintrainingtodowhatSMEaredoing.Actually,thedesiredlevelofdiscourseisestablishedwithoutanyconscious
effortsimplybybeingstraightforwardabouttheinformationdesiredandbeingclearabouttheinformationalobjectivesofFJA.

TheinquiryaboutKSAcontinuesuntilSMEseemtohaveexhaustedthesubject.Youcanthensay:"Well,let'stapewhatwehavetothewallandgetonwithour
work.Wecanalwaysaddtothelistsaswegoalong.Thatiswhatusuallyhappens."

GenerationofTasks

Asalreadynoted,theKSApartoftheworkshopwillbecompletedbythemorningbreakorshortlythereafter.Youcannowproceedtothemajorworkof
determiningthetasksperformedforeachoutput.Yousay:
Wearereadytoundertakeourmajorwork.WewillusethelistofOutputs,thethingsyougetpaidfor,asanagenda.Thequestiontobeaddressedis:Whatdoyoudo,whattasks
doyouperform,toproducetheseoutputsusingtheKSAsyouhavelisted?Whichoutputwouldyouliketostartwith?

Usuallythegroupwillstartwiththefirstone,butthisisuptothegroup.Quiteoftentheyselecttheone,whereveritisonthelist,thattheyconsiderrepresentsthe
majorthrustormissionoftheirwork.Listenforconsensus.Itquicklymanifestswithoutanyspecialactonyourpartsuchascallingforavote,alwaystobeavoided.
Gettingstartedistypicallyslow.Remindthegrouponceagainofthestructureofataskstatement,reviewingthemodelontheflipchartshownearlier,andurgingthem
tobeasspecificaspossibleabouttheactionstheyperform.

ListtheoutputSMEselectontopoftheflipchart,numberingitaccordingtoitsplaceonthelist.Iffirst,itwillbenumbered1.0andthefirsttaskwillbe1.1,thenext
task1.2,andsoforth.Thenumberoftasksforeachoutputwillvary.Thereisnowaytopredicthowmany.Frequentlythetasksenumeratedfortheoutputthat
representsthemajorthrustwillbeexpandedtoincludetasksoriginallythoughtofasbelongingtoanotherofthelistedoutputs.Paperworktasksareacommon
example.YoucancallthistotheattentionofSMEandask:

Doyouwishtoincludethesetaskshere,orwouldyouratherhavetheminaseparateoutput?Itdoesnotmatter.Thechoiceisyours.Theobjectiveissimplytocaptureallthe
tasksyoudo.Wecanalwaysrenametheoutput.

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CapturingthetasksandputtingtheminFJAformatisthemostdifficultandcomplexpartoftheFJAworkshop.Itisessentiallyanexerciseinactivelistening.SME
sometimeshavedifficultyknowingwheretobegin.Whenthismanifests,youcansay:"Itdoesn'tmatterwhereyoubegin.Ifitturnsoutyoubeganinthemiddle,wecan
workbackwardbeforewegoforward.Thingsusuallycomefullcircle."Ifthereappearstobeanimpasseatthestart,youcanask:
Doesworkonthisoutputstartwithaninstructionorworkorderofsomekind?Ifso,wheredoesitcomefrom,andwhatdoesyourresponsehavetobe?Orisabatchofsemi
processedmaterialbroughttoyouforcontinuationoftheprocessing?

Theseobservations,orsimplytheinteractionamongSME(onestartstalkingandthenanotherpicksuptheconversation)getstheprocessstarted.Youmustlistento
pickupthebehaviors(actionsoftheworkers)anddistinguishthemfromtheendresultsofthebehaviors.SMEtypicallyfocusonendresults,andtakebehaviorsfor
granted.Insortingoutbehaviorsfromresults,youmayneedtopersistentlyintervenewiththequestion:"butwhatdoyoudotoget(suchandsuch)workdone?"Look
fortheworkaccomplishedbeingadetermination,arecommendation,oraresultleadingtoanotherbehavior(action).

ThefollowingdeviceshaveprovedhelpfultothefacilitatorandtheSMEsinbothelicitingandorganizingtheinformation:

AskSMEtoprovideasequentialoutlineofallthetasksperformedtoaccomplishtheoutput.Thismaybeasequenceorsimplyagroupoftasks.Jotdownfor
yourself(thiscanbedoneononeoftheblankchartsofthepadyouareworkingon)thekeywordsintheorderyouwillelicitthetaskdata.Thisdeviceestablishesa
directionforbothyouandSMEwithoutahardandfastcommitmenttothetasksproposed,allowingroomforchangetooccurasthefulltaskdataisgenerated.

Roughlydividetheflipchartintofoursections,toptobottom.Thetopneedstoallowenoughroomfortheactionandthebottomfortheresult.Inthesecondsection
youwrite"drawingupon"allowingenoughroomforthesourcesofinformation(knowledges),andinthethirdsection"relyingon"fortheskills/abilitiesrequiredto
applytheknowledges.

TheeffectistoprovideSMEwithaformatandrhythmforgeneratingthetaskinformation.Italsofacilitatescomparingthetasksforlevelandorientation.

Themostdifficultpartofthelistening/sortingoutprocessistoavoidgettingtoodetailedincapturingthetask,asinatimeandmotionstudy,ortoogeneralasinusing
verbsthatareverybroadandobscurewhatisgoing

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on.Thelattercaneasilyhappenbecausefrequentlyseveraldifferentbehaviorsfeedintoasingleoutcomeorresult.Ifyoufindyourselfstartingtowriteataskonthe
flipchartwiththeverbs:conducts,performs,directs,orverbssimilarlybroadandvaguethisisasignalforyoutoask:"Pleasegivemesomedetailaboutwhatyou
dowhenyouconduct,perform,etc?"TheobjectistogetspecificbehaviorsthatcanbereadilytranslatedtothedefinitionsoftheWorkerFunctionsscale.Itisquite
acceptabletouseastringoftwoorthreeverbstocaptureanactionatthestartofatask,thus:responds/questions/informsorreviews/analyzesor
tends/fills/empties.InsuchinstancesyouneedtotakecarenottoglobtogetherbehaviorsthatcallforverydifferentKSAs.

Itisimportanttobeawarethatthefunctionalbehaviorsdonotoccurbythemselvesbutareinvariablypartofspecificcontent.Beforemovingonfromonetaskto
another,youmustbesurethebehavior(action)thatstartseachtaskisonereadilytranslatabletoalevelinthefunctionalstructure.Specificityisthekeytoultimately
makingareliableratingofthefunctionallevelduringtheeditingofthetaskbank.Attainingthisspecificitymayrequiresomecareful,persistentquerying.

Someoutputshaveanatural,progressivesequencedescribinganactivityfromalogicalbeginningtoitsend.Manufacturingsequences,processingacontractorloan,
diagnosingandrepairingamechanicalorelectronicdevice,orfollowingthroughonarequestforhelpareofthistype.Otheroutputssuchaspaperwork,self
development,andsomemanagerialoutputstendtobeamiscellanyoftaskswithoutarepeatablesequence.Oncestartedonanoutputthathasasequenceoftasks
youmayfindyourselfaskingSMEastheyconcludeatask:"Thenwhatdoyoudo?"DonotbesurprisedifsomeSMEfollowonesequencewhileothersfollow
another.Donotattempttoconsolidateorrationalizevarioussequencesintoone.Insteadgiveeverysequenceequalrespectandnotethedifferenttasksperformed.
ExplainthatwhenSMEgetthefinaltaskbanktheywillbeaskedtocheckoffthetaskstheydo.Theyarenotallexpectedtoperformthesametasks.Individual
differencesingettingajobdonearecommon.Thetaskbankshouldallowforthevariouspossibilities.

Performancestandardsarenearlyalwaysbroughtupduringtheformulationoftasks.Becauseperformancestandards(describedwithadjectivesandadverbs)arenot
includedinthetaskstatements,theymustbeacknowledged.Thisisdonebyaccumulatingthemonaseparateflipchartheaded"PerformanceStandards"withan
explanationtoSMEthattheywillbeseparatelyconsideredunderthelastitemontheagenda.

Thecriteriaforknowingatwhatpointyouhaveataskstatementare:

theactionoractionsequenceisspecificenoughforfunctionallevelsfromthescalestobereliablyassigned,

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theactionclearlycontributestotheresult,and

theKSAsandinstructionsdrawnuponarequiteexplicit.

IfyoufindyourselfhavingtowriteagreatdealofKSAmaterial,thisisasignalsomethingiswrong.Probablyyouhavemorethanonetaskandneedtoseek
refinementoftheaction.

Nomatterhowmuchexperienceyouhave,itiseasytofindyourself,promptedbytheinputofSME,startingataskstatementwithsomeformoftheendresult
(outcome)andconcludingitwithanotherformofthesameendresult.Thishappensbecausethevocabularyofendresults(whatgetsdone)isfarricherthanthe
vocabularyofwhatworkersdotogettheworkdone.Whenthishappens,youneedtobackoffandstartthetaskstatementoveragain,refocusingonaspecificaction
beingperformed.

MaintainingMomentum

Asyouproceed,itishelpfultocheckofftheoutputsforwhichSMEhavecompletedgeneratingtaskstatements.Becausetaskgenerationforthefirstoutputislikely
totakewellintotheafternoonofthefirstday,someanxietymaybeexpressedbySMEabouthavingenoughtimetodeveloptasksforalltheoutputs.Youcanassure
themtherewillbeenoughtime,andbecauseyouknowtheyhavealreadycoveredthemainthrustoftheirwork,mostlikelytheyhavefarfewertaskstodescribefor
severaloftheotheroutputs.Theyarealsolikelytohavenoticedthat,astheymovealong,theyareproducingtaskswithincreasingease.

Ifitappearsyoucannotfinishgeneratingtasksinthetimeallotted,cutoffthisactivityabout1hourbeforethescheduledconclusionoftheseconddayinordertoallow
timefordiscussionofperformancestandards.RemindSMEtheywillreceiveadraftcopywithonlyminoreditingofallthematerialtheyhaveproduced.The
instructionsaccompanyingthedraftrequeststheymodifyorcorrectthematerialastheyseefit.Atthattimetheycanaddwhatevertheyfeelhasnotbeenadequately
covered.Theyneedonlytoexpressthisintheirwordsandtheywillbecontactedbyyouifadditionalinformationisneeded.

TakingNoteofAdaptiveSkills

AsSMEinteractanddescribethespecificcontentskillsoftheirworkand,byinference,thefunctionalskills(behaviors)requiredtogettheworkdone,theyinvariably
reportonthecontextoftheworkandtheobstacles

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theyneedtoovercomeparticularlytoachievethestandardsmostimportanttothem.Theseobstaclescanbeorganizational,personal,orenvironmental.Theycan
refertoproblemswithreceivingsuppliesorservices,problemsincommunicatingwithsupervisors,coworkers,orcustomers,and/orproblemswithairquality,
extremesoftemperature,lighting,ortraffic.Theymightnothaveanimmediaterelevancytothecontentofworkbutarerelevanttoitscontext.Frequently,personal
situationalproblemsarebroughtupsuchasthestressescausedbyovertimeandshiftworkandtheimpactofthesestressesonfamilylife.

Inalloftheseinstances,SMEadaptiveskillsarerevealed,thatis,thewaysinwhichtheymanagethemselvesinrelationtoconformityandchangemanagethe
dynamicsinherentintheirworksituation.Youcanlistthesealongwiththecontentorientedskillsandabilities,makingamentalnoteoftheireffectontheachievement
ofperformancestandardsandthequalityofthework.Theseadaptationsarecommonlydiscussedwithaccompanyinglaughterandcommentswhileyouwriteonthe
flipcharts.Youcanregardthisasasigntheworkshopisgoingwell,relationshipsareprobablybeingformed,personalexperienceisbeingshared,andyouhave
succeededincreatingapositiveenvironment,oneinwhich,asnotedearlier,theinterpretationcanbenegotiatedandsenseofrealityshared(Shapiro&Carr,1991).

AttendingtotheFocusGroupEnvironment

Whatdoesitmeantocreateanenvironmentinwhichexperiencedworkerscanexpresspersonalknowledgeandmakesenseoftheirreality?ItmeanstotrustSME,
torespecttheroleofexpertconsultantswithwhichtheyhavebeenentrusted,andthattheyalonehavetheinformationandknowledgethatyou,asfacilitator,are
seeking.Itmeansunderstandingthatthefocusgroupsituationislikelytobetotallynewand,intheexperienceofSME,suspect.Previousencounterswithmanagement
havemostlikelybeenexperiencedas"we"versus"them."AninitialproblemthatyouhaveasanFJAfacilitatoristowintheconfidenceofSME.Youhavedonethis
throughouttheFJAfocusgroupprocedurebydeferringtothelanguageoftheSME.Youmustbecarefulnottointervenewithwordingorknowledgesuggestingyou
havegreatersophisticationwiththeworkthantheincumbents.Yourtaskisnottosupplythewordsorinformation,"thenotesofthescore,''buttopickuponwhatthe
SMEprovide,organizeit,andachievemaximumclarityusingthetheoryandtechniquesofFJA.Afterwritingataskyouneedtoreaditbackslowlytothegroupfor
theirapproval.Thegroupisthefinalarbiterofitsaccuracy.

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WritingPerformanceStandards

ThequestionstobeaddressedunderthePerformanceStandardsheadingare:
Whatdoyouattendto,watchoutfor,whengettingajobdone?Whatdoyouexpecttoseesoyoucansayandfeel"ajobwelldone?"Iswhatyouexpectofyourselfmoreorless
demandingthanwhatmanagementexpects?Whatdoyoudotoputqualityintoyourwork?

Performancestandardsareadjectivaloradverbialinnature.Theymodifyeithertheknowledges(nouns)ortheskills/abilities(verbs).Theyareeitherdescriptiveor
numericalorboth.Whennumerical,theyusuallyaredimensionaltolerances,timespecifications,ordollaramounts.Whendescriptive,theyareexpressedinsubjective,
qualitativetermsthatmaybeunderstoodinaparticularworksituationbutarenotreadilytransferrable.

Thediscussionofperformancestandardscanbeginbypresentingtheflipchartonwhichstandardshavebeenaccumulatedduringtheformulationoftasksandasking
thequestion:"Whichoftheseareyourownandwhichrequiredbymanagement?"

SomeSMErespondbyreferringtothestandardsusedontheofficialperformanceappraisalforms(ifthereareany).This,ofcourse,isquiteacceptable,butitis
necessarytogobeyondthem.UsuallySMEwilldothisontheirowninitiative,perhapsexpressingthemselvesnegativelyabouttheofficialstandardsthatmaytendto
begeneralandabstract.Frequently,thereisamorespontaneousreactioninwhichamixtureofpersonalandorganizationalstandardsaredescribed.Thesestandards
arementionedalongwiththeconstraintswhichexisttoachievethem.ThesearediscussedbackandforthbySMEwithconsiderablebanterandhumor,particularly
whetherornottheyarerealistic,howtheyaffecttheirwork,thestresstheymayinvolve,andhowsomeofthemmaybeinconsistent.Inthecourseofthisdiscussion,
SMEwillprobablybringup,directlyorindirectly,theadaptationstheyhavemadetoachievethestandards.Onceagain,youneedtolistencarefullytopickupthe
adaptationsSMEarewillingtomaketoperformeffectively.

SummaryofFocusGroupProcedure

ConductingafocusgroupisaquintessentialFJAfacilitatorexperience.Itistheplacewheretheoryandpracticecometogether.Asajobanalyst/facilitator,youneed
tobeatyourbestinapplyingunderstandingofhumanbehaviorandgroupdynamicsinaveryspecializedsituationconductinga

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focusgroupwithSME.Theseexpertsusuallydonotknoweachotherbuthavecometogethertocreateacommonproductthattheywillallultimatelyvalidate.

Sensitivitytodifferentpersonalities,forexample,thosewhotalktoomuchandthosewholetothersdothetalkingforthem,needstobedealtwithand,ofcourse,
thereismorethanonewaytodealwiththem.Forthosewhotendtodominate,itisvitalthatyouavoidaputdownofanykind.Groupsarelikelytorallybehinda
slightedmemberandfightagainstyouregardlessiftheslightwasjustifiedornot.Afterall,thereisnogettingaroundthefactthattheFJAfacilitatoristheoutsider.
Whatyoucandois,withutmostcourtesy,sometimesindicatethattimeisatyourheelsandyoumustmoveon.Forthequietonesyoumightoccasionallyaskthem
whetherataskyouhavejustwrittencorrespondstotheirexperience.

Activelisteninginthisfocusgroupmeanstowritedown,withclarification,whatyouhear,andreaditbacktothegroupfortheirconfirmation.Italsomeans
acknowledgingandthankingeachSMEfortheword,phrase,idea,orwhateverthataddstotheformulationofatask.

Inadditiontoattendingtothegroupdynamicsandinterpersonalbehavior,youmustconstantlycheckouthowwellthefunctionalstructureisworking.Beforemoving
onfromonetasktoanother,youmustbequitesurethebehaviorthatstartseachtask,attachedasitnecessarilyistospecificcontent,isonereadilytranslatabletoa
levelinthefunctionalstructure.Inanycase,enoughinformation,verbs,andverbsequences,mustberecordedtoallowforareliableratingofthefunctionallevelofthe
taskduringtheeditingstage.

YouexperienceagreatrewardinconductingasuccessfulFJAworkshop.TherewardisseeingthechangeintheattitudeofSMEduringthecourseofthe2days.
Littlebylittletheskepticismtendstomeltaway.Thereisgrowingwonderathowmuchmorethereistotheirjobsthantheyoriginallythoughthowmuchmore
knowledgetheydrawonandhowmanyskillstheyhaveandneed,togettheirworkdone.Also,youseeanydoubtstheymayhavehadabouttheprocedurefor
obtainingtheinformationdispelled.Frequently,attheendofafocusgroup,whenitistimetoleave,SMEwilllingerandthankyouforarewardingexperience.

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Chapter8
ConsultingWithManagementtoIntroduceFJAIntotheWorkDoingSystem

TwoAspectstotheIntroductionofFJA

TherearetwoaspectstointroducingFJAtomanagement.ThefirstandprimaryoneconcernsarrangingforthebasicaccommodationsnecessarytoconductFJA
focusgroups.ThesecondinvolvesdemonstratingthewiderimplicationsofFJAforHRMintoday'shighlycompetitiveenvironment.Nomatterhowsmalltheproblem
originallypresented,workingatitwithFJAramifiestootherareasoftheorganizationbecauseitcontainsallthebasicelementsoftheworkdoingsystem.Theoriginal
problemusuallywillbeanHRbreadandbutterissuesuchasthosediscussedinchapters10to18onFJAApplications.ThechallengeforFJAistostayfocusedon
theimmediateproblem,althoughtheinformationandinsightsbeinggatheredhavebroaderramifications.SeeinghowFJAworksindealingwithimmediateproblems
cansometimesstimulatethecuriosityofmanagementtodiscoverhowitwouldoperateinothersituations.Thiswouldbethetimetopresentthewiderusefulnessof
FJA,forexample,forsuchmajorundertakingsasdownsizing,reengineering,andTQM.Followingthroughontheoriginalproblemscan,onasmallscale,involvea
reappraisalofworkassignmentsforwhichthetaskanalysisproducedbyFJAisthefundamentallyneededinformation.

HowevertheanalystneedstobesensitivetothecultureoftheorganizationusingFJA.FJAisunabashedlyorientedtoTheoryYassumptionsanditwouldbe
exceedinglyineptforthejobanalysttobeconfrontationalifmanagementhewstoTheoryX.TheresultsofFJAspeakforthemselves,demonstratingtheefficacyof
workerinvolvement.Theveryfirstfocus

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groupdemonstratesthattheworkershavesomethingofvaluetocontributetotheunderstandingoftheworktheyareperformingandthattheyaredoingalotmore
thanmanagementisawareoftoachievequalityproduction.

EnterFJA

TheFJAresponsetoinitialinquiriesorarequestforaproposal,pointsoutthatFJAsolutionstoproblemsarebasedondetailedinformationgatheredfromincumbent
workers(i.e.,SME).ThisisdonebymeansoffocusgroupswiththeSME,usuallysixinnumberforeachclassifiedjob,heldovera2dayperiodinalocation
removedfromtheworkplace.Atrainingfacilityoftenservesthepurposequitewell.

InadditiontoSME,theFJAfacilitatorrequeststheparticipationofatleastoneperson,usuallyfromtheHRMstaff,tolearnenoughaboutFJAtohelpimplementthe
findingsofthefocusgroupswithaminimumofoutsideassistance.Whethertheinitialneedisaselectionprocedure(testand/orstructuredinterview),performance
appraisal,trainingprogram,orjobdesign,someoneneedstobeavailabletofollowthroughonthedevelopmentalactivity.Themorethepersonparticipatesinthe
developmentalactivities,themorethatpersonislikelytobecertifiedtoconductFJAfocusgroupsonhisorherown.(SeeAppendixBforinformationonselecting
functionaljobanalystsandAppendixCforadiscussionoftheirtrainingandcertificationasFJAfacilitators.)

CooperationFromManagement

ConductinganFJAfocusgroupwithinanorganizationrequiressignificantcooperationfrommanagementbecauseofthestafftimeandcoordinationinvolved.
Desirable,iffeasible,isapreliminaryconsultationwiththeresponsiblemanagerstoexplainhowanFJAfocusgroupworksandtoanswerquestionsastowhythings
aredoneastheyare.(Thismaybeaclarificationofsomeoftheinformationprovidedintheresponsetotheoriginalrequestforaproposal.)

Thepurposeofthisconsultationistoachieveameetingofminds,amutualunderstandingoftheproblemsofmanagementandthepotentialofFJAforaddressingthose
problems.Topicsofdiscussionwouldincludeareviewoftheorganization'sneedforajobanalysisandthefactorsthatattractedmanagementtoFJA.TheFJA
consultantaskswhatmanagementwouldliketoseeastheendresultofthejobanalysiseffortandhowtheyexpecttouseit.Theconsultantshouldbeableto
demonstratehowthede

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tailedtaskdataproducedbyanFJAfocusgroupdealswiththeproblemtheyhaveinmind.Thetaskdatashowstheconnectionamonglevelofskill(functionallevel),
enablers(specificknowledge,levelofinstruction,andtools,machines,andworkaids),andtheresult(productorservice).Thisistheinformationthatmakesupthe
taskmoduleofFJAandthebasisofitsusefulnessforHRmanagers.Somemanagersmayassertthattheyalreadyknowtheseconnections,whichtoasignificant
degreemaybetrue.Butmoretothepointis:Dotheyseeandunderstandthemfromtheworkers'pointofview?

Iftheambienceofthemeetingseemssuitable,theadvantagesofafocusgroupcanalsobepresented,particularlyhowafocusgroupexemplifiestrustintheworkers.
ItmayalsobeusefultoexplainhowanFJAtaskbankdiffersfromtheproductofotherjobanalysismethods,suchaschecklists,particularlyiftheorganizationhas
hadpreviousexperiencewithchecklists.

Managementneedstobeinformedthatthefocusgroupisa2dayworkshopinvolvingsixSMEwithidenticalorcloselyrelatedassignments.AvariantcouldbeSME
havingsomewhatdifferentassignmentsbutworkingasateamonasingleproject.Inaddition,SMEneedacouplehourstovalidatethetaskbank,eitherindividuallyor
inagroup.TheSMEselectedneedtobeasrepresentativeaspossibleofincumbentsintheparticularposition(s)beingstudied.AlettertoSMEfrommanagement
requestingtheirparticipationandindicatingtheobjectiveoftheworkshopneedstobesenttothemabout2weeksbeforethedateofthefocusgroup.Immediately
thereaftertheyreceivealetterfromtheFJAfacilitatoranticipatingtheircooperation,thankingthem,andindicatingthattheywillhaveanunusualexperienceinsofaras
thepersonconductingtheworkshopwillbelearningfromthem.

ArrangementsfortheWorkshop

Thefocusgrouprequiresatrainingtyperoomwithenoughspacefortheparticipantstogetup,stretch,andwalkaroundiftheyneedto.Ifpossible,theroomshould
beremotefromtheeverydayworkplacestoavoidthetendencyofparticipantstovisitthemduringbreaks.Twoeaselswithflipchartpadsareneededinthefrontof
theroomalongwithseveralmarkersofvariouscolors(mainlyblack)torecordthecommentsofSMEparticipants.AstheremarksofSMEarenoted,theflipcharts
aretornfromthepadsandtapedtothewallsoftheroom.Enoughtapeshouldbeonhandforthispurpose.Usually,bytheendoftheworkshop,thewallsarefilled
withthecharts,''wallpapered"astheparticipantsusuallysay,reflectingtheirhardwork.

Sometimesitishelpfultohaveanoverheadprojectoravailableforthefacilitatortoshowpreparedsampletasks,thefivequestionsaroundwhich

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thefocusgroupisconducted,andthemodelofanFJAtaskstatement.Anotheroptionistowritethismaterialonsomeofthechartsbeforetheworkshopandshow
themasneeded.

Midmorningandmidafternooncoffeebreaksarescheduledandintheafternoon,softdrinksareusuallyprovided.Lunchisscheduledfortheusualtime.Itisbestif
theeatingfacilityisonthepremisesorarrangementsaremadetohavelunchbroughtin.Thesebreakshelptopromotethecamaraderiethatdevelopsduringthework
ofthefocusgroupandinwhichthefacilitatorcanparticipateifitoccursinthenormalcourseofevents

EditingTaskBanks

Aftertheworkshopiscompleted,thefacilitatorcollectsallthechartsfromthewallsandeditsthem.Sometimesitmaybeeasiertoeditthemwhiletheyarestillonthe
walls.Editingisnotsomuchforcontentasforpunctuation,phrasing,andoccasionalwordingtofacilitatereading(seeAppendixDforadetaileddiscussionofediting
theFJAtaskbank).Thetaskbankisthenkeyedintoawordprocessorinstandardtaskbankformat,printed,andsenttoSMEbyofficemailfortheireditingand
validation.SMEareaskedtoreadthetaskstatementstoensurethatthetaskstatementsdescribewhattheydotogetthingsdoneintheirjobs,tochangethetask
statementswherenecessarytomorepreciselyexpresswhattheyindividuallydo,andtoindicatewhichtaskstheydoandwhichtaskstheydonotdo.TheSMEare
alsoaskedtoaddwhateverknowledge,skills,performancestandards,andtaskstheymayhaveoverlookedintheworkshop.Onthelastsheetofthetaskbank,SME
areaskedtosignoffthatthetaskbankcovers95%oftheirassignedwork.(AnoptionalvalidationprocedureistomeetwiththeSMEasagrouptoreviewthetask
statementsonebyoneandtomakethesuggestedchanges.)

Whenthevalidatedtaskbanksarereturnedtothefacilitator,changesandadditionstotheindividualtaskbanksareintegratedintoamastertaskbank.Thetaskbank
isnowreadytobeevaluatedanddiscussedwithmanagementandwhatevertechnicalpersonnel(training,selection,etc.)areimmediatelyinvolvedwiththeproblemat
hand.

ConferringwithOperationsPersonnel

Thefirsttopicofdiscussionconcernstheapplicationofthetaskbanktothepresentingproblem,theproblemforwhichFJAwasemployedinthefirstplace.Thetask
bankproducedbythefocusgroupisthenewelementinthepicture.Aninitialquerytomanagementmightbe:Doesthetaskbankpresentthemwithanysurprises?Do
theyseethejobdifferently?Werethey

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awarethatthejobinvolvedtherangeofKSAthathavebeenassertedbytheSME?Aretheresultsproducedinthetasksthoseexpectedbymanagementanddothey
contributetotheobjectivesmanagementisplanningfor?Inshort,istherebasicagreementbetweenmanagementandtheSMEastowhatthejobisallabout?

Itisnotunusualforthetaskbanktopresentmanagementwithanewperspectiveaboutthejob.FrequentlyitisfoundthatSMEaredoingmorethanwasoriginally
calledforinthejobdescription,especiallyinmeetingunanticipatedcontingencies.

ReinventingWork

InthecurrentturbulentHRMsceneanumberofratherimposingandportentousphraseshavegainedcurrency,suchas"downsizing,"restructuringtheworkforce,"
"reengineeringthecorporation,"and"reinventingwork."Allofthem,asfarasweareconcerned,aremerelyeuphemismsforthedynamicsthathavealwaysexistedin
theworkplacetheredesigningofworkassignmentsinresponsetochangesintechnology,competition,workers'innovationsonthejob,andtheadaptationsindustry
andworkersmaketoevolvingsocialrequirements.Whatisdifferenttodayisthefrequencyofthesechangesandthegreatercataclysmiceffectfortheindividuals
involved.

Butasimplefactremains:Atthepointwhereworkgetsdone,workersarefunctioningatvariouslevelsofskillandknowledgeandadaptingtoavarietyofphysical,
social,andenvironmentalconditionstoperformtaskstospecifiedstandards.ThosetasksmustbedocumentedandunderstoodbyHRspecialistssotheycanapply
theirmeasures,generalizedtools,andconsultingskillstohelpselectworkers,trainthem,appraisetheirperformance,givethemconstructivefeedback,andadapttheir
environmentstoachieveoptimumproductivityandworkergrowth.

Inthiscontext,FJAhasaspecialroletoplay.Tobeginwith,itstaskformulationscomedirectlyfromSMEintheirownwords.Theyarerevealingasnochecklistcan
bebecausetheylinktheessentialinformationthatmustbelinkedbehaviors,KSA,andresults.Thisistheinformationnecessarytounderstandtheworkdoing
systemandmanageitsHRdynamics.

SummaryofManagementAccommodation

FJArequiressignificantcooperationfrommanagementinordertomakeitscontribution.ItinvolvestheparticipationofsixSMEforeachoccupationstudiedina2
dayworkshopwitharrangementsthatincludespace,train

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ingequipment,andfacilitiesforbreaksandlunch.Inaddition,continuousinvolvementofanHRstaffmembertoimplementFJAfindings,andiffeasible,toextendits
applicationtootheroccupations,isdesirable.FJAdoesitsbestworkinorganizationssympathetictotheHRassumptionsofTheoryYandthosewillingtoview
themselvesasopensystems.AlthoughthefindingsofFJAmayhaveramificationsbeyondtheimmediateproblemforwhichinitiallyemployed,itiswisetokeep
focusedontheparticularproblemandthewaysinwhichFJAcontributestothesolution.

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Chapter9
TheUseofFJAinTQM
FJA,initsassumptions,ispartofaparadigmshiftinindustrialandorganizationalpsychologythathasbeengatheringmomentumforatleastageneration.Itmaybe
thatitisclimaxingnowatthevergeofthe21stcenturybecauseoftheintensityofglobalcompetitionandtheemergenceofthepreeminentcriterionbothinternaland
externalcustomersatisfaction.

Enormousrestlessnessinorganizationsisreflectedindownsizingandreorganizationandtheintensivesearchfortheelementsthatmakefortotalquality.Thisisthe
climatewithwhichFJAmustdealwhenitisinvitedtocomeintoanorganization.FJAnotonlyisintunewiththisclimatebutinitsownwayhasbeenpartofthe
paradigmshifttakingplace.Itisnotagimmickorflavorofthemonth.Itisaconceptualapproachthatispartofthegroundworkandinfrastructureofthenew
paradigm.Itrepresentsawholedifferentsetofassumptionsfromthoseoftraditionalmanagement.

WhatisQuality?

QualityistoutedbymanyasthesaviorofU.S.industryinanageoffierceglobalcompetition.ThislessonwasdrivenhomebyDemingwhosepromotionofquality
controlinJapanafterWorldWarIIhelpedtodriveitseconomicrenaissancesincethe1950s.(Recallthe1950sandearly1960swhenJapanesegoodswere
consideredtobeinferiorjunk.Howtimeshavechanged!)NowNorthAmericanspursueTQMwiththesameintensity.

Butwhatisquality?Qualityisaproteanconceptthatis,qualitytakesdifferentformsandmeansdifferentthingseverytimeweusetheword.Itdefiesanysimple,all
encompassingdefinition.Togetabetterunderstandingoftheshiftingdefinitionofquality,considerwhatqualitymeansfor:

Anewcar("QualityIsJobOne"wasFord'ssloganforyears)soldtothefinalconsumer.Thecarisdurablewithlowmaintenancecosts

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andhighreliability.Itoutlastsmostothermakesfortheprice.Ithasnodefectsinbody,finish,orequipment.

Automobilepartspurchasedfromasubcontractorbyamajorcarmanufacturer.Thepartsarebuilttospecificationswithinverylowtolerances.Theyaredelivered
ontimeandtherearenodefectiveordamagedpartsintheorder.

Aqualitypaintingpurchasedbyanartcollector.Theartistiswellestablishedorapromisingnewtalent.Theworkisaestheticallypleasingandmeetsalltechnicaland
artisticcriteriafortheartist'sstyle,whichmaybeuniqueinitsownright.

Aqualityfictionmanuscriptreviewedbyapublisher.Theplotiswelldevelopedandhasaninventivenewtwist.Charactersareappealing,novel,andinteresting,not
caricaturesorstereotypes.Dialogueflowsnaturallyandheightensreaderinterestthroughoutthebook.

Qualitymatterstothecustomerorclientwhoconsumestheproductorusestheserviceitiswhatdifferentiatestheproductorservicethecompanyorindividualhas
toofferfromwhatthecompetitionhastooffer.Forbusinessessellingproductsandservicesinthemarketplace,qualitydetermineswhetherabuyerwillcomeback
again.Intoday'sglobaleconomylinkedbytheInternetandothermeansofinstantaneousinformation(fax,telephone)awillingcompetitorcanbefoundliterallyata
moment'snoticetoprovideaproductorservice,sometimesatabetterprice.Theimperativeforqualityhasevenmadeinroadstogovernmentandnonprofit
organizationsofferingpublicservicesthatwereoftennonresponsivetodemandsforqualityinthepast.

HowisQualityAchieved,andHowcanFJAHelp?

FJAoffersapracticalwayformanagersandworkerstoreachthesharedinterpretationofexperienceneededtotrusteachotherandworkwelltogether.Quality
managementextendsthisenvelopeofsharedinterpretationtoincludetheclientorcustomerwhopurchasestheproductorusestheservicetobringthem''intothe
loop."Ofcourse,thisdoesnotmeanthattheclientorcustomertakespartintheFJAfocusgroup.Rather,workersandmanagersadoptagenuinelisteningstance
towardthedesiresandneedsoftheirclientele.Inresponsetowhattheyhear,theyadoptagoalofcontinuousimprovementofbothbusinessprocessandresults.They
muststrivetounderstandthemeaningofqualityfromtheperspectiveofthosepurchasingtheirproductorservice,thenfaithfullycapturethisunder

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standingintheresultsandperformancestandardsdocumentedinthetaskbank.Thismustbeanongoingeffortandrequiresconstantattention.Ascustomerorclient
needschange,thetaskbankmustberewrittentoreflectthenewrealitiesasunderstoodbybothworkersandmanagement.Theseperceptionsmightevenbedirectly
crosscheckedwithcustomersperiodicallyinvitingthemtocommentonthesuitabilityandaccuracyofresultsandperformancestandardsimpactingontheirexperience
ofproductorservicequality.

Partlow(1996)emphasizedthisneedforcustomerperspectiveinTQMas"TheprimaryfocusofTQMisnotsomuchonqualityasitisonthecustomerwhodefines
thatquality.Inotherwords,TQMisconcernedwithqualitybecausequalityisthecustomer'sconcern"(p.68).

PartlowgoesontodescribehowempowermentisusedinthehotelindustrytohelpinitiateandmaintainaTQMculturethroughoutthecompany.Hereportsthe
resultsofhisstudyofeightleadingTQMhotels,wheresomeofthehotelshestudiedaskedemployeestoparticipateinadvisorygroupsthatraisedqualityconcernsto,
andexchangedviewswith,management.Hereported:
OmniHotelsandSouthSeasPlantationuseemployeefocusgroups,called"employeeexchangecommunicationmeetings,"asameansofprovidingemployeesanopportunityto
addresstheirconcernsorgiveinputaboutupcomingissues.Similarly,Opryland'sEmployeeCommunicationsCouncilprovideseachemployeeaforumtodiscussproblemsand
concernsonanytopicfrompaytoparking.(p.71)

Theseexamplesfromthehotelindustrycapturetheflavorofthereciprocalprocessweareadvocating,whereFJAbecomesanintegralpartoftheongoingdiscussions
betweenworkersandmanagement.WherewehaveconductedFJAsinTQMorganizations,thevariouselementsofTQMaredirectlywrittenintothetaskstatements
inaclearlyidentifiableway(astheyshouldbeifFJAreflectstheworkerexperienceofthejobandtotalqualityisanintegralrequirementofthatjob).Thisassists
workersandmanagerstogethertofocustheirqualityeffortsontheobjectiverealitiesofthejob,andnotonirrelevanciesthatdonotservethecauseoftotalquality.

Itistemptingtothinkthatfocusingonthecustomertherecipientandassumedbeneficiaryofworkeffortswillunequivocallyconfirmthatheorsheisbeing
providedwithhighqualityresults.Realistically,newlyopenedcommunicationchannelswillconveymixedopinionsandviews,someofwhicharelesscomplimentary
thanhopedfororexpected.Ittakesapersonalstanceofcourageandbrutalhonestytoavoidbeingdefensive,togenuinelylisten,andtohearandacceptthebadas
wellasthegoodnews.Ifmanagersandworkersachievesuchequanimityofmind,FJAopenspowerfulpossibilitiestoimprovetheworkprocessesleadingtoquality
improvementefforts.Stamatis'(1996)book,Totalqualityservice:Princi

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ples,practices,andimplementation,stated:"afterdeterminingwheretheproblemsare,theworkerormanagermustthen`taketheinitiativefortheappropriate
action'"(p.30)toimprovequality.Forthistohappen,thesourceofvariationinqualitymustbecorrectlyattributedtotheactionsofeithertheworkerorthemanager.
Thesourceofqualityvariationwillbeoneofonlytwotypes:commonorinherentcauses,whichareattributabletotheworkorganizationandundermanagement's
controlandassociatedwithproblemsremediablesolelybymanagement.Specialorassignablecauses,whichareattributabletofactorsunderworkers'controland
duetospecial(ratherthansystemwidecircumstance)andmustberesolvedbytheworkers.Inthisbook,weproposedetailedproceduresbywhichtheworkerand
managercanuseFJAtosortoutinherentfromassignablecausesandinitiateactionstoaddresstheminfurtheranceofquality.(Chapter13onPerformanceAppraisal
isespeciallyinformativeonthismatter.)Thisapproachinvolvesadetaileddiscussionofthetaskbankbyworkersandmanagementtopinpointcausesandtake
appropriateactions.

Qualitygoeswellbeyondtechnicalitiesandcannotbefullyachievedthroughfingerpointing,theapplicationofthe"right"methodologiesandtechniques,and/or
indicationsofwhatwentwrongtocorrectproblemsintheworkplace.Mostfundamentally,qualityisamatterofasharedinterpretationofexperience,apositive
attitudehighmorale,personalcommitment,andthewillingnesstomaketheextraeffortthatqualitydemandsofworkersandmanagers.Thesepositiveattributesfind
theirexpressionintheadaptiveskillspeoplebringtotheworkplaceastheyareencouragedintheirexpressionbyanopenandtrustingstanceonthepartof
management.Withouttheseadaptiveskillsinplaceandencouragedbymanagement,aqualitycontroleffortbecomesapaperexercisewithoutheartorsoul.Fine,in
anFJAprojectwithfieldengineers(FE)whoservicecomplexmedicalequipmentonclients'premises,identifiedanumberofadaptiveskillsassociatedwithservice
qualityonthatjob.Hecalledthesethe"thecharacterbackupofquality."Theyincludedthewillingnesstostayopentotherequestsofcustomers,taketimetoobserve
customers'problemsandpatientlyquestionthem,andstaywiththerepairuntiltheequipmentwasworkingreliablyandsatisfactorily(persevereuntilthecustomerwas
satisfied).Qualitycutstotheverycoreofworkandisthereasonwhypeopletakeprideandputtheirtoilandsweatintowhattheydoonthejob.

DoesStandardizationofProcessandResultsLeadtoQuality?

Thestrictapplicationofscientificmanagementhasledmanagerstoattempttoexhaustivelydetailintheirpolicies,practices,andprocedureswhatappearstothemthe
"right"waytoproduceaproductordelivera

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service.Theirintentionistoleavenothingpertainingtoqualityorefficiencytochance.Althoughmanagementattemptstocataloguethemostefficientproceduresas
withtimeandmotionstudies,theseeffortsaredoomedtofailureinallbuttheleastcomplexjobs,suchasthoseinwhichpeoplearebeingreplacedbyrobots.Many
jobsintoday'srapidlychangingtechnologiesrequirehighlevelsofworkerskillandtraining.Injobsofmoderatetohighcomplexitywheremanagementwantsto
produceastandardizedproductordeliverastandardizedservice,thequestforqualitythroughtotalprescriptionofworkeractivitiescanprovetobeachimera.
Workersmustexercisetheirdiscretion.Itisuptomanagementtolearnwhereandhowdiscretionnaturallyoccursandtosupportitsexpression(includingtraining)in
thoseareaswhereworkersareincontrol.Management'sproclivityforprescriptionshouldbelimitedtoaspectsorworkwheremanagementisincontrol.TheFJAWI
scalequitepreciselycapturesthisdistinctionbetweenmanagerialandworkercontrol.

TheFJAfocusgroupillustratestheimpossibilityofprescribingallaspectsofprocedurebeforehand,althoughprescriptionofresultsdesiredcanbespelledout.
ConsistencyanduniformityofresultsareachievedfromtheFJAfocusgroupbecausethefacilitatorusestherightmixofprescriptionanddiscretionforthetasks
performed(seeAppendixCintheFine&Getkate(1995)BenchmarkTasksforJobAnalysis,forthetasksofanFJAfacilitator).However,forthefacilitatortouse
thisdiscretiontoachieveahighqualityFJAtaskbank,heorshemusthavethepropertrainingandexperiencecombinedwithknowledgeofFJAtheoryand
methodology,andtherequiredfunctionalandadaptiveskills.Eachfocusgrouphasitsuniquechallenges.Itisasifeachfocusgroupofjobincumbentshasitsown
personalityauniquewayofdealingwiththefacilitatorandthesituationrepresentedbythefocusgroup.Inthiscontextthefacilitatormustguidethegroupthroughthe
2days,drawingonallofhisorherpotentialasawholepersonandwiselyusingdiscretiontoextendtheFJAmodelandphilosophyinspecificsituationswhereexact
guidanceisnotgiveninthisbookorduringtraining(e.g.,"Nowit'stimetomoveonthenexttask!""I'dbetteraskJoyceaquestionIthinkshehassomethingto
contributebutappearstooshytosayanything.").Inthissense,theworkoftheFJAfacilitator,andtheadaptationsheorshehastomake,havemuchincommonwith
theadaptationsbythefocusgroupparticipantswhentheyresumetheirregularduties.

TheRoleofHRManagersinAchievingTotalQuality

Organizationsseekingtotalqualityshould,andusuallydo,enlisttheservicesoftheirHRmanagers.BecausemuchoftheexpertiseinFJAresidesin

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theHRfunction,HRmanagersmusttakealeadroleifFJAistobeusedtoitsfullpotentialinachievingtotalquality.ButFJAwillbeatitsbestonlyifHRMitselfhasa
culturethatpromotes,andisconsistentwith,thebestoftotalqualitypractices.Whatdoesthistotalquality(TQHRM)culturelooklike?

CardyandDobbins(1996)providedadescriptionoftheTQHRMcultureintheirarticle,thensummarizedthedifferencesbetweenthetraditionalandtheTQHRM
approachesbyfocusingontheprocessandcontentwithwhichHRMdeals.ThemainsupportiveargumentsofTQHRMincludenineassertionsthatdescribetheface
ofHRMrequiredforsuccessfultotalqualitymanagement.ThecloseparallelsbetweenTQHRMworkerinvolvementcharacteristicsandtheFJAmodelpresented
throughoutthefirsttwopartsofthisbookcanbeeasilyrecognized.
TQHRMPersonnelPerformaConsultingRoleTraditionally,HRMpersonnelfunctionasstaffexpertswhoanalyzeproblemsbroughttothembymanagement,decideona
strategydrawnfromtheirprofessionaltraining,determinewhatisneededand/ordesiredtodealwiththeproblem,andmoreorlessunilaterallyimplementit.IntheTQHRMmodel,
HRpersonnelfunctionasconsultants,getinvolvedwithcustomers(onlineifinternaltotheorganization),andworkoutsolutionsdirectlywiththemincludingmethodsof
implementation.Thisapproachhasthewisdomofcapitalizingontheexperienceoftheworkers(anotionveryconsistentwithFJA)andreducingbarrierstoimplementation.Italso
hasthepotentialofeliminatingthetraditionalhostilitybetweenlineandstaff.

TQHRMMustDecentralizeDecisionsconcerningvariousHRMfunctionssuchasjobanalysis,selection,compensation,andtermination,insteadofbeingmadecentrallyin
"headquarters"(HQ)wouldinvolveconstituentgroupssuchascustomers.Forexample,selectionfromacustomerdrivenperspectivemayemphasizeinterpersonalskillsandfit
withtheorganizationmorethanabilitytodoaparticularjob.Linepersonnelwouldbeempoweredtomakedecisionsconcerninghiring,pay,andfiring.

TQHRMAimstoReleaseWorkerPotentialInthetraditionalHRMmodel,managementmustmotivate.(This,ofcourse,isconsistentwithTheoryX.)Theassumptionisthat
workerswillnotdothingsontheirown:theymustbeprovidedwithspecialtrainingandincentives.WiththeTQHRMmodel,performanceimprovementisamatterofremoving
systembarriers.Workingwithlinepersonnel,causesofperformanceproblems,dissatisfaction,andturnoverareidentifiedandsystemmeasuresundertakentoimproveoverall
performance.Thatis,"TQHRMhelpsmanagementandworkerstoidentifyinherentcausesofsystemsproblems"(Stamatis,1996,p.29),whichmanagementthentakes
responsibilityto

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fix.TheFJAtaskbank,asnoted,isanespeciallyusefulinformationsourceforthispurpose.

TQHRMTakesonaDevelopmentalRoleHRM'straditionalfocusisonrecordkeeping,measurement,anddatagatheringtoobjectivelydecidewhogetsaraise,ispromoted,
getssenttotraining,andsoforth.TQHRMisdevelopmentallyorientedwiththeneedsoftheconstituentsasthedrivingforce.''Theprocessemphasizesthebroadeningofskills
intheworkplacesothatflexibilityandadaptabilityaremaximized"(Cardy&Dobbins,1996,p.12).

TQHRMManagersThinkPluralisticallyInHRMthereistheonebestwaydemonstratedbythesearchforcoefficientsofvalidityforselectionandappraisal.TQHRMrelieson
manyapproachesinthesearchforexcellence,manifestedindifferentadaptationstodifferentconstituencies."Theorganizationalculture,theworkteam,andvariouscustomer
groupsmaydetermineimportantpredictorandcriterionmeasures.Someofthesemeasuresmayfocusonspeedandothersoninterpersonalandproblemsolvingskills"(Cardy&
Dobbins,1996,p.14).

TQHRMThinksAbouttheOrganizationHolisticallyHRMisreductionisticthereisabreakdownofworkactivitiesintojobsandtasksandasystematicnarrowingof
perceptionastowhattheworkunitsareinordertofacilitateHRfunctions.Itisthepracticetobreakdownjobsintotheircomponentpartssothatselection,training,appraisal,
andcompensationcanbemeasuredseparately.Theproblemisthatthepartsdonotnecessarilyadduptosatisfactoryperformance.InTQHRMthereisamovetofewerjob
descriptionsandamoreintegratedviewoftheworkprocess.Theteamratherthantheindividualworkeristhefocus.Overallperformanceandsatisfactionofcustomersisthe
criterion.

TQHRMIsCognizantofSystemCausesHRMfocusesonindividualcharacteristicsandtheirinfluenceonperformancethisisanaspectofthereductionismmentionedin
compartmentalization.TQHRMoperatesontheassumptionthatresponsibilityforperformancedepends85%onsystemfactors15%onpersonfactors.Thisapproachlooksfirst
toimprovementsinsupply,technology,training,methodsofobservation,statisticalcontrol,andinformationgatheringbeforescrutinizingtheworkers.Itsappraisaloftheworkers
istoidentifyonlytheexceptionallyhighandlowperformersforspecificactions.IntheTQHRMorganization,improvingtheaveragelevelofproductivityisbasedlargelyon
systemimprovementsnotonincentiveplans,feedbacktoworkers,andmeritpay.

TQHRMCollectsandUsesInformationAboutWorkerSatisfactionWhereasHRfocusesonemployeeperformanceratingstypicallymadebysupervisors,TQHRMfocuseson
employeesatisfaction,organizational

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commitment,organizationalcitizenshipbehavior,andcustomer(internalandexternal)satisfactionalltreatedasimportantwithprimaryemphasisgiventothelast.Continuous
improvementdoesnotoccurunlessemployeesarecommittedtotheorganizationandsatisfied.

WorkerCompensationIsSkillsBasedRatherThanJobBasedThewidespreadrelianceonjobbasedcompensationbyindustry,business,andgovernmentdemonstratesthe
traditionalHRMdependenceonthereductionisticapproach.Theorganizationpaysworkersonthebasisofajob'scompensablefactors,selectsworkersonthebasisofjob
specifications,andappraisesworkersonthebasisofbehaviorallyanchoredratingscalesforthespecificjob,ignoringtheorganizationalcontext.InTQHRMallofthese
operationalfunctionsarepersonbased."Selectionisbasedupontheextenttowhichtheapplicantisperceivedtopossessthecharacteristicsimportantforsuccessinthe
organization,includingcognitiveability,generaltechnicalcharacteristics,commitment,receptivitytolearning,andateamorientation"(Cardy&Dobbins,1996).Workersarepaid
onthebasisoftheskillstheypossessandacquireandhavethepotentialofbenefittingtheentireorganization.(Seechap.15foraholisticapproachtocompensation.)

SummaryoftheUseofFJAinTQM

TQMisheretostay.OneindicationofthisistheincreasingnumberofU.S.firmsbecomingcertifiedintheInternationalStandardsOrganization(ISO)process(e.g.,
ISO9000)astepinqualitymanagementnowrequiredtodobusinesswithmuchoftheworld.FJAhasitsroletoplayinachievingandimprovingthequalityof
productsandservicesbecauseithelpsbringthepeople,technology,andorganizationalgoals/objectivesintoalignmentbydrawingextensivelyonthevastreservoir
ofworkerskillandexperienceoftenleftuntappedbyTheoryXmanagementpractices.Itprovidesasystematicandcomprehensivelanguageforpinpointing
thoseproductionfactorsthatleadto(ordetractfrom)quality,aswellasameanstodirectmanagersandworkerstoimprovingqualitywithintheirrespectivespheres
ofresponsibility.WhenusedwithinaTheoryYstyleofmanagementandatrustingrelationshipbetweenmanagersandworkers,FJAprovidestheadditionaltoolsto
openandsustainthehighlyfocuseddialoguebetweenmanagersandworkersneededtomaketotalqualitythedrivingforceinsituationsasdiverseasproducingcar
partsonaproductionline,teachingstudentsinaclassroom,orsellingproductsinadepartmentstore.

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PARTIII
USINGFJAINHRMAPPLICATIONS
FJAisaconceptandmethodforgatheringjobanalysisdata,thebasicdataforHRM.ItwouldseemobviousthattheoperationsandactivitiesofHRMcanonlybeas
effectiveandefficientasthequalityofthedataonwhichtheyarebased.FJAdataaredesignedtobequalitativelysuperiortodatagatheredbyothermethods.The
superiorityofthesedataisbasedonthetheorysupportingtheirderivation(presentedinthefirstsectionofthisbook)andtherespectandtrustaccordedtoworkers,
alongthelinesofMacGregor'sTheoryY.Thecombinationofthesetwoapproachesresultsindatathataretruerbecauseoftheirdirectoriginfromworkers,more
stablebecauseofthecontrolleddefinitionsofthetermsusedtodefinetasks,andmorecomprehensivewithregardtotherangeofworkerskillscovered.

ThroughouttheapplicationschaptersthefollowingthemesfromFJAtheoryandpractice,supplementedbythetheoriesofMacGregorandShapiroandCarr,are
reiteratedasaleitmotifnecessarytoachievesuccessfulexecution.

Theindividualworkermustbeseenandtreatedasawholeperson,notreducedtoanincidentalinstrumentofproduction.

Theworkermustbeviewedasanintegralpartofajobworkersituationthatincludesbothjobcontentandjobcontext.

Thejobworkersituationisasystemmodule,aplacewhereinteractionamongworker,work,andworkorganizationisoccurringallthetime.Thesystemisalways
there.

Performanceisalwaystheresultoftheinteractionofthreekindsofskills:functional,specificcontent,andadaptive.

Thedemandforqualityperformancefromtheworkermustbematchedbyqualityperformancefromtheemployer,whichrequires

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alisteningstanceandreasonableaccommodationtoworkerconcernsandneeds.

Practicesthatruncountertothesethemesareprobably,inthelongrun,cuttingintobothproductivityandprofitability.

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Chapter10
RecruitmentAttractingaWorkforce

TheEngagementofWorkerandWorkOrganization

Ifyouareanemployer,whatkindofpersondoyouwantasanemployee?Experiencesuggestsyouwantapersonwhohasthecapacityandthemotivationtobe
productiveindoingtheworkthatneedstobedone.Suchpeoplearemostlikelytobemotivatediftheyareinterestedintheproductsorservicesyouproduceand
shareyourvalues.Anaddedbonuswouldbetheirpotentialtogrowwithyourbusiness.

Ifyouareapersonlookingforwork,whatkindoforganizationdoyouwanttoworkfor?Whatkindofplacedoyouwanttoworkin?Againexperiencesuggestsa
placewhereyoufeeltheemployerdealsfairlywithyouasfarasearningsandbenefitsareconcernedgivenyourlevelofknowledgeandskill.Inaddition,ifyouare
interestedintheproductorserviceandsharetheemployer'svalues,youwillmorelikelybemotivatedtoputforthextraeffort.Andiftheemployerofferstrainingand
educationalopportunitiestoimproveyourperformanceasaworkerandiftheenvironmentisphysicallypleasantandnotunhealthful,somuchthebetter.

Inshort,theengagementofemployerandemployeeoffersanopportunityforboth.Bothhavesomethingtoofferandsomethingtogainfromcommitmenttoeach
other.Itisimportanttoexamineseveralaspectsofthisengagementingreaterdetailbecausefirstimpressionsoftencharacterizeanddeterminefuturerelationships.
Inevitablybothworkerandemployer,reflectingtheirexpectations,formulatehypothesesabouteachotherwhichtheyseektoaffirm.Becauseitisunlikelytheyhaveall
theinformationabouteachothertheywouldliketohave,tosomeextenttheengagementofworkerandemployerisagamble.However,theoddsfa

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voringafruitfulengagementarebetterifbasicinformationisexchangedbetweenanemployerandapotentialemployee.

Inordertoconsiderthisbasicinformationinsomedepth,ithasbeenorganizedintosixareas.Thesesixareasderivedirectlyfromtheexpectationsoftheworker:(a)a
descriptionoftheopeningandtheworkplaceinwhichitoccurs(b)thevisionandmissionoftheorganizationandthegoalsthatflowfromitspurpose(c)the
functionalperformancelevelsneededtoaccomplishtheoutputsoftheorganization(d)theworkingconditionsphysical,environmental,social,aswellaseffort,
responsibility,andtypeofsupervisioninwhichtheworkwillbedone(e)thegrowthopportunitiesincludingtraining,educationalsupport,promotion,and
compensationand(f)theaccommodationstheorganizationispreparedtomakefordisabilities,daycare,flextime,andthelike.

Puttingforththisinformationdoesnotimplythatworkerandemployerapproacheachotherwithachecklistinhandtoensurethatinformationisforthcominganymore
thanloverscheckeachotheroutforallthedesirablecharacteristicstheyultimatelywouldliketoseeineachother.Ratherthisistheinformationthatsoonerorlater
becomespertinentinaffectingadecentrelationshipbetweenemployerandemployeeintheworkplace.Onthewholeitisbetterifitisforthcomingsoonerratherthan
later.

DescribinganOpening

Opennessandtrustbeginwiththeinitialcontactofworkerandworkorganization.Althoughsomeorganizationshavebeensensitivetothisfactforanumberofyears
andhavebeenevolvingapracticetoreflectthissensitivity,itisstillanewidea.Insomeinstancesitmayeventhrowbothemployersandprospectiveemployeesoff
balance.Employersmaybalkattheideaofindicatingsomeoftheunfavorableaspectsofparticularjobsintheirestablishment.Prospectiveemployeesmaybe
surprisedtohearthatsomethingsarelessthanperfectinthejobtheyarecontemplating(althoughtheyarenotreallytotallyunawareofthem).Nevertheless,itiswith
thiskindofsharingthatopennessandtrustbegins.

Opennessrequiresenoughinformationforpeopletoevaluatewhatappearstobetheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofemploymentinaparticularorganization.This
informationincludesadescriptionofbothjobcontentandjobcontextthetotalworkenvironmenttowhichworkersneedtomakeanadjustment.Itisthis
informationthatenablespeopletodecideiftheyaresuitableforanannouncedopeningandthereforewillingtocasttheirlotwithaworkorganization.Itisdescribedin
greaterdetailinthefollowingsections.Whenthiskindofinformationisprovidedtoprospectiveemployees,theyareinpositiontomulloverwhethertheorgani

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zationmeetstheirneedsandhopes,whethertheycanweavetheirlifeintothatoftheorganizationandmakethekindofcommitmenttheorganizationwouldlikefrom
them.

CommunicatingVisionandMission

''Aleaderarticulatesavisionandpersuadespeoplethattheywanttobecomepartofit,sothattheywillingly,evenenthusiastically,acceptthedistressthat
accompaniesitsrealization"(Hammer&Champy,1993,p.105).Newemployeesshouldnothavetowaituntilaftertheyareemployedtolearnthevisionofthe
organizationtowhichtheyhavecommitted.Astatementofvisionembodiesvaluesandprospectiveemployeesneedtoknowrightfromthestartiftheycanidentify
withthevaluesoftheirfutureemployer.

HarryQuadracci,presidentandfounderofQuad/Graphics,aMidwestprintingcompanythathasgrownataphenomenalrate,placesemphasisonbuildingand
maintainingtrust.Abouthisemployees,Quadraccisaid:"Wetrustthem.Butwehopethemistakeswillbesmallones"(Levering,1988,p.188).Amanagement
statementon"TrustinTrustatQuad/Graphics"definestrustasfallingintofiveareas:TrustofTeamwork,TrustofResponsibility,TrustofProductivity,Trustof
Management,andTrustofThinkSmall.ThestatementdefinesTrustofTeamworkthisway:''Employeestrustthattogethertheywilldobetterthanasindividuals
apart."TheTrustofThinkSmalldefinitionreads:Wealltrustineachother:weregardeachotheraspersonsofequalrankwerespectthedignityoftheindividualby
recognizingnotonlytheindividualaccomplishments,butthefeelingsandneedsoftheindividualandfamilyaswellandweallsharethesamegoalsandpurposesin
life"(Levering,1988,pp.187188).This"heartonthesleeveapproach"helpsprospectiveemployeestodecideifQuad/Graphicsisaplacewheretheywanttowork.

Today,asamatterofpolicy,itiscommonfororganizationstoadvertisetheirvisionandmission.Intheirannualreports,manyorganizationsstresstheimportanceof
theirhumanresources.Theseglossyreportsoftenrelatethediversitythatexistsamongtheiremployeesandpicturestheminresponsiblepositions.Theyalsooften
includeastatementthattheirprosperityandcompetitivepositioncouldnotpossiblyhavebeenachievedwithouttheir"excellent"humanresources.Anorganization's
recruitingliteratureneedstoincludethisinformationbecauseitisintheserepresentationsthatanorganization'svaluesinhere,particularlyastheyrelateto
accommodatingthemselvestotheneedsofparticularsegmentsoftheworkpopulation.Thisinformationallowsprospectiveemployeestodecideforthemselves
whethertheycanidentifywiththesestatedvaluesandisthereforeanimportantelementinenablingselfselection.

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FunctionalLevelofWorktobeDone

Muchoftheworkthatneedstobedonerequiresarangeofskillfromlowtohigh,fromrelativelylittletrainingandexperiencetoagreatdeal.Theexperienced
craftspersonmoveseasilyfromonelevelofskilltoanotheringettingajobdone.Insomeinstancesmoreworkcangetdone,greaterproductivityachieved,ifskilled
workershaveassistantswhocanhelpoutwiththelessskilledwork.Actually,mostcompletejobsinanyfieldconsistmostlyoflowandmediumskilledworkanda
considerablysmallerproportionofhighlyskilledwork.Personsdoingthelowerskilledworkcanbeallowedtodothemoreskilledworkifproperlycoachedand
supervised.Thatishowpeoplegrowintheirjobs.However,therewardsystempay,bonuses,promotionsmustfairlyandequallyreflectthis.

Employersarefindingtheycanachievegreaterproductivitybyhavingaflexibleworkforceratherthandependingonspecialiststoperformspecificwork.Achieving
thisgreaterproductivityrequiresmanagementtocontractwithworkersingoodfaithtomaintainpay,benefits,andworkingconditionscommensuratewiththeir
increasingvaluetotheorganization.Insuchaworksituationworkersgrownaturallytoachievegreaterskillandexperience.Flexibility,thus,canbeanadvantageto
bothworkerandemployer.

Moreandmoreorganizationsaredepartingfromrigidjobdescriptionsthatboxemployeesintospecificworktaskstowhichpayscalesareattached.Forexample,
JimMorrisonHRdirectoratMercuryOne2One,acellulartelephonespecialistcompanypointstohiscompany'sperformancerelatedpayschemewherebya
collectivebonusisawardedtoemployeesbasedonoverallperformanceagainsttargets."Ifthecompanyissuccessfulinmeetingitsgrowthtargets,thenemployees
shouldhaveashare,becausewithoutthemthecompanywouldn'tsucceed"(MacLachlan,1995,p.24).Morrison'sapproachreflectsanincreasinglycommon
phenomenon,managementwillingnesstogobeyondjobdescriptionstoachievegreaterefficiencyandhigherproductivity.Workerswhousetheit'snotinmyjob
descriptionexcusereflectthetraditionalapproachthatoftenresultsininefficiencyandnegativeproductivity.Thenotionthateverylittlethingthatneedsdoinginorder
togetworkdonemustappearinajobdescriptionis,ofcourse,quiteimpracticalandultimatelycandestroyinitiative.

Inordertomakeflexibilityasuccess,employersmustunderstandthatflexibilitycannotworkunlesstrustexistsintheorganization.Employersmustconstantly
demonstratetoworkersthatastheybecomemorevaluabletotheorganization,theyarecompensatedaccordingly.Flexibilityalsodependsontheemployerhavinga
cadreoftrainersandseniorworkers

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preparedtogiveonthejobtrainingandcoachingtolessskilledworkerswhenneeded.Finally,atthetimeofrecruitment,workersmustbemadeawarethatthis
flexibilityisanemploymentconditiontheyneedtobewilling,fromtimetotime,toacceptthechallengeofdoingworkthatisnewanddifferentfromwhattheyhave
beeninitiallyhiredtodo.

WorkingConditions

Employerstypicallyannounceintheirrecruitingliteraturethattheyareequalopportunityemployers(EOE).Essentiallythismeanstheyhaveprovidedalevelplaying
fieldforallcandidatesregardlessofrace,gender,disability,andothertraditionalreasonsfordiscrimination.Thispolicyrecognizesthecrucialimportanceofajobin
thelivesofindividualssotheycanfunctionaswholepersons.Nowheremorethaninworkingconditionsdoesanemployerdemonstrateallegiancetothiscredo.The
challengeisnotonlytoprovidealevelplayingfieldforallapplicantsbutalsotomeetthechallengeofmutualitybetweenemployerandworker.

Workingconditionschallengeindividuals'adaptiveskills,theirwillingnesstoengagewiththejobcontext.Qualifiedworkersmayrejectaworkopportunityifthe
conditionsdonotsuitthem.Theseconditionsincludephysical,environmental,andsocialoverwhichanemployerhasmoreorlesscontrol.
Physical:Theseconditionsincludetherequirementstouseone'sphysicalcapacitiessuchasreaching,handling,fingering,feeling,climbing,balancing,seeing,smelling,talking,
hearing,creeping,crawling,crouching,andthelike.Someoftheseareinextricablyboundupwiththefunctionalskillsforgettingworkdone.Forexample,apainterorpaperhanger
whoisunwillingtoclimbladdersforwhateverreasonwillnotfindmanyopportunitiesinthejobmarket.Similarlyforaplumberunwillingtocrouchandcrawlorawordprocessor
whowillnotfingerorhandle.

Ontheotherhand,employerscanoftenfindwaystoadaptaworkenvironmentforqualifiedindividualswithdisabilities.Mostoftentheseaccommodationsdonothavetobe
expensiveorcomplicatedcommonsense,awillingnesstobeinventive,andtheinvolvementofthedisabledworkerinseekingappropriateaccommodationsmaybeallthatis
needed.Toillustrate,MorfopoulosandRoth(1996)reportedthefollowingresultsofasurveybytheJobAccommodationsNetwork:

20%oftheaccommodationssuggestedbyqualifiedconsultantsresultedinnocostatallafactofwhichemployersmaybeunaware.In70%ofcases,thecostofmakingthe
accommodationwasunder$500,and81%ofthetimetheinvestmentwasunder$1,000.Examplesin

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cludedinstallingrampsonstairsandhandrailsinbathroomsforindividualsaffectedwithmobilityimpairments,rearrangingfilesorshelvesforbetteraccess,orsupplyinga
taperecordertoapoliceofficerwithdyslexiafordictatingreports.(p.69)

Environmental:Theseconditionsincludetheneedtoadapttounusualand/orextremeenvironmentalconditionssuchasextremesofheat,cold,odor,oilandgrease,dustanddirt,
exposuretotheelements,andthelike.Italsoincludeshazardssuchastraffic,unstableground,exposuretostorms,dangersfromhostilepopulations,orfailuresoftechnological
safeguards,forexampleinnuclearpowerplantsandrefineries.

Althoughsomeoftheseconditionsgowiththeterritoryasinthecaseofphysicalrequirements,mostcanbecontrolledandatleastmadeassafeasthestateoftheartpermits.
Theworkbeingdonetocontrolpollutionisindicativeofwhatcanbedone.Insomecasesthemeasurestakenneedtobequitedrasticaseliminatingsmokingintheworkplace.In
otherinstances,suchastheintroductionofequipmenttocleaneffluentbeforebeingdischargedintotheenvironmentortoexhaustdangerousdustsatthepointoforiginasin
woodworkingplants,thetechnologyinvolvedisintegratedandmeshedwiththeproductionmachinery.

Instillotherinstancesagreatdealofresponsibilityneedstobeassumedbytheworkersthemselvesasinwearingsafetyglassesorotherspecialsafetyclothingorpracticing
certainsafetyroutinesasinnuclearpowerplants.

Thisisaprimeareawhere,throughtheintroductionoftechnologicalsafeguardsorthesupportofindividualresponsibility,anemployerdemonstratesthathumanresourcesare
trulyvalued.

Social:Thisconditionrelatestoanumberofdifferentareas,someofwhichcannotbedefinitivelydescribedinarecruitmentannouncement.Forexample,istheworkenvironment
authoritarianorparticipatory?Whilesomethingmaybesaidgenerallyaboutmanagement'spreferenceinthisregard,itcannotpredicthowindividualmanagersorsupervisorsmay
conductthemselvesorwhatthesensitivitiesofindividualworkersmaybeinthisregard.Thisisanareawheremanagementneedstoremainopenandallowforatrainingand
grievanceproceduretoamelioratesituationsandredirecttheminapreferreddirection.

MuchofthemovementtowardworkforcediversitycanbecreditedtolegislationprohibitingdiscriminationagainstgroupspreviouslydisadvantagedinU.S.society.Forexample,
theAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct(ADA)of1990mandatesemployerstoensurethattheirworkplaces,policies,andproceduresarenondiscriminatorytowardthedisabled.Inour
publiclives,overtdiscriminationisforbiddenandofficiallyfrownedon.Whereasinprivatelifeindividualscansequesterthemselvesinwhateverwaytheychoose,inthework
environmenttheyneedtobepreparedtoworkinverymixedgroupsof

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people,dependingonthesizeoftheenterprise.Tomaintainharmony,workersshouldbeinformedatthestartwhatmanagement'spolicyisondiversityanddiscriminationand
perhapsbegivensomeindicationoftheracial,ethnic,gender,anddisabilitymixofitsworkforce.Ifindividualshavestrongprejudices,onewayoranother,theywouldthushave
theopportunitytoselectthemselvesoutifwhattheyhearisnottotheirliking.Nevertheless,becausealltypesofsituationscannotbeanticipatedandtheramificationsarevery
complex,managementmusthaveanadministrativemechanismtodealwithcomplaintsandgrievances.Dealingwithdiversityisaprimeareafortraininginthe21stcenturyfor
bothmanagementandtheworkforce.Bothmanagementandlaborhavemuchtolearn.

GrowthOpportunities

Growthopportunitiesaretherewardsemployeesearnforgoodwork.Therearethreemainareasofgrowthforallworkers:compensation,skill,andstatus.Although
frequentlyoccurringtogether,theyarenotnecessarilyboundupwitheachotherandinfactareseparateareasofmotivationforindividuals.
Compensation:Compensationcanoccuraswagesorsalariespaidinagreedontimeperiodsofwork(hourly,weekly,ormonthly)oraspiecework,Xamountperitemproduced.In
eithercasetheremaybebonusesorpremiumspaidforspecifiedamountsabovestandardproduction.Bonusesarepaidquitedifferentlyforhourlyandprofessionalworkers.
Frequentlythereisastartingsalaryandthenanindicationofincrementspaidforsatisfactoryworkafterspecifiedperiodsofservice.Theamountofcompensationisusually
marketdrivenbycompensationsurveys.Thereisalsoaceilingforparticularjobclassifications.

Informationaboutstartingcompensation,therangethatexistsforaparticularclassificationandwhetherornotbonusesarepaidforperformingbeyondstandard,shouldbepart
oftheinformationprovidedtoprospectivecandidates.

Forsomeindividualscompensationisalltheycaretoknowaboutgrowth.Theirinterestsarecenteredelsewherethantheworksituation,forexample,theirchurchorfamily.Their
workeffortmaybesimplytodevelopenoughskilltoearntheoptimumreturnforthejobtheyareinsotheycanfocusontheirotherinterests.

SkillandKnowledge:Thisis,forsomeindividuals,aprimaryconcern.Theirfirstinterestintheiremploymentsearchiswhethertheworkopportunitywillallowthemtogrowand
developtothemaximumoftheirability.Compensa

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tionandstatusaresecondaryinterests.Theywanttoknowthespecifickindsofworktheywillbedoingandthechallengestheywillhavetomeet.Theyalsowanttoknowwhat
technologytheywillworkwithandwhotheircolleagueswillbe.Usuallytheywanttoworkwithpersonswhoareseniortothemwhocanhelpthemgrowintheirwork.Theywill
inquireastothetrainingtheywillbegivenandwhethertheorganizationsupportsoffthejobeducationalopportunities.Theirinterestinstatusisofaprofessionalnatureto
becomeknownasanexpertorauthorityintheirspecialty.

Status:Statushastodowithachievingapositionofpoweraswellasoneofrespect.Infact,powermaybetherealambitionbehindthedesiredrespect.Powerisconcernedwith
beinginapositiontoestablishvalues,policy,anddirectionandalsotorealizetheprivilegesassociatedwithpower.Statusandpowershouldnotbeconfusedwithleadership.
Trueleadersareinitiallyvisionariesinterestedinimplementingamissiontheybelievewillchangethingsinapreferreddirection.Often,whentheyrealizetheopportunityto
implementtheirmission,theybecomeenmeshedinthecomplexitiesoftheimplementationandarecorruptedbythepowertheyhaveattained.Personsconcernedwithstatusare
mainlyfocusedonwhereanyparticularpositionorassociationwilllead.Compensationandskillareincidentaltotheirdrivetoachievestatusandpromotiontohigherpositionsof
power.

Providingapplicantswiththekindofinformationjustdescribedtellsthemthattheorganizationrespectstheirabilitytoselfselect.Italsocommunicatesadegreeof
trustthroughsharingorganizationalinformationwithapersonwhoisstillastranger.Ifthistypeofcommunicationissustained,thegroundworkforloyaltyis
established.

AccommodationtoWorkerNeeds

Employeraccommodationistheflipsideofworkeradaptation.Whenworkersadapt,theymakeconcessionsandexperiencethestressesandstrainsofsqueezing
themselvesintotheorganizationalmold.Whenemployersmakereasonableaccommodations,theyreciprocatetheconcessionsmadebyemployeesand,insodoing,
acknowledgethattheemployeremployeerelationshipisatwowaystreetandonethatmatterstothem.Willingnesstoaccommodateisaconcretedemonstrationthat
theemployervaluesworkersintheirdiversityaswellastheirindividuality.

Accommodationhappensasaresponsetogovernmentlegislation(e.g.,ADA)orasavoluntaryact.Accommodationsarebestworkedoutincooperationbetween
managementandtheindividualworkersaffected.Anexampleofaccommodationisbuildingrampsintheworkplacetoallow

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workersconfinedtowheelchairstomoveaboutfreelywhendoingtheirwork.Anotherexampleistheintroductionofvarioustypesofliftingdevicesinmany
establishmentstominimizetheimportanceofphysicalstrengthandthusallowwomentoholdjobsformerlyheldbymen.Theresultisamorediverseworkforce(for
someorganizationsdiversityisneededtomeetaffirmativeactiongoals)andalargerpoolofqualifiedandinterestedapplicantsfromwhichhiringcantakeplace.

Recruitmentmaterialsshouldclearlydemonstratetheextenttowhichmanagementhasgone,andiswillingtogo,toaccommodateemployees.Adescriptionofsuch
accommodationsasflextime,cafeteriastylebenefits,daycare,andworkaidsmayencouragepersonswithspecialneedstoapply.Forsomejobseekers(e.g.,women
withsmallchildren,workerswithphysicallimitations),informationaboutaccommodationscontainedinormissingfromrecruitingmaterialswillhaveamajorimpacton
theirselfselectionandwhetherornottheypursuethejobsearchwithanorganization.

TraditionalRecruiting

Traditionalrecruiting,bynewspaperadorwordofmouth,providesonlyrudimentaryinformationtothejobseeker,hardlyenoughtopermittheselfscreeningthat
couldleadtoeffectiveselfselection.Thisisespeciallytrueforlowskilljobswhereanewspaperadmightread:"Deliverydriverrequiredknowledgeofcity
essential."Thecomeonisbasicallyajobtitlewithsomereferencetospecificcontent.Jobseekersmustguesswhatisreallywantedandthensqueezethemselvesinto
theslotrepresentedbythejobtitle.Thistypeofrecruitmentfrequentlyresultsinprobationaryplacementsthatdonotworkoutanexpensiveandwasteful
employmentprocess.

Itisnotablethatasthelevelandthesalaryofthejobrises,(e.g.,professionaljobs),mediaadspacealsoincreasesalongwiththeamountofinformationprovided.This
additionalinformationfrequentlyprovidessomebackgroundabouttheorganizationalenvironment,permittingcandidatestomakeastabatselfselectionandto
considerwhethertheiradaptiveskillswillfit.Thisapproachcorrectlyreflectsthefactthatprovidingcomprehensiveinformationcanhelpavoidhiringindividualswho
arenotproductiveandneedtobereplaced.

ThedifferenceintheapproachtolowskilledworkersascomparedtoprofessionalspointstothevalidityoftheFJAapproach,whichprovidescomprehensive
informationforalllevelsofworkers.FJAmakesthispossiblethroughitsintegrationwithoutreachrecruitingandtheuseofthepreemploymentquestionnaire(PEQ)
describedlater.

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OutreachRecruiting

Outreachrecruitingrequiresorganizationrepresentativestogooutintothelargercommunity,personallycontactpotentialemployees,andcommunicatethenatureof
thejobopportunitiestotheminaforthcomingandknowledgeablemanner.Agoodexampleisthecareerfairheldonmanycollegecampuses.Employer
representativesmakepersonalcontactwithstudents,inquiringintotheirinterestsandexpectations,andexchanginginformationwiththemconcerningtheavailable
opportunities.Theymightevenestablishastrongcontactwithstudentswhoappearoutstandingtothem,interviewingthemindepth,andtaggingthemforemployment
aftergraduation.Inrecentyears,duringperiodsofhighemployment,similarfairsforjobopportunitiesrequiringlesserdegreesofpreparationhavebeenconductedin
communitycollegesandeveninhighschools.

Outreachrecruitmentcanworkespeciallywellformembersofracialminoritiesorgroupswithspecialneedsbyallowingtheorganizationtotakethefirststepand
carrythemessageofEEOdirectlytothem.MuchofthediscussionwithEEOgroupscentersaroundtheadaptationsindividualsneedtomakeandtheextenttowhich
theorganizationiswillingtomakethenecessaryaccommodations(e.g.,rampstoaccommodatewheelchairs,liftingdevicestoaccommodateindividualsunabletolift
heavyweights,daycarefacilitiesforsingleindividualswithsmallchildren).Merelyenteringsuchdiscussionsindicatesanorganization'ssensitivity,flexibility,and
willingnesstomeethalfwaygroupswithspecialneeds.ThisiswheretheFJAtaskbankwithinformationonjobcontextaswellasjobcontentisespeciallyusefultothe
recruiter.Consideralsothevalueofsuchinformationpassedontothirdpartyrecruiters(e.g.,executivesearchorganizationswhoknowlittleaboutthejobsandthe
environmentsoftheorganizationsthatemploythem).

PEQ

Weliveinanageoftestsweseemtopreferascoreobtainedfromtheadministrationofaninstrumentdevelopedforaspecificpurposeratherthanjudgmentsmade
onthebasisofinterviewsandselfreportinformationonapplications.Indoingso,testlimitationsanderroneoususeoftestscoresareoftenoverlooked.While
judgmentsmadeasaresultofinterviewsaresubjectiveandarefrequentlyinconsistent,muchcanbedonetoimprovetheirobjectivity.Atpresent,letusfacethefact
thatbothapproaches,testsandinterviews,continuetobeusedandthattherealissueishowtoimprovetheireffectiveness.

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ThePEQismuchlikeatest.ItwasdevelopedbyFineincollaborationwithMyers(Myers&Fine,1985)tohelpanorganizationsortthousandsofapplicantsinto
good,better,orbestbetsintermsofitsneeds.Atthesametimeitwasintendedtohelpapplicantsselfselect,thatis,decidewhethertheyreallywantedtodothekind
ofworkforwhichtheywereapplying.Itwasalsoseenasaneffectivebasisforfollowupinterviewswithapplicantsaftertheyweregivenoccupationalinformation
concerningthejobopportunitiesavailable.

ThePEQisbasedontheassumptionthatsuccessfulworkersinspecificjobfamilieshavecertainpersonalcharacteristicsincommonsomecombinationoffunctional
andadaptiveskillsgainedfrompersonalqualitiesandlifeexperience.Thisisthesameassumptiononwhichtheusefulnessofbiodataisbased(seeStokes,Mumford,
&Owens,1994,chap.1).Thissamesourceprovidesconsiderabledataonthevalidityofbiodataforanumberofpersonnelfunctions.TherationaleforboththePEQ
andbiodataissummedupinthefamousepigram,"Whatispastisprologue,"andpresumesthatindividualswhohaveexcelledincertainworkinthepastarelikelyto
dosointhefuture.

Butistherereallyauniquepatternofhumanqualitiesassociatedwithdoingonekindofworkasdistinctfromqualitiesassociatedwithanotherkindofwork?The
answer,ofcourse,isyesandno,orbetterstill,itdepends.Becausethereisconsiderablebeliefandsomeevidencethatthesepatternsdoexist,researchwas
undertakentoestablishwhatthesepatternswereforsevennonprofessionaljobfamiliesinaverylargecommunicationscorporation(seeTable10.1).ThePEQwas
designedtodiscoverifindeedthesepatternsexisted.

ThePEQinstrumentisaquestionnaireconsistingof150to300items,dependingonthejobfamily,selectedbyapanelofexperts(experiencedincumbents,
supervisors,andpersonnelworkers)fromamasterlistof500items.Themasterlistconsistsofitemsmoreorlessassociatedwithsuccessinavarietyofjobfamilies.
Drawnfromthelifeexperience,education,andtrainingtheseitemsrepresentthewidestpossiblebackgroundwithinthedomainoftheapplicantpopulation.They
includethebackgroundandexperienceofwomenandminoritieshobbies,sports,school,anddomesticactivitiessotheirrelevantlifeexperiencecouldalsobe
tapped.

Ingeneral,threetypesofitemsoccurinthequestionnaire:(a)specificjobrelateditems,forexample,"installed,repaired,orreplacedanytypeofPBXortelephone
switchingequipment"(b)generaltaskrelateditems,forexample,"compiledlistsfromstandardinformationsourcessuchastelephonedirectories"and(c)itemsthat
concernedadaptationtoworkingandenvironmentalconditions,forexample,''meturgenttimepressuresanddelays"or''performedrepetitiveactivitieswithout
interruptionforlongperiodsoftime"(Myers&Fine,1985).

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TABLE10.1
PEQJobFamiliesinaCommunicationCorporation
MajorCategories Subcategories RepresentativeTitleExamples
1. Operator TSPS Operator
DirectoryAssistance
2. Clerical General Entry/SemiSkilled/SkilledClerkDialOffice
Clerk
SpecialSkills Typist,Stenographer,KeyPunchOperator,
DataEntryClerk
Technical Drafter,EngineeringClerk

CustomerContact Teller,RepairClerk,CustomerClerk

DataProcessing BusinessMachineAttendant

3. Service ResidenceService ServiceRepresentative

Representative Representative
BusinessService
Representative
PublicService
Representative
4. Technical Installation/Repair StationInstallation/RepairTechnician,PBX
Installation/RepairTechnician

Construction OutsidePlantTechnician,Cable
Splicing/RepairTechnician
CentralOffice FrameAttendant,SwitchingEquipment
Technician,PowerTechnician,Transmission
Technician,CentralOfficeEquipment
Technician
Testing TestDialTechnician,TollTesting
Technician
Assignment LineAssigner,EstimateAssigner

5. Maintenance Automotive Mechanic,GarageAttendant

Building BuildingEquipmentMechanic

HouseService HouseServiceAttendant

6. Sales Outside MarketAdministrative,CoinTelephone

Representative,DirectoryAdvertisingSales
Representative
Inside DirectorySalesCanvasser

7. OtherSupport CoinCollection CoinCollector

MotorMessenger MotorMessenger

Supply SupplyAttendant

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Foreachjobfamily,aratingscalemeasuresthejobrelevancyofthebackgrounditem.Aspecificitemcanhaveadifferentrelevancyweightornoneatall,depending
onthejobfamily.AnexampleofsucharelevancyscalefortheoperatorjobfamilyisgiveninTable10.2.Jobapplicantsrespondtothequestionnaireappropriateto
thejobfamilyinwhichtheyareinterested.Theycheckoffallitemsthatapplytothem.Thequestionnairescoreisthesumoftheweightsoftheitemschecked.This
scoreindicatesthedegreetowhichapplicant'sbackgroundscorrespondtosuccessfullyemployedworkersinthejobfamilyforwhichtheyareapplying.

Applicantsapplyingforjobsinanyofthesevenjobfamiliesarefirstaskedinwhichjobfamilytheyareinterested.(Asapracticalmatter,onlyonejobfamilyis
publicizedashavingvacanciesatanyparticulartime.)Applicantsaregiventheoccupationalinformationdescriptionsoftheworkinvolvedandtheadvantagesand
disadvantagesinherentinthejobsforthatjobfamily.TheyaretoldthePEQisnotatestofabilitybutratheraninstrumenttobetterunderstandthebackground
applicantsbringtothejob.ThePEQasksthemtocheckofftheitemswithwhichtheyhavehadexperience.CompletedPEQsarecollected,scored,andsortedinto
high,medium,andlowqualificationgroups.(ThescoringisasimpleadditionoftherelevancyweightsassignedbySME).Theapplicantsaretoldtheywillbeinformed
ofspecificopportunitieswhentheyoccur.

TABLE10.2
RelevancyRatingScaleforPEQItemsWithintheOperatorJobFamily
RelevancyWeight DefinitionofBackgroundItem Example
3 HighlyrelevantExperiencesinvolvingwork Operatedanykindof
behaviorsthatareeitherthesameasthose switchboard
performedbyoperatorsoratleasthighlysimilar
incontent
2 ModeratelyrelevantExperiencesinvolving Answeredtelephone,
workbehaviorsthataredifferentincontentbut tookmessagesand
closelyrelatedtotheworkperformedby relayedcalls
operators
1 SlightlyrelevantExperiencesthat,although Classifiedbooksina
differentthantheworkofanoperator,involve library
attributesandcharacteristicsthataresimilarto
theworkandmightindicatepotentialcandidates
withoutagreatdealofexperience
0 NotrelevantExperiencesnotrelevanttothe Climbedladdersand
job workedaloftwithhand
tools

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SummaryofRecruiting

Effectiverecruiting,recruitingthatresultsinqualifiedapplicantswhohaveselfselectedtobecomeemployeesofaparticularorganization,dependsonafairexchange
ofinformationaboutbothjobcontentandjobcontext.Employersneedtosharewithprospectiveworkersboththeadvantagesanddisadvantagesofemploymentin
theirorganization.Thisincludesprovidinginformationabout(a)thejobopportunityandtheworkplacesettinginwhichitoccurs(b)thevisionandmissionofthe
organization(c)thefunctionalperformancelevelsneededtoaccomplishtheoutputs(d)theworkingconditions:effort,responsibility,environment(e)growth
opportunities:educationalsupport,promotions,compensationand(f)accommodationstheemployermakestomeetspecialneeds.Thisinformationcanbeprovided
bybrochure,interview,video,orsomecombinationofthesemodalities.Itcanbedisseminatedbyadvertisement(inalimitedway),throughoutreachasinjobfairsat
schools,andthroughaPEQadministeredintheofficesoftheorganization.Thisopenandforthcomingapproachatfirstmeetinglaysafoundationfortrustthat
becomesavitalelementinfutureproductivity.

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Chapter11
SelectionTestingApplicants
Thelastchapternotedthatjobseekersareempoweredtoselfselectwhentheorganizationpresentsthemwithaccurateandcompleteinformationthroughoutreach
recruitingorPEQs.Jobseekerscanthenindicatetheirwillingnesstobeconsideredforajobbyfillingoutanapplicationformthatprovidestheemployerwithbasic
backgroundinformation.Nowitistheorganization'sturntoscrutinizetheapplicants.Thegoalofmanagementistoascertainwhethertheapplicanthastheboth
capacityandmotivationtocontributewhattheorganizationwantsandneedsfromitsworkers.Thehiringmanagerneedstokeepinmindthat,consciouslyor
subconsciously,applicantsareseekingasituationwheretheirskillshaveanoutletandwheretheireffortsareadequatelycompensated.TomMelohn(1994),the
formerownerofNorthAmericanTool&DieCompany,said:"Thedefinitionofgoodpeoplegoesfarbeyondmerejobcompetence.Thebasicvaluesofyourfellow
employeesaretherealkeytosuccesstheirsandyours"(p.106).InFJAterms,thismeansthatpeoplemustbehiredtofitboththecontentandcontextofthework
beingdone.

Oftentestingtakesplacewithinaninitialscreeningprocesswherebyarelativelylargenumberofjobapplicantsisreducedtoashortlistofapplicantswhoarethen
interviewed.Chapter12describestheuseofFJAfordevelopingstructuredinterviews,whichareespeciallyusefulforassessingapplicants'qualifications.Together
FJAbasedtestingandinterviewingcanprovideathoroughmeanstoidentifytherightpeoplefortheworkavailable.

ThoroughnessoftheScreeningProcess

Employersvarygreatlyinthecomplexityandrigoroftheirscreeningsystems.Forsome,screeningmeansreadingtheapplicationformandcon

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ductinganinformalinterviewwithajobapplicant.Thedecisiontohirebasedonundocumentedandoftenimpressionisticcriteriaismadeonthespotbya
manager.AttheotherextremeisaJapaneseautomobilemanufacturerthatputsapplicantsthroughaseveralstagerigorousscreeningprocess(includingreference
checks,psychologicaltesting,performancetests,andstructuredinterview).Eachstageisprofessionallydevelopedandvalidatedatconsiderableexpense,forboth
lowerlevelemployeesaswellasforupperlevelemployees.Thesecondprocess,obviouslymorethoroughthanthefirst,ismorelikelytoleadtogoodhiringdecisions
(satisfactorypredictivevalidity).ThemanymistakesmadebysendingU.S.managersoverseastoworkindifferentculturesonlytohavethemfailinsituationsunsuited
totheiradaptiveskillsalsoillustratesalackofthoroughnessinandthecostsofpoorselection(Briscoe,1995).

ThereasonsforvariabilityinscreeningpracticesmaybeduetovariationsinHRnormsandcustomsacrossdifferentindustries.Forexample,thehospitalityindustry
(hotels,motels,andrestaurants)employsmanypeopleinjobsthatarelowinpay,learningopportunities,andstatus.Theseemploymentopportunities(sometimes
calledMcJobs)sufferfromveryhighturnoverandareperpetuallyunderstaffed,especiallyinagrowtheconomy.Aprevalentbeliefinthehospitalityindustryisthat
investmentsinrigorous(andexpensive)multiplestagescreeningsystemsareawasteofmoneybecausetherequiredjobskillsareminimalandagreaterinvestmentin
selectionisnotrecoupedbeforetheworkerleavesthejob.ThisattitudecontrastsmarkedlywiththeviewoftheJapaneseautomobilemanufacturerdescribedearlier
whoinvestsheavilyinscreeningnewemployees.

ThebeliefthatcertaintypesofjobsarenotworthaninvestmentinhighqualityscreeningassessmentsisantitheticaltoFJA.EmployersusingFJAshowrespectand
carefortheirworkersbydevelopingandimplementingareasonablythoroughscreeningsystemforalljobs,forthesakeofboththeapplicantandtheorganization.

TheDegreeofSelectivityinChoosingAmongJobApplicants

Thatjobsdifferintheirdesirabilityintheeyesofjobseekersisabasicfactofoureconomicsystem.Aschapter10demonstrated,jobseekersareespeciallyinterested
inemploymentopportunitiesthathavethefollowingfeatures:

somelevelofstatusandrespect,

opportunitiesforlearningandadvancement,and

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adecentrateofpay.

Thesefeaturesarealmostthesameasthoseworkersmentionforleavingjobs:earnings,jobchallenge,opportunityforadvancement,andgeographiclocation
(Mowday,Porter,&Steers,1982).Individualstakejobsandswitchtootherjobsforsimilarreasons,althoughtherearelargedifferencesinwhattheseindividuals
lookforinajobinthefirstplace(onepersonmayconsiderjobchallengetobemostimportantwhereasacoworkerrankspayasthenumberonereasonfortakingor
leavingajob).Furthermore,notallofthefeaturesmentionedmustbepresentforajobtobedesirableandindemandforlargenumbersofpotentialworkers.For
example,Cronshawconsultedwithatransitcompanywhere10peopleapplyforeachopenpositionoftransitoperatorandturnoverisverylow(2%3%ayearplus
retirements).Managementreportedthatmostapplicantswereattractedtothejobbythehighlevelofcompensation($18Canadianperhourplusgenerousbenefits)
ratherthanopportunitiesforgrowth/advancementorstatus,bothofwhichwereminimal.However,itisclearthatwherenoneofthesefeaturesarepresent,employers
havemoredifficultyattractingjobcandidates.Evenwherethejobisdesirabletomanypeople,employersmaystillhavedifficultyattractingjobapplicantsifemployer
demandforspecializedskillsexceedslabormarketsupply(e.g.,toolanddiemakerswhoareconstantlyinheavydemandandshortsupplyintheUnitedStates).

Theattractivenessofajobandtheavailabilityofspecializedlaborhaveadirectbearingonhowselectiveemployerscanbeinthescreeningprocess.Wherethejobis
attractiveandapplicantsnumerous,theemployercanbechoosyinthescreeningprocess.Wherethejobisunattractiveorqualifiedapplicantsareinshortsupply,the
employermustbelesschoosy.Tosomeextent,employerscanincreasethenumbersofapplicantsforajobbyexpandingtheirrecruitmentefforts,butthereisa
practicallimittothis.Selectivityisdiscussedlaterinthischapterinconjunctionwithreliabilityandvalidityissues.

DecisionMakinginSelectionTheSourcesofRightandWrongDecisionsDuringApplicantScreening

Managementmakestherightdecisionsaboutwhotohiremoreoftenthannotwhenanapplicantscreeningsystemiseffective.Managementmakesthesecorrect
decisionsbyhiringpeoplewhoperformuptoorexceedexpectations(correcthires)andrejectingthoseapplicantswhowouldhavebeenlessthansatisfactory
performersonthejob(correctnonhires).Al

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thoughmanagementwouldprefertobe100%accurateinthesepredictionssuchomniscienceisimpossible.Conversely,managementcanmaketwotypesofwrong
decisionswhenhiringfromagroupofapplicants.Thefirstmistakeistohiresomeonewhoperformsbelowexpectationsonthejob.Thesepeoplearetheincorrect
hires.Failuretohirepeoplewhowouldhavebeensatisfactoryperformersbutnevergotthechancetoshowtheirstuffisthesecondmistake.Thesepeoplearethe
incorrectnonhires.Managersaresensitivetothefirsttypeofhiringmistakebecauseanindividualperformingbelowexpectationmustberetrainedorterminated.Hiring
mistakesofthiskindcauseexpenseandinconveniencetotheorganizationandarehighlyvisible.Ontheotherhand,managersareusuallyblissfullyunawareofthecost
ofincorrectnonhiresbecausethiskindofhiringmistakesusuallydoesnotcomebacktohauntthem.(Oneexceptionistherejectedapplicantwhobecomesastarwith
anotherorganization.)The1996AllStarBaseballGameshowshowmanagementcanmissoutstandingworkerpotential.Inthatgame,catcherMikePiazzaledthe
NationalLeaguetoaneasy60victoryandearnedthemostvaluableplayer(MVP)award.Afterthegame,themediapointedoutthatPiazzawasthe1,390thplayer
takeninthe1988draft.Fromthosehumblebeginnings,hewentonbecomerookieoftheyearandafourtimeallstar.Manyofuscanpointtootherdiamondsinthe
roughincorrectnonhireswhoovercameinitialrejectiontobecomeoutstandingcontributorstotheirorganizationsandtosocietyatlarge.

Managementmustmakecorrecthiringdecisionsmoreoftenthanincorrectdecisionsifapplicantsandworkersaretogaintrustinthehiringsystem.Afteragrouphas
beenhired,incorrecthiresunderminetheconfidenceinthehiringsystembecauseitbecomesapparenttoeveryonethatmanagementhiredthewrongperson.Again,
workertrustinthescreeningsystemiseroded.Theeffectivenessofthehiringsystemisimprovedbypredictivevalidityoftheassessmentsbuiltintoit.Confidence
andtrustisfurtherbuiltif,inadditiontopredictivevalidity,theselectionassessmentshavetheappearanceofjobrelatedness(facevalidity).

Inasituationwhereanemployerhastheoptiontotakethecreamofthecropfromagroupofpeoplewhohaveselfselected,theemployerhastodecideonan
assessmentdevice(s)andasystemtomakethebestdecisionsbasedontheseassessments.Forexample,theemployermaydecidetoadministerapsychologicaltest
toallapplicants,thenmoveonlythetop10%oftesttakerstoastructuredinterviewwherethefinalselectiondecisionismade.Thisstructuredinterviewmightinclude
anumberofpreestablishedquestionsaskedofalljobapplicantswithaspecialemphasisonassessingadaptiveskills.Buthowisadecisionmadeaboutwhichtestto
useandhowtouseit?FJAgivesguidanceonthisasshownthroughouttheremainderofthischapter.

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TobetterseewhereFJAleadsintermsofselectionapplications,thebasicthemesofFJAarerestatedbelowinitalics.Howeachoftheseprinciplestranslatesinto
FJAbasedselectionfollowseachtheme.

Applicationsreflectwholepersons,doesnotpartializethem.

Selectionprinciple:Physical,mental,andinterpersonalskillsneedtobeassessedinawaythatrecognizestherelativeoccurrenceoftheseskillsonthejob.

Workersareviewedinrelationtobothjobcontentandjobcontext.

Selectionprinciple:Testsorothermeasuresusedinselectionmustassessapplicants'KSAwiththejobcontextinmind(i.e.,requiredlevelofeffort,degreeofresponsibility,and
adjustmenttoworkconditions).

Interactionamongworker,work,andworkorganizationshouldbereflectedintheapplication.

Selectionprinciple:Theselectionprocessexplicitlytiesthework(asdefinedthroughtaskanalysis)andtheorganization(definedthroughorganizationanalysis)intothe
assessmentofworkerqualifications(capacities,experience,education,andtraining).

Jobperformanceisrealizedfromtheinteractionofspecificcontent,functional,andadaptiveskills.

Selectionprinciple:Althoughtheselectionsystemdirectlyassessesonlyfunctionalandadaptiveskills(specificcontentskillsareusuallyacquiredafterhiring),functionaland
adaptiveskillsarerecognizedasimportantenablerstotheacquisitionofspecificcontentskillslater.Adaptiveskills,determinedbythejobcontentandidentifiedasapractical
matterwhentheFJAtaskanalysisisperformed,areextrapolatedfromthetaskstatementsandperformancestandards.Melohn(1994)capturedanexampleofarequiredadaptive
skillinhisstatement,"wesearchforpeoplewhoarewillingtobegoodneighbors"(p.92).Thesepeople,hegoesontosay,"quietlyandunobtrusivelysearchoutanewwaya
betterwaytodoajobforthebenefitofeveryone."AsshownearlierinFig.4.1,functionalskillsareexercisedinresponsetothedemandsofjobcontentandcomplementthe
needforadaptiveskill.

Adaptationsoftheworkers,onceonthejob,needtobematchedbyaccommodationsfromtheemployer.

Selectionprinciple:Theselectionprocessmustrecognizethatjobsarenotstatic.Employersmakeaccommodationsinthelongrunthatchangethejobcontexttoagreateror
lesserextent.Anemployer'swillingnesstoaccommodatebringsoutthewillingnessofworkerstoadapttotheconditionspresentintheworkplace.Becauseadaptationtakes
persistenceandeffort,aquidproquofrommanagementthroughaccommodationhelpstoreinforceworkers'perceptionsofequityandshowthatman

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agementisholdingupitssideoftherelationship.Theselectionsystemneedstoreflecttheaccommodationsemployersarewillingtoputinplace(e.g.,anapplicantmaybetold
thatheorshecanchoosetoworkeitherthedayornightshiftifthatchoiceisavailable).

Thetwotypesofselectionassessmentsusedinmanyselectionsystems,standardizedpsychologicaltestingandperformancetesting,arediscussednext.(Employment
interviewingforselectioniscoveredinchap.12.)FJAhasfoundnumerousapplicationstoselection,butitsassumptionsaremostsympathetictothedevelopmentof
performancetests.

StandardizedPsychologicalTesting

Inmanyorganizations,animportantpartofmanagement'sattemptstobethoroughinitsselectionprocesshasincludedpsychologicaltestingtestsofbroadhuman
attributesandqualitiessuchasintelligenceandpersonality.Thesetestsarealwaysaccompaniedbyinstructionsonhowtoadministerthem,includingwhattosaytothe
examineeandoftentheymustbeadministeredunderstricttimelimits.Thetestmaybeineitherpaperandpencilformoradministeredandscoredbycomputer.The
testshouldbesupportedbyresearchreportingonitsreliabilityandvalidity.

WernimontandCampbell(1968),intheirclassicarticle,suggestedabetterwaytounderstandwhatpsychologicaltestsmeasureandhowtheymeasureit.Theydraw
adistinctionbetweensignsfromwhichinferencesaremadeaboutbehaviorandsamples,whicharesimulationsofthebehavior.Theresultsofstandardized
psychologicaltests,theyasserted,aresignsoffuturebehavior.Inotherwords,thesetestsmeasureacharacteristicorattributethatthebetterapplicantscumworkers
areassumedtopossess.Forexample,jobapplicantswithhigherscoresonacognitiveabilitytestatthehiringstageareassumedtobecomebetteraccountantsor
lawyersthanapplicantswithlowerscores.Thesign,inthiscasethescoreonacognitiveabilitytestusedintheselectionprocess,isassumedtomeasurea
psychologicalattribute(here,intelligence)thatinturnservesasaflagtoidentifythosepeoplewhoshouldperformbetteraftertheyareonthejob.

Standardizedpsychologicaltestshavetheirplaceinselection,butaswithallselectiondevices,theymustbeusedadvisedlywithafullappreciationoftheirlimitations.
FromtheFJAperspective,thefollowinglimitationsapplytopsychologicaltesting:

Theseteststendtopartializepeopleintheselectionprocess.Anysingletestismeanttomeasurephysicalskillsormentalskillsorinterpersonal

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skills.Infact,oneoftherequirementsoftheseinstrumentsisthattheybepuremeasuresofoneconstructsuchasmechanicalaptitudeorsociability.Thetestsinandof
themselvesdonotreflecttheinterrelatednessoftheseskillsonthejob.FJA,bycontrast,recognizestheexistenceofthreeskillareas(specificcontent,functional,and
adaptive),andemphasizestheirinterrelatednessindrivingaholisticandcompletetaskperformance.

Moststandardizedtestsassessworkerpotentialtomasterjobcontent,ratherthanjobcontext.Tofullyreflectjobcontext,nontestpredictorssuchasinterviewsand
worksamplesmustbeused.

Psychologicaltestsarenotbroadenoughtocapturetheinteractionamongworker,work,andworkorganization.Thesetestsaredesignedasmeasuresofpersonal
qualitiesandattributesoftheworker.TheHRspecialistmusttakeadditionalstepstolinkthetesttoboththeworkandworkorganization.

Becausepsychologicaltestsarestandardized,andoftenadministeredunderstricttimelimits,theyarenotveryaccommodatingofjobapplicantswithspecialneeds,
especiallythosewithdisabilities.Theopportunityforworkerstodemonstratetheiradaptabilityonceonthejobcanbeseverelyconstrainedbypsychologicaltesting.

Takingtestswiththeequanimityrequiredtodoone'sbest,isinitselfanimportantadaptiveskill.

IfpsychologicaltestsaregoingtobeusedinanFJAbasedsystem,somemeansneedtobefoundtoovercomethesebasiclimitations.

Sometypesofpsychologicaltestshaveadverseimpactagainstmembersofcertainracialgroups,whichmeansthatproportionatelyfewerofthempassthetestandare
hiredthroughtheselectionsystem.AU.S.News&WorldReportarticlewrittenbyPaulGlastris(1994)describedarecentresurgenceofthisproblem.Glastris
reportsablizzardofcriticismagainstapaperandpenciltestdevelopedbyconsultingfirmsatacostof$5,000,000tohelpthecityofChicagopromotepoliceofficers
tosergeants.Only8%ofBlacksand4.4%ofHispanicsachievedtestscoreshighenoughtowinpromotion,despitethefactthatthecityofChicagois39%African
Americanand19.6%Hispanic.Glastrispointstoperformancetests,onwhichminoritiesscoremuchclosertoWhites,asanalternativetopaperandpenciltests.We
agreewithGlastrisinhisconcernabouttheadverseimpactofpaperandpenciltestsandinthepotentialforperformancetesting.Performancetesting,whichhasbeen
thesubjectofsomeimportantFJAapplications,isdiscussedlater.

ThereisaclassoftestswhichisnotstrictlypsychologicalinnatureandhasmanydesirableFJAfeatures.PEQs(describedinchap.10)belonginthisclass.ThePEQ
doesdoubleduty:itprovidesjobseekerswithinfor

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mationforselfselectionanditservesasaselectioninstrumentfortheorganization.Howgoodarethesetypesofexperiencequestionnairesforsortingapplicants
duringselection?Onemeasureofthethoroughness(ormoreprecisely,theaccuracy)ofatestforselectingthebestpeoplefromagroupofapplicantsisastatistical
indexcalledthecorrelation.

Quinones,Ford,andTeachout(1995)summarizedtheresultsofanumberofpreviousstudieslookingatthecorrelationbetweenworkexperiencemeasuressuchas
thePEQandjobperformance.Theyfoundthatthehighestcorrelationbetweenworkexperienceandjobperformancecouldbeexpectedwhentheexperience
measuredwasspecifictoindividualtasksandwhenthisexperiencewassignificantinamount.Thecorrelationforthesetypesofexperiencemeasures,whicharesimilar
inapproachtothePEQ,wascertainlyhighenoughtomakeitawelcomeadditiontomanyselectionsystems.(Inotherwords,useofthesemeasureswouldresultin
selectingsignificantlybettercandidatesforthejobratherthanrelyingonchancealone.)

Villanova,Bernardin,Johnson,andDahmus(1994)developedavariationonexperienceratingsasameasureofjobcompatibility.Theseresearchersdevelopedajob
choicequestionnairefortheaterpersonnelconsistingofitemsorganizedintotetrads(fourchoicequestions).Eachtetradwascomprisedofeitherdesirableor
undesirablejobcharacteristics(anundesirablejobcharacteristicwouldbe''havingtodealwithrudecustomers'').Applicantswereaskedtolookateachtetradand
choosetwoofthefourjobcharacteristicsmostdesirableorundesirabletothem.ThesecharacteristicshadbeenpreviouslyratedinamannerreminiscentofthePEQ
astowhethertheywererelevanttothejob.Thesumofalltherelevantitemscheckedbythejobapplicantsproducedthetotalscoreusedtopredictameasureofjob
performanceandturnover.Resultsofthejobcompatibilityquestionnaireindicateditwouldmakeagoodselectiondevice.WhetherVillanovaetal.usedFJAintheir
researchisnotknownhowever,theirapproachishighlyconsistentwithFJAandoffersanotherFJAoptionforanonpsychologicaltestwithgoodpredictiveabilities.

Thelastnonpsychologicaltesttobeconsideredisbiographicaldata(biodata).Abiodataquestionnaireisamodifiedapplicationformthatobtainsinformationabouta
varietyofworkandlifeexperiences.Thequestionnaireisscoredmuchthesameasastandardizedpsychologicaltest.Correlationofbiodatawithsubsequentjob
performancegenerallyhasbeengoodandasophisticatedtechnologyhasbeenbuiltaroundconstructing,validating,andusingtheseinstruments,especiallyinthelife
insuranceindustry(asevidencedinStokesetal.,1994BiodataHandbook).TheuseofFJAtoprovideajobanalysisplatformonwhichtobuildbiodatainstruments
isdescribedinsomedetailinStokesetal.(1994).

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PerformanceTesting

Earlier,referencewasmadetotheworkofWernimontandCampbell.Theseresearchersanticipatedthecurrentinterestinperformancetestingbydifferentiating
betweentestsassignsandsamples.Whentestsaredevelopedandusedassamplesofbehavior,theyareintendedtoelicitperformanceinasimulatedsituationthat
is,thetestconsistsofsamplesofthefuturebehaviordesiredbytheorganization.Aworksimulationwherebyjobapplicantsareaskedtoperformataskrequiredon
thejobprovidesagoodexampleofaperformancetest.Inperformancetesting,aperson'sresponsesarescoredbytrainedobserversagainstsomepreestablished
criteriaofeffectivenessidentifiedforthatjob.Forexample,thecriteriaforasalespersoninaworksimulationwouldbetoremaincalmandpoliteindealingwitharude
andverballyabusivecustomer.Thebehavioralsampleconsistsofaninteractionbetweentheprospectivesalespersonandadifficultcustomeroftenatrainedactor
roleplayingthepartunderconditionsascloselyapproximatingthejobaspossible.Theevidencefortheperson'sfuturejobperformanceisdirectandbehavioral
comparedtoasignthatisindirectandinferential.(Asigninthiscasemightbeapersonalitytestprovidingascoreonsociabilityasevidencethatthesalespersonwould
dealeffectivelyorineffectivelywithadifficultcustomer.)Manyapplicantspreferperformancetestsbecausetheyhavemorefacevalidityandleavemoreroomfor
peopletodemonstratetheiradaptiveskills.Theyalsogiveapplicantsareallifepreviewofthejobandsofurtherencourageselfselection.

Worksamplescanbringoutbothfunctionalandadaptiveskills.Aworksampledesignedtoassesstheskillsofanapplicantforthejobofairlineflightattendantmight
havetheapplicantservingfoodtoadifficultpassenger(roleplayedbyanactor)withinatightlyconfinedarea.Inadditiontoobservingandscoringtheapplicanton
individualbehavioralitems,aworksampleratermightscoretheindividualontheirflowinperformingthetaskthatis,theirabilitytointegratetheskillsintoasmooth,
effortless,andholisticperformance.(Csikczentmihalyi'sconceptofflowisdiscussedinchap.13.)Forthebestworkers,functionalityandwillingnessworktogetherin
anaturalwayandintheworksampleresultsinarelaxedandcomfortableairlinepassenger.Infact,actorswhoroleplaypassengersintheseworksamplesmightbe
askedtoprovidesubjectivejudgmentsontheirexperienceofoverallservicequalityjudgmentsreflectingtheirperceptionofflowinheringintheattendant's
performance.

PerformancetestingallowstheFJAprinciplesofselectiontocomeintoplayasfollows:

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Physical,mental,andinterpersonalskillsareallbroughtintoplay.Inthepreviousexampleofselectingsalespersons,itbecomesimmediatelyapparentthatthe
applicantmustsizeuptheinterpersonalsituationandmakedecisionsaboutwhattosaytothedifficultcustomer(mentalskill).Theapplicantmustmanageimportant
aspectsoftheinteraction,includingtheaffectivetoneoftheexchange(interpersonalskill).Physicalskillisreflectedinbodylanguage.Inthesalespersonexample,the
applicantmustmaintainanappropriatephysicaldistancebetweenselfandthedifficultcustomersoastoneitherantagonizethecustomerbystandingtooclosenor
alienatehimorherbystandingtoofaraway.Inscoringtheperformancetest,allthreeskillsneedtoberepresentedinproportiontotheirimportanceintheinteraction
andinamannerthatreflectstheinterrelatedwayinwhichtheseskillsareappliedtoachieveasmoothandwellintegratedperformance.

Bothjobcontentandjobcontextareincorporatedintheassessment.Thecontextfactormostrelevanttothesalespersonexampleisdegreeofresponsibility.Thatis
tosay,theapplicantmustassumeresponsibilityformanagingtheinteractionbyremainingcalmandobjectiveratherthangoingtitfortatwiththeiratecustomer.The
scoregivenontheperformancetestreflectstheapplicant'ssuccessinadjustingtojobcontext,inthiscasebyacceptingtheappropriatedegreeofresponsibility.

Theperformancetestrecognizestheworker'sinvolvementintheentireworksystem:worker,work,andworkorganization.Theworkerisassessedduringthe
performanceofspecifictasksthatresembletheactualrequirementsofthejobascloselyaspossibleandisevaluatedbystandardsderivedfromthegoalsand
objectivesofthelargerworkorganization.

Performancetestingrequiresapplicantstodrawonandintegratetheirfunctionalandadaptiveskillsinachievingsuccessfultaskperformance.Specificcontentisalso
providedtotheapplicantswherethisisneededforsuccessfultaskperformance.Forexample,successfulperformanceforasalespersoncertainlydrawsonboth
functionalskillandadaptiveskill(afunctionalskillisgettingalongwithothersanadaptiveskilliswillingnesstodealwithirate,abusivecustomers).Theperformance
testismadeevenmorevalidiftheapplicantisprovidedwiththeemployerspecificationsbeforehandthatis,heorsheisgiventheorganization'scustomerrelations
policiesandprocedurestoreadbeforetheperformancetest.Notethatprovidingtherelevantpolicydocumentsincreasesapplicanttrustintheselectionsystem
becausetheyarenotbeingtrickedorforcedtoreadtheemployer'smindaboutwhatiswanted.Theperformancetestthencapturesapplicants'abilitytolearnanduse
specificcontentskillaswellastheirlevelsoffunctionalandadaptiveskill.

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Theperformancetestmustallowforreasonableadaptationsbytheapplicantandprobablejobchangesinfuture.Referringagaintothesalespersonexample,a
personwithahearingimpairmentmightadapttothedifficultcustomerbypolitelyaskinghimorhertorepeatthecommunicationortospeakmoreslowly.Thiscould
verywellhavethebeneficialcollateraleffectofreducingtensionandmakingthecustomermoremanageable.Theadvantagesforassessmentofthehandicappedare
obvious.Theperformancetestcanalsobescoredwithsomelatitudeforthe"right"courseofaction.Ifthespecificrequirementsandstandardsapplyingtothejobare
expectedtochangeinthefuture,theassessmentmightfocusonthequalityofthephysical,mental,orinterpersonalperformancebroughttobearratherthanadherence
toanypredeterminedcourseofaction.

AnexampleofusingFJAinselectioninvolvedthedevelopmentofworksampletestsforanationalapprenticetrainingprogramrunbytheInternationalUnionof
OperatingEngineers(Olson,Fine,Myers,&Jennings,1981).Thepurposeoftheworksampletestswastoprovideajobrelatedandlegallydefensiblemeansfor
qualifyingapprenticeheavyequipmentoperatorsasjourneymen.ConductinganFJAtaskanalysisfor16kindsofheavyconstructionequipmentusedbyoperating
engineers(e.g.,asphaltpaver,bulldozer,grader)wasthestartingpointindevelopingtheworksampletests.SenioroperatingengineersservedasparticipantsinFJA
focusgroupsandrevalidatedtheresultingtaskbanks.Usingthetaskbanksasabase,Fineandhisprojectteamdevelopedperformancestandardsforeachofthe16
piecesofequipment.Thisdevelopmentwasundertakeninfoursteps:

Thejobanalyst(i.e.,Fine)preparedapreliminarydraftoftheperformancestandards.

Thispreliminarydraftwasreviewedina2daymeetingbetweenFineandaprincipalSME.

Thedraftwasrevised,takingintoaccounttheinputoftheprincipalSME,andwasresubmittedtohimforreview.

TheperformancestandardsagreedonbetweenFineandtheprincipalSMEweregiventoequipmentspecifictaskforcesoffourtosixSMEfromacrosstheUnited
States.Thesetaskforcesreviewedtheperformancestandardsovera2dayperiodandrevisedtheperformancestandardsastheysawappropriate.

Significantly,inthisproject,membersoftheprojectteamorganizedthedetailedperformancestandardsunderseveraloutputsforeachpieceofequipment.The
performancestandardswerealsoclassifiedastowhether

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theyinvolvedpredominantlythings,data,orpeople.Theseperformancestandardswerethenplacedintochecklistformatscomprisingtheevaluationcomponentsfor
theworksampletestsonthe16piecesofequipment.

Theseperformancetestswereineffectworkfacsimilesinwhichanapprenticeortraineewasrequiredtoperformaworkactivityunderconditionsresemblingthefinal
worksiteascloselyaspossible.Theapprenticeortraineewascloselywatchedbyatrainedoperatingengineerobserverwhocarefullyratedtheindividual's
performanceontheworksamplechecklist.Theworksamplechecklistwasdesignedtobeasbehaviorallyspecificaspossiblesothattheobserverneededtomake
onlytheminimuminferenceaboutwhetherthepersonbeingobservedperformedwellornot.Forexample,apprenticesbeingassessedontheiroperationoftheasphalt
pavingequipmentwererequiredtooperatethatequipmenttopaveastretchofroadbed.Theworksampletestfortheasphaltpavingmachineassessedperformance
onanumberofothertasksaswell,includingloadingandunloadingequipmentfromatrailerandoperatingaroller.

MeasurementIssuesinSelection

Psychologistshavespentmanyyearsrefiningtechnicalconceptsnotably,thoseofreliabilityandvalidity,importantunderpinningstoselectionsystems.As
characteristicsofanassessment,reliabilityandvalidityarehighlyrelevanttoFJAbasedselectionandgreatlyincreasethelikelihoodthataselectionsystemissoundin
itstreatmentofjobapplicants.Anassessmentisreliableifconsistentscoresresultfromit.Forexample,scoresontheworksamplechecklistfortheoperating
engineersintheprevioussectionwereconsistentthatis,reliabletotheextentthattwotrainedobserversindependentlygavethesame(ornearlythesame)ratings
toatrainee.Differentobserverswhowatchthesamepersonperformaworksampleandwhoareconsistentintheirratingsprovideabasisonwhichtoclaimthatthe
assessmentisthoroughenoughtojustifycertifyingtheapplicantasanapprentice.

Validityisthesinequanonofselectiontesting.Showingthatthebehaviorsandresultsidentifiedinthetaskanalysiscorrespondtotheitemsinthetest,questionsinthe
employmentinterview,orbehaviorsaskedforintheperformancetestdemonstratesvalidity.Knownascontentvalidation,thisapproachisaprimarymeansby
whichFJAbasedselectioninstrumentsarevalidated.Showingthatthescoresontheassessmentarerelatedstatisticallytosomecriterionofinteresttotheorganization
providesasecondmeansofvalidation.Thisiscommonlyreferredtoascriterionrelatedvalidation.Forexample,thejobcompatibilitymeasuredescribedearlierin
thischapterwascorrelatedbytheresearchers(Villanovaetal.,1994)to

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bothjobperformanceandturnover.Inbothinstances,themeasurewasfoundtobepredictiveoftherespectivecriteria.

Constructorientedvalidation,athirdapproachtovalidation,requiresanumberofempiricalstudiestoestablishthatthetestmeasureswhatitsaysitmeasures.For
reasonsofpracticalityandeconomy,itisuncommonfororganizationstoinvestinthistypeofvalidationwhenFJAisused.ForFJAselection,therelianceisheaviest
oncontentvalidation,withsomecriterionrelatedvalidationwheretimeandmoneyallow.

Regardlessofthevalidationstrategyused,manypractitionershavetorelyontheassistanceofmeasurementspecialiststohelpdesignandconductthenecessary
research.ThesameholdsforassessmentofreliabilityofFJAbasedinstruments.However,inadditiontoitstechnicalmerits,theselectiondeviceshouldhaveface
validitythatis,itshouldlookjobrelatedtotheapplicantsandengenderthefeelingthattheorganizationknowswhatitisdoinginselectionandisgivingalljob
candidatesafairchancetoshowtheirbest.

SummaryofSelectionTesting

Inrecentyearsemployershavebecomemorecarefulabouthiring.Ascompetitionintheglobalmarketplaceintensifies,theyseekhiringmethodsthataremorevalid
forselectingthebestperformers.Addtothistheneedfornondiscriminatoryselectionandthepromotionofatrustingrelationshipbetweenapplicantandemployerand
thesubstantialchallengetomanagersismanifest.

FJAtakesabehavioralapproachtoaddressingthesechallenges.Itishighlysuitedtobothstructuredinterviewingandperformancetestingaswellastypesofpaper
andpenciltestingthatfocusonpastexperienceortaskpreference.Whenproperlydeveloped,thesebehavioralpredictorshavehadthefollowingadvantages:

goodreliability

goodtoexcellentvalidity

littleornoadverseimpactagainstminoritygroups

goodfacevaliditytojobapplicants

Modernpsychologytendstouseselectionpredictorsthatpartializeandlabelapplicantsintooneorafewnarrowcategoriesoftheircapabilities(e.g.,cognitiveability,
mechanicalaptitude,spatialability).FJAworksagainstthistrendbypreferringtorelatefunctionalcapabilitiestoperformancetestingtherebyallowingafullerrangeof
workerpotentialtobeassessedinselection.

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Chapter12
SelectionInterviewingApplicants
Thepurposeofaselectioninterviewistoidentifythebestpersonforajobfromashortlistofcandidates.Althoughinterviewsareaverypopularmeansofselection
andpromotion,theyareoftendonepoorly.Theusualinterviewisanunstructured,ramblingconversationwiththeintervieweraskingthefollowingtypesofquestions:

Whydoyouwantthisjob?

Whatcanyoudoforourcompany?

Tellmeaboutyourself.

Unstructuredinterviews,becauseoftheirlackoffocusandjobrelevantquestions,arepooratidentifyingthebestcandidatesforajoborpromotion.Structured
interviews,ontheotherhand,askjobrelevantquestionsthatcanconsiderablyimproveanemployer'sabilitytoselectthebestcandidateapersonwhoseskillsare
bestmatchedtorequirements.ThissectiondiscusseshowFJAcanbeusedtostructureaninterviewsoemployershaveabetterchanceofselectingorpromotingthe
rightperson.ItalsoshowshowtouseFJAtopresentarealisticjobpreviewduringtheinterview,thuspromotingapplicantselfselectionandcontributingtoamore
satisfiedworker.

TheProblemwithUnstructuredInterviews

Thegreatstrengthofaninterviewisitsoneononenatureanditspurposefulness.However,theproblemwithanunstructuredinterviewisitslackofanobjective
screentosortoutdissimulationonthepartofanintervieweeeagertobehired.Althoughinterviewersmaybebracedforand

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trainedtoseethroughdissimulation,whatensuesinanunstructuredinterviewisagameofwhocancomeoutawinner,obviouslyaverysubjectiveprocessthatcalls
intoquestiontheresultsofinterviews.

Variousmeanshavebeenintroducedtocapitalizeonthestrengthsofaninterviewandtocontrolitssubjectivity,includingfixingthetime,specifyingthequestions,
devisingscoringschemesfortheinterviewee'sanswers,anddevisingscalesforevaluatingtheinterviewee'sbehavior.Onthewhole,theseattemptstostructurean
interviewhavehadconsiderablesuccessinimprovingthepredictiveefficiencyoftheselectioninterviewbyestablishingacommoncontextwithinwhichtheinterview
takesplace.WiesnerandCronshaw(1988)obtainedconvincingempiricalevidenceofthis.Theycombinedtheresultsofcriterionrelatedvalidationstudiesfrom
aroundtheworldintoasingledatabaseandsoughtoutpreviouslypublishedindividualstudiesintheindustrialpsychologyandHRMliteraturethatexaminedthe
correlationbetweeninterviewratingsandcriteriaofsuccessonthejob.WiesnerandCronshawquantitativelycombinedtheresultsoftheseindividualstudiesintoa
largermetaanalysistodeterminewhethertherewasanoverallpatterntothecorrelationsreportedindividually.Theirresultsshowedthatstructuredinterviewspredict
jobsuccesstwiceaswellasunstructuredinterviewsandthatstructuredinterviewsrivaled,andevenexceeded,thebestpredictionachievedbyselectiontests.
StructuredinterviewsmadetheirbestpredictionswhentheinterviewquestionswerebasedonaformaljobanalysissuchasFJA.Subsequentresearchtofollowupon
theWiesnerandCronshawstudyhascloselyborneouttheirconclusionsaboutthepredictiveefficacyofstructuredinterviews(Huffcutt&Arthur,1994).

FJA,whencombinedwithgenerallyacceptedrulesforstructuringinterviews,helpsincreaseinterviewvalidity.Itprovidesforagreaterdegreeofobjectivitybecause
questionsareanchoredinthetaskbankofthejobforwhichapplicantsareapplying.Theparticularfocusofthequestionsisontheadaptiveandfunctionalskills
requiredtodothejob.Thequestionsrelatedtoadaptiveskillsoriginatein(a)theknownconditionsphysical,social,andenvironmentalinwhichthejobworker
situationoccurs,andin(b)thelevelofeffortandresponsibilityneededtoachievetheperformancestandards.Thequestionsrelatedtofunctionalskillsoriginatedirectly
fromtheinformationcontainedinthetaskstatementsdescribingfunctionalperformanceandtheassociatedperformancestandards.

OpeningtheFJAInterview

ManyactivitiesprecedeanFJAinterview.Applicantshavealreadybeengiveninformationabouttheorganizationandtheparticularjobforwhich

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theyareapplying.Theyhavebeenshownadegreeofopennessandsharingthatmaybeunusualtothem.WhereaPEQisused,theyhave,inturn,sharedagooddeal
ofinformationaboutthemselvesinadditiontothetraditionalapplicationform.Theinterviewthusbecomesanoccasionforaffirmationandconfirmationofthe
exchangedinformation.

Agoodwaytoopentheinterview,aftertheexchangeofamenitiesandestablishingrapport,istosimplyask:"Doyouhaveanyquestions/commentsaboutthe
informationyouhavereceivedconcerningthejobortheorganization?"Withthisquestion,theinterviewercomesdownfromapositionofpower(tosayyesornoto
hiring)andextendsthesharingthatwasinitiatedearlier.Theinterviewernowlistenscarefullyfortheapplicant'sworkneeds,whichexpressthemselvesthroughthe
questionsheorsheasks.Melohn(1994)explainedthisapproachinthefollowingway:
Afterthefirstintroductoryfiveminutes,Iaskeachcandidateifheorshehasanyquestionsaboutourcompanyorjobopening.ThenIjustlisten.Sometimesthesilenceis
deafening.ButIkeepquiet.Soonerorlater,they'llspeakup.Andthat'swhenIlearn,reallylearnabouttheotherperson.(p.97)

Anapplicant'squestionsaremostlikelydirectedtooneormoreofthegrowthareascompensation,skill,andstatusdiscussedinchapter10.Morealertapplicants
showaninterestintheorganizationandsomeindicationthattheyhavecheckeditout.Theymayask,"Wherewastheorganization5yearsago,andwheredoesit
hopetobe5yearsfromnow?IwouldliketogetanideaofhowIcanhelptheorganizationtogetthere."Applicants'preferredgrowtharea(s)needtobenotedfor
reviewwhenthefinalhiringdecisionismade.

UsingFJAtoAssessAdaptiveSkillsofJobApplicants

Adaptiveskillsinvolvethosecompetenciesthatcomeintoplayinthemanagementofoneselfinregardtoconformityandchange.Basically,adaptiveskills'most
obviousindicatoriswillingness.Ifworkersarewillingtoengageintheworksettingandremainonthejob,theydrawontheiradaptiveskillstobringtheirfunctional
andspecificcontentskillsintohighgear.(Willingnessisaworker'sheartfeltcommitmenttoputforththementalandphysicaleffort,topersistinachievingresults,and
toacceptresponsibilityaspartandparcelofthejob.)Astheexpressionofthiswillingness,anadaptiveskillusuallysurfacesacrossseveraltaskswrittenintothetask
bank.

Toaskastructuredinterviewquestionassessingadaptiveskill,aninterviewercaninvitetheapplicanttothinkofapriorsituationthatclosely

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matchestheenvironmentheorshewillworkinafterhire.Calledabehaviordescription(BD)question,thisinterviewingmethoddrawsonworkpioneeredbyJanzand
colleagues(Janz,Hellervik,&Gilmore,1986).Forexample,toassesstheadaptiveskillrequiredoffieldengineersworkingforalargemedicalequipment
manufacturingcompany,astructuredinterviewquestionwouldbebasedonthefieldengineers'taskbank:"Workinateamrelationship,shareexpertise,and
accommodatetootherfieldengineers."Thequestion,withprobes,couldbe:
Describeatimewhenyouwereworkingwithothersonateam.Thinkofatimewhenthingswerenotgoingsowell.Whatwasthesituation?Whowereyouworkingwith?What
happenedintheteam?Whatroledidyouplayandwhatdidyoudo?Howdidyoufeelatthetime?Whatwasthefinaloutcome?Whatdidtheteamproduceasafinalresult?

Responsestosuchstructuredinterviewquestionsarebestratedonaperformancescaleandthescoresonthescalescombinedintoanoverallinterviewscore.One
methodshowntobequitesuccessfulistodevelopa5pointratingscaleforeachinterviewquestion:5(anoutstandingresponse)to1(apoorresponse).The5,3,
and1areanchoredontheratingscalewithperformancestandardsfromthetaskbankorwithinformationspeciallycollectedfromjobincumbentsandsupervisors.
Table12.1illustratesaratingscaleusedtoscoreapplicantresponsestothepreviousinterviewquestionforthejoboffieldengineer.

TABLE12.1
ExampleofRatingScaleforScoringBDInterviewQuestionsAssessingAdaptiveSkills
Score AccordingtoDepthofResponse
Remainedopentoinputsofallteammembersevenifthesituationwastenseand
difficult.Freelysharedownexpertisewithallteammembers,asitwasneeded,even
ifnotasked.Remainedcalmwithaprofessionaldemeanor.Accommodatedto
5
workingstylesandneedsofallmembersevenifthiswaspersonallyinconvenient
oruncomfortable.
4
Attemptedtolistentootherteammembers'concernsandinput.Sharedown
expertiseifitwasaskedfor.Recognizedneedsofothergroupmembersandtriedto
workwiththemifitwasnottoodifficulttodoso.Feltfrustratedbutkepthisorher
3
"cool."
2
Becamefrustratedandangry.Withheldinformationfromteammemberstoincrease
ownpower,placateothers,oravoidhavingtotakeresponsibilityformakinga
mistake/offendingothers.Ignoredtheinputsandsuggestionsofothersortold
1
themtokeeptheirideastothemselves.Expectedotherstoworkstrictlytohisor
herownstyleandneeds.

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ThepreviousexampleiswrittenasaBDquestionthatfollowsthroughonthebasisofactualexperiences.Thatsomeapplicantsmaynothavethisexperienceor,ifthey
do,cannotrememberthedetailsofeventssometimeagolimitsthisapproach.Theinterviewermightthenaskthesamequestioninadifferentway.Forexample,ifthe
applicanthadnoteamexperience,theinterviewermightaskapreviouslypreparedquestionbasedonahypotheticalscenariomeanttotapintothesameadaptiveskill.
Suchaquestionforthefieldengineers(FE)couldbe:
Youareafieldengineerwhohasjustjoinedateamoffourengineersrepairingalargeandexpensivepieceofdiagnosticmedicalequipmentforalargehospital.Therepairshave
alreadybegunbuttheotherengineershaveseriousdifferencesofopinionamongthemselvesabouthowtherepairjobshouldproceed.Oneoftheotherteammembers,whoyou
recognizeastheinformalleaderoftheteam,takesyouasideandasksyoutosidewithhiminthedisagreement.Youaretosupportwhateverhesayssothattheteamcangeton
withdoingtherepairshiswayandfinishupbefore9:00a.m.thenextday(failuretocompleterepairsbythedeadlinewillprobablyresultintheteamlosingthehospitalaccount).
Describeindetailwhatyoushoulddointhissituationandprovidearationaleforyouractions.

ResponsestothisquestioncanbescoredonthesameratingscaleastheBDbychangingthestemtoread,''Iftheapplicant'sresponseshowsthatheorshe
would,''forexample,remainopentoinputs(seeLatham,Saari,Pursell,&Campion,1980).

FJAinterviewsneedtocontainquestionsassessingcandidates'willingnesstousethemixofprescriptionanddiscretiondemanded,exerttherequisiteeffort,assume
thelevelofresponsibilityrequired,andworkundertheenvironmentalconditionsprevalentintheworksite.Additionally,questionsassessingadaptiveskillsmoreor
lessspecifictothatjobcontextarenecessary.FortheFEs,theseadaptiveskillsinclude,"staywitharepairuntiltheequipmentisworkingreliablyandsatisfactorily,"
and,foratransitoperator,"drivevehiclecarefullyandsafely,especiallywhenunderpressure."Mostofthequestionsformulatedtoprobeforadaptiveskillsderive
fromthetaskstatementsandperformancestandardsinthetaskbank.Forexample,thetransitoperatorwillhaveatleastseveraltaskstatementsondrivingthevehicle
(starting,steering,stoppingtopickpassengers,andsoon).Performancestandardsforthesetasksmayincludeturningcornerswithoutjostlingpassengersandcoming
toacompletestopbeforeopeningthedoorstoletoutdisembarkingpassengers.Allofthesetasksaredoneandthestandardsmetunderatight,orevenunrealistic,
timeschedule.Takentogether,thesetasksandperformancestandardssupporttheinferenceoftheadaptiveskill"drivevehiclecarefullyandsafely,especiallywhen
underpressure"anadaptiveskilldescribedbyparticipantsintheoriginalFJAfocusgroup(seechap.7onconductingtheFJAfocusgroup).

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UsingFJAtoAssessFunctionalSkills

Theinterviewcanthenproceedtoapplicants'workexperiencefocusingontheirfunctionalskills.Itis,ofcourse,necessarytoavoidqueryingaboutfamiliaritywith
specificcontentskills.Beyondwhathasbeendescribedintheannouncementofthevacancy,applicantscannotbeexpectedtoknowthespecificcontentofthejobfor
whichtheyareapplying.TheFJAtaskbankhowever,providesascriptforwhattheapplicantcanbequeriedaboutintheareaoffunctionalskills.

WhenusingFJAinaninterviewtoassessfunctionalskills,everyjobworkersituationwillhave,inadditiontothetaskbank,summaryratingscontainingthethree
highestfunctionsandtheiraccompanyingorientationweights.Forexample,supposethevacancyforwhichapplicantsarebeinginterviewedisthatofcommunity
developmentofficer.Thefunctionsandweightsforthisjobworkersituationare:

1A Handling 10
Things:
Data: 5A Innovating 60
People: 4A Consulting 30

Thissummarydatatellstheinterviewerwhatneedstobelookedforintheapplicant:primarily,abilitytocompile,analyze,andusedatainnovativelyasitrelatesto
communitydevelopmentworkandsecondarily,abilitytosourceinformationandconsultwithsignificantpeoplebothinandoutsideanorganizationinorderto
securetheinformationanddevelopideasonhowtousetheinformationforusefulsocialpurposes.Theemphasisisonthefunctionalabilitiesinwhatevercontextthey
mayhaveoccurred.

Thetaskbankprovidestheactualtasksasapointofdepartureforthequestionsasked.Inthecaseofthecommunitydevelopmentofficer,akeytaskatthedata
functionallevelofInnovating(5A)is:

Review/rewriterefundingproposalsforcommunityprograms,drawingonpreexistingproposals,projectedchangesintheprogram,andfundingservicespecifications,relyingon
writingskillsandexperienceinpreparingproposalsinordertosecurecontinuedfundingforthespecifiedprogram.

ThistaskconvertstothefollowingBDinterviewquestion:

Question12.1

Describeanexperienceyouhavehadthatinvolvedputtingtogetheralotofinformationinresponsetoarequestforaproposal.Howdidyouapproachthetaskanddecidewhich
informationtoincludeandwhichtoexclude?Howwastheproposalreceived?Whatwasthefinaloutcome?

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TABLE12.2
ExampleofRatingScaleforScoringBDInterviewQuestions
AssessingDataFunctionalSkills
Score AccordingtoDepthofResponse
Drewonallrelevantinformation,includingpreexistingproposalsandfunding
requirements.Organizedandpresenteddatawithin(re)fundingproposalina
5
highlyeffectivemanner.Wassuccessfulinobtainingallofthefundingrequested
intheproposal.
4
Drewononlyrelevant,althoughincomplete,information.Organizedand
3 presenteddatawithin(re)fundingproposalinasatisfactory,butnotoutstanding
manner.Obtainedatleastmostofthefundsrequested.
2
Drewoninaccurate,orotherwiseinadequate,information.Datawaspoorly/
1 ineffectivelyorganizedandpresentedwithinthe(re)fundingproposal.Funding
wasrefused.

Thesequestionsaredesignedtoshowhowthecandidatedealswiththeanalysisandworkupofdata.Thescoringpoints,drawingontheperformancestandards
correspondingtothattask,wouldrelateto(a)theapparentthoroughnessofthedataconsidered,(b)thewaythedatawasorganizedandpresented,and(c)the
successoftheproposalingettingfunded.TheseperformancestandardscanbesummarizedintheratingscaleforQuestion12.1foundinTable12.2.

Thequestionsthatpertaintoconsulting(Level4APeoplescale)wouldbebasedontheFJAtasksthatareassignedtothatlevel.Forexample,considerthe
followingtaskforthecommunitydevelopmentofficer:
Presentinformationaboutservicesofferedbyagencytoagroup(e.g.,seniorcitizens,youth,personsinneedofenergyassistance)inresponsetodirectrequestsorrequests
madetoadministrativeheadsofagency,byphoneorletter,drawingonknowledgeoftheagency,itspersonnelandprograms,assembledmaterials(brochuresandthelike),and
assistancefromsupervisorsorspecialistsofparticularprograms,andrelyingoncommunicationandpresentationskillsinordertoinformrequestinggroup.

Asindicated,therequirementsofsuchataskare,"communicationandpresentationskills,"whichtranslatesinthisjobtotheabilitytodealandcommunicatewith
diversegroupsofpeopleinaninformedandsophisticatedway.Theinterviewerneedstoknowifthecandidatehashadexperienceorproclivitiesalongtheselines.
Thequestionsthatgeneratethedesiredinformationcouldbeasfollows:

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Question12.2

Tellmeaboutatimewhenyouwenttoauthoritiesorgatekeepersinordertogettheinformationnecessarytodoyourwork,forexample,specialistsandlibrarians.Whatwere
thosesources?Whatwastheinformationyouneeded?Didthisinvolvepersonalinterviewsand/orsimplyarrangementswithpeopletogetatthedata?Didyouobtainthe
requiredinformation?Howdidyouusethisinformationlater?

Question12.3

Describeatimewhenyoumadeapresentationtoagrouporconsultedwithpeers.Whatwasthenatureofthematerialyoupresentedorconsultedabout?Whatwerethe
organizationalorprofessionallevelsofthepeopleyoudealtwith?Whathappenedduringthepresentation?Whatwasthefinaloutcome?

Thesequestionsaredesignedtoseehowthecandidatehasadaptedtoandworkedwithpeople.Thescoringpointsinclude(a)thepreparationnecessarytohavean
effectivemeetingwithpeople,(b)theapparentchallengeinmakinganimpactontheaudience,and(c)thesuccessoftheinterpersonalcontact.Theratingscalefor
Question12.2basedontheseperformancestandardsisfoundinTable12.3.

Aswiththeinterviewquestionsforadaptiveskills,situationalquestionscanbeaskedasalternativestoBDquestionswhentheapplicantcannotdescribeapast
incidentinvolvingthebehaviortheinterviewerislookingfor.

TABLE12.3
ExampleofRatingScaleforScoringBDInterviewQuestions
AssessingPeopleFunctionalSkills
Score AccordingtoDepthofResponse
Preparedthoroughlyforupcomingmeeting.Obtainedallrequiredinformationina
timelymannerwithfullcooperationorpresented/consultedinahighlyeffectiveway
5
forthegivenaudience.Completedworkaheadofscheduleorreceivedhighlypositive
feedbackfromaudienceorothersonpresentation/consultingassignment.
4
Anticipatedproblemswithauthorities/gatekeepersorneedsofaudiencebeforehand.
Obtainednecessaryinformation,madeasatisfactorypresentation,orhadsatisfactory
3
consultation.Completedworkwithinthedeadlineandreceivedpositivefeedback
fromaudienceorothersonpresentation/consultingassignment.
2
Didnotpreparebeforehandformeeting,presentation,orconsultingassignment
("wingedit").Failedtopersuadeothersorhadanunsatisfactorypresentation/
1
consultingassignment.Didnotcompleteworkontimeorreceivedcomplaintson
communicationandpresentationskills.

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Thesequestionsandcorrespondingratingscalesaresimilartothesituationalquestionillustratingadaptiveskillsintheprevioussection.

ClosingtheInterview

Afterthequestionsassessingadaptiveandfunctionalskillsareasked,theinterviewmovesintoitsfinalphasewiththeintervieweraskingtheapplicantifheorshehas
furtherquestions.Applicantssometimesaskabouttheintentionbehindcertainquestionspresentedduringtheinterview.Inanswering,theinterviewerneedstoexplain
thatthequestionsoriginateintheworkorinthetrainingthenewworkerwillreceive.Theinterviewer,however,shouldavoidgivingawaytheanchorsontheinterview
ratingscales(applicantsmaydiscussthe"right"answeramongthemselves,andsounderminethevalidityoftheinterviewwhensubsequentlyused).Aftertellingthe
applicantwhenandhowheorshewillbeinformedofthefinalhiringdecision,theinterviewerthankstheapplicantandpolitelyshareswithhimorhermutualgood
byes.

MakingtheFinalHiringDecision

Aftertheapplicantleaves,theinterviewerreadstheinterviewnotesandtotalstheratingsonthequestions.Theinterviewershouldlookforconsistencybetweenthe
applicant'sattitudeattheopeningoftheinterviewandanswerstotheadaptiveskillquestions,forexample,anapplicantwhoasksaboutgrowthandchallengeinthe
jobislikelytodowelloninterviewquestionstappingintowillingnesstoexercisediscretion.

Whentestsareusedtoprescreenapplicantsforaninterviewshortlist,manyemployersrankapplicantstopdowninorderoftheirtotalstructuredinterviewscore.The
firstrankedapplicantismadethejobofferwiththesecondrankedapplicantheldinreserveincasethetopcandidaterefuses.Otheremployerssetaminimumcut
scoreontheinterviewandmakeanoffertothosecandidatesabovethecut.

TrainingInterviewers

Whenusedproperly,thestrengthoftheFJAinterviewistwofold:

Itavoidsstereotypingthejobapplicant.

Itpreventsintrusionofjobirrelevantinformation.

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However,extensiveinterviewtrainingandexperienceisneededinordertousetheFJAbasedbehavioraldescriptioninterviewproperly.TrainingfortheFJA
interviewfocusesonacquiringtheskillsneededtomeetthefollowingseveninterviewerresponsibilities(thesepointsaremodifiedfromanFJAinterviewtraining
programdesignedbyWhellyandCronshaw):

Establishandmaintainapositive,nonthreateningatmospherefortheinterview.

QuestionandprobeeffectivelyfollowingtheFJAinterviewquestions.

Useeffectivelisteningskills,focusespeciallyoncriticalincidentsindicatingsuperiororpoorperformance.

Displaysensitivitytowardtheapplicant,especiallywhendiscomfortisevident.

Keepnotesthataresupportiveofratings.

UnderstandthejobascontainedintheFJAtaskbankandtherationalefortheFJAinterviewbasedonthosejobrequirements.

Maintaincontrolovertheinterview,notrelinquishingittohighlyverbalandinterviewwisecandidates.

Iftwoormoreinterviewersworkasapanel,theyneedtodiscusstheirindividualratingsandreachconsensusonthemaftertheinterviewiscomplete.Theyalsoneed
trainingindiscussingandreachingconsensusoninterviewratings.FJAinterviewtrainingshouldalwaysincludeasubstantialpracticecomponentwherebyinterviewers
administerthequestionstoeachotherandexchangeconstructivefeedbacktoimprovetheirinterviewstyleandtechnique.

SummaryofSelectionInterviewing

Theinterviewtakesplaceafterstandardizedpsychologicalandperformancetestingiscompletedalthoughinmanysmallerorganizationstheinterviewistheonly
assessmentofthejobapplicant.ThepurposeoftheFJAinterviewistocompletetheholisticpictureoftheapplicantthatemergedwithselectiontesting.Wherethe
interviewistheonlyselectionpredictor,itpaintsapictureoftheapplicant'scapabilitiesintheareasofadaptiveandfunctionalskill.Itsproperuserequires
considerableinterviewerskill,buttheFJAinterviewhastheadvantageofhavingtheFJAtaskbankasapointofdeparturetokeepbothinterviewerandapplicant
focusedonthejobrequirements.TheFJAinterviewcancommunicateapositiveimageaboutanorganization.Thereisanononsense,highquality,fudgingwillnot
getby

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aspecttothisapproachthatislikelytoleadtoagreaterfrequencyofjobofferacceptancesbythoseapplicantstheorganizationmostwantstoattract.Last,but
certainlynotleast,interviewstructuringofthetypeproposedinthischapterisshownbyresearchtoincreasetheefficiencyoftheinterviewforpredictingjobsuccess
oncetheapplicantishired.

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Chapter13
TrainingImprovingWorkerSkill
Someyearsago,anautomobileindustryexecutiveisreportedtohavesaidtohisstaff:"Wearenotinthebusinessofbuildingcars.Weareinthetransportation
business!"Presumably,thatstatementwasinspirational,designedtobroadenthevisionandaspirationsofhisworkforce,anditseemstohavehadthedesiredeffect.
Overthepastfewyearswehaveheardsimilaradjurationsmadetoworkersintheradiofield("youareinthecommunicationsbusiness")andinthebookfield("you
areintheinformationbusiness").Granted,amotivebehindtheseadjurationsistoincreasemarketshare.Itisalsoanappealtoseethebigpictureandinvolveworkers
beyondtheimmediateoutputsoftheirjobs.Involvingworkersinthismannerdrawsinthewholepersonandhisorherfullrangeofcapabilities,notjustthepartofthe
personservingasaninstrumentofproduction.

Asworkersbecomemoreintenselyinvolvedonthejob,theirskillsarechallengedandmanagementaswellasworkersmustmakeagreaterinvestmentintraining.By
providingtraining,managementcanmeettwofundamentalobjectives.Thefirstobjectiveistobringtheworkerandmanagerintoahealthy,productiverelationship.
Thisisnotachoice.Forgoodorbad,arelationshipisonthelineeitheritwillbecementedorsundered.Isthisnotasitshouldbeif,asmostorganizationsstate,
theirhumanresourcesareindeedtheirmostvaluableasset?Ultimately,thecombinedeffortsofmanagementandtheworkforcesatisfycustomersandcontributetothe
totalqualityrequiredtoserveandpleasethem.Management'sfundamentalroleintherelationshipneedstobeoverseeing,guiding,andfacilitatingthisdesirable
outcome.

Onceaworkerishiredandacommitmentmadebetweentheworkerandmanagement,arelationshipisentered.Trainingprovidestheprimaryvehicleforthe
relationshiptobeaffirmedordisconfirmed.Trustisonthe

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line.Ifbyitsactions,managementshowsconsiderationforworkers'jobcontextaswellasjobcontentneeds,thencompetencyandflexibilitynaturallyfollows.Thisis
nottosayithappensspontaneously,butiftherelationshipispositiveaccommodating,caring,respectful,andprofessionallyappropriateworkersnaturallyseekto
achievecompetenceandflexibilitybecauseitisintheirbestselfinteresttodoso.

Thusthefirstobjectiveofmanagementinprovidingtrainingistobeawareitisbuildingarelationship,andthisrelationshipcanberegardedastheinfrastructurewithin
whichallfutureproblemscanbedealtwithconstructively.Amongotherthings,thismeansthatalthoughtraineesandmanagementarelikelytomakemistakes,theycan
beabsorbedintheongoingactivityoftheorganization.Italsomeansthatfromtheveryinductionoftheworkerintotheorganization,sharingneedstooccur.Through
sharingandtrustapositiverelationshipiscreated.ThischaptershowshowFJAcanservetofacilitatethisrelationship.

Thesecondobjectiveoftrainingistohelptheworkercomeintoflow.Csikzentmihalyi(1997),inhisveryinsightfulthinkingandresearch,hasdescribedflowasa
psychologicallyrewardingandproductivestateoftotalinvolvementinanactivity,whetheronoroffthejob.InFJAterms,flowoccurswhenthewholeperson
becomesinvolvedonthejob,fullyandoptimallyutilizinghisorherTDPandadaptivepotentialsinachievingadesiredresult.Whenflowisachieved,thedoubtof
peopleisbuffetedandjostledbyorganizationalforcesbeyondtheircontrolandtheawkwardnessofselfconcernmeltsaway.Theflowofaconsciousnessengagedin
effortlessactionandcomfortabletaskmasteryreplacespeople'ssecondguessingoftheiradequacyforthetaskathand.InCzikzentmihalyi'swords,"Flowtendsto
occurwhenaperson'sskillsarefullyinvolvedinovercomingachallengethatisjustaboutmanageable"(1997,p.30).Flowisanoptimalstatehappeningalltoo
infrequentlyintheaverageperson'slife.Andflowisalltoofrequentlyfrustrated,ratherthanfacilitated,bythelearningsituationspeopleareputinto.

AfewmorewordsonflowareneededtofullydemonstratetheusefulnessofFJAinfacilitatingflowthroughtraining.Csikszentmihalyi(1997)pointedtotheconditions
thatmustexistbeforepeoplecancomeintoflow:

Aclearandconsistentsetofgoals.InFJA,thesegoalsarereferredtoasresultsandfollowfromtheactionsdescribedinthetaskstatements.LockeandLatham
(1990)intheirresearchongoalsettingfurtherspecifythatthesegoalsshouldbechallengingbutnotimpossibleifindividualperformanceistoimprove(oras
Csikszentmihalyisays,ifthepersonistoachieveflow).

Immediatefeedbacktoindividualsonhowtheyaredoingonthetask.FJAprovidesthisinformationwhenworkerscomparethemselvestotheper

 Page141

FIG.13.1.
Thequalityofexperienceasfunctionoftherelationship
betweenchallengesandskills.(FromM.Csikszentmihalyi,
1997,FindingFlow:ThePsychologyofEngagementWith
EverydayLife(p.31).Copyright1997.Reprintedwith
permission.

formancestandardsforthejobwhilelisteningtotheinputofcoworkers,supervisors,andsubordinates.

Flowoccurswhenapersonisworkingattheupperlimitsofhisorhercapabilitiesbutisnotovertaxed.Thatis,afinebalancemustbemaintainedbetween
thechallengeintheworkandtheskillsapersoncanbringtobearinmeetingthechallenge.ThisprincipleisillustratedinFig.13.1,reproducedfromCsikszentmihalyi's
work.Theoptimalemotionalstatefortheworker,andthestateofgreatestworkergrowthandproductivity,isachievedintheareaofthefigurelabeled"flow"where
bothchallengeandskillarehigh.Thegreatestgainsinworkerskillsfromtrainingoccurforboththeorganizationandtheworkerwhenthetrainingofworkerskillsis
stimulatedbyahighbutnotexcessivelevelofchallengeintroducedintotheworkplacebymanagement.

Relationshipandflowareflipsidesofthesamecoin.Amanagementthatsetsuptherightconditionsforatrustingrelationshipandsharedinterpretationofexperience
hascreatedconditionsthatcanleadtoflow.FJAprovidesapracticaltrainingtoolformakingtheconnectionbetweentheWorkerandWorkOrganization,theskill
andchallengeessentialtoachievingandmaintainingflow.

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InitialOrientationtotheWorkPlace

Theworkerhasbeenhired.Managementhasdeterminedtheworkerisqualifiedheorshehasthefunctionalandadaptiveskillstolearntodotheworkandfitinto
thecultureoftheorganizationbutflowhasyettooccur.Theworkerhasacceptedmanagement'svisionofopportunityandisreadytogiveitatry.Thefirst
opportunityformanagementtoinitiateandcementarelationshipandsettheconditionsforachievingflowcomesattheworker'sorientationtotheworkplace.What
waspresentedasavisionofopportunitywhenworkerandmanagementfirstmet,mustnowberelatedtotheindividualinthepoliciesandproceduresofthe
organization.Nowitistheworker'sturntodetermineifthisnewsituationwillmeethisorherneeds.

Theinitialorientationtakesaslongasnecessarytoconveytheorganization'sproductivitymission,goals,andvalues.Althoughthisisanongoingactivity,itinitiallycalls
forexplicitness.Variousmediaprint,audiovisual,video,orlecture/discussioncanbeusedforthispurpose,usuallyinsomefelicitouscombination.Themissionand
valuescanbestatedexplicitlyinanorganizationmanualissuedtoeachnewworker.Theycanalsobeprintedonattractivecharts,framed,andhungorposted
throughouttheorganization'spremises.AnexampleofaclearlywrittenmissionstatementisthatofStarbucksCoffeeCompanygiveninFigure13.2.

Benefitsneedtobedescribedinrelationtotheorganization'svalues.Itisbestifbenefitsflowfromtheorganization'svaluesratherthancoercionfromthegovernment
orcontractsresolvinglabormanagementrelations.Manyorganizationsinsisttheirmostvaluableassetistheirworkforce.Ifthisisso,howisitvalued?Forexample,
whatisthepaysystem?(Themarketpriceforlaborplaysanimportantroleinarrivingatpayscalesthisinformationneedstobeshared.)Whatistheroleofindividual
meritinachievingmorepay?Doesseniorityplayapartor,asseemstobethecasetoday,isthislessafactor?Doesincreasingexperienceindoingone'sjobin
effectbecomingmorevaluabletotheorganizationplayaroleinreceivinghigherpay?

Thisisagoodtimetohavealookattheorganization'sbalancesheetoverthepastseveralyears.Hasitsmarketpenetrationbeenincreasing,decreasing,orisitstatic?
Whataretheexpectationsintheshortandlongrun?Whatplanshavebeenmadeinconnectionwiththeseexpectations?Whatistheroleoftheworkforceinthese
plans,particularlyitsgrowthandtraining?Dospecifictechnologicaldevelopmentshavearoleinfutureexpectations?Whatisthecompetitionlike,andhowcan
workersbestequipthemselvestodealwiththecompetition?

 Page143

EstablishStarbucksasthepremierpurveyorofthefinestcoffeeintheworldwhilemaintainingouruncompromisingprinciplesaswegrow.Thefollowingsixguiding
principleswillhelpusmeasuretheappropriatenessofourdecisions:

1. Provideagreatworkenvironmentandtreateachotherwith
respectanddignity.
2.
Embracediversityasanessentialcomponentinthewaywedo
business.
3.
Applythehigheststandardsofexcellencetothepurchasing,
roastingandfreshdeliveryofourcoffee.
4.
Developenthusiasticallysatisfiedcustomersallofthetime.
5.
Contributepositivelytoourcommunitiesandourenvironment.
6.
Recognizethatprofitabilityisessentialtoourfuturesuccess.

FIG.13.2.
MissionstatementforStarbucksCoffeeCompany.FromS.Balaban,C.Keita,
D.Lunger,T.Lutz,&M.Wachiralapphaithoon(n.d.),StarbucksCoffee
Company[Online].Availableat
http://cpba.louisville.edu/bruce/cases/Starbucks/Starbucks.htm.
Reprintedwithpermission.

Aretherehealthcarebenefits?Howaretheypaidforbytheorganization,bytheworker,orboth?Arethesebenefitstransportableordohealthbenefitsceaseifthe
workerisseparatedfromtheorganization?Whatallowancesaremadeforsickness?Whataboutleaveincaseoffamilyillnessoremergencyneeds?Doesthe
organizationhaveorsponsoradaycarefacilityormakeanyallowancefordaycare?Areflexiblehoursaconsideration?Areemployeebenefitsonesizefitsalloris
thereflexibilityforemployeestochoose''cafeteriastyle''amongarangeofbenefitoptions?

Whatistheorganization'spolicywithregardtodisabilities?Howdoesitaccommodatepersonswithphysicaland/oremotionaldisabilitiesasrequiredbylaw?Doesit
haveanonsmokingenvironment?

Doestheorganizationgiveanysupporttogrowthanddevelopmentrelevanttotheworkassignmentandpursuedbytheindividualineducationalinstitutionsoutsidethe
organization?Howaretheseopportunitiesforgrowthaccessedintheorganization?

Doesithaveabenefitpolicywithregardtotemporaryandparttimeemployment?Doesparttimeemploymentleadtofulltimeemployment?Doestheorganization
contractoutworktoindependententrepreneursincompetitionwithitsworkforce?

Asfarasbeingvaluedasamemberoftheorganization'sworkforce,theseandrelatedquestionsarethebottomline.Anorganization'sre

 Page144

sponsetothepreviousconsiderationsshowswhetheranorganizationisreallyinterestedinworkersaswholepersonsandthereforewillingtosharetheirconcerns.
Fromthiscontextstemsthestimulusfortheeffort,responsibility,andresourcefulnessthatleadtoeffectiveperformanceandflexibilityonthepartoftheworker.

TrainingforCompetency

Theworker'sabilitytolearnandfollowSOPformhisorherbasisforcompetency.SOPsarethecrystallizationoftheorganization'sexperienceinachievingits
productivity.SOPsincludespecificationsfortheoutputthatrepresentthestandardstowhichtheorganizationisworking.Theyalsoincludethemethodologies
(machines,tools,equipment,workaids)thatcanbesthelpitachieveitsobjectives.LearningSOPsareattheheartofacquiringspecificcontentskills,theskills
necessarytoachievetheperformancestandardsthatenabletheorganizationtoeffectivelycompeteinthemarket.

Toonedegreeoranother,theorganizationstrivestobeuptodateinitsSOPssothatitcanbecompetitiveinthemarket.SOPsdevelopfromtheinteractionof
managementandworkersonadailybasisintheprocessofdealingwithproblemsofproductionandimplementationofpolicy.Problemsareinevitable.SOPshave
never,andcanneveraccountforallthecontingenciesthatariseinthenormalcourseofproductionactivity.Inasense,managementandworkersareinaconstant
stateofmutualtraininganddevelopment.Thus,bringingnewpersonsonboardinvolvesgivingthemarunningstartsotheycanmoreeasilyhoponanalreadymoving
vehicle.Howcanthisbestbedone?

Onewayistoassigntraineestoanexperiencedworkerwhoservesasacoachorsponsor.(Inthepastsupervisorshaveundertakenthisroleintoday'slaborforce
thisroleisfrequentlyassignedtoexperiencedworkersandisseenasawaytoenhancetheirjobs.)Suchcoachingmustbemadeanintegralpartoftheexperienced
worker'sjobalongwiththeexpectationthattheirproductivitywillbesloweddown.Thecoachbecomestheactiveelementinbuildingarelationship.Essentiallythe
relationshipisofthejourneyperson/apprenticeformandanexampleoflearningbydoing.Inadditiontoinstructingandguidingthetrainee,thecoachencouragesthe
traineetoaskforhelpandclarificationinordertoavoidcostlyerrors.Learningtodothejobrightisoftenacollaboration.

Thetrainee/coachrelationshipcanbeginbyusingtheFJAtaskbankasabasicreferencefortheworktobedoneandthechallengestobemet.Fromthetaskbank,
traineesobtainanideaofoutputs,knowledgesandresourcesinvolved,tasksperformed,functionalskillsthatcomeintoplay,andtheresultsoftheactivity.Thefocus
ofthetrainingprovidedbythe

 Page145

coachistheFJAtaskparadigm:"Todothistasktothesestandardsyouneedthistraining."Especiallyimportantforthecoachistopointouttothetraineeshowthe
prescriptiveelementsofthetaskscontributetothestandardsoftheoutputs.ThesearethemoreobjectiveaspectsoftheSOPs.Itisequallyimportantforthecoachto
callattentiontotheuseofdiscretioninsituationsthatcannotbecompletelyprescribed.Thisisoftenoverlooked.Theneedtousediscretionisespeciallychallenging
andallowsaworkerinflowtofunctionmoreasawholeperson,bringingexperienceandresourcefulnessintoplay.

Foralimitedperiodoftime,thetraineesareobservers,askingtheinevitablequestionsthatcomeupduringobservationofanactualperformance.Gradually,thecoach
allowstraineestotrytheirhandinperformingthetasks,helpingthemtostayfocusedonresults,providingcontinuousandimmediatefeedback,accommodating
awkwardnessandfailure,andallowingpracticetorefineperformance.Inthisway,therelationshipiscementedandtheworkermovestowardflow.

Thereisnoprecisewaytoprescribethetraineecoachrelationshipotherthanhavingthecoachserveasaresource,support,andpositivereinforcerofthetrainee.
Possibly,thecoach'sowninitiationintotheorganizationcanserveasamodelfortheroleheorsheisaskedtoperform.Trainingtobecomeacoachandadditional
compensationarereasonableincentivesforanindividualtotakeontheworkofcoaching.

Anotherapproachtotheinductionofthetraineeintotheorganizationisassignmenttoateamengagedincarryingoutaspecificobjective.Thetraineecancomeunder
thewingofasingleteammemberactingasacoachorcanberotatedsystematicallyamongtheteammembersamatterfortheteamtodecide.Ineithercase,the
traineeonceagainisrequiredtolearnbydoingademystificationprocesswherebythetraineegraduallyseeshowallthepiecesinthepuzzle(allthetasksinthetask
bank)areputtogethertoproducetheoutputsthatachievetheorganizationalobjectives.Asapartofthisprocess,thetraineegetsaclearerpictureoftheresultsheor
sheistoachieveandlearnswheretolookandtoaskforthefeedbackneededtostayontarget.Hereagaintheemphasisisoncollaborationonrelationshipand
thepossibilityofachievingflowasamemberofateamperformingachallengingassignment.

OngoingTrainingandDevelopment

Afterabriefperiodof"gettingtheirfeetwet,"doingsomethingswellandothersnotsowell,newworkersmayneedadditionaltraininginspecificcontentskillsthat
neitheracoachnorateamcanhandleinthenormalcourseofoperations.Theworkermayneedadditionalknowledgeandskill

 Page146

practicetobefullyfunctionalandtomovetowardflowinachallengingsituation.UseoftheFJAtaskbankcanpinpointthisneed.Workerscancheckoffthe
particularknowledgesandskillsforwhichtheyneedmoretrainingeitheronthejoborinanoffthejobclassroom.Figure13.3showssuchachecklistbyfield
serviceengineersworkinginmedicalelectronics.(Thenumbersinthistablerepresenttheresponsesofafocusgroupofsixjobincumbenttoeachitemintheneeds
analysischecklist.)Thetrainingneedisidentifiednotonlyasasubjectareabutalsoinrelationtotheparticulartasksinwhichthosesubjectsareinvolved.Inthis
situationthetaskbankservesadualpurpose:(a)asaneedsanalysisforsubjectsthatneedtobetaught,and(b)asanindexoftasksthesubjectsmustcarryout.
Duringtrainingrealisticpracticeexercisescantaketheformofthetasksthatincorporatetherequisiteknowledgeandskills.

WhichSkillscanbeLearnedThroughTraining?

Notallskillsareacquiredinthesamewayandnotallskillsareamenabletotraining.Thismustbeunderstoodinordertomostefficientlyandeffectivelyusetraining
andeducationalresources.Trainingalonewillnotproducethesoughtafterflowsomeofthenecessaryskillsmustbepresentatthetimeapersonishired.
Unfortunately,thewelterofterminologyrelatingtoskillshasonlyaddedtotheconfusionoverskillacquisition.Itisnowonderthateducatorsareconfusedwhen
confrontedwithterminologysuchascrossfunctionalskills,globalobjectives,globalcompetencies,transferableskills,broadgoals,generalgoals,basicskills,generic
skills,enablers,WorkKeys,andSCANSoutcomes.Surelyasharperfocusonwhatismeantbyskillscanleadtoanunderstandingofwhichskillscanbestbetaught
andwhen,where,andhow.

FJAcallsattentiontothreetypesofskillsassimultaneouslyinvolvedinholisticperformance(totalqualityperformance):functionalskills,specificcontentskills,and
adaptiveskills.Ifflowistobeachieved,theseskills(whichrepresentthegamutofskillsrequiredonthejob)mustbecombinedsmoothly,holistically,andcompetently
inresponsetosomesubstantialworkchallenge.Recognitionthattheseskillsarelearned/acquiredunderdifferentcircumstancesiscrucialforfacilitatingthetraining
conditionsleadingtoflow.

Functionalskills(crossfunctionalskills,genericskills,basicskills,coreabilities,globalcompetencies)arethosecompetenciesperformedonlevelsfromsimpletocomplexin
relationtotheTDPinourenvironment.Theyareacquiredfrombirthinthenaturalcourseofeventsand

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PleasereviewtheKnowledgeandSkills/Abilitieslistsonthisandthenextpage(s)andcheck( )appropriatespacesaccordingtowhereyouarewitheachitem
expressedatthetopofeachcolumn.Ifforanyitemyouwouldlikeadditionaltraining,indicatewhetheryourpreferencewouldbeforformal,onthejobtraining,or
both.

Feel Likemore Informal(on
Formal
adequate/competent training thejob)Job
(workshop)
inthesubject nevertheless selfstudy
1.Electronics:Theory
3* 1 2

2.XRayEquipment:Imaging 3 1 2
Expertise

3.Mechanics,Optics,Physics:
astheyrelatetoImaging
Equipment 4 2 1

4.Electricity:Powersystems
linkagewithImagingSystems 4 2 3

5.Clinicalapplications
(capabilitiesofequipment)as
theyrelatetoanatomyand
physiologyunderstanding
limitationsofequipment 2 2


Feel Likemore Informal(on
Formal
adequate/competent training thejob)Job
(workshop)
inthesubject nevertheless selfstudy

1.Zeroinginontechnical
problems:drawingontechnical
sophisticationtodealwith
unknown:assessingandlocating
problemsinXRayequipment 4 2

2.Troubleshootfamiliar
equipmentfollowthroughon
alternativepathsskilleduseof
testequipment 1 1 1

3.Organizingworksituationset
prioritiesarrange/scheduletime
keepthingsorganized,
systematic 1 2

4.Dealwithseveralthings
(elementsofaproblemormore
thanoneoutput)atthesame
timeparallelprocessing 1 1 1

5.CommunicationSkills:Oral
(speaking)writing:Adapt
communicationstosituations
andpersonsaddressed 2 1 2

FIG.13.3.
Samplepageofneedsanalysischecklistforfieldserviceengineers.

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laterdevelopedthroughschoolinginbasic,generalsubjectssuchaslanguageandmathandactivitiessuchassports

Specificcontentskills(specificskills,specificcompetencies,specificobjectives)arethosecompetenciesacquiredtomasterspecificsubjectsand/orworkproceduresinorderto
meet/fulfillthestandardsofthedisciplinesand/ororganizationsthatpeopleproposetoserve.Specificcontentskillsinvolvetheapplicationoffunctionalandadaptiveskillsand
areacquiredinspecificpracticeorjobworkersituations,orfrequently,intechnicaleducationcourses.

Adaptiveskills(transferableskills,gettingalongskills)arethosecompetenciesthatenablepeopletomanagethemselvesinrelationtoconformityandchangeandareelicitedas
responsestopersonsandenvironments.Theyreflecttemperamentandpersonalityasrepresentedbyawillingnesstoengagewith,reactto,andaccommodatecontextual
situationsandareexpressedasbehavioralstyles.Theyareacquiredsubconsciouslyduringallformsoflifeexperienceandareextremelydifficulttoteachortraininacognitive
manner.

Manyemployersfeeltheyshouldnothavetotrainemployeesexceptinspecificcontentskills.Theseemployerswouldliketobelievetheirhiringproceduresare
perceptiveenoughtoselectpersonswiththeappropriatefunctionalandadaptiveskills,personsabletolearnwhatemployershavetoteachandwhocanadapttothe
conditionsprovided.Theeducationalsystemtheschoolsfacethesameproblematearlierstagesinpeople'slives.Schoolstooexpectstudentstohavethelevelof
functionalskillsappropriatetotheirageandstageofdevelopmentplustheadaptiveskillsusuallyacquiredinthehomeenvironmentwillingnesstobepunctual,listen,
payattention,respectauthority,practicecourtesy,exerciseimpulsecontrol,performassignmentssotheycanacquirethefunctionalandspecificsubjectskillsbeing
taught.

Thisisprobablywhatthereportofanindependentresearchandeducationalorganizationwasreferringtowhenitasserted,"schoolstransmitimportantmessages
aboutwhatisandisnotacceptablebehaviorthroughan`invisiblecurriculum'"(CommitteeforEconomicDevelopment[CED],1985,p.20).Thecommitteeargued:
"Schoolsthatdevelopandreinforcegoodhabits,sharedvalues,andhighstandardsofbehavioraremostlikelytoproducegraduateswhosucceedinhighereducation
andwork."Theyurgedschoolsandteachers"toinstitutepoliciesandpracticesthatarespecificallydesignedtoencourageselfdiscipline,reliability,perseverance,and
otherpositivetraits"(p.20).

TheskillsButler(authorofCEDreport)mentionsareadaptiveskills,andheiscorrectincallingthem"aninvisiblecurriculum."Theyareasinvisibleaswateristothe
fishthatswiminit.Beforeschoolscanteachtheir

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subjectmatter,theymusthaveanenvironment,aninfrastructure,inwhichstudentsarewillingtolearn.Schoolsmustcreateanambienceinwhichselfdiscipline,
responsibility,andselfreliancearenatural.Schoolcurriculamustbeembeddedincontextualsituationsthatrequirethesetraits,andfacultybehaviormustprovide
positivereinforcementfortheirappropriateexpression.Thismeansthatschoolfacultymustmeetthechildrenhalfway,benurturingnotpunitive,caringnotharsh.
Schoolscannotteachthesetraitstheycanonlymakestudentsawareoftheirimportance,drawthemoutoftheireverydaybehavior,andreinforcethem.

InanFJAfocusgroup,adaptiveskillsdonotcomeupdirectly.Theyalmostalwayscomeupindirectlyinresponsetothelastquestion,"Whatperformancestandards
doyouworktoachieve,bothyourownandthoseoftheorganization?"Probablythereasontheycomeupinthisdiscussionisthatmeetingstandardsisamatterof
willingness.Thekindsofadjustmentsandadaptationspeoplegrudginglyorwillinglymakeinthejobworkersituationhelpdefinepeople'spersonalstyle.

Adaptiveskillsaredeepseatedinthepersonalityoftheindividual.Morethananyotherskillstheyareintegralandreflectbehavioralstyles.Morethananyotherskills
theymovewiththeindividualandarerepresentedintheworker'slifestyleandadjustmenttoaworksituation.Oftenanindividualwillmakefundamentaldecisions,for
example,tostayonorleaveajob,onthebasisofadaptiveskills.Itbehoovesmanagementtoavoidbeingoveroptimisticaboutthepossibilityoftrainingadaptive
skills.Adaptiveskillsdevelopoveralongtimeperiodandinresponsetogenerallifeexperiencesinwhichtheorganizationcan,andshould,playonlyitslimitedpart.
Whenexaminedfromtheperspectiveofflow,itisclearthattheessentialadaptiveskillsmustbeinplaceforaworkertoachievetheflowstatetalkedaboutby
Csikszentmihalyi(1975,1997).Withouttheseessentialadaptiveskills,workerslackthebasicwillingnessneededtotacklechallenginggoalsandtostretchtheirskill
setintonewdomains.Anappreciationoftheroleofadaptiveskillscanhelptheorganizationbemorerealisticaboutwhatitcanandcannotexpectasreturnsfora
givenamountoftimeandmoneyitputsintotraining.

TrainingandExperience

Traininginaparticulardisciplineisthebeginningofexperience.Experiencehastwoaspects.Thefirstaspectistheapplicationoftriedandtrueprocedurestodeal
witheverydayproblemsoccurringaspartofadiscipline.Thefirstaspectgivesworkerstheopportunitytobuildupadatabase,whichcanbesharedwithother
workersinthefield.Thesecondaspectdealswithindividualsolutionstoproblemsnotcoveredbyexisting

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organizationalprocedures.Thesearesituationsinwhichworkershavetousediscretioninplaceof,ortomodify,SOP.Intheseinstances,workersmayhaveanother
allytosupporttheirpersonaljudgment,namelypeersorsupervisors.

Throughexperienceinasupportivetrainingenvironmentwithchallenginggoals,workersbuildselfconfidence,afeelingofmastery,andselfesteemandtheymove
towardflow.Asupportiveenvironmentembracesanopenness,atoleranceforfailureanditsroleinthelearningprocess,particularlyintheearlystagesofjoblearning.
Italsoprovidesaclearpictureoftheresultsrequiredonthejobandconstantfeedbackastohowthetraineeisdoing.Trainingprovidestheknowledgeandskillto
performassignmentsusingtheappropriatemixofprescriptionanddiscretion.Experienceprovidestheaddedconfidencetousepersonaljudgmentinmovingbeyond
SOPstodealwithuniqueeventsintheworkplaceforwhichgeneralizedruleshavenotyetbeendeveloped.

InterpretingPerformanceStandardsforTrainingDesign

Settingclearandunambiguousgoals(calledresultsattheworkerlevel)iscrucialiftheworkeristogetthemostoutoftrainingandhaveachanceofachievingflowon
thejob.Thetaskbankisabasictooltowhichworkersandcoachescanreferforthedesiredresults.Thebasicquestiontheymustalwayskeepinmindwhenusing
thetaskbankis,"Whattrainingisneededtoperformthistasktothesestandards?"Iftotalqualityandindividualworkerflowistoresult,everyoneinvolvedmustfocus
onandunderstandwithunwaveringclaritytheperformancestandardsassociatedwiththetasksinthetaskbank.Someorganizationsmonitorworkersonacontinuous
basis(e.g.,supervisorslistenintooperatorshandlingtelephoneinquiries).Theycanbestusetheresultingperformanceinformationbyprovidingnonpunitivefeedback
andbycoachingworkerstohelpthemdotheirjobsbetter.Theoverridingprincipleisthatwhenworkersknowthestandards,theycanjudgeforthemselvesthe
adequacyoftheirperformanceandmakenecessaryadjustments.

Throughitstrainingandsupervisorystructure,theworkdoingsystemorganizationoragencycanensurethattheresultsofthetasksperformedareinfact
contributingtoitsobjectivesandgoals.Theoretically,alltasksperformedinanorganizationshouldbeclearlyunderstoodandcontributetotheorganization's
objectives.However,unlesstheexpectedresultsofthetasksandtheirrespectiveperformancestandardsarespecifiedduringtrainingoratthetimetheyareassigned,
workerswillhaveadifficulttimegivingtheorganizationwhatitwants.Clarificationofresultsand

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standardsismadeeasieriftheemployerhelpstheworkersdistinguishbetweentheprescriptiveanddiscretionaryelementsoftheirtasksduringtraining.

Performancestandardsareoftwotypes:descriptiveandquantifiable.Descriptivestandardsaregenerallynonspecificandsubjectiveforexample,"pleasetypethis
letterasquicklyaspossible,""bereasonablyaccurateincheckingthesefigures,""beascompleteaspossibleincollectingtheinformation,"''don'tspendtoomuchtime
incompilingthisreport."Theyareineffectdiscretionaryinstructions.Theytelltheworkeringeneraltermswhatistobeachieved,buttheworkermustprovidehisor
herowninterpretationofwhatthemanagermeansby''asquicklyaspossible,""reasonablyaccurate,""don'tspendtoomuchtime."

Newworkersintrainingcouldbequiteuncomfortablewithsuchstandards.Withexperience,workersinthissituationbecomefamiliarwiththestandardsexpected,
and,infact,becomeconfidentenoughintheirabilitiestoimposetheirowndiscretionaryjudgments.Unfortunately,workersaretoooftencalledtoaccountwhentheir
personaljudgmentcallsareunsatisfactorywhile,atthesametime,theygounrecognizedandunacknowledgedwhentheydopreciselywhatwasexpected.Thisis
boundtounderminebothselfesteemandselfconfidenceandworkerswillbeunwillingtotakerisksorundertakehigherlevelsofchallengeduetotheanticipationof
negativeconsequencesforfailure.Ifworkersareunwillingtotakerisksortackleworkchallenges,theywillexerciseonlytheminimumofworkerdiscretionandtotal
qualitywillbeimpossible.

Quantifiablestandardsareprescriptiveperformancecriteriathatrequirelittleifanyinterpretation.Theyusuallytaketheformofnumericalorcategoricalstatements,
e.g.,"pleasehavethislettertypedby5p.m.""pleasedoublecheckthesefigurestoensuretherearenoerrors,""havethisreportcompiledbynextMondayatnoon."
Becausetheyareobjective,theyexplicitlycommunicatethestandardsbywhichtheworker'sperformancewillbeassessedonthejob.Presumablythestandardshave
beenderiveddirectlyfromtheobjectivesanddesiredambiencefortheorganization.

TaskstatementspreparedbyusingtheFJAtechniqueprovideabasisfordeterminingthestandardsofsuccessfulperformance.Forexample,takethetaskstatement
usedpreviously:
Askclientquestions,listentoresponses,andwriteanswersonstandardintakeform,followingaSOPwithsomeleewayintheorderinwhichquestionsareasked,drawingonthe
organization'sproceduresandtrainingandrelyingonskillinconductingastructuredinterviewinordertorecordbasicidentifyinginformation.

Theperformancestandardstoserveastargetsfortrainingonthistask(aswellascriteriaforevaluatingtheirperformanceonthejob)mightbe:

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DescriptiveStandards

Writesanswerslegibly.

Listenscarefullytoclient'sanswersandrecordsresponsesaccurately.

Flexibleinchangingsequenceofquestionstomeetuniquesituationsorproblems.

QuantifiableStandards

Asksallrequiredquestionsofclient(form100%complete).

OnaveragecompletesXnumberofformsperday.

NomorethanXcomplaintsfromclientspermonthaboutmannerduringtheinterview.

Notethatthestandardsareessentiallyacommonsenseconversionoftheexplicitcontentofthetaskstatementandtheworkerfunctionlevelsassignedearlier.In
addition,theperformancestandardsreflecttheorientationmeasure.RecallthatthetaskunderconsiderationwasorientedtowardData:copyingat50%,andPeople:
exchanginginformationat40%.InvolvementwithThingswasminimal:handlingat10%.Theseorientationmeasuresindicatethereshouldbeanemphasisonthe
standardsassociatedwithdatafunctioningandonlyslightlylessemphasisonstandardsassociatedwiththeworker'sinvolvementwithpeople.TheThingsfunctionis
notimportantenoughinthistasktowarrantspecificstandards.

Thecoachandworkertraineemustthenask:Whatdoesthisworkerneedtoknow,andwhatskillsdoesheorsheneedtohavetoperformthetasksoftheir
assignmentsaccordingtothestandardsindicated?How,where,andunderwhatconditionsarethoseknowledgesandskillsacquired?Oftenexistingjobdescriptions
aregrosslyinadequatetoanswerthefirstquestionmakingitverydifficulttoprovidesatisfactorysolutionstothesecondquestion.Inaveryfundamentalsense,thetask
statementsofFJAareuniquelydesignedtoanswerthatquestionforworkersandtheirtrainers.Functionallevelsandorientationreasoning,mathandlanguagelevels
prescribedanddiscretionarylevelsandperformancestandardsprovidetheinformationnecessarytodescribeboththefunctionalandspecificcontenttrainingneeded
toperformthetask.

WhatDoFunctionalandSpecificContentSkillTrainingMean?

FunctionalskillsrefertothosecompetenciesthatenableanindividualtorelatetoTDP(orientation)insomecombinationaccordingtotheirpersonalpreferencesand
tosomedegreeofcomplexityappropriatetotheirabilities

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(level).Theyincludeskillsliketendingoroperatingmachinescomparingcompiling,oranalyzingdataandexchanginginformation,consulting,ornegotiatingwith
people.Theseskillsarenormallyacquiredineducational,training,andavocationalpursuitsandreinforcedinspecificactivitysituationssuchasschooling,work,and/or
play.

Specificcontentskillsrefertothosecompetenciesthatenableanindividualtoperformaspecificjobaccordingtothestandardsrequiredtosatisfythemarket.These
skillsarenormallyacquiredinanadvancedtechnicaltrainingschoolorinstitute,inextensiveonthejobexperience,oronaspecificjob.Theseskillsareasnumerous
asthespecificproductsorservicesthattheyproduceorthestandardsandconditionsestablishedbyemployersunderwhichtheyareexercised.

Thereasonforthedistinctionbetweenthetwotypesofskillsbecomesapparentfromtheirdefinitions.Theyareacquiredatdifferenttimesandunderdifferent
conditions,andtoooftentheappropriatetimeandplaceforprovidingoneortheotherisconfused.Theconfusionbeginswiththesimplefactthatfunctionalskill
traininginschoolsmusthavesomespecificcontent,andspecificcontenttraininginjobsituationsmustdrawonfunctionalpotential.Functionalskillshaveabroader
applicationthanspecificcontentskillsandaremorelikelytobetransferablefromonejobsituationtoanother.

Usingtheexampletask,functionalandspecificcontentskillscanbeidentifiedasfollows:
Functionalskillcontentis:

Howtocopyresponsesofclientinanswertoquestions.

Howtoaskquestionsandlistentoresponsesofclientinanoninvestigatorymanner.

When,how,andwhytovarythesequenceofquestionstomeetspecificproblems,forexample,hostility,reticence.

Specificskillcontentis:

Meetingtheperformancestandardforthetaskresultandrelatingittotheagencyobjective.

Fulfillingagencyguidelinesforinterviewingclients.

Usingtheagency'sstandardintakeform.

Thepreviousderivationsoffunctionalandspecificcontentskillsforthetaskunderconsiderationfollowquitenaturallyfromthecontentofthetaskstatement.

Withthetaskbankinhand,includingperformancestandardsandtrainingcontent,workersandtheircoachescantogetherplantrainingexperi

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encesinthemosteffectiveorderandatthemostauspicioustimes.Asonetaskismastered,itcanbelinkedthroughtrainingwithotherrelatedtaskswiththegoalof
acquiringaseamlessandskilledperformanceofthewholetasksequence.Asthelargerandlargerpiecesofthejobfallintoplacethroughlearningandpractice,the
trainee'sgrowingfeelingsofcompetencyandesteemarevalidatedandtherelationshipbetweenworkerandorganizationisstrengthenedandaffirmed.Ifallgoeswell,
theworkermayeventuallyachievetheflowstatewiththehighestpossiblelevelsofworkinvolvement,satisfaction,andproductivity.

FittingitallTogether

Moreandmoreinourcomplexsociety,individualsareadvisedtotakechargeoftheirownfate,whetheritbehealthmaintenance,securityforoldage,orthe
educationoftheirchildren.Partofthereasonforsuchadvicestemsfromthelossofindependenceandresponsibilitypeopleexperiencewhenthesefunctionsare
delegatedtospecialists.Thesespecialistscannotseethewholepersonandhowdifferentaspectsofawholepersoninteractwithoneanotherandaffectdecisionsthat
needtobemade.Peopleneedpracticaltoolstobeabletosortthroughtheirskillsetsandtailorselfdevelopmentprogramstomeetthechallengesofamore
competitivejobmarket.Inaddition,manypeopleseekandexpectthesatisfactionandmeaningintheirworkthatisrepresentedbytheflowexperience.

Trainingthuspresentsachallengebothtotheindividualandtomanagement.FortheHRmanagerthequestionis:HowcanIbestusemytrainingresourcesto
continuouslyimproveproductivityandattaintotalquality?Fortheworkerthequestionsare:HowcanItellwhattrainingIneedtomakemaximumuseofmypersonal
resourcestocontributetototalquality?Howdoesthetrainingcontributetomyoverallpersonalgrowth?Withintheworkorganizationcontextthesearequestions
concerningthedynamicrelationshipbetweentheWork,Worker,andWorkOrganizationinaworkdoingsystem.Withinthesocialcontextthesequestionsare
holisticinnature,concernedwiththetotalinvolvementoftheindividual.Onlyifmanagersandworkersestablishandmaintainarelationshiptoactinconcerttoaddress
thesequestionswhilesettingtheconditionsthatfacilitateflowcantheneedsofbothbefullymet.FJAhelpsinthetrainingeffortonallcounts.

SummaryofTraining

Trainingismuchmorethanatechnicalexercisetoimpartknowledgeandskilltotheworker.Itisfirstandforemostapointofcontactamonga

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worker'sneedtogrow,tofeelcapable,toberespectedforwhatheorshecando,andmanagement'sneedforproductivity.IftheFJAtaskbankispresentatthat
pointofcontact,itcanprovideasharedinterpretationandunderstandingofwhattrainingisrequiredaswellashowandwhenthattrainingcanbebestdelivered.The
organizationthenmakestheinvestmentintrainingrequiredforworkercompetency.Inreturn,theworkerbringstheflexibilityandwillingnesstoapplythesenewly
acquiredcompetenciestotheinevitableproblemsandchallengesonthejob.Apartnershipdevelopsthat,ifnurturedthroughthewordsanddeedsofmanagement,
furtherreinforcesthetrustthatisrequiredforaqualityproductorservice.

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Chapter14
PerformanceAppraisalAcknowledgingWorkerContributions
AcknowledgmentandevaluationofperformanceisthequintessentialHRoperation.Alltheprioroperationsrecruitment,selection,hiring,assignment,training
cometogethertobeappraisedfortheirresultsandefficacy.Forthistobeeffective,bothworkerandmanagerneedtobeopentooneanotherandtobein
relationshiptrustingofoneanotherandmutuallyconcernedfortheworkandtheorganization.Performanceappraisalislessatimeformakingjudgmentsandmorea
timeforworkersandmanagerstobeasourceofinformationtoeachotheraboutthespecificsofperformance.Ideally,itisalsoatimetomutuallysettheconditions
workersneedtoachieveflow.

Deming(1986)andotheradvocatesoftotalqualityhavedownplayedtheimportanceofperformanceappraisalorevenrecommendeddiscontinuingitintheinterests
ofpursuingtotalquality.Theypointtothemanydownsidesoftraditionalperformanceappraisalandstressthatsystemsfactors,ratherthandifferencesinskillor
individualworker'sefforts,aremostlyresponsibleforoutstandingqualityandproductivity.Webelievethatperformanceappraisal,usedproperly,hasavaluablerole
toplayintotalqualityorganizations.However,itmustbetreatedasanopportunitytoopendialoguebetweenworkersandmanagersastowhatisworkingandisnot
workingtoproducequalityperformance.Partlow(1996),inhisdescriptivestudyofhumanresourcespracticesatTQMhotels,describedtheapproachusedbyThe
WorthingtonHotel:
AttheWorthington,managersandemployeeseachcompleteseparateevaluationsofanemployee'squalityrelatedaccomplishments.Thetwoparties

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thengettogethertodiscussareasofagreementanddifference.Theemphasisisonsharinginformation,understandingtheotherperson'sexpectations,andsettingperformance
goalsforthefuture.(p.74)

Thisistherecommendedapproachtoperformanceappraisalandissupportedbyanampleresearchbasewhichshowsthattimely,accuratefeedbackhasamarked
positiveeffectonworkerproductivityandmotivation,especiallywhentheworkeriscommittedtoachievingchallenginggoals(Locke&Latham,1990).Ontheother
sideofthequalitycoin,managersmustbefullyopentofeedbackfromworkerspointingtosystemimprovementsneededfortotalquality,includingchangesin
management.

APrimeOpportunity

Fewactivitiesintheemploymentsystemofferanopportunitytodoasmuchgoodorasmuchharmasperformanceappraisal.Itisahighwireact.Nowhereina
manager'srelationswithhisorheremployeesareskillandpatienceputtoagreatertest,andnowhereelsecantrustandopennessbedisplayedmoreclearlyand
convincingly.Whenperformanceappraisalisdoneright,trustisreinforced,creativityencouraged,partnershipsforged,workproblemsresolved,andproductivity
enhanced.Whenitisdonewrong,whenbothworkerandmanagerfindthemselvesontrial,notonlyarepositiveresultsforsaken,butthenegativeonesespecially
distrustandlossofconfidenceintheorganizationtaketheirplace.

Whatcanbeexpectedfromperformanceappraisalwhenitisdoneright?Itistheopportunityto:

acknowledgeandrewardgoodwork(behavior,performance,qualityoutput)throughgrowthandpromotionopportunities,

determinewhethertheorganizationandtheworkersareworkingwelltogethertoachieveproductionobjectives,and

learnwhatcanbeimprovedtoadvancethecompetitivepositionoftheorganization,whichinvolvestakingahardlookatanorganization'sresourcecapabilities.

WhatisRequiredtoMeettheExpectationsofaPerformanceAppraisal?

Torealizeperformanceappraisalexpectations,theworkermanagerrelationshipshouldbecognizantofthefollowing:

1.Theworkerneedsreassurancethatheorsheisonthesamewavelengthasmanagementinmeetingthemissionobjectivesofthe

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organization.Thisreassuranceestablishesawelloftrustfortheworkerandmanagertodrawonandtoachieveameetingofmindsandspirit.

2.Theworkerneedsaclearstatementofwhatisexpectedthetasksthatneedtobeperformed,theresultsthatneedtobeachieved,andhowboth
contributetoobjectives.

3.Theworkerandmanagerneedtofeelconfidentthatallnecessaryresourcesoftheworkdoingsystemareavailableandaccessibletodealwithwork
problemsastheyoccur.

4.Theworkerandmanagerneedtohaveanongoing,openrelationshipsothatcontinuousfeedbackcanoccurconcerningworkandanyproblemsthatarise.

TheRoleofFJA

FJAprovidesthefundamentaltooltheFJAtaskbankfortheperformanceappraisalexpectationstoberealized.Thetaskbankisanobjectivebasisforlocating
anddiagnosingfailureswhenthingsgowrong,forassigningandfixingresponsibilityforproblems.Itistheultimatebedrockforasharedinterpretationofexperience
underlyingatrustingrelationship.Howisthesharedinterpretationofexperienceeffected?Throughfeedback.

Workersreceiveandusefeedbackonacontinuousbasiswhetherornotformalperformanceappraisalisinplace.Thisfeedbackcomesfromvarioussourcesthe
workitselffrommachinedialsorreadoutsfromthecommentsofcustomers,peers,andsupervisors.Oftenimmediate,sometimesminutebyminute,feedbackis
constantlymonitoredandusedbyworkerstomakefineadjustmentstopersonalandsystemperformanceinrealtime.Anexpertteacherwhowatchesstudent
classroomreactions(especiallynonverbalones)forsignsofboredomordisinterestatoneextremeorconfusionandanxietyattheotherprovidesimmediate,routine
feedbackbyadjustinghisorherteachingstyle.Heorshedrawsonhumortocapturetheattentionofwanderingmindsorslowsdownapresentationtoallow
strugglingstudentstocatchup.Csikszentmihalyi(1975)quotingsurgeons'commentsdescribedtheuseofimmediatefeedbackbysurgeonsundertakingoperations:

Eachmovementresultsinchangesthatarecleartointerpret.Thisvisualfeedbackcanbejudgedeitheratarawsensorylevelorataveryintellectualandtechnicalone:"Iknow
whatisrightnotonanintellectuallevel,butIsensethecorrectnessbythewaythingslook."Thankfully,yesitisusuallyclearwhatistherightthingtodo.Yougetafeeling
aboutitwhenthingsaren'tgoingwell.Therewillbesupplyproblemsandthetissueswillnotbe

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rejoinedproperly.Yourelyentirelyonprecise,immediatevisualfeedback....Whenyoulookdownthemicroscopetodoanoperation,it'slikecominghome.Youhaveprecise
visualfeedback.(p.134)

Feedbackthroughtheformalperformanceappraisalsystemismuchlessfrequentthantheroutineandsometimescontinuousfeedbackworkersgetinthecourseofa
normalday.Whereorganizationsuseformalappraisalstheydosoonce,oratmosttwice,ayear.Nevertheless,feedbackhasacrucialroletoplay.Formal
performanceappraisalfeedbackprovidesaframeofreferencefortheworker,encompassingtheentirejobandextendingintotherelevantaspectsoftheWork
Organization.Judgedatan"intellectualandtechnicallevel"(Csikszentmihalyi,1975),performanceappraisaldataisanextendedbuthighlyfocusedconversation
betweenworkerandmanager.Itprovidesaholisticandcomprehensivecontextwithinwhichtheworkercanweighandinterpretimmediatefeedbackreceivedfrom
varioussourceswhenbackonthejob.Performanceappraisalisamutualcreativeexerciseofpullingtogetherbitsandpiecesfromthejumbledstreamofthepreceding
months'performancefeedbackandputtingthemintothelargercontextofajob'sperformancestandards(expectations)andtheobjectives,goals,andpurposeofthe
workdoingsystem.Performanceappraisalisthetimefortheworkerandmanagertoseethewholeasgreaterthanthesumoftheparts,tointegrateideasand
information,tomakefullsenseoftheworkenterprisetheyshare.Itoffersanopportunitytofashionajointunderstandingoftheworksituationthatisintellectuallyand
aestheticallypleasingtoboth.

Peopleworkbestwhentheyfeelincontrolofanactivity,whentheirskillsmatchthechallengeoftheworktheyareperforming,whengoalsandfeedbackareclear
andunambiguous,andwhenthereisanorganizedsetofopportunitiesforaction(Csikszentmihalyi,1975).Aformalperformanceappraisalidentifieswhetherworkers
experiencetheseconditionsthatleadtoflow.Whentheseconditionsarepresent,workerscaninvestthemselvesfullyinthejobwithouthavingtosecondguess
management.Theycanworkwithfullconfidenceintheirabilitytogetthejobdonetothestandardsexpected.Whentheseconditionsarenotpresent,workersare
tentativeanduncertainaboutinvestingeffortortakingresponsibility.Thistentativenessworkstothedetrimentofbothworkergrowthandorganizationalproductivity.

TheRoleoftheTaskBankinPerformanceAppraisal

Whenpeoplereceivefeedbackthattheyhavefallenshortofexpectations(theirownormanagement's),theytendtodefendtheirintegrityandtheir

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positiveviewofthemselvesbyblamingothersorfactorsintheirenvironment.Conversely,peopletendtograbatcreditforsuccesswhentheyfeeltheireffortsare
beingoverlooked.Thesewaysofthinkingoftenplaythemselvesoutinperformanceappraisalwhereworkersfeelontrial.Withoutafairandimpartialframeof
referencetoworkfrom(i.e.,theFJAtaskbank),workerswhomustexplainpoorresultstoamanagertendtocitefactorsbeyondtheircontrolsuchasequipment
breakdown,materialshortage,orunpredictableproblems.Managerswhoidentifywithanddefendtheworkorganizationtendtoseethesystemasdeserving
accoladesforgoodworkaccomplishedandtheworkerasbeingatfaultforpoorwork.TheoryXassumptionsworkersarebasicallyunmotivatedtodoagoodjob
andareessentiallyholdingbackfromgivingtheirallalsoreinforcemanagers'viewofseeingworkersasresponsibleforpoorperformance.Thiskindofclimate
clearlybreaksdowntrustandpositiverelationshipsbetweenworkersandmanagement.

ConsiderhowtheperformanceappraisalproceedswhentheFJAtaskbankisavailable.ThefollowingtaskstatementfromthejobofXraysupportengineer(SE)in
medicalequipmentservicingprovidesanexample:
Giveonthejobtrainingtofieldengineers(FE)dependingonsupportneededorrequestedbythem,guidingtheFEthroughatroubleshootingoradjustmentprocedure,using
explanation,demonstration,andgraphicsappropriatetolevelofFE,drawingonreferencesinmanualortoschematicsandrelyingonexperienceandinterpersonalskillstocoach
andmodelappropriateapproachtocustomerinordertoenrich/enhanceknowledgeandskillofFE,bothtechnicalandpersonal.

Theperformancestandards,whicharebasicallydescriptive,applyingtothistaskare:
Standard1.FEsaresatisfiedwithboththeshortandlongtermeffectofthesupportreceivedbythemfromSEintermsof(a)theknowledgeandunderstandingimparted,(b)the
referencesgiven,and(c)thegraphicsreferredto.

Standard2.FEsaresatisfiedwiththemannerinwhichthesupportwasgivenandtheirabilitytoreplicatethemodelingshown,intheirapproachtothecustomer.

Essentially,answerstothreequestionsabouttheperformanceprovidedinthisinstanceneedtobeknown:

Doestheperformancemeetrequirements?

Wastheperformanceinadequate,thatis,NeedsHelp?

Diditgobeyondrequirements,thatis,wasOutstanding.

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Thesejudgmentscanbeexpressedona5pointscaleasfollows:

MeetsRequirements
NeedsHelp Outstanding
1
2 3 4 5

TherangeforMeetsRequirementsisquitebroad,from2to4,toaccommodatetheconsiderabledistancebetweenmeetingminimalstandardsofperformanceand
performinguptoalevelthatfallsjustshortofoutstanding.Withrespecttoonthejobtraining,aratingof2givenbyanFEmightindicatethatheorsheisonly
minimallysatisfiedwiththetrainingreceivedbutisnotyetreadytocomplaintomanagementabouttheSE'sperformance.Aratingof4mightmeanthattheFEiswell
satisfiedwiththetrainingbutnotquiteenoughtonominatetheSEtomanagementasoutstandinganddeservingofabonusorotheradditionalreward.Thepurposeof
theoutstandingratingistodiscoverhigherlevelsofexcellenceandtorewardthosewhocontributetothem.

Whomakestheperformancejudgmentinthisexample?Obviously,theFEs.FEsatisfactionwiththeassistancegivenisexpresseddirectlyonthereportoftheevent.
Ratingsof1(SENeedsHelporFEisdissatisfied)requirestheFEtowriteacriticalincidentdescribingaspecificexampleofthepoorperformance.Forexample,an
FEwhoratedanSEas1ontheperformancescaleforStandard2mightwritethefollowingcriticalincidenttoanchorthatrating:

AweekafterreceivingthetrainingfromtheSE,Iattemptedrepairsonacustomer'sXraymachineusingtheproceduretaughttomebytheSE.Itdidn'tworkandseveralpatient
appointmentswerecanceledwhileIcalledthefieldofficeforadditionalhelp.IlaterfoundoutthattheSEwhodemonstratedtherepairformeforgottomentionacriticalstepinthe
repaircycle.Wemaylosealargecustomeraccountasaresultofthismistake.

Similarlyaratingof5(SEisOutstandingorFEishighlysatisfied)requirestheFEtowriteacriticalincidenttodescribeaspecificexampleofoutstanding
performanceforexample,acriticalincidentforSEStandard2is:

IwascalledinonacrucialrepairofXrayequipmentintheemergencywardofaninnercityhospital.Thephysicianinchargewasveryimpatienttothepointwherehestoodover
mewhileIwasgettingtherepairdone.Luckily,IwasabletorememberMs.____'strainingdemonstrationtotheletter,andtherepairwasdonerightandcompletedfasterthan
anyoneexpected.Tomakeitevenbetter,thephysicianwrotemeacommendationletterandsentittomysupervisor!IowemuchofthecreditforthattomytrainingfromMs.
____.

AlthoughcriticalincidentsarewrittenfromthepointofviewoftheFE,therecipientoftheassistance,theyprovideconcretematerialforperformanceappraisal
discussionbetweentheworker(SE)andthemanager.

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Criticalincidentsalongwiththetaskbankprovidetheinformationneededbyaworkerandmanagertosortoutwhetherinherentcauses(attributabletotheWork
Organization)orassignablecauses(attributabletotheWorker)areresponsibleforthepoorperformanceillustratedinthefirstcriticalincident.Togetherthecritical
incidentandthetaskbankprovidedabasistotestaseriesofhypothesesaboutthesourceofthepoorperformance.Theleastcontentiousplacetostart(atleastfrom
aworker'spointofview)isinherentcause.ThetaskstatesthattheSEdrawsonreferencesinmanualsortoschematicswhenprovidingonthejobtrainingtotheFE.
TheworkerandmanagerreadoverthemanualandothertrainingmaterialstomakesuretheyarecompleteandaccurateintheareawheretheFEexperiencedthe
repairproblem.Iftheyarenot,asystemsexplanationforthepoorSEtrainingperformancecanbeidentifiedandmanagementmustcorrectthetechnicalmaterial
providedtotheSEs.Ifnoinherentcauseispresent,theworkerandmanagercanthenconsiderthepossibilityofanassignablecause.Tothisend,FJA(which
recognizesthesmoothinteractionofthethreekindsofskillsspecificcontent,functional,andadaptiveasabasisforcompetency)enablesthepinpointingof
assignablecausetodiagnosewhatcanbedoneaboutimprovingpoorworkerperformance.Theworkerandmanagercouldpursuethefollowingadditionalquestions,
afterhavingassuredthemselvesthatthemanualsandschematicsarecompleteandaccurate:

1.AreSpecificContentSkillsAdequate?ThemanageraskstheSEwhetherheorsheisfamiliarwiththesequenceofrepairstepsinthemanual.Ifnot,theremedy
topoorperformancemightbeassimpleashavingtheSEreviewtherepairmanualforthespecificmakeofequipment.

2.AreFunctionalSkillsAdequate?Toperformthetrainingtask,theSEmustfunctionatLevel4BonthePeoplescale(Instructing).Togethertheworkerand
managercanreviewhowthetrainingisconducted,itspaceandcontent,andtheuseofdemonstrationsandothertrainingaids.Iftheperformanceproblemis
attributabletolackofPeoplefunctionalskills,themanagermaybeabletoprovideadviceonhowtoconductmoreeffectiveonthejobtrainingorworkwiththeSE
forashorttimetoassisthimorherinprovidingtrainingtoindividualFEs.

3.AreAdaptiveSkillsAdequate?Eveniftheprevioustwoquestionsareansweredintheaffirmative,theSEmaynothavethewillingnesstodevotethenecessary
attentionandefforttoprovideonthejobtrainingtoFEs.TheSEmayhavethewrongtemperamenttoinstructothers(e.g.,isaperfectionistandimpatient)inwhich
caseanotherSEshouldprobablytakeoverthetrainingduties.OrtheSEmaybelievethatheorsheisnotrewardedforthetimeandeffortputintotraining.Ifso,this
bringstheworkerandmanagerbacktoinherentcause.Managementmayhavetomodifyitsbonusor

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incentiverewardsystemtoadequatelycompensateSEsfortheironthejobtrainingefforts.(Chap.16,RewardingWorkerPerformanceandGrowth,addresses
systemrewardsforworkercontributions.)

Ifthemanagerandworkeragreethatrequirementsoftheindicatedstandardshavebeenmet,thenFJAcanbeusedtofocusthediscussiononimprovingthe
performanceoftheentiresystem.

Wherebothworkerandmanageragreethattheworkerisperformingbeyondrequirements,andthecriticalincidentssupportthisfact,thentheworkerisinaposition
toadvisethemanageronhowthatlevelofperformancehasbeenachieved.Themanagercanthenaddthisknowledgetohisorherdiscussionswithotherworkersin
ordertoachieveahigherlevelofexcellence.
Example:Duringabrainstormingsession,maidsoftheBergstromHotelssuggestedtheycarryscrewdriversontheirhousekeepingcartsalongwiththeusualsheets,towels,
cleaners,andsuch.Nowwhentheyrunintoaproblemlikealoosetoiletseat,theyfixitonthespot,andtheydonothavetogothroughthecomplexroutineofcalling
maintenanceandslowingupcustomerservice.Thesameinitiativeisgrantedtodoormen.Doormenhavebeenprovidedwithasnowshoveltoclearsnowfromtheentryway,thus
makingguestreceptioneasier.ThisapproachfollowsfromtheBergstromprinciples:Employeescomefirst,givewhereyouget,andrepeatbusinesswillpaythebills.These
principlesleadtothefollowingpolicies:Anyoneworkingmorethan20hoursaweekgetshealthinsurance,a401(k)plan,paidvacations,andholidaypay.Inanindustrywhere
turnoveristypicallynear100%,theBergstromsreporttheirsislessthanhalfthat.TheBergstromchainwonthe1996WisconsinServiceBusinessoftheYearGrandPrize.
(SharmaJensen,1997,p.1)

TwoKindsofPerformanceStandards

TheFJAtaskbankandunderlyingconceptstogetherprovideaninfrastructureofinsightfulandpenetratingquestionsinthepursuitofquality.Butthatisnotenough
questionsmusthaveanswers.Andtheanswersmustbeashardnosedandspecificaspossible.Whereverpossibletheyneedtohavenumbersattachedtothem.And
whennumbersarenotavailablethequalitiesofproductorservicemustbevividlydescribedandclearlycommunicabletobeunderstood.Thus,FJAmakesuseof
numericalanddescriptivestandards.

Table14.1showshowthesestandardsarebestwrittentocommunicatewhatmanagementandworkerswantfromtheperformanceofataskorajob.Performance
standardsmustbecarefullywritten.Themeaningofadescriptivestandardwillrevolvearoundasingle,oratmosttwo,adverbs

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TABLE14.1
TwoKindsofPerformanceStandards
asappliedtoWorkerActionandTaskOutput
Standards WorkerAction TaskOutput
Descriptive
Canapplytowholesituation Adverboradverbialphrase. Adjectiveorphrase.
ortoaspecificaction.Broad, Example:assoonaspossible, Example:neat,correct,
allowsleewayin politely,sympathetically. includesallavailabledata.
interpretation.Consistsof
descriptivephrases,the
subjectofwhichmaybe
understood.
Numerical
Specific,objective, Speed,errors,commendations, Measuredbyhowmuch
prescriptive,limited.Allows andcomplaints.Toocostlyto outputcontributesto
littleleewayininterpretation. monitoronthejobtherefore, objective(time,money,
standardsfrequentlysetupon geography,manpower).
entryundersimulated Numberofrejects,
conditionswithassumptionthat performancespecifications,
behaviorwillcarryoverto dimensionsofaccuracy.
output.

oradjectives.Themeaningofanumericalstandardismoreselfevident.Inthecaseofnumericalstandards,itiseasiertoindicatedifferentperformanceexpectations
byraisingorloweringthenumericalcriteriacontainedinthenumericalstandards.Forexample,considerthefollowingpossibletaskperformancestandardsinthejob
ofhighschoolteacher.

Task:Lecture/talktostudents,answeringquestionsandguidingclassdiscussions,drawingonknowledgeofcoursecurriculum,contentarea,experience,andtrainingandrelying
oncommunication,presentation,andinterpersonalskills,inordertofacilitatethelearningofcoursecontentbystudents.

Descriptivestandardforworkeraction:

Speaksloudlyorspeaksdistinctly.

Descriptivestandardfortaskoutput:

Coversgreaterpartofrequiredcurriculum.

Numericalstandardforworkeraction:

Numberofwrittencomplaintsfromstudentsaboutlecturesornumberofcomplaintsfromstudentsaboutlectures.

Numericalstandardfortaskoutput:

95%ofstudentspassfinalexaminationor75%ofstudentspassfinalexamination.

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Thesearesamplesofpossiblestandardsthatmaybeavailabletogivetheteachertheguidanceneededtogettheworkdone.

BasicFJAThemesAppliedtoPerformanceAppraisal

TheFJAprocessofperformanceappraisalplaysoutagainstabackdropoftrustasbasictoaproductiveandwholesomework:
NorthwestAirlinessaysthattheonlyissueintheweekoldstrikebyits6,200pilotsispay.Thepilotscounterthatjobsecurityaswellasmoneyarethetwobighurdlesstanding
inthewayofasettlement.ButtherealissuethathasdividedthetwosidesleadingtothelongestairlinestrikesincemaintenanceworkersshutdownEasternAirlinesin1989
seemstobetrust.

''Eventhoughtherearesomesignificantissuesbetweenthem,''saidKitDarby,alongtimeUnitedAirlinespilotwhoisalsopresidentofAirInc.,acompanythathelpsplace
commercialpilotsinjobs,"theyarenotsignificantenoughtocauseastrike.Thetwosidesreallydon'ttrusteachother.Andinanatmosphereoftotaldistrust,youreallycan'tsell
anything."(Zuckerman,1998)

ContrastthisatmospherewiththatextantatMidwestExpressAirlines(developed11yearsagooutofthecorporateaviationdivisionofitsparentcompany,
KimberlyClarkCorp.,formerlyheadquartedinNeenah,Wisconsin,andnowbasedinDallas).TimHoeksema,presidentandCEOofMidwestExpress,which
ConsumerReportsandtheZagatAirlineSurveyrateasthebestairlineintheUnitedStates,hasthefollowingtosayregardingtrust.

Thereisamyththatanybodywho'sgoingtogetaheadatabigcompanyhastobeshadyorbendtherules.That'snottrueatKimberlyClark,wherethere'saverystrong
commitmenttovaluesandintegrity.Ifyoutreatpeopleinastraightforward,honest,ethicalwayyoudon'tcutcornersyoudon'tcheatyoudon'tpromisethatyou'lldeliver
somethingyoucan't,thenyou'llbuildpositivelongtermbusinessrelationships.("Airlinechief,"1995,p.15D)

However,formanytheconceptoftrustisconsideredlaughableandisillustratedbyarecentDilbertcartoonstrip.(Dilbert,ahugelypopularserializedcartoonin
majordailynewspapers,lampoonsmanagementfoiblesandhypocrisies.)InthefirstpanelofthestripthepointyhairedmanagerinformsAlice,anemployee,thather
performancemeetsexpectationsandshewillgeta2%raise.Aliceproteststhatshehasworked80hourseveryweek.Themanagerresponds,"Iexpectedthat."Alice
pointsoutthatthisyearshehasearnedthreepatentsthatwillmakethecompanymillions.Afterinitiallybeingcaughtoffguard("Really?Wow!"),themanagersays

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heexpectedthat,too.Alicethenattemptstoswaythemanagerbyremindinghimthatshedonatedbonemarrowtotheirbiggestcustomertwice.Towhichthe
managerrespondsthathenotedthisunder"attendanceproblem."ThelastpanelhasAliceherheadburiedinherarmscommiseratingwithtwocynicalandburned
outemployeeswhoregularlyinhabitthecartoonstrip.

Itwouldbeputtingone'sheadinthesandtodenythatthecrassnessrepresentedbythecartoonisacommonoccurrence.Workersarevulnerableandmanagerscan
exerttheirpowertoexploittheperformanceappraisaltotheiradvantage.Fortunately,however,theresearchliteraturesuggestsitispossibleforworkersand
managerstoworktogetherinafairandconstructivemannerintestinghypothesesaboutthesourcesofperformanceproblems.However,withouttrust,the
performanceappraisalbecomesamechanicalexercisewithoutspiritortheexcitementofmutualsharingandresolvingofworkproblemstogether.Theopportunityfor
achievingasharedinterpretationofexperienceislost,andwithit,probablythelongtermhealthoftheorganization.

Whentrustisestablished,fivebasicFJAthemesareoperativeintheperformanceappraisalprocess.Thesethemesareexpressedasfollows.
PerformanceAppraisalTheme1:PerformanceFeedbackMustReflecttheWorkerasaWholePerson

Manylaboreconomistsviewworkersasbundlesofutilitiescapabilities,experience,education,trainingthataresoldtotheemployeratthegoingrateinthelabormarket.
Otherstrytomeasurethehumancapitalthatpeoplebuildupastheybecometrainedandeducatedtotaketheirpartinthelabormarket.Althoughtheseviewsarenotnecessarily
wrong,theypaintanincompletepictureofpeopleatwork.Workersaremuchmorethaninterchangeablebundlesofutilitiesthatcanbesimplyandroutinelyremovedandreplaced
likewornpartsinacar.Eachworkerhasaconstellationofstrengthsandlimitations.Ifweakinonearea,aworkerneverthelesswillattempttocompensatethroughadaptive
strategiestomeettheperformancestandardsexpectedbymanagement.(Acarpartdoesnotmodifyitselftobetterfitthemechanicalsystemitisplacedin.)Peoplearevolitional
theymaketheirownchoices.Theydrawonandcombinetheirphysical,mental,andinterpersonalpotentialsholistically,invaryingdegrees,andininventivewaystoadjusttothe
worksystemandgetthejobdone.Ifamanagerconductingaperformanceappraisalunderstandsthis,theworkerwilllesslikelybetreatedasanotherpairofhandsforgettingthe
workdone.Itisalsomorelikelythemanagerwillbepreparedtodrawoutaworker'spotentialandcapabilities,assistingandsupportingthemintheprocessofintegration.

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PerformanceAppraisalTheme2:WorkerPerformanceMustBeSeenasaFunctionofBothJobContentandJobContext

FJAbasedperformanceappraisalbeginswiththetaskbankanditsperformancestandardsalongwithcriticalincidentsusedtodescribewhentheworkerneedshelporis
outstanding.Theseinformationsourcesemphasizejobcontent(knowledge,functionalskills,andability).However,theworkerandmanagermustalsodrawontheFJAmodelto
generatehypothesesabouttheeffectofjobcontextontheworker'sperformance.Questionsthatcouldberaisedaboutjobcontextinclude:

WithRegardtoEffort.Doworkconditionsrequireanundueamountofphysicalexertionorpsychologicalstressimposedoveralongperiodoftime,thusnegativelyaffecting
workerperformance?Doestheworkerneedtoconcentrateonacontinuousmonitoringtaskoveranextendedperiodthuscausingfatigueanderrorsinperformance?Are
theresystemconstraintsthatblockworkerperformancenomatterhowmucheffortisexpended?

WithRegardtoResponsibility.Dotheworkerandmanageragreeonthediscretionaryandprescriptivestandardsforthetaskscomprisingthejob?Ismanagementreadyto
backtheworkerifheorshemakesamistakewhenexercisingdiscretion?Isaddedresponsibilitybalancedbyaccommodationsfrommanagement?

WithRegardtoWorkConditions.Ismanagementfullyawareofphysicalconditionspresentonthejob(e.g.,excessiveheatorhumidity)incompatiblewiththebestworker
performance?Doesmanagementappreciatethedifferencesinsupervisorystylesacrosstheunitthataremoreorlessmotivatingforworkers?

PerformanceAppraisalTheme3:PerformanceAppraisalMustAcknowledgetheInteractionAmongWorker,Work,andWorkOrganization

Inonesense,FJAisamethodfordifferentiatingandassigningresponsibility.IthasalreadybeenpointedoutthatittakesasmoothdynamicamongWorker,Work,andtheWork
Organizationtogetworkdone.Eachofthesecomponentsinvolvesitsownprimaryresponsibilities:

theWorkerforintegratingandperfectingTDPfunctionalskills,andapplyingthemeffectivelytospecificworkcontentandinadaptingtotheworkenvironment.

theWorkOrganizationforprovidingthenecessaryresourcesandenvironmentaladaptationssothatworkcangetdoneefficientlyandwithaminimumofstress.

WorksodesignedandstructuredthattheWorkerandWorkOrganizationpotentialcancometogetherinthemostproductivewaypossibleforboth.

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Inperformanceappraisalthedifficulttaskfortheworkerandmanageristosortoutthoseaspectsofperformancedeterminedbytheworker'seffortsandthoseaspectsoverwhich
onlymanagementhascontrol.Worker'seffortsarelargelyrepresentedinThemes1and2.Themanager'seffortslieinrepresentingthepurpose,goals,objectives,and
resources/constraintsoftheorganization.Whenthisdivisionofresponsibilityisclear,theworkercanbetterseehisorhercontributiontotheoverallworksystem.Workersand
managersareintricatelyandunavoidablyinterdependent.Theymustworktogetherifthejobistobedoneright.

PerformanceAppraisalTheme4:WorkerPerformanceResultsFromtheInteractionoftheThreeKindsofSkills

Earlierinthischapter,thequestionsamanagercouldaskofafieldSEtoidentifyskillsneedingadditionalhelpwerepresented.Theexampleshowedthatallthreekindsofskills
(functional,specificcontent,andadaptive)interacttoachieveaholisticandsmoothperformance.TheSEmightbeperfectlyadequateinthePeoplefunctionalskillofInstructing,
butifheorshedoesnothavethespecificcontentknowledgeforrepairingparticularmodelsofmedicalequipment,thenthetaskcannotbeperformedproperly.Evenwiththe
specificcontentandfunctionalskillsinplace,adeficitinadaptiveskillabasicwillingnesstoputtheothertwotypesofskilltothetestinonthejobtrainingwilldegrade
workerperformance.Thedifferentskillsmutuallysupportorerodeworkerperformance.

Csikszentmihalyi(1975)describedtheoperationofthisfourthprincipleinhisstudyofsurgeons:

Skillmeansnotonlytechnicalcompetencebutemotional,managerial,andcognitiveabilitiesrequiredtostructurethestimulusfieldofsurgeryintoaflowactivityandto
operatewithinit.Itisprobablethatdropoutsfromsurgeryaretechnicallycompetentbutunabletoavoidanxietyorboredom.(p.128)

Aworker'sskillsmustbeonlineandcombinedattherighttimeandintherightmeasureifheorsheistoperformwellandfindsatisfactioninthework.

PerformanceAppraisalTheme5:TheEmployerMustMakeAccommodationsfortheEffectofSystemsonWorkerPerformance

Managementhasanobligationtohonestlyevaluateitsowncontributiontoworkerperformanceproblemsandtocooperatewithworkerstomaketheaccommodationsneededto
releasetheirfullpotential.Todolessblamesworkersforpoorperformancebydefault,withoutbotheringtoinvestthetimeandefforttoestablishobjectivelywheretheresponsi

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bilitylies.Blamingbydefaultcanonlyleadtofingerpointing,blamelaying,andmistrustbetweenworkersandmanagement.Ofcourse,accommodationisnotanewidea
legislation,includingtheADA,requiresemployerstoaccommodatethementallyandphysicallydisabled.

ASuggestedProcedureforFJAPerformanceAppraisal

TodojusticetotheseFJAthemes,performanceevaluationneedstobeobjectiveandfairthatis,everyoneneedstobeevaluatedaccordingtorelevantcriteria,with
consistency,avoidanceofbias,openandhonestdiagnosisofperformanceproblems,andmaintenanceofselfesteem.Todothisinvolvesanumberofelements:
Jobanalysistospecifywhatistobeevaluatedandkeepitconsistentforallincumbentsofaparticularjob.

Preparedevaluationscalesthatspecifytheparticularsoftheevaluationstobemade.(Thebestofthesescaleshavebehavioralanchorsexamplesofbehaviorsthatdescribe
particularperformancelevels.)

Evaluators(managersortheirsurrogates)trainedintheinstrumentsusedduringtheevaluationandinthemethodsofsortingoutnondefensivelyinherentandassignablecause.

Keepingrecordsofcriticalincidentsandtheirretrievalforuseintheevaluation.

Interviewingforaperformanceevaluation.

Eachoftheseelementsisdiscussedindetail,notingtheinfluenceofFJAtheory.

JobAnalysis

Thefundamentalchallengeofjobanalysisistodescribeanddefinethedimensionsoftheworkactivitybeingevaluated.FJAhasaverycomprehensiveapproachto
thischallenge(describedinchaps.16).AnFJAtaskanalysisdescribesthebehaviorstheworkersindicatearenecessarytoproducethedesiredresults.Itopensup
toexaminationtheassumptionsworkersandmanagershavewithregardtoeachother.Thebehaviorscanbeevaluatedintermsoffunctionalskilllevels,orientationto
knowledgeresources,theperformancestandardsworkersseektofulfill(theirownandmanagement's),andtheadaptationsworkersmaketoachievethosestan

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dardsandovercomeobstacles.Thetaskanalysisistheinformationalbase.Itrepresentstheinteractionofworker,workorganization,andworktoachieve
productivityandcontainswithinitthestandardsnecessarytomaintaincompetitiveadvantageinthemarketplace.

TheEvaluationRatings

Whatdomanagementandworkerswanttoknowatthetimeoftheperformancereview?Workerswantfeedbackonwhethertheyaremeetingrequirements,falling
behind,orareperformingbeyondrequirements.Thesethreeratingsservethepsychologicalneedsoftheincumbentandthedevelopmentalneedsoftheorganization.

Peoplewanttoknowwhethertheyaredoingtheirpart,gettingtheirassignedjobdone,andmeetingtheobjectivesoftheorganization.Theyneedtoknowthisin
ordertomaintaintheirselfesteemandintegrityamongtheirfellowworkers.Managementalsoneedstoknowthisinordertodeterminewhetheritiscommunicatingits
objectivescorrectlyandeffectively,whetheritisprovidingthenecessarytrainingtoachievethoseobjectivesandtoidentifyoutstandingworkforspecialrewards
bonuses,transfers,promotions.Forboththeworkerandtheorganization,aperformanceevaluationtakesstockandprovidesabreatherfromwhichtogoonwith
revitalizedenergy.

Eachtask,becauseitisstructuredaroundabehaviorandaresult,positsobviousquestions,Hastheresultbeenachieved,andhasitbeenachievedaccordingtothe
requiredstandard?Hasthebehaviorbeenappropriate?Furthermore,becauseeachtaskcontainsdataconcerningtheKSAsandsystemenablers,thedatais
immediatelyavailabletoanalyzepossiblesourcesofdifficultyifstandardsarenotbeingachieved.Iftheyare,oriftheachievementisbeyondexpectations,thetasks
provideabasisforevaluatingtrainingandunderstandingindividualaccomplishment.

Alsoinusingthetaskanalysis,workersevaluatethemselvesdrawingontheperformancerecordforthestatedperiod.Evaluatingworkaccomplishmentsonatask
basisservesadiagnosticpurposeformanagementandworkerstodiscoverparticularstrengthsand/orweaknesses.Workcanalsobeevaluatedoutputbyoutputto
obtainanoverviewofperformancewithreferencetotheprimaryobjectivesoftheorganizationalunit.

Inpursuitoftotalquality,organizationshavesoughtperformanceappraisalfeedbackfromcustomersandpeersinadditiontosupervisorswhoarethetraditionaland
usualsourceofperformanceappraisalratings.BergstromHotelstakesthisapproach:"Tohelpmanagersdevelopamorecompletepictureofeachemployee's
contributions,Bergstromroutinelyconsiderspeerreviewsaspartofperformanceevaluations,aswellasinforma

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tionfrombothinternalandexternalcustomers"(SharmaJensen,1997,p.1).

Whenperformanceappraisalfeedbackcomesfromseveraldirections(supervisor,self,peer,subordinate,customer)itissometimescalled360degreefeedbackand
isusedincreasinglyinbusiness,industry,andgovernment.Suchcomprehensivefeedbackinaformalperformanceappraisalcanbehelpfultoworkercoachingefforts,
butitmustbebalancedbygreaterskill,training,andpreparationbybothworkerandmanagerinperformanceappraisal.

TrainingEvaluators

Itispossibletoseetwolevelsofrespectplayingoutthroughtheperformanceevaluation:
thelistening/queryingleveltheevaluatorisabletoasktherightquestionsandlistentowhattheworkerhastosayaboutgettingtheworkdone.

thecorrective/coachingleveltheevaluatormaybeabletoproposeoptions,alternatives,andcorrectionswithregardtotechniqueandbehavior.

Conceivablytheevaluatorneednotgobeyondthefirstleveliftheperformancereviewiscarriedoutwithinterestandappropriateacknowledgmentforthingsdone
correctlyandwell.Oftensystematicqueryingandattentivelisteningprovidesjustwhattheworkerneedstoopenupandbeselfcritical,particularlyifthequerying
pursuessomeofthewhysthingsarebeingdonethewaytheyare.ForthispurposetheevaluatorneedstohaveathoroughunderstandingofFJAinordertofollow
throughonthelineofquestioningdescribedlater.

Asnotedearlier,thetaskbankcanserveasabehavioralinventory.Afirstlineofquestioningcanbe,"Doesthetaskbanksatisfactorilycover95%ofthejobasit
purportstodo?"Ifitdoesnotandthingshavechangedsinceitwasdeveloped,itisessentialtoaskandtakenoteofchangesthathaveoccurredandthereasonsfor
thosechanges.Thisinitselfcanleadtoanunderstandingofadaptationsthathaveorhavenotbeenmadebytheworkerandtheorganization.Questioningatthispoint
wouldbe,Arethenewtasksassociatedwithanexistingoutput,andifsoaretheytheresultofnewtechnologyorreengineeringoftheprocess?Aretheytheresultof
workerinputandthenaturalprocessofcontinuousjobredesign?Arethenewtasksassociatedwithanewoutput?Whathasbeentheeffectontheperformanceof
theexistingtasks?Haveanyofthemchangedorbeendropped,andifsohowhasitaffectedtheworkofothers?

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Assumingthatthetaskbankisstillaccurate,theevaluatorcaninquirewhethertheenablersaresufficientfortheincumbenttomeetrequirementsorwhetherthereis
anythingmorethattheorganizationcandotoimprovetheprocess.

Thesecondlevelofrespectdependsonwhotheevaluatorsare.Havetheydonethework,beeninthepositionoftheincumbentandthereforepossessanintimate
knowledgeofthejob?Ordoestheirknowledgederivefromhavingbeeninadesignrelationshiptothework,orisittheresultofextensiveexperienceinmanaging
incumbentsintheparticularjobs?Inanyofthesecases,evaluatorsneedtounderstandtheappropriatenessofparticularworkeractionstoachieveparticularresults.
Thisunderstandingbestdependsonthequeryingandlisteningpursuedearlier,whichbringtheevaluatoruptodateonthecurrentsituation.Oncemanagershave
sharedwiththeincumbentstheirunderstandingoftheinteractionamonginstructions,KSA,andtheadaptationsthatworkersmaketoachieveresults,theyareina
muchstrongerpositionfortheirproposalstobeaccepted

BeyondtheirknowledgeofthetechnologyoftheworkandFJAmethodology,ratersneedtohaveapointofviewabouttheperformanceevaluationsituation.They
needtounderstanditspurposeisnottomakejudgmentsandobtainscalevaluesfortheworkersbuttoreview,andwherenecessaryadjustorcorrecttheworking
relationshipbetweentheincumbentandtheorganization.Theessentialideatobeconveyedduringthereviewprocessisthatbothmanagementandtheworkerare
workingtowardthesamegoals,namelyimprovedproductivityandworkergrowth.

KeepingRecords

Becausetheperformancereviewisbehaviororiented,recordsthatfocusonspecificbehaviorsneedtobekept.Generalitiesandunsubstantiatedobservationsarenot
helpfulandevenharmful.Themosteffectivetypesofobservationsarecriticalincidentsnotedashavingcontributedtoeffectiveorineffectiveperformance.Such
incidentscanberecordedbyboththeincumbentandmanagement.Theycallforspecificsthatdescribewhathappened,whyithappened,whattheparticularswere
thatleduptotheincident,andwhattheoutcomewas.Theyfocusonactionsandthuscanprovidesubstancetoanydiscussionofperformance.Itisbesttodiscuss
criticalincidentsclosetothetimethattheyoccurandgiveimmediatefeedback.Theycanalsobestoreduntilthescheduledperformancereviewatwhichtimetheycan
beviewedinperspectiveandhave,perhaps,asomewhatdifferentsignificance.

Ifthecontextinwhichtheseincidentsoccurisoneofhostilityanddistrustoneinwhichthegamebeingplayedis"Igotcha!"itwouldbe

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easytohauloutadossierofcomplaintsoraccusationsduringaperformancereview.SuchactionwouldnegatetheentirespiritofFJAandtheclimateitseeksto
create,namelyoneofmutualtrustbetweenmanagementandtheworker.Itwouldalsobecounterproductivebecauseitisunlikelytocontributetoimproved
productivityandworkergrowth.Suchanegativeapproachwouldfragmentratherthanunifyrelationshipswithintheorganization.

Onepossibilityforavoidingthisnegativecontingencyistohaveworkersinaproductionunitfunctionasateamforperformancereviewpurposes.Theycouldmeetad
hocfrequently(atleastonceaweek)toevaluatehowthingshavegone,whereanyglitchesoccurred,whowasresponsible,andhowtheymighthavebeenovercome
bytheeffortsoftheindividualorbytheconcertedeffortsoftheteam.Thevalueofsuchmeetingsdependsinlargemeasureonthespecificcriticalincidentdatathat
wouldbeforthcomingduringtheexchange.TheHRofficecanplayausefulroleinhelpingworkersformulatecriticalincidentsanddocumenttheminaneasytoread
format.Whendrawnonbytheworkerandthemanagerduringaperformancereview,thesecriticalincidentsprovideareadysourceofdataforcoaching,feedback,
andproblemsolving.

Renfrew(1997)describedtheuseofcriticalincidentsinanaestheticdepartmentsofhospitalsintheUnitedKingdom:
Atthebeginningofthereportingperiodallmembersofthedepartmentareinformedofwhatincidentsaretobereported.Formsaremadeavailableinalltheatresandareceptacle
fortheformsisplacedinanagreeduponplace.Theformsarethenreviewedonaweeklybasisbyaseniorstaffmemberwhodecidesifanyincidentrequiresearlyaction.
Otherwiseareportisgivenatamonthlymeetingwherespecificcasescanbediscussedandactiondecidedupon.

Renfrewpointstohesitancyofpeopletoownuptomistakesmadebytheanesthesiateamsbyapportioningblametothemselveswhenwritingcriticalincidents.Again,
anethicoftrustandfairplayhastoprevailifcriticalincidentsaretobeusedtotheirfullpotentialforimprovingthefunctioningoftheworkdoingsystem.Nevertheless,
criticalincidentreportingmayidentifyproblemsnototherwisecoveredbycaseorpeerreviewsandcancomplementqualityassuranceprograms(Renfrew,1997).

ThePerformanceEvaluationInterview

NoHRfunctiontouchesanindividualascloselyasperformanceappraisalyetitisaprettygoodbetthatnoHRfunctionishandledasawkwardlyandineffectively.On
thewhole,workersfeeltheyhavegivenajobtheirbestshot.Theyneedtohavethisacknowledged.Onthewholetheyknow

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wheretheycouldhavedonebetterif....Theifusuallyhastodowithcircumstancesthatseemedoverwhelmingorbeyondtheircontrolatthetime.Theydonot
appreciatebeingremindedofwhattheyfeeltheyalreadyknowparticularlywhenthegoodthingstheydidarenotlikelytobementioned.Actuallytheevaluator,usually
asupervisor,doesnotespeciallyrelishbeinginthepositionofmakingjudgments,of"playingGod"assomehavesaid.Sensitivesupervisorsareawkwardanddonot
comeacrossaseffective.Insensitivesupervisorsbotchtheappraisalbybeingunpreparedtheydonotbothertocollectdetailedspecificinformationabouttheso
calledinefficienciesorsatisfactoryremedialproposals.Alleithersucceedsindoingistoerodetheworker'sselfesteemorembarrassthesupervisor.

Thepurposeoftheperformanceinterviewistogivethesupervisoranopportunitytoreviewtheworker'sperformancewithhimorher,diagnosecausesofinadequate
performance,andsetinmotioninitiativestoimproveperformanceinfuture.HowcanFJAmakeperformanceinterviewsmoremeaningfulandproductive?

TheFJAtaskbankwithitswealthofdescriptiveinformationprovidingaframeworkwithinwhichtopresentanddiscussperformancestandardsoffersanadvantage
overmostotherperformanceratingsystems.Itmakespossibleadialogueontwofundamentalquestionsaroundwhichtheperformanceevaluationinterviewshould
revolve:(a)Howcanwebringoutthattheworksystemitselfisbeingevaluatedthroughtheworker'sinput?and(b)Howcanwecreateasituationwhereworkerscan
indicatehowandwhytheyneedhelp?Forexample,aworkermaypointoutthatastandardwasnotmetbecausethenecessaryenablerswerenotpresent(e.g.,
managementdidnotprovidethenecessarytrainingorinstructionsorthattheinstructionswerediscretionarywhentheycouldhavebeenprescriptive).Thesupervisor
andworkercanthenusethetaskbanktodiagnosethecausesofpoorperformancewithinthecontextoftheentireorganizationalsystem,jointlyestablishresponsibility
fortakingcorrectivemeasures,andsetthestageforlastingperformanceimprovementsinfuture.

TheFJAperformanceinterviewisatleast1hourlongandheldawayfromtheworksiteinaquiet,privateoffice.Beforehand,thesupervisorandworkerreviewthe
FJAtaskbank,anobjectivesourceofinformation,andthesupervisor'sratings.Thatway,theybothcometothemeetingprepared.Atthestartoftheperformance
interview,thesupervisorandworkerreviewtheratingsonalltheperformancestandards.Thentheydevoteatleasthalftheirtimetodiscusstheperformancestandards
onwhichtheworkerneedshelp.Totheextentabalancedtreatmentisgivenofbothsystemandworkercauses,thesestandardswillbelesscontentious.The
supervisorreviewsthecriticalincidentsupportingtherating,providingadditionalclarificationasneeded.Thesupervisorandworkermayalso

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reviewthetask(s)fromthetaskbankcorrespondingtothatperformancestandard.

Theinterviewcanbeginwiththeevaluatorobserving:''Thepurposeofourdiscussionistoreviewhowwehaveworkedtogethersofarandtoseewherewemight
improveonthings,onewayoranother.''Essentiallythisobservationisaleadintocreaterapportandopenupthediscussion.Theevaluatorcantaketheinitiativeto
commentonhowthingswentfrommanagement'spointofviewtherebyemphasizingthattheinterviewisatwowaystreet.Atthispointalmostanythingcancomeup.
Whatevercanbedirectlyreferredtothetaskbankshouldbe.Forexample,ifwhatcomesuphastodowithtools,machines,equipment,ormeasuringdevices,the
tasksthatinvolvethemshouldbereferredto.Similarly,iftheitemraisedconcernsaknowledgeoraskilllevel,theappropriatetaskshouldbecomethetextforthe
discussion.Atanytimeduringthediscussionoftaskperformance,itisappropriatetoasktheincumbentifheorsheishavinganyproblemachievingthestated
standardsfortheresults.Itisimportanttoascertainifproblemshavesomethingtodowiththetechnologyavailabletoachievetheresults,amatteroftraining,ora
matterofadaptingtothejobworkersituation.Thislastsituationcouldinvolvetheinstructions,otherworkers,orperhapstheenvironmentalconditions.Iftheworker
isamemberofateam,theperformancereviewisagoodtimetoinquirehowwelltheteamisworking.

Iftheevaluatoristheworker'smanager,theissuetheincumbentismostlikelytobringupasanopeninggambitmayhavetodowithworkergrowththatis,pay,
training,transfer,orpromotion.Theimportanceofthesemattersneedstobeacknowledged.However,ifthesupervisorfeelsadirectresponsetotheseinquiries
wouldgettheinterviewoffonthewrongfoot,heorshemustacknowledgethequeryandindicatethattheissuewillbetakenupafterthedetailedperformancereview.
Thedetailedtaskreviewmayverywellberelevanttotheseissuesandagoodreasontodelaythediscussion.

Fortheperformanceinterviewtosucceed,thesupervisormustpresentanddiscusstheperformanceresultswiththeworkerinanonprejudicialway:Heorshehas
madeajudgementabouttheworker'sperformanceonaspecificstandard,butheorshewillnotandcannotmakeajudgmentabouttheworker'sworthinessasa
humanbeing.Thefactthattheworkerhasnotmetoneoranotheroftheperformancestandardsdoesnotmeanthattheworkerisanylessapersonorlessdeserving
ofmanagement'srespectandconsideration.Therefore,thesupervisor'sdemeanorshouldalwaysbeoneofrespect,attentiveness,andopennesstotheworker
regardlessofhowwellorpoorlythepersonhasperformed.Wherethesupervisorhasmadeamistakeinassessingtheworker'sperformance,thereshouldbe
opennesstothatpossibilityandawillingnesstocorrecttherating.Where

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theratingisaccuratebuttheworkerstilldisagrees,thesupervisormustallowtherighttodisagreebutstillrespectfullyinsistonachangeinbehaviorsothat
performanceisuptoexpectationthenexttimearound.Suchastancerequiresmuchmaturityonthepartofthesupervisorandtheworker,butitistheonlywaythat
FJAcanachieveitsfullpotential.

Againnotethattheperformanceinterviewdoesnotreplaceregularcommunicationaboutperformanceissuesonadaytodaybasis.Theinformationinthe
performanceinterviewshouldsummarizeandrecapwhatthesupervisorhassharedwiththeworkeroveraperiodofseveralmonths.Iftheinformationinthe
performanceinterviewcomesasasurprisetoanemployee,thesupervisormustworktoimproveeverydaycommunicationwiththatemployee.

Ultimately,trustisthemostimportantconsiderationinperformanceappraisal.FJAworksbestwhenworkersandmanagersarewillingtomeetinthemiddleto
establishresponsibilityforperformanceproblemsandtoworktogethertofindsolutions.Therebyperformanceappraisalisameetingofpartnersinacommon
endeavortoachievepositivegoalsandtobuildarelationship.Thisnotionoftrustisofcoursequitedifferentfromwhatusuallyhappensinindustrybutneverthelessit
doesoccurand,whenitdoes,itpaysoff.

SummaryofPerformanceAppraisal

Performanceappraisalisahandsontestoftrust.Itisthejunctureatwhichtheinterpersonalskills,patience,andgoodwillofmanagersandworkersaretestedtothe
maximum.Therearecountlesswaysaperformanceappraisalcangowrong,butonlyonewayitcangorightandliveuptoitspromiseasameansforincreasing
productivityandpromotingworkergrowth.Thisrightstrategyrequiresthatworkersandmanagersbuildanenvironmentofmutualtrustandworkinconcertwith
unflinchinghonestyasscientistsofcommonsensetotesthypothesesaboutthecausesofworkerperformance.Onlybyengaginginopendialogueandstrivingfora
sharedinterpretationofexperiencecanthisbedone.Afterisolatingperformancecauses,andpinpointingthecausesofsubstandardandoutstandingperformanceand
theircorrectiveorsupportiveconditions,performanceappraisalbecomespartandparceloftheongoingworkingrelationshipbetweenworkersandmanagers.
Sometimesmanagersmustaccepttheresponsibilityforcorrectingsystemconstraintsonworkerperformanceandgrowthsometimesworkerswillhavetomake
adjustmentswithintheirsphereofresponsibilitytogetthedesiredresults.Inhelpingtosetandstrengthenthesebasicconditionsforeffectiveperformanceappraisal,
FJAcomesintoitsownasanHRMtool.

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Chapter15
CareerDevelopmentandCoachingEncouragingWorkerGrowth

PursuingaCareerinToday'sWorld

Peoplepursuecareerstoachievestability,security,relationshipwithothers,personalgrowth,andultimatelystatus,prioritizingthesegoalsaccordingtotheirpersonal
valuesystem.Formuchofthepastcentury,whenthedriveforcareersmaturedasagoalinoffersofemploymentandinvocationaldevelopment,thiswasavery
tenableandfulfillingpursuit.Careersprovidedopportunitiesforindividualswithpotentialanddeterminationtoaspiretowardgoalsthatenabledthemtoachieve
comfortableeconomicstatus.Itprovidedemployerswithdedicatedemployees.

Timeshavechanged.Asthenewmillenniumapproaches,thepursuitofcareersappearstobeinastateofflux.Theturmoilinindustrybroughtaboutbyglobal
competitionandindustrialconsolidationhasshakentheconceptofstabilityandtheideaoflifelongemploymentinasingleoccupationforasingleemployer.Employers
arelessabletoofferlifelongemploymentinaclearlydefinedoccupationalniche.Technologicalchangeandtheenormousexpansionofknowledgehaveblurredthe
linesofcareercontent.Today,itappears,nothinglessthanlifelongtrainingandeducationarenecessarytostaycurrentletalonegetaheadinacareerfield.

Itisnotthattheideaofpursuingacareerisnolongerfeasible.Rather,acareerinthesenseofachievingstability,securityandpersonalgrowthmustbepursued
differently.Theprimarylocusofthesegoalshasmovedfromtheemployer,industry,orprofession,totheindividual.Anindividualcannolongerrelyonacareerlabel,
evenalicensedone,toprovidethenicheofsecurity,stability,andstatus.Insteadanindividualmustbeableto

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deliverhighperformanceinhighlychangingsituations.Thefocusappearstobemoreonadaptabilitythanachievedstatus.

AnExampleofCurrentCorporateCareerCounseling

SearsCreditundertookamajorrestructuringthatresultedinthecreationofmanynewjobsandredesignofexistingones.Acareerdevelopmentprocesswas
designedtoaddressthesenewsocialperspectives(O'Herron&Simonsen,1995):
Thegroup...establishedthatSearsCreditneededtohelpitsassociatesandmanagersreframetheirmindsetfrom"thecompanywilltakecareofme"toaproactiveattitudethat
redefinedsuccessintermsofwhat'simportanttotheindividualratherthanhowfastonemovesuptheladder.Peoplewouldneedtounderstand,notjusthear,thatcareer
developmentwouldn'tbelimitedtopromotions.

Thecompanyalsoneededtoredefineresponsibility.Notonlywouldassociateshavetotakeonnewresponsibilityformanagingtheirowncareers,butmanagersalsowouldneed
torecognizetheirroleascoachesinsupportingassociatedevelopment.Theorganization,too,representedbyHRpractitionersandseniormanagement,hadresponsibilityto
provideinformationandresourcessoassociatescouldtaketheinitiative.Inshort,SearsCreditneededapartnershiptoensurethatindividualsatalllevelscouldcontinuallyadd
valuetothecompany.(p.104)

Howcanorganizationsassisttheirworkersincareerdevelopmentatatimewhencompanyresourcesaretighterthanever?SearsCreditaddressedthisneedby
makingcareerinformationaswidelyandfreelyavailableaspossible(O'Herron&Simonsen,1995):
Sincetheold,knownwayshadchanged,SearsCredithadtoadoptamoreopenphilosophyaboutopportunitiesandcompanyinformation.WeneededHRsystemssuchas
positiondescriptions,organizationalcompetenciesandanewcompensationstructuretosupportcareerdevelopmenteffortsandreinforcetheoverallmessageofdevelopmentto
meetcompanyneeds.Thispromptedustowritepositionsummariesofthemanynewjobsthattheorganizationalrestructuringcreatedandmakethemavailabletoallassociates
viaemail.Inthepast,Searshadtreatedthisinformationasconfidential.HRmanagerssafeguardedit,anditwasn'tavailabletoassociates.

Wealsocreatedadatabankofassociates'desiredcareergoalstobeusedfororganizationalplanningandstaffingdecisions.Theassociateandhisorhermanagerdevelopthe
informationforthedatabank.Theinputincludesdetailssuchas,"jobnextaspiredto,""preferredlocation,"or"educationneeded.''Thisinformationisavailabletomatchagainst
specificjobsinspecificlocationsandtoassistinplanningtrainingforaparticularpopulation.(p.106)

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Intheoldeconomy,knowledgewaspower,soHRmanagersheldontojobdescriptioninformation,tuckingitawayinlockedfilecabinets,relinquishingitonlywitha
signedauthorizationfromasuperior.Today,knowledgeisempowerment.Forworkerstotakeresponsibilityfortheircareerdevelopmenttheyneedextensivejob
informationresourcesreadilyaccessibleandineasilyreadableform.Whencombinedwiththeaccessibilityandspeedofferedbymoderncomputertechnology,FJA
fillsthisbill.

CareerDevelopmentisWholePersonDevelopment

Ahealthypersonalitygrowsinparallelwiththe40orsoyearsthatmanypeoplespendintheircareers.Infact,workimpactsonandhelpstoshapeanindividual's
personalityinmanyways,forbetterorforworse.Erikson,thegreathumanistpsychologist,believedthathumanbeingsgothroughaseriesofstagesfrominfancyto
oldageinthedevelopmentoftheirpersonalities.Thegeneraldirectionofthisdevelopmentistowardamorecomplete,unifiedwholeapersonwhohasdealt
successfullywiththechallengeslaidbeforehimorherandhasmovedontothenextlevelofpersonalitydevelopment.Thesestagesofchangeinthehumanpersonality
areinresponsetoaperson'sinnerpotentialaswellasthedemandsoftheenvironmentatcriticalpointsinhisorherlife.Throughoutmuchofthisgrowthand
development,aperson'sworklifeplaysaninsistentandongoingrole.Twothemesdevelopedinearlierchaptersofthisbook,trustandwholenessofanindividualin
theworksituation,areintegraltothedevelopmentprocess.

AccordingtoErikson,ahealthypersonalityfacesitsearliestchallengeinthefirstyearoflife.Whetheraninfantdevelopsasenseofbasictrustorbasicmistrust
dependsonwhetheritfindsreciprocity(resultingintrust)orduress(resultinginmistrust)fromtheprimarycaregiver.Positiveresolutionofthisstagetowardtrustsets
thestageforanindividualtomovethroughsubsequentstagesinthedevelopmentofahealthypersonalityfromearlychildhoodthroughadulthood.Bythetimeaperson
entersearlyadulthoodandisreadytobeginacareer,severalstagesofdevelopmenthavecomeandgoneandsetanirrevocablestampontheindividual'sstyleof
relatingtoothersandthelargerenvironment.(FJAconceptualizesthisaspectofpersonalitydevelopmentintermsofadaptiveskills.)Duringtheperiodofadulthood
whencareersaretrainedfor,established,livedout,andeventuallygivenupforretirement,anindividual(accordingtoErikson)mustresolvetheconflictsinherentin
threeadditionalgrowthstages:IntimacyversusSelfAbsorption,GenerativityversusStagnation,andIntegrityversusDespair.Successfulresolutionofeachofthese
stagesinturn

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resultsinpersonalgrowthandgreaterintegrationofthehumanpersonality(becomingmoreawholepersonintheFJAsense)andmovementtothenextstageoflife.
Thelaststage,thatofintegrity,isreachedonlybysurmountingthechallengespresentedinthesevenearlierstagesoflife.AsErikson(1980)sosuccinctlyand
powerfullyexplainedinIdentityandthelifecycle:
Onlyhewhoinsomewayhastakencareofthingsandpeopleandhasadaptedhimselftothetriumphsanddisappointmentsofbeing,bynecessity,theoriginatorofothersand
generatorofthingsandideasonlyhemaygraduallygrowthefruitofthesevenstages.Iknownobetterwordforitthanintegrity.(p.104)

InFJAterms,thiscouldbestated:integrityisachievedbythosewhohaveacquiredinsightintotheirTDPpotentials,developedthemtotheiroptimum,andeffectively
adaptedtomanagingconformanceandchangetotheenvironment.Inasmuchasacareerisavitalaspectofthelargerlifecycle(andmostpeoplebelievethistobethe
case),FJAhasalottosayaboutcareerdevelopmentandthemeansnecessarytocoachcareerseekerstowardpersonaloutcomesthatarenotonlybeneficialfor
thembutalsofortheirorganizations.

InfluenceofFJAonCareerCounselingandJobHunting

NoonehasperceivedtheusefulnessofFJAbetterthanBollesinhisenormouslypopularbook,Whatcolorisyourparachute?Since1970,thisbookhasbeenthe
"bible"forjobhuntersandcareerchangers,andtodate,morethansixmillioncopieshavebeensoldallovertheworld,inEnglishandsevenotherlanguages.Itis
writtenandillustratedtohaveauniversalappeal,andnodoubtitssuccesshasbeenitsaccessibilitytopeoplefromallkindsofbackgrounds.

OveraquarterofacenturyagoBollesdemonstratedsomeremarkableinsightsforthetimetwooftheseare:

Thepursuitofacareerisamatteroflifelonglearning.

Inpursuingacareer,peopleneedtobeempoweredtodoasmuchaspossiblethemselves.

Tohelpindividualsvisualizetheirpotentialaswellaslikesanddislikesintheworldofwork,andtoempowertheminseeingthemselvesaswholepersons,Bolles
conceptualizedaflowerwithsevenpetalssurroundingacentralstem.ThecentralideaofthisflowerisBolles'adaptationoftheTDP

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conceptofskillsandhiselaborationoffunctional,specificcontent,andadaptiveskillsandtheirroleintheworldofwork.Eachpetaloftheflowerandthestemcalls
foraninventory/listingoffactsandoptionsthatanindividualfillsin.Thecompletedflowerrevealsthewholepersonandservestoempowerindividualswithself
knowledgeintheirpursuitofacareer.Thecategoriesofinformationrepresentedbythestemandthepetalsarelistedhere.(Note:Forthesakeofconsistency,the
terminologyusedistheterminologyusedthroughoutthisbookandisnotintendedasacritiqueofBolles'creativeinterpretationoftheseterms.)

BollesSelfEmpowermentFlower

Thecentralstem

Transferableskills,essentiallythoseofthefunctionalsystem:TDP

Thethreebottompetals
KindsofThingsIliketousetheseskillswith...
KindsofDataIliketousetheseskillswith...
KindsofPeopleIliketousetheseskillswith...

Thetwoupperpetals
PhysicalsettingIliketoworkin
SpiritualoremotionalsettingIliketoworkin

Therightandleftpetals
SalaryandlevelIwantandneed
Outcomes:immediateproductorserviceandlongrangegoals

Generationofthisinformationbyanindividualservestoanswerthe"what"ofthethreefundamentalcareersearchquestions:what,where,andhow.

IftheuseofBolles'bookbymillionsofapparentlysatisfiedcareersearchersisanyindicationofvalidity,thenthefunctionalframeworkisapracticalwayforpeopleto
evaluateandunderstandtheirskills.

ThePervasivenessoftheTDPConcept

InFJAjobanalyststrainingsessions,participantsroutinelyperformtwoexercisestoexploretheirrelationshiptoTDP.Figure15.1showstheformatusedforthefirst
exercise.Theresultshavebeenconsistentfromoneworkshoptoanother.Dislikedjobshavebeenverydifferentfromidealjobs,whereaslikedjobswereveryclose
orthesameastheidealjob.Aparticipant'spresentjobcouldhavethepatternofeitherthelikedordislikedjob.Alikedjobpatternsuggeststheparticipantisonthe
righttrackadislikedjobpatternsuggeststheparticipantneedstostartatsquareoneinhisorhercareersearch.Participantsrarelyhaveaproblemcompletingthis
exer

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Inthisexercise,ratejobsthatyouhaveheldintermsofhowyouseethejobsnow.(Ifyouhaveheldfewjobsoronlyonejob,ratetasksofajobandchangethe
item"Job"to"Task"inthefirstheadingoftheleftcolumnofthetable.)Thinkwhatdemandsthejobmadeandthestandardsyouhadtomeet.

Foreachcategory(likedmost,likedleast,etc.),rateinpercentagestheemphasisonThings,Data,People,makingthetotalpercentageofeachcategoryaddupto
100e.g.,Things,25%Data,25%People,50%.Dothepercentagesinmultiplesof5.

(inpercent)
JOB
THINGS DATA PEOPLE TOTAL
(describebriefly)
Likedmost
100%

Likedleast
100%

Present
100%

Ideal
100%

FIG.15.1.
TDPandjobpreferences.

ciseandhavealmostalwaysreactedwithdelightthatitcouldrevealsomuchabouttheirpreferencesandjobadjustment.

Figure15.2isalsoilluminatingtoparticipantsbecauseittendstotellthemsomethingimportantabouttheirownevolutionintermsofpreferences.Acommoninsightis
thatintheiradolescencetheytendedtopreferphysicalinvolvementandastheymatured,theirpreferencechangedtoDataorPeopleasfarasworkwasconcerned.
Inthediscussionfollowingtheexercise,thistooprovedtobeilluminatingtoparticipants.Atnotimewastheresponsetotheseexercisesthoughttrivial.

Thus,itisevidentthatFJAcoreconceptsregardingwholepersonfunctioningandorientationtoTDPandfunctionalskillsareinharmonywithErikson'sdevelopmental
model.TheyarealsoinharmonywithHolland's

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vocationalchoicemodel.HereagainBolleshasquitebrilliantlymarriedtheTDPapproachtoHolland'sRealistic,Investigative,Artistic,Social,Enterprising,and
Conventional(RIASEC)characterizationofpeopleintheworldofwork,acharacterizationthatalsocarriesovertothejobstheyworkin.Perusalofthejobsinthe
variousRIASECcategoriessuggeststhat:ConventionalandInvestigativejobsareprimarilyorientedtoData,withtheInvestigativejobsonahigherfunctionallevel
EnterprisingjobsareprimarilyPeopleandDataorientedSocialjobsareprimarilyorientedtoPeopleRealisticjobsareThingsandDataorientedandArtisticjobs
orientedtoamixtureofTDP.

FJAhelpsinunderstandingthecareerconceptandwhathasbeengoingonintwomajorways:(a)Theorientation(interests,preferences)thatpeoplehavetendsto
correspondtotheTDPcomponents.Peoplewithastrongorientationandcapabilityinthedataarea,forexample,pursuecareersthatarehighindatademands,and
(b)Althoughindividualschoosetofocusononeoranotherfunctionalarea,theytendtowardwholepersoninvolvementintheirworkandprivatelives.Individuals
engagedinhighlycerebralworkfrequentlyhavehobbiesorsparetimeactivitieswheretheyworkwiththeirhandsorbecomeinvolvedwithsocialserviceactivities.

Inthisexercise,indicatehowyousawyourselfinthepastandhowyouseeyourselftodaywithregardtoyourphysical,mental,andinterpersonalmakeup.Thinkof
thekindofpersonyouwereattheagesindicatedandthekindofpersonyouarenowhowyoufunctionedthenandhowyoufunctionnow.Thinkofthethingsthat
youenjoyed(nowenjoy)mostandleastthethingsfromwhichyougot(nowget)yourkicksandhowyoupreferred(nowprefer)tospendyourtime.

Doyourratingsinpercentages,makingthetotalpercentageforeachagecategoryaddupto100e.g.,physical,25%mental,25%interpersonal,50%.Dothe
percentagesinmultiplesof5.

(inpercent)

AGE PHYSICAL MENTAL INTERPERSONAL TOTAL

15yearsold(entering
highschool) 100%
22yearsold(college
graduatingclass) 100%
Today
100%

FIG.15.2.
TDPandpersonalgrowth.

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Individualspursuingacareeraremorelikelytoachievepersonalgoalsby:

gettingtoknowthemselvesintermsoftheirinterests,inclinations,andpersonaltalentsinthecourseoftheirschooling,everydayliving,reading,andfocusedactivities,
suchasoddjobs.

exploringvariousfieldsretail,computers,machining,officeadministration,medicine,andengineeringforthetypesofsituationsthatsuitwhattheyhave
discoveredaboutthemselves.

beingreadyandavailabletoworkinanyofthejobworkersituationsthatcomeup,bothintheirfieldofchoiceandotherfieldsaswell.

Thisexplorationisofcoursealifelongactivity.Individualsgettoknowthemselvesthroughdoingthings.Mostofthelikesanddislikes,preferences,anddispleasures
experiencedincarryingoutparticularactivitiesareregisteredonasubconsciouslevel.Peopletendtobecomeawareofthemonlywhenquestioningcertainchoices
anddecisions.Tosomeextentdeterminationsaboutwhoweareandhowwegotthatwaymaybeatheorythatwetestfromtimetotimebytryingnewthings,
undertakingnewexperiences,pushingourselvestoextremes,andintheprocessaffirmingordisconfirmingtheoriesaboutourselves.

Inthecourseofgrowingup,peoplefocusonparticularinterestsandcontentareas.Butperhapsmoreimportantly,theydevelopbehavioralstyles,preferredwaysof
functioning,andpreferredenvironmentstobein.Eriksonpointstothesesamefactorsintermsofthedevelopmentsequenceinwhichtheyoccurandthechallenges
thatimpelindividualstowardadoptingaparticularbehavioralstyle.Includedamongthesebehavioralstylesarepreferencesfor:

instructionsprescriptiveordiscretionary

leadershipauthoritarianorparticipatory

physicalenvironmentinsideoroutside,officeorconstructionsite

socialenvironmenthomogeneousordiverse

relationswithpeoplemovingtoward,away,oragainst

ambiencecalmversusdynamic,cooperativeversuscompetitive,teamworkversusindividualistic.

Peoplelearntomakenumerousotheradaptationstosuchmattersaspunctuality,dress,impulsecontrol,cordiality,andthelike.Someoftheseadaptationscome
naturally,perhapsbecauseofwhatpeoplehavegrownaccustomedtointheirfamiliesoramongtheirfriends(theyhavepassed

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throughtheappropriatedevelopmentstage).Otheradaptationstakedisciplineandselfcontrolandbecomepartofaskilledperformanceandassumptionof
responsibility(becausepeoplearestillgrapplingwithspecificdevelopmentalissues).

FJAandCurrentCareerDevelopment

AnFJAtaskbankcanprovideavarietyofcareerinformation.CronshawconductedanFJAjobanalysisinasoftwaredevelopmentlaboratoryofamajorcomputer
company.Actually,therewerenoindividualjobstobeanalyzed.Insteadindividualsinvolvedinthedevelopmentofanadvancedsoftwareproductdestinedfor
worldwidedistributionwereorganizedintoateam,whichincludednotonlystaffmembersfromthecomputercompanybutexpertsfromtheuserandvendorgroups
thatwouldeventuallyuseorselltheproduct.Thiswasaprojectbasedteamthatwouldbedisbandedafterthesoftwarewasdevelopedandunveiledbythehead
office.Teammemberscamefromvarioustechnicalareaswithdifferentspecializedvocabularies,representeddifferentvestedinterests,functionedasequals,and
deliveredthefinalproducttoa''productowner"whorepresentedtheirintereststoupperlevelmanagement.

Inthisinstance,theFJAjobanalysisidentifiedteamfunctionsthatheldthegrouptogetherandfocuseditoncommongoals,ratherthanonspecializedtasksperformed
bysingleteammembers.Thefouroutputsidentifiedbythesoftwaredevelopmentteamwere:
Projectmanagement/taskcoordination.Theteamwasrequiredtodevelopaprojectplan,updateitasnecessary,monitortheprogressoftheproject,compareprogresstoinitial
projectionstakingnecessarycorrectiveactiontostayonschedule,andrevisegroupprocessesasneededtocontinuallyimproveinternalmanagementoftheteam.

Settinggoals.Theteamlistenedtotheproductowner'sexpectations,madeaprojectproposaltotheowner,discussed/evaluatedprojecttargetswiththeowner,anddeclaredin
writingtheteam'scommitmenttotheproject.

Teammemberselection.Theteamidentifieditsstaffingneeds,searchedforandrecruitedqualifiedpersonnel,andinterviewed/hiredservicevendors(formerlyknownas
"employees").

Teamevaluation.Theteamidentifiedanddevelopedthespecificcriteriatobeusedinteamevaluationandconductedtheteamevaluation.

Supposeyouareanexperiencedprogrammerinthiscompanybuthavealwaysworkedundertheclosesupervisionofyourlinemanager.Yousee

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aninternalpostingseekingapplicationstotheworkteam,and,inthinkingaboutwhethertorequestatransfertotheworkteam,youhavetodecidewhetheryourskills
areadequatetothenewsituation.Whereasmanagementcurrentlyplans,setsgoals,hires,andevaluatesyourcoworkers,thoseactivitieswillbeassignedtoyouasan
equalmemberifyoudecidetotransfertothesoftwaredevelopmentteam.Youwillbeaccountabledirectlytotheprojectownerratherthanfallundertheprotective
wingofyoursupervisorinthechainofcommand.AnexaminationofthetaskbankforthesoftwaredevelopmentteamshowsyoumustoperateatthePeople
negotiatinglevelindealingswiththeproductownerandtheotherteammembers.Youwillhavetobetactful,tolerateothers,listentotheirconcerns,shareideaswith
teammembersinanacceptablemanner,anddealconstructivelywithconflict.WhendealingwithData,youwillhavetoanticipateandobjectivelyanalyzeproblems
facingtheteaminordertodeterminecausesandcomeupwithsolutions.IntheareaofAdaptiveSkill,youwillhavetoshowpersonalinitiativedemonstrateself
discipline,personalmaturityandprofessionalismandeffectivelymanagethestressoftightdeadlinesandlongworkinghours(includingrelinquishingyourpersonallife
tosomeextent.)

Onreflection,youmaydecidethisworksituationisnotrightforyouandstaywhereyouare(seeselfselectioninchap.10Recruitment).Ifyouareinterestedinthe
positionbutneedadditionaltraining(e.g.,conflictmanagementskills)togiveyourselfareasonablechancetogetontotheteamandsucceedoncethere,youshould
discussyourplanswiththeHRmanagerresponsibleforcareerdevelopmentandcounseling.

EntertheProfessionalCounselor:theFJACareerDevelopmentandCoachingInterview

AsnotedearlierinthecommentsaboutBolles'approachtocareercounseling,muchofwhatiscalledcareerdevelopmentwillbecomeevenmoreselfdirectedthanit
hasbeen.Organizationsarenotlikelytobewillingtoinvestinlengthyandexpensivecareerdevelopmentfortheirtransitoryworkforces.However,helpcanbesought
fromcounselorsinorganizationsthathavethemandintheprivatesector.

Intheseinstancesthecounselorwillfunctionbestwhenservingasaresourceforcounseleesintheexplorationoftheirpersonalandcareerpotentialalongthelinesof
theBollesmodel.Counseleesneedtobeencouragedtorecallanddescribetheirpreviousworkrelatedexperiencesandpersonalachievementsincludingthoseinthe
currentorganizationiftheyareemployed.Thecounselorshouldthensummarizeandgivebackthese

 Page187

thoughtsinawaythathelpsindividualstogaininsightintotheirbehaviorandsuitabilityforvariousworksituations.UsingtheFJAmodelasaguide,thecounselorasks
questionsaboutwhatindividualshavedoneinpreviousjobsaswellashowandwhytheygottotheirpresentjob.Byencouragingindividualstodescribethosepeak
periodswhentheywerestretchingtheirpotentialbeyondpresentcircumstances,thecounselorcanalsouncoverintriguingandproductivepossibilitiesforfuturegrowth
(i.e.,workerpotential).Inthiscontext,FJAisusedastheguidetopromptworkerstotelltheiruniquestoryintheirownway.FJAprovidesthecounselorwiththe
depthofunderstandingneededtohearthatstorythemanifestcontentofactualexperienceandthelatentcontent,whichconsistsoffeelingsaboutexperience,
interests,andaspirationsgeneratedbyeducationandotherexposuretotherealworld.

Considertheexampleofayoungwomannewlygraduatedfromhighschoolwhohasnotyetresolvedthechallengeofestablishingapersonalidentity(careerand
otherwise).Stillattachedtoherparents'beliefsandvalues,sheseeksthecareerdirectionthatwillsatisfyherparents'aspirationsforher.Themanifestcontent
presentedtothecounselorprobablyiscenteredaroundafewtemporaryorsummerjobsatrelativelylowlevelsoffunctionalskillandworkerinstructions.The
adaptiveskillsthatinhereinthatkindofworkwillreflectherstageofpersonaldevelopment:seekingtodothe"rightthing"bycarefullyfollowingSOPsandgarnering
theapprovalofthesupervisor(assubstituteparent).Inlisteningtothemanifestcontent,thecounselorhearsaboutonlylowlevelfunctioningandperhapsverylow
potentialforhigherskilllevels.Thelatentcontentofthisinterviewprobablytellsadifferentstoryabouttheindividual'scareerpotential.Ifsheistocontinueonthepath
ofdevelopmenttoafullyintegratedself,shemustcometoarealisticassessmentofherskillsandskillpotentialincludinghowshefelt/reactedtoherearlywork
experiences.Withthehelpofthecounselor,shecaninventoryherpastworkaccomplishmentsandnonworkachievementsandexplorehergoals,values,andinterests
inaprotected,nonjudgmentalinteraction.Onhearingherfuturehopesandaspirationsreflectedbackfromthecounselorindependentofherparentswishesforher
futuresheisempoweredtotakefurtherstepsthatcapitalizeonherinterestsandpotentialsinhercareerexploration.

ThebestwaytoconductanFJAinterviewforcareerdevelopmentandcoachingistopromptanindividualtogiveapersonalworkhistory.Afterrapporthasbeen
established(essentialtoanyinterviewingsituation),thecounselorbeginsbyaskingtheindividualabouthisorhermostrecentjob,whichisoftentheonepresentlyheld.
(Inthecaseofayoungpersonwhohasnotheldajob,thecounselorneedstofocusontasksperformedathome,inschool,orinthepursuitofhobbies.)The
counselorcontinuesbyaskingtheindividualtodescribethebasicdutiesheorsheperforms(out

 Page188

puts)andmakingnoteofthese.Afterlistingtheoutputs,thecounselorgoesoverthemoneatatimewiththeindividualtogetthedetailsneededtoratethehighestlevel
taskintheoutputswithrespecttoTDPcomplexity,andperhapsalsotoratethemwithrespecttoTDPorientation.Thiswillrequirediscussionatkeypointsand
askingtheindividualtodescribeinsomedetailthebehaviorsinvolved(e.g.,inthecaseofanambulanceattendant,''Leadmethroughthethingsyoudowhenyou
arriveatanaccidentscene.").Theobjectiveistoidentifythehighestleveloftaskcomplexityinthejobinanefficientandfocusedmannerthatdoesnotbogdownthe
interviewortaketoomuchtime.Astheinterviewproceeds,theindividualwillneedtoidentifythekeyperformancestandardsthatheorshemustmeetinproducing
theoutputsandwhatmustbedonetoachievethem.Thiswillprompttheemergenceofadaptiveskillsthatarealsonoted.

Inproceedingthroughtheindividual'spreviousjobsinthisway,definitepatternsbehavioralpreferencesshouldemerge,especiallywithrespecttoadaptiveskills
(whicharethemosttransferableofthethreeskilltypes).Forexample,difficultieswithacceptingclosesupervisionordistasteforroutine(boring)taskswillbecome
apparentastheindividualdescribesreactionstodifferentbossesortothemoredistastefulaspectsofworkacrosssuccessiveemployers.Withrespecttofunctional
skills,thecounselormaynoticeanupwardmovementthroughemployersfromlessskilledtomoreskilledworkorthattheindividualhasbeenatthesameskilllevel
foraperiodofyears.OnecluethattheindividualisatanimpasseisastucknessatalowlevelofWorkerInstructionsacrosstimeandemployers.Thismaycause
considerableconcernornoconcernatallonthepartoftheindividual,dependingonwhetherheorshevaluesthegrowthpossibilitiesinherentinpaidwork.

Astheinterviewproceedsfrommostrecentjobstoasfarbackastheindividualcanreliablyreport,thecounselorwillbegintoseeauniquecareerandlife
trajectoryatrajectorythattheindividualmayalreadybepartiallyawareorblissfullyunawareof.Thiscouldbegoodplacetohavetheindividualcompletethe
exercisesinFigs.15.1and15.2.Theseexercisesmighthelptheindividualclueinonthesignificanceofthetrajectoriesalreadypursued.Discussionoftheresultsofthe
exercisesandthesubstanceoftheinterviewcanassisttheindividualtoachieveselfinsightintowhatevertwistsandturnshavebeenfollowedinhisorhercareerlife.
Thecounselor'sresponsibilityisnottoidentifytheindividual'scareertrajectorybuttoaskthenecessaryquestionsandreflectthemanifestcontentthatisneededfor
theindividualtopersonallypiecethistogether.Ratherthanhavethecounselorwriteanassessmentreportfortheindividual(ausualpractice),itisfarbetterforthe
individualtowritethisupforhimselforherself,summarizingthekeylearningandunderstandingemergingfromtheFJAinterview.Thisselfassessmentcouldberead
bythecounselorinprepara

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tionforasecondinterviewsessioninwhichtheinsightsfromthefirstsessionarereviewedandenriched.

IfthecounselorisacoworkerormanagerandtheFJAtaskbankscanbeaccessedonthecomputerfromthecompany'sdatabase,allthebetter.Thetaskbanksin
thehandsofjobknowledgeablehelpersserveasarichsourceofinformationtogroundtheselfassessmentcomingoutoftheFJAcareerdevelopmentandcoaching
interview.Workerswillbebetterhelpedtoseeanygapsbetweentheirpresentskillsfunctionaloradaptiveandthoserequiredinthecontemplatedemployment
situation.Iftheywishtogrowbeyondtheirpresentemploymentsituation,taskbanksformorehighlyskilledjobs,roles,orteamsintheorganizationwillbeofgreat
helpinpointingthewaytonecessaryadditionaltrainingorexperience.

SummaryofCareerDevelopmentandCoaching

Astheendofthe20thcenturynears,thenotionofcareerischanging.Whatwasonceseenasalong,steadyprogressionupanorganization'sladderorprofessional
hierarchytopositionsofhigherpayandresponsibilityhasbecomeunrealisticformostpeople.Thecareerpatternofthefuturewillmorelikelyresembleaweb,an
interconnectedseriesoflateralmoveswithinandamongemployersbyworkerstakingresponsibilityforthemselvesastheymovebetweenemployers.Insuchan
environment,workersrequirethepersonalflexibilityandselfinsightthatcanbehonedbycareerdevelopmentcoaching.Therealityisthatfewerandfeweremployers
arelikelytobeofamindtogiveit.WorkersmoreandmoreneedtolooktoselfhelpalternativessuchasthoseofferedbyBollesinhisbook,WhatColorIsYour
Parachute?TheFJAapproachprovidesaneffectiveandlowcostalternativetotraditionalcareerassessmentthatreliesonalotoftestingaswellasextensive
interviewingandreportwritingbyprofessionals.Withoutcategoricallyrulingoutthehelpfulnessofpsychologicaltestsinthehandsofqualifiedprofessionals,itis
importanttonotethatFJAallowscareercounselorstodevotemoreoftheirverylimitedtimetodirectcontactwithworkersandcounselees.Thegoalistoempower
workerstonavigatetheirownwaytocareerintegritythroughaprocessthathelpsbuildinitiativeandconfidenceintakingcontroloftheirowncareerandlifecourse.

 Page190

Chapter16
PayRewardingWorkerPerformanceandGrowth*
Payis,ofcourse,thepayoffforworkdone.Paydirectlyaffectswhatindividualscandooffthejob,theirfamily'sstandardofliving,theextenttowhichtheycantravel,
andtheleisuretimeactivitiesinwhichtheycanindulge.Payindirectlyconveystoworkersthevalueanorganizationplacesonthemandthestatustheyhaveachieved.
Whenworkersarepaidlessthantheythinktheyareworth,theyarelikelytoreducetheireffortsinordertorestoreasenseofequityintheirrelationshipwiththe
employer,afactwelldemonstratedbypsychologistsintheirstudiesofequitytheory(Walster,Walster,&Berscheid,1978).Conversely,thereisevidencethatpaying
workersbonusesbasedonorganizationalperformancecanmarkedlyincreasetheireffortandperformance(Lawler,1990).Paycanthusbeapowerfulmotivatorin
encouragingmanyworkerstohigherperformanceandgreatergrowth.Nevertheless,effectivepaysystemssatisfactoryfortheworkeraswellasproductiveforthe
employeraremoretheexceptionthantherule.

Payistheresultofadynamicbetweenworkerandemployer.Theemployer,motivatedtoproduceagoodproductorserviceatahighprofit,isdrivenbycompetition
andgreedtokeepcostsdown,especiallypay.Tomaintainanefficientandproductiveoperationtheemployermustgotothemarketplaceandpayworkersmarket
ratesforthejobsthatneedtobefilled.MarketratesdependinlargemeasureontheavailabilityofworkerswiththeparticularKSAstheemployerneeds.

Workerswanttobepaidenoughtoprovideadecentlivingforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.Ataminimumthisincludeshealthcare,provision
*
ThischapterisadaptedfromAppendixE(ApplicationofFJAtoJobEvaluation)FineandGetkate(1995).

 Page191

fordisability,andretirement.Becausealljobsarenotthesameandsomejobsarehardertofillthanothers,employerspayforwhattheyconsiderofvaluethatis,
employerspayforthecharacteristicsnecessarytofulfilltherequirementsofthejob.Thesecharacteristicsincludeskill,knowledge,effort,responsibility,and
adaptabilitytophysicaldemandsandworkingconditionscharacteristicsworkersacquirethrougheducation,experience,andtraining.Workerslearntovaluethe
acquisitionofthesecharacteristicsbecausethesecharacteristicsarewhatemployersvalueandarethebasisforestablishingwhethertheytheworkersarebeing
paidfairlyandequitably.Bothfairnessandequitabilitytranscendtheeconomicneedofmakingadecentlivingbutareneverthelessintertwinedwithit.Theyare
derivedfromworkers'comparisonoftheirpaywiththatofrelevantothersinsidetheorganizationinternalequityandothersoutsidetheorganization,knownas
externalequity.Thesecomparisonsarehardlyobjectiveorscientific,noraretheyalwaysconditionedbymarketfactors.Neverthelesstheyhaveagreatdealtodo
withanindividual'ssenseofselfworth,identity,andstatusinthecommunity

Uptothispoint,payhasbeendiscussedasthoughitissimplyamatterofmatchingwhattheemployerneedswiththecharacteristicspossessedbytheworker.Thisis
anoversimplification.Employerswanthighlymotivatedworkerswhowillprovidetheextraeffortthatcontributestothesuccessoftheenterprise.Workerswanttobe
paidfortheirextraeffortandexcellenceofperformance(performancebeyondexpectations),whichaddstotheprofitandvalueoftheenterprise.Againthisneedsto
bedoneequitablyandfairly.Toachievethisend,objectivemeasurementtothemaximumdegreepossiblemustoccur.

TwoMainWaysofPayingWorkers

Therearetwomainwaystopayworkersfairlyandequitably.Theycanbepaidonthebasisofthejob,rankedforlevelofdifficultyorcomplexityofitsrequirements
inrelationtootherjobs.Orworkerscanbepaidonthebasisoftheirpersonalskills,themoreskillstheybringtoajobworkersituation,themoretheywillbeworth.
Bothmethodsareinfluencedbytheworthofthejoband/ortheskillsinthemarketplace.

Bothmethodshaveadvantagesanddisadvantages.Payingonthebasisofthejobisbyfarthemostcommon,perhapsbecauseitistheoldest.Ithastheadvantageof
being,oratleastappearingtobe,themostobjective.Itisbasedonjobdescriptions.Thesejobdescriptionsaretypicallyquitebriefandwrittensotheycanbe
comparedwithsimilarbriefdescriptionscontainedinmarketsurveysofjobsinotherorganizationswithinthesameindustry.Thesejobcomparisonsandthepayrates
forthejobshelpestablish

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thesocalledmarketratesofpay.Briefasthesejobdescriptionsare,estimatesaremadeastotheirrequirementsforeducationtrainingexperienceverbal,numerical,
andspatialrelationsabilitiesandphysicaldemands.Themore(higherlevels)ofthesefactorsthatarerequired,themorethejobsarevalued.Thedisadvantageofthis
approachisthatworkersputforthfarmoreskillandeffortintheirjobsthanisratedinthejobdescription.Whatismore,thisapproachtendstolimitworkerstotheir
jobdescriptionwhenthenaturaltendencyofmanyworkersistogrowintheirjob,gobeyonditsboundaries,andmeetthechallengesofthemoment.

Thelattermethod,payingtheperson,isnotverycommon,althoughdependingonhowitisdefined,surveysfindthismethodinuseinfrom5%to40%oflarge
corporationsforsomesegmentoftheirworkforce(Lawler,1990).Itisespeciallyassociatedwithresearchanddevelopmentendeavors,teamwork,participative
management,andhightechnologyorganizations.Amajordisadvantageofthismethodisthatitpresentssignificantproblemsindefinitionofrelevantskillstobepaidfor
andinadministration.

FJAlendsitselfequallywelltoeitherapproach.Itcombinesthemainelementsofbothapproachesinitsconceptofajobworkersituation,andtheintegrated
combinationofjobrequirementsandworkercharacteristics.InFJA,alljobsareconsideredasjobworkersituationsandareratedforthesamefactors.Theseratings
canallbeassignedpointvaluesthatestablishtheirrelativedifficultyorcomplexity.

WillingnesstoaccepttheideathatmorecomplexjobsarebyandlargeworthmoremoneyhasmoreorlessbeeningrainedintheU.S.valuesystemandappearstobe
widelyacceptedaslongasothercontingentfactorsarealsotakenintoconsideration.Contingentfactorsthatcanreceivespecialpayallowancesbutarenotincluded
intherankingofthecomplexityofthejobworkersituationinclude:hazards,extremeworkingconditions(heat,cold,fumes),seniority,allowancesforcostofliving,
familysize,childcare,generaleducation,nonspecifictraining,andperformanceexcellence(paidbybonus).Paymentforthesecontingentfactorsisbynomeans
universalandisfrequentlyamatterdeterminedbythesocialculture,sometimesbylegislation,andatothertimesastheresultofcollectivebargaining.

FJAApproachtoSkillEvaluation:OverallRationale

FJAconsidersthatajobworkersituation,whateveritslevelofcomplexity,involvesthewholepersonandthereforeallaspectsofaworker'sinvolvementinthejob
shouldbeconsideredinthecompensation.

 Page193

Fourcomponentscontributetothiswholepersoninvolvement:Functional,Holistic,Organizational,andPremiumorSpecialAdaptation.Thefirstthreecomponents
areintrinsictotheskillrequirementsofjobsandreflectqualificationsthatarenecessarytoperformadequatelyinthejob.Thesequalificationsincludeanindividual's
capacities,investmentinself,andwillingnesstoassumeresponsibility.ThePremiumcomponentrepresentsspecialadaptationsindividualsmaketotheenvironmentin
whichjobworkersituationsoccurandreflectwaysinwhichworkersarewillingtoextendthemselvestoadapttotheworksituation.

Closeexaminationofthesefourcomponentsrevealstheyincludetheeffort,training,responsibility,andworkingconditionscoveredintraditionalcompensationplans
butdosomorecomprehensivelyandingreaterdetail.TheinformationrequiredbytheFJAjobevaluationsystemisobtainedbyusingthe10measuresalready
describedinChapter5(threemeasuresforskilllevelthreefororientationthreeforReasoning,Math,andLanguageandoneforWorkerInstructions,WI)and
severaladditionalscalesthatareverysimpletouse.AmongtheseadditionalscalesisaStrengthScalewithvaluesalreadysupplied.Afewoftheseadditionalscales,
forexample,"ConsequencesofError,"requiretheorganizationsusingthisapproachtoestablishtheirownscaleofvalues.

AtfirstglancetheamountofinformationusedinFJAjobevaluationmightseemdaunting.However,theinformationneededfortheevaluationisreadilyathandviathe
ratingsofthesummarydescriptionofthetaskbank.Thereuponitisamatteroftransposingtheinformationintothejobevaluationforminalogicalstepbystep
process.Onceperformed,theprocessbecomesquitesimple.

Theratingsaremadefromsummarydescriptionsofthetaskbankdesignedtoreflectthehighestfunctionallevelsineachofthefunctionalscales.Forthepresent
purpose,thesummaryofafieldserviceengineer(FSE)Xray,whichoccursinthemedicalsystemsindustryisusedtoillustratetheFJAmethodofcalculatingpoint
valuesforjobworkersituations.

SummaryDescriptionofFSEXRay

Repairand/orservice(e.g.,preventivemaintenance)xrayequipmentinresponsetocallsforhelp(phoneorpager,fromheadquartersorcustomer)oraccordingtomaintenance
schedule,observingproblemonsiteifpossible,drawingonknowledgeofequipment,training,andinformationelicitedfromxraytechnicianorradiologistandrelyingon
experienceandskillinaskingquestionsinordertocorrectproblembyphonefixoronsite,bringequipmenttopeakperformanceandensurecustomerishappywithresult
apply/usetestequipment(oscilloscope,multimeter,h.v.bleeder,radiationmeters)asnecessarytoparticularpointsinxrayequipment,verifyingloca

 Page194

tionofproblem,explainingtocustomerresultsoftroubleshooting,indicatingonspotrepairspossibleordelaysthatmightoccurifspecialpartsaretobeordered,drawingon
knowledgeofpartscarriedinvehicle,partsavailablethroughcomputeraccess(FSEhasportablecomputer)andrelyingondiagnosticandcomputerskillsattendtopaperworkto
reportonservicecalls,partsreplaced,timespent,etc.,drawingoncompanyprocedurestokeepdetailedandcompleterecordsandrelyingonskillinprocessingdatainorderto
establishabasisforbillingexchangeinformationwithmanagementandotherFSEsbyphone,voice,oremailconcerningschedules,itineraries,customerrelations,statusof
equipmentwithongoingservicecalls,respondingtocallsonpager,drawingonownprepareditinerariesandprioritiesinordertokeepmanagementandotherFSEsinformedof
whereaboutsandpersonalavailabilitytohelpifneededattendstoequipmentmaintenanceschedules,coachesnewemployeesonthejob,reviewsprimaryaccountschecking
fulfillmentofobligations,andparticipatesinselfdevelopmentactivities(readingtechnicalmaterialandattendingseminars)drawingonunderstandingoforganizationalobjectives
andpersonaladaptabilityinordertomeetneedsforgrowth.

ThetenbasicFJAratingsforthisjobworkersituationplusstrengthareshowninFig.16.1.TheseratingsarederivedfromtheFJAtaskbankandrepresentthe
followinganalysisofthesummarydescriptionoftheFSEjobworkersituation.TheratingsareusedasvaluesforcompletingtheFJAJobEvaluationForm.

ThefunctionallevelsshowthisjobworkersituationinvolvesSettingUp(4B)asitrelatestotoolsandequipmentAnalyzing(4)asitrelatestoallofthevariablesthat
needtobeconsideredinarrivingatadiagnosis,andCoaching,SourcingInformationandPersuading(3a,b,andc)astheyrelatetotheseveralwaystheFSEneedsto
dealwithPeople.

TheOrientationratingsshowthisisprimarilyaThingsjobworkersituation(aratingof40)almostequaltothesecondaryinvolvementofData(35)withthePeople
(25)involvementsubstantialbutstillinthirdplace.A

FunctionalLevel FunctionalOrientation Enablers

Worker

Instruction GeneralEducational
Development Strength

Things Data People Things Data People Reason Math Lang

4B 4 3A,B,C 40(3) 35(2) 25(1) 4 4 3 4 7

FIG.16.1.
SummaryratingsforFSEXray.

 Page195

closelookattheorientationratingsalsoshowsthatallthreearerelativelyimportantalthoughtheyrank3,2,1(asshowninparentheses)andtheperformance
standardsforeachmeritcloseattention.

TheEnablerabilitiesincludeWI,GeneralEducationalDevelopment(GED),andStrength(Str).TheWorkerInstructionsincludetheabilitytofollowinstructionsin
bothverbalandschematicform,figuringouthisorherownwayofgettingajobdoneincludingselectionoftools,testequipment,parts,andsequenceofoperations
(tasks),andobtainingessentialinformationfromhandbooksandresourcesinthecomputer.Maysetupproceduresforotherstodothework.

TheLevel4forreasoningabilityindicatesknowledgeofasystemofinterrelatedproceduresinthisinstancerelatingtotheelectronicsofXrayequipmentandthe
abilitytoaccessoptionalsolutionstoordinaryproblems.Level4alsoindicatestheabilitytoapplyprinciplestoeverydayproblemsanddealwithavarietyofconcrete
variablesinsituationswhereonlylimitedstandardizationexists.Level3formathematicalabilityrequiresmakingcalculationsinvolvingfractions,decimals,and
percentages.Languageability,Level4,involvesreadingandcomprehendingtechnicalmanualsandwritteninstructions,aswellastheverbalfluencynecessaryto
communicatewithprofessionalcustomers,colleagues,andmanagement.Thestrengthrating,Level3,reflectstheneedtotransporttestequipmentandpartsfromthe
transportationvehicletotheworksite.

ThenextstepintheFJAjobevaluationprocessiscompletionofthejobevaluationformtheformatisshowninTable16.1.Asnotedearlier,thevaluestobeentered
areinmostinstancesthenumberrepresentingtherating.However,inthecaseofOrientation,theratingsareconvertedtorankingsrangingfromhightolowwith3
beingthehighest.

FunctionalSkill

Thiscolumnhasfoursections,oneeachforPhysical(Things),Mental(Data),andInterpersonal(People).Thefourthsectioninvolvinganexecutivedecision
concerningorganizationalvaluesisdiscussedfollowingadescriptionofthecalculationsrelatingtothefirstthreesections,

EachofthefirstthreesectionshasaplaceforthevaluesfortheFSEs.Thus,underPhysical,ThingsLeveltakesa4forSettingUp/PrecisionWorking(onlythe
numbersareusedinthecalculations)Strength(theEnabler)takesa3Orientationtakesa3(therankofthepercentage).Theformulaforcombiningthesevaluesto
obtainasubtotalisasfollows:Levelplus(+)Enablertimes(x)Orientation=Subtotal.Substitutingthefiguresinthisformulayields4+3=7,x4=28.

Beforecontinuing,itisnecessarytoexplaintherationaleforaddingtheEnablervaluetotheLevelvalueandmultiplyingbytheOrientationvalue.

 Page196

TABLE16.1
FJAJobEvaluationRatingForm
FunctionalSkills HolisticFactors OrganizationalFactors PremiumFactors
PhysicalFactors ConsequencesofError Numberofprograms Extremework
managed conditions
Thingslevel
+ Valueofprograms Shiftwork

Strength managed Hazards

x
Orientation
=
Subtotal:
Numberofclients Overtime
served
MentalFactors
Responsibility Levelofpersons Isolatedlocation
Datalevel (Prescription/discretion contacted

+ Internal
Reason/math External Labormarket

x Shortage

Orientation Surplus

=
Subtotal:
Numberofpersons Seniority
directlysupervised
InterpersonalFactors Meritperformance

Numberofpersons
Peoplelevel Specificvocational indirectlysupervised Costofliving
+ preparation(SVP)
Language
x
Orientation
=
Subtotal:
Relativevalue
managementplaceson:
Things_____________
Data______________
People_____________
Skill Holistic Organizational Premium
Subtotal: Subtotal: Subtotal: Subtotal:
GRANDTOTAL:

 Page197

RationaleforAddingEnablerValuestoLevel

SkilllevelshaveasEnablersphysical,mental,andinterpersonalfactorsappropriatetoTDP.Enablersareaddedtothefunctionallevelbecausetheyare
complementarytothelevelandintegralwiththebehavior.

TheenablerforThingsistheactivestrengthrequiredtodothejobasratedonthe5pointscaleinTable16.2.Theratingsonthisscale,whichrangefromSedentary
toVeryHeavy,reflectdifferentdegreesofphysicalinvolvementwheretheworkerdrawsonphysicaleffortinlifting.Theappropriatescalevalueisaddedtotheskill
levelvaluebeforetheeffortmultiplierisapplied.

TheEnablerforDataisobtainedfromtheReasoningand/orMathscales.Thehigherofthetworatingsisaddedtothefunctionallevel.Therationaleforapplyingthis
factortotheDatavalueisthatdatarequirementalactivitytoapplyknowledge,andbothreasoningandmatharetheappropriatementalactivitiesforthiscomponent.
AgaintheReasoningand/orMathareintegralwiththebehavior.Inmostjobs,otherthancertainselectedacademicorscientificjobs,Reasoninghasthehighestrating
andwillbetheoneapplied.

TheEnablerforInterpersonalfunctionisobtainedfromtheLanguagescaleandtheratingforlanguageisitsvalue.Inthejobworkersituationthemostcommonform
ofinterpersonalactivityisspokenlanguage(accompanied,ofcourse,bybodylanguage).Writtenjobordersmayalsobeenlargedonthroughthespokenword.The
Languagescaleprovidesspeakingandreadingillustrations.(Wheninterpersonalactivityoccursmainlythroughwriting,itisconsideredadatafunctionandwouldbe
ratedforthereasoninginvolved.)

RationaleforUsingOrientationValueasaMultiplier

Theorientationcomponentisthesourceoftheeffortmultiplier.Itisnotintegralwithfunctionasistheenabler.Insteaditisafunctionofthedemandsoftheworkand
thequalityoftheworker.Theeffortcontributedto

TABLE16.2
StrengthScale
PhysicalEffort(lifting): Weight
VeryHeavy:Over75pounds 5
Heavy:5075pounds 4
Medium:2550pounds 3
Light:525pounds(onfeet) 2
Sedentary 1

 Page198

thefunctionandenablercanincreaseproductivityenormously,farbeyondmereaddition.

Therationaleisasfollows:effortappliedforeachtaskistotaleffortor100%.However,askilledworkergiveseachofthethreefunctionalcomponentsTDPthe
proportionof100%thatiswarrantedbythenatureofthetaskinordertoachievethedesiredstandards.Anindividualdoesthismoreorlessunconsciouslyasaresult
oftrainingandexperience.(Itisnotunlikethefeelingandtonalvaluethataconcertviolinistorpianistlearnstogiveeachnoteandphraseofamusicalcomposition
drawingontrainingandpersonalexperience.)

Functionaljobanalystsassignsuchproportionalvaluesonthebasisoftheirunderstandingofthestandardsthatneedtobeachievedinagiventask.Thethree
proportionsmustaddto100butmustbesupportedbydatainthetaskstatementandbeacceptabletotheincumbent.Althoughtheproportionsareestimates,there
usuallyisnotanyprobleminarrivingatconsensusastowhattheseproportionsshouldbe.Differencesamongagroupofincumbentsareresolvedbysummoningup
additionaldataonwhichagreementcanbereached.Themainpurposeoftheestimatesistoarriveattheirrelativeimportance.

Althoughtherationalehasbeendescribedintermsoftasks,thebasicunitsofjobworkersituations,thesamerationaleappliestotheevaluationofthejobsummary.
Thesummaryiswrittentoreflectthehighestfunctionallevelsofthejob'stasksandtheappropriateOrientation.

Theproportionalvaluesaretranslatedtomultipliersof3,2,and1accordingtotheirrankorderbyorientation.Thesemultiplierscanbeadjustedtohighernumbers,
forexample,30,20,or10,toobtainagreaterspreadofskillvalues.Theselargernumbersdonothaveanyeffectontherelativerankorderoftheskillsubtotalforthe
particularjob.

FollowingthroughforMentalinthesamemannerasforPhysical,thefollowingnumbersareusedintheformula:Level4forAnalyzing,Enabler(ReasoningorMath,
whicheverishigher)4,Orientation2.Combiningthesenumbersasintheformularesultsinasubtotalof16(4+4x2).

InthecaseofInterpersonal,thenumbersare:Level3forSourcingInformation(orCoachingorPersuading),Enabler(Language)4,Orientation1.Combining
thesenumbersintheformularesultsinasubtotalof7(3+4x1).

RelativeValueofTDPSkills

ThefinalitemintheFunctionalFactorscolumn,RelativeValueManagementPlacesonTDP,dealswithanimportantmanagementdecisionthatneedstobemadeat
theoutsetofthejobevaluationprocess.Managementmustaskthefollowingquestions:Whatismostimportantinthegivenor

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ganization?Whatdoesitvaluemost?Whateveritdecides,itmustapplythevaluesarrivedattoallthejobsintheplant.Itcannot,inallfairness,shiftitsdecisionforthe
convenienceorfavorofaparticulargroupofworkers.IfmanagementdecidesthatwhatitvaluesmostisThings,thenData,andthenPeople,ontheorderof7,5,3,
andusestheseweightstoaddtothecomponentsubtotals,itmuststaywiththeseweightsforallthejobsintheorganization.Theadditionoftheseweightsisawayof
bringingunderlyingbeliefstotheforeandaccountingforthembyaddingpointstothebasicskilltotal.

TheorganizationemployingtheFSEsisacorporatemanufacturinggiantservingthehealthcareindustry.Promptservicingofequipmentwhensomethinggoeswrongis
criticallivesmaydependonit.Theorganizationpridesitselfontheexcellenceofitsequipmentandstandsbytheequipment'sreputationforreliability.Keepingthe
equipmentingoodrepairiscritical,hencetheorganizationplacesthehighestvalueonThings7.Nevertheless,becauseoftheadvancedtechnologyoftheequipment
andtheconsiderableskillrequiredinitsmaintenance,theorganizationalsoplacesahighvalueonData5.Finally,theorganizationvaluesPeoplelast(butnot
insubstantially)3.Thus,TDParevaluedinrelationtoeachother7,5,3.

Thesenumberssaythattothisorganization,people'sabilitytoworkwithThingsisworthalittlemorethantwiceasmuchastheirabilitytoworkwithPeople,andtheir
abilitytoworkwithDataisalmostasimportantastheirabilitytoworkwithThings.(Thenumbersarearrivedatbyconsensustoreflectthedominantfeelings
expressedbytheorganization'sleaders.)

HolisticFactors

Holisticfactorsaresonamedbecausetheyrelatetothewholejob.Theyunderlieoroverlaythewholeperson'sfunctioninginthejob.Thethreeholisticfactorsare:
ConsequencesofError,Responsibility(asreflectedintheexecutionoftheprescriptiveanddiscretionaryaspectsofinstructions),andSpecificVocationalPreparation
(SVP).TheycannotbeexpressedintermsoftheanalyticfactorsTDP.

ConsequencesofError

Errorresultsinlosses.Lossescanoccurinmaterials,money,stafftime,morale,andorganizationalimage.Lossesoccurbecauseofignorance(lackoftraining)failures
injudgment,courtesy,andcooperationandlackofdisciplineinfollowingthesocialandworkrulesrelatingtoworkbehavior

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andtime.Theextentofthelosses(expressedforthesubjectorganization)canbe:

HighAffectthewholeorganizationgivetheorganizationablackeyeandhavearippleeffectinthecommunityormarketplace.Canleadtobankruptcyoratremendousuphill
struggletoovercomethenegativeeffects.

MediumHighAffecttheorganizationinlossofsignificantfinancialsupportforexample,lossofamajoraccount,funding,grant,and/ordatabase,ordisaffectionofasegmentof
populationserved(lossofmarketshare).

MediumAffectaprograminlossofmaterials,money,orstafftimeorharmsclient.

MediumLowAffectadepartmentorworkunitinlossofmaterial,money,orstafftimeorharmsclient.

LowAffectanimmediateworkprocessinlossofpersonaland/orsupervisorytimeneededtocorrecterror.

Thesefivescalelevelsaresimplyindicative.Theycanbeextendedtoasmanyas10levelswithassignmentsofdollarvalue(seeTable16.3).Indefiningvaluesforthis
scaletheissuesare:Isinformationavailabletomakethejudgment,andcanthejudgmentsbeappliedconsistently?

Needlesstosay,theorganizationneedstobeawareofwhereandhowlossescanoccur,knowwhichtasksinwhichjobsarevulnerable,andtakeappropriate
precautionsinsafeguardingagainsttheselosses.Suchprecautionscanoccurinhiring,training,designoftheworkplace,designofprocedures,forexample,traffic,
safetyandsecurityeducation,andsigningofdocuments.Sometimeslossescanrevealsignificantmanagementneglectandpointtoremedialmeasures.Aspartofeach
worker'strainingandinductionintotheorganization,itisessentialthatheorshebealertedtothepotentialconsequencesoferrorinherentinfailuretoperform
accordingtotrainingandorientation.

TABLE16.3
DollarValueConsequencesofError
Level Description Amount
5 High $50,000+
4 MediumHigh $20,000$50,000
3 Medium $5,000$20,000
2 MediumLow $1,000$5,000
1 Low $0$1,000

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ThereisamediumconsequenceoferrorfortheFSExray,onethatcanresultinalossofmaterial,stafftime,harmtoclient,andcancellationofrepairand
maintenancecontracts.ThisisaLevel3withaweightof12.

Responsibility

IntheviewofFJA,responsibilityultimatelyisamatteroffollowinginstructions,beingaccountableforthatwhatisprescribedandwhatisdiscretionary.Everyjob,
fromhighesttolowest,hasasetofinstructions.Asnotedearlier,inhigherleveljobstheinstructionsareheavilyweightedinthedirectionofdiscretionorjudgment.
Thelowerthelevelofthejobthemoreitinvolvesprescription,followingSOP.Itmustnotbeoverlookedthatevenonthesimplestleveltherearediscretionary
aspectstothejobandthatevenonthehighestlevelthereareprescriptiveaspects.

Responsibilityisamatterfortheworkertoeffectivelyandefficientlymixtheprescriptiveanddiscretionaryaspectsofthejobastheyrelatetotheculture(valuesand
traditions)oftheorganizationinordertoachievetherequiredstandards.Itiseasiertoevaluateresponsibilityforfollowingprescriptiveinstructionsbecausetheyare
specificandofteninvolvenumerical(quantifiable)elements.(Thesequantifiableelementsrepresentthedistillationofmuchexperience.)Itismuchmoredifficultyto
evaluatediscretionaryinstructionsbecausetheyhavenotyetbeenreducedtoSOP.Nevertheless,judgmentswillbemade.Acautiontobeobservedistotreaterrors
andsuccessesintheusesofdiscretionequally.Adiscretionaryfailuremaybeasmuchthefaultofthepersonissuingthediscretionaryinstructionastheperson
executingit.

TheratingforworkerinstructionsasdefinedintheWIScaleprovidesthebasisforthevalueassigned(seeTable16.4).FortheFSE,theWILevelis4withavalueof
20.
Output(productorservice)isspecifiedintheassignment,whichmaybeintheformoramemorandumorschematic(sketchorblueprint).Theworkermustworkouthisorherown
wayofgettingthejobdone,includingtheselectionanduseoftoolsand/orequipment,sequenceofoperations(tasks),andobtainingimportantinformation(handbooks,
databases).Workermayeitherdotheworkorsetupstandardsandproceduresforotherstodoit.

SVP

Thisfactorplacesavalueontherelevantpreparationinexperienceandtrainingthatanindividualneedstoreachnormalproduction(RNP)foragivenjob.(Itisnot
intendedtocharacterizetheindividualwhomayhavemoreorlesstrainingthanisneededforthejob.)ThescaleforSVPisshowninTable16.5.

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TABLE16.4
WIScale
Range Weight
8*
7*
6*
5 30
4 20
3 12
2 7
1 3
*
WeightsforLevels6,7,and8oftheWIScaleneedtobearrived
atbyexecutivedecisionwheretheseexceptionaljobsoccur.

TABLE16.5
SVPExperienceandTraining
Level Description Weight
9 10Years+ 50
8 410Years 45
7 24Years 35
6 12Years 30
5 6Months1Year 25
4 3Months6Months 20
3 30Days3Months 15
2 Upto30Days 10
1 ShortDemo 5

Certainconventionshavebeenadoptedinevaluatinganindividual'squalifications.
A4yearcollegeeducationisvaluedat2yearsofvocationalpreparationwhetherinEnglishorengineering.

A2yearassociatedegreewithvocationalorientationisvaluedat1yearofvocationalpreparation.

Aspecific6monthbusiness(e.g.,secretarial)orvocationalcourse(e.g.,electronictechnician)isgivenfullvalueas6monthsofvocationalpreparation.

Afullyservedapprenticeshiptoachievejourneymanstatusisvaluedas3yearsofvocationalpreparation.

Internshipsaregivenfullvaluefortimeinvolved,yearforyear.

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Experiencebackgroundneedstobeevaluatedforrelevanceonfunctional,specificcontent,andadaptiveskilllevelsandjudgmentcallsmadeastothetimevalue
assigned.

Ingeneral,Level7,2to4years,isthelevelrequiredtoperforminacraftsuchascarpenterorplumberorenteraprofessionaloccupation,suchasteacher,
accountant,nurse.

TheSVPfortheFSEisjudgedtorequire1to2yearsorLevel6,whichyieldsaweightof30.Theadditionofthethreescoresforthiscolumn,12,20,and30yields
asubtotalof62.

OrganizationalFactors

Thesefactorsareafurtherelaborationofresponsibilityastheylargelyandspecificallyapplytothemanagementfunctionsintheorganization.Abouttheonlyitem
amongthesefactorsthatappliestoworkersgenerallyisLevelofPersonsContactedunlesstheworkershaveassignedfunctionsinparticipativemanagement.

Thesefactorsdealquitespecificallywiththemanagementofmoney,plantandequipment,andpersons.Eachoftheitemscanhaveitsownscaleandmayrequiresome
definitionintermsofdollarrangesorprograms.Programscanalsobeunderstoodasdepartments.

Judgmentcallsneedtobemadeastothenumberofpointsassignedtopersonssuperviseddirectlyversuspersonmanagedindirectly.Typicallysupervisionisamore
directrelationshipwithpeople.

LevelofPersonsContactedandNumberofClientsServed

Theassumptionmadeisthatthehigherthelevelofpersoncontactedthegreatertheresponsibilityandpossibilityoferror.Thusamajordifferencebetweenalowlevel
secretaryandexecutivesecretarymaybechieflyinthisfactor.Thisassumptioncanbeextendedtoalljobsbutisprobablymoreevidentinmanagerialjobs.Forthe
FSE,ascaleconstructedforasocialserviceagencyservesasanexample.However,asimilarscaleshouldbeconstructedforeachorganizationusingthis
methodology.

AtypicalscaleforpeoplecontactedisshowninTable16.6.Theassumptionhereisthatthehigherthelevelofthepersoncontactedthegreatertheresponsibilityand
costofmakinganerror.

TheNumberofClientsServedfactor(Table16.7)isintendedtoreflectclientloadforthosejobshavingcontactwithclientsoftheorganization.

ThefactorsinthiscolumnthatapplytotheFSEaretheLevelofPersonsContactedandtheNumberofClientsServed.Theformerinvolvescontact

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TABLE16.6
ScaleofValuesforLevelofPersonsContacted
Weight Level
External

5 Serviceproviders,linetoline,vendors

7 Clients

10 Programdirectors,departmentheads

15 Agencyheads

20 Legislators

25 Powerbrokers

Internal

3 Programorprojectdirectors

6 Interdepartmental

9 Executivestaff

12 Agencyboardmembers

15 Boardofdirectors

TABLE16.7
ScaleofValuesforNumberofClientsServed
NumberofClients Weight
1 1

23 2

45 3

6+ 5

withtheProgramdirectorinternally,whichhasavalueof3,andwithClientsexternally,whichhasavalueof7.Thetwovalues,3and7adduptoatotalscoreof10.
Thelatterinvolvescontactwith6+clientsoftheorganization,thereforeyieldsaweightof5.ThetotalscoreinthiscolumnfortheFSEis15.

BasePointJobEvaluationScore

Theadditionofthethreecomponentscores,Functional,Holistic,andOrganizational62,10,and15fortheFSEyieldsthebasicjobevaluationscore.Thescore
comparesthisjobworkersituationtoallotherjobworkersituationswithintheorganizationonthebasisofthesamekindsofdata.Itdoesnotincludeadditional
valuesthatmightbeassignedfollowingtheconsiderationofPremiumfactors.

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PremiumFactors

Asnotedearlier,Premiumfactorsarenotappropriatelywovenintothejobevaluationpointscores.Thereasonisthesefactorscallforspecialadaptationsonthepart
ofindividualworkersororganizationstocontextualfactorsofjobsthatarenotnecessarilyassociatedwithskillacquisition.Premiumfactorsareofroughlythreetypes:
Workeradaptationtoextremeorhazardousworkingconditionscallingfortheparticularwillingnessoftheworkertoadapttotheconditions.Thiscategoryincludesshiftwork,
overtimework,orworkinisolatedsituations.

Employeradaptationtoworkersuniqueneedsandlabormarketconditionscausingshortagesorsurplusesforparticularspecificcontentskillsoremployeewillingnesstoadaptto
veryspecialconditions.

Employeradaptationstoloyaltyandmeritoriousperformancethatcontributestotheemployer'sstability,profitability,andgrowthpotential.

Thesefactorsneedtobecompensatedforbybonusesorpremiumstackedontothebasepayofaparticularjob.Inthismannerthecomparativestatusofthejobs
basedonskillcanbemaintainedandcompensationforspecialcircumstancescanbeseenforwhatitis.

SummaryofFJAandPay

Pay,thebasicandmostimmediaterewardforwork,presentsemployerswithatremendouschallenge.Theyneedtobefairandequitableintwovitalways:(a)how
theycompensateworkersforqualitiestheworkersbringtotheworkplaceKSAs,effort,andadaptabilityand(b)howtheytreatworkersincomparisontoeach
otherwithintheorganizationandalsotoworkersincomparableworkinthecommunityatlarge.

Workersneedtofeeltheyarebeingpaidfairlyandequitablynotonlytomeettheirpersonalneedsbutalsotomaintaintheirselfesteemandsenseofselfworth.When
theseconditionsaremet,workersarebestabletocontributeeffectivelyandefficientlytotheprofitabilityandexcellenceoftheorganizationanditscompetitiveposition
inthemarketplace.Whenthisdynamicbetweenemployerandworkerisworkingwell,itisawinwinsituationforboth.

FJAisacomprehensiveandeffectivetoolforestablishingthevalueofajobworkersituation,takingintoconsiderationfunctionalskillrequire

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ments,holisticfactors(consequencesoferror,responsibility,andSVP)andorganizationalfactorsrelatingtomanagementandcontactwithpeople.FJAfocuseson
boththejobrequirementsthatestablishthelevelofthejobandontheworkercharacteristicsthatmeetthoserequirementscharacteristicsthatindicatethehuman
potentialinvolvedandavailableforgrowth.Italsoprovidesforafourthcomponent,Premiumfactors.Premiumfactorscallforspecialvaluestobeplacedon
adaptationstoparticularworkingconditions,shortageofqualifiedworkersforthejob,andperformancebeyondexpectations(meritoriousperformance).Shouldthe
employerwishtocompensateforuniqueskillpotential,thistoocanbeaccommodatedbytheFJAjobevaluationapproachthroughthePremiumfactorcomponent.

TheFJAjobevaluationmethod,althoughdetailed,involvesasimpletranspositionofvaluestoajobevaluationformdevelopedforthispurpose.Thevalueshave
mostlyalreadybeendeterminedduringtheFJAphaseoftheprocess.ThereisconsiderableadvantageinthefourcomponentapproachofFJAbecauseitrevealsto
workersandtheemployerexactlywhatisvaluedandwhatisbeingpaidfor.Itpermitsflexibilityinarrivingatafinalscorebyallowingfortheassignmentofspecific
weightstooneoranothercomponentinauniformmanner.Determinationofsuchweightsneedstobearrivedatthroughasharedinterpretationofexperienceto
ensurecontinuedtrustbetweentheemployerandworkers.

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Chapter17
JobDesignBuildingBetterWork
Workersexperiencetheirjobsindepthandwithanintimacyrarelyappreciatedbytheirmanagers.Afterall,jobsareasignificantpartofworkers'lives,providingnot
onlyalivelihoodforthemandtheirfamiliesbutoftenalsoprovidingthebasisfortheexpressionoftheirpotential.Jobdescriptionscanonlyfaintlyreflecttherichness
andmeaninginanyworkexperience,althoughFJAcomescloserthanmanyjobanalysismethodsbyworkingwithintheexperienceofincumbentsandwritingthetask
bankintheirlanguage.Asaworkermakessenseoftheworkandgrowsintheworksituation,heorshemodifiestheworkinwaysbothlargeandsmalltosuit
personalstyleandgrowthneedsandtomaketheworkdoingsystemmoreproductivemostoftenwithouttheawarenessofmanagement.Toexpectworkerstodo
anylessistodenytheirneedtoexpresstheirsenseofselfandtheircompetency.

Fields(1998),inanAssociatedPressarticleaboutHarleyDavidson'snewestassemblyplantinKansasCity,Missouri,illustrateswhatcanhappenwhenworkersare
givenfreereintoexpresstheirpotentialintheworkplace:

Threedozenemployeedesignedcartsthatswivel360degreesandcanbeloweredorraisedtosuiteachworker,carrycomponentsamongstations.Forwelding,framesare
mountedonspecialwheelssothatweldersdon'thavetocontortthemselvestoreacheachcorner.ForgreaterconsistencyinHarley'shallmarkstriping,traditionallypaintedby
hand,theworkersdesignedadevicetoguidethebrush.(Fields,1998)

WehaveseeninnumerableinstancesofthistypeofpersonalinitiativeandadaptabilityintheirmanyyearsofconductingFJAfocusgroups.Invariably,workers'efforts
havepositiveeffectsonproductorservicequal

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ityandonproductivity.Infact,thisisoneofthecentralfactsofworklifethatemergesduringanFJAfocusgroup,regardlessofjob,organizationlevel,orcountry.

Unfortunately,workereffortstoimprovetheworkplaceoftengounrecognizedandunappreciatedbymanagement.Evenworse,managementfrequentlycensures
workerswhentheyredesigntheirworkinwaysmanagementhasnotforeseen.Thisisnottosaythatmanagersshouldnotbeinvolvedinjobdesign.Managerswho
leaveworkersentirelytotheirowndevicesabdicatetheirresponsibilitytoaddvaluetojobdesignvaluecontributedthroughthesynergyofjointproblemsolving.
Withoutthismutuality,workers'jobdesignefforts,howeverwellintentioned,sometimescomeoffasimprovised,especiallybecauseworkersdonothavethe''bird's
eyeview''ofoperationsaffordedtothemanager.Theneedforcooperativeeffortinjobdesignhasbeenknownforalongtime.Taylor(1911),who,atthebeginning
ofthiscentury,startedthescientificmanagementmovementthatrevolutionizedmanagementpracticesinU.S.industry,washarshlycriticalofmanagerswhoabandon
workerstotheirowndevices.InTheprinciplesofScientificManagementhesaid:
Thebodyofthispaperwillmakeitclearthat,toworkaccordingtoscientificlaws,themanagementmusttakeoverandperformmuchoftheworkwhichisnowlefttothemen[sic]
almosteveryactoftheworkmanshouldbeprecededbyoneormorepreparatoryactsofthemanagementwhichenablehimtodohisworkbetterandquickerthanheotherwise
could.Andeachmanshoulddailybetaughtbyandreceivethemostfriendlyhelpfromthosewhoareoverhim,insteadofbeing,attheoneextreme,drivenorcoercedbyhis
bosses,andattheotherlefttohisownunaideddevices.Thisclose,intimate,personalcooperationbetweenthemanagementandthemenisoftheessenceofmodernscientificor
taskmanagement.(p.26)

JobDesignSynergyBetweenManagerandWorker

Sowhatexactlyismanagement'sroleinjobdesign?Itisacooperativeandsupportiveone.Managershaveperspectiveonthegoalsandpurposeoftheworkdoing
system(thebigpicture).Theyshouldclearlyarticulatetheobjectivesandgoalsfortheworkunitorteamandinformworkersofsystemsfactorsthatcanimpedeor
facilitatetheworkers'effortsthatneedtobeaccountedforinjobredesign.Forexample,ifanoldmachineistobephasedoutinafewmonthsandreplacedwitha
newonehavinguptodatetechnology,themanagerneedstoinformtheworkersoftheupcomingreplacementbeforetheyundertakeextensiveworktomodifythe
oldmachine.Managersalsoneedtoprovidetechnicalorotherdatathatcan

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contributetomoreeffectivejobdesignforexample,engineeringspecifications,designs,andadvicemaybeveryhelpfultoworkersmakingmodificationstoincreases
theproductionofamachine.Additionally,managementshouldgiveworkersaccesstothevitalresources,includingmoney,requiredtoeffecttheimprovementsfor
example,ananticipatedworkredesignmayrequireatrainingprogramtofamiliarizeworkerswithanewtechnology.Finally,managementshouldprovidesupportand
encouragementwhenworkerswillinglytakeonselfinitiatedjobdesign.Inshort,themanageristhecatalystforjobdesign.Acatalystprovokeschange,inducesthe
systemtomovetoaplacewhereitwouldnototherwisego,buttheenergydrivingthereaction(change)isprovidedbytheworkers.

Itmustberecognizedthatworkvariestothedegreethatworkershavethelatitudetoredesigntheirjobs.Intasksandjobshavinglowerlevelsofdiscretionand
relativelymoreprescription,opportunitiesforworkerinitiativeismorelimitedthaninhighdiscretionjobs.Injobsatthelowerlevelsofdiscretion,workersare
constrainedtoagreaterextentbythetechnologyusedand/orbymanagerialprescriptionsabouthowmaterialsaretobeprocessedorworked,orhowcustomersare
tobeserved.Transitoperatorsonurbanbusroutes,forexample,mustdomuchoftheirworkfromafixedposition(driversseat)withinamovingmetalplatform(the
bus)thattheycontrolonamomentbymomentbasisbutwithinatimeandrouteschedulesetbymanagement.Totheextentthatheorshecan,theoperatortailorsthe
workwithintheprescribedparameters.Butthephysicallayoutoftheworksituationandnecessitytoworkwithinatimeandroutesensitivesystem(e.g.,Passenger
Amustbeataspecifictransferpointbeforethenextscheduledbusleaves)constrainssometimesseverelywhattheoperatorcando.Nevertheless,asoperators
striveforworksatisfactionandservicequality,theyexpressindividualityandadaptationevenundertheserestrictiveconditions.Onemaypullespeciallyclosetothe
curbtofacilitateexitofanolderorphysicallyhandicappedpersonwhileanothercarriesapersonalcopyofacitymaptobetterinstructoutoftownpassengersinhow
togettotheirdesireddestinations.Asjobsallowmorediscretion,thetendencyofworkerstoexpressthemselvesthroughjobredesignbecomesmorepronounced.
Theonlylimitisthedegreeofprescriptionmanagementdecidestooverlayonthework.

Peopledesigntheirownworktotheextentpossiblewhethermanagementknowsthisornot.Csikszentmihalyi(1997),inhisworkonflow,predictedthis.Work
withoutsufficientchallengeproducesboredomaftertheworkerhasmasteredtherequirementsofthejob.Boredomisanoxiousstateandmanyworkerstakeiton
themselvestoraisethebartochallengetheirlanguishingskillsbyaddingadditionalvaluetotheirwork.Theywilldothiswithorwithoutexplicitendorsement
bymanagementandoftenwithoutitsknowledge.Examplesofworkerinitiatedjobdesignincludesthe

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teacherwhosetsupextratutoringsessionsforstudentsafterregularclassroomhours,theservicepersonwhodeliversabadlyneededappliancetoanelderlyshutin's
homeonhisorherowntime,thepressoperatorwhodoesextramaintenanceonamachineoutsideofSOPinordertoincreasethelifeoftheequipmentandavoid
breakdownsduringbusyperiods.Theseworkersstriveforcontinuousimprovement,sometimesinotherwisesterileworkenvironments,asanaturalreactiontotheir
needtolearnandgrow,tofeelcompetentandincontroloftheirfate,andtoavoidthespiritcrushingweightofinterminableboredom.Workerslikethesearemorethe
rulethantheexception.Managementdoesnotneedworkermotivationprogramstobringoutthistendency.Managerswhosetthenecessaryconditionsoftrustand
adoptalisteningstancecanbemotivatedtoparticipateinthenaturalprocessofjobdesignandaddvaluetoit.

APreconditionforSuccessfulCooperativeJobDesign:SharedInterpretationofExperience

Alisteningstancebymanagementsetsthestageforthesharedinterpretationofexperience(Shapiro&Carr,1991)betweenworkersandmanagementthatisthesine
quanonforahealthyandmaximallyproductiveworksystem.Managementmustunderstandwhereworkersarecomingfromwiththeirinformaljobdesigneffortsand
trustthemtohavethebestinterestsoftheorganizationatheart.Thenthecommunicationcanflowbetweenworkersandmanagementtheycanworktogethertoget
themostoutofjobdesignandservetheinterestsofworkergrowthaswell.

TheJapanesemanagementmodelofkaizen(continuousimprovement,CI)requiresasharedinterpretationofexperiencebetweenworkersandmanagementtobe
successful.Imai(1997)describeditasfollows:
Most"uniquelyJapanese"managementpractices,suchastotalqualitymanagementorcompanywidequalitycontrol,qualitycircles,andourstyleoflaborrelations,canbe
reducedtooneword:kaizen.Usingthetermkaizeninplaceofsuchbuzzwordsasproductivity,totalqualitycontrol(TQC),zerodefects(ZD),justintime(JIT),andthe
suggestionsystempaintsaclearerpictureofwhathasbeengoingoninJapaneseindustry.Kaizenisanumbrellaconceptforallthesepractices.(p.2)

KaizenhasapparentlyservedtheJapaneseverywellinhelpingincreasetheircompetitivenessoverthepastfewdecades.Imai(1997)providedavividexampleof
howthissharedinterpretationworksinkaizen:

EricMachiels,whocametoJapanfromEuropeasayoungstudenttolearnaboutJapanesemanagementpractices,wasplacedinaJapaneseautomotive

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assemblyplantasanoperator:ComparinghisexperiencetherewithhispreviousexperienceinEuropeangemba[workplaces],Machielsobservedmuchmoreintense
communicationbetweenmanagementandoperatorsinJapan,resultinginamuchmoreeffectivetwowayinformationflowbetweenthem.Workershadamuchclearer
understandingofmanagementexpectationsandoftheirownresponsibilitiesinthewholekaizenprocess.Theresultingconstructivetensionontheworkfloormadethework
muchmorechallengingintermsofmeetingmanagementexpectationsandgivingtheworkersahighersenseofprideintheirwork.(pp.1516)

Japan'shighlycooperativecultureexpressesitselfstronglyinJapaneseworkplaces(Hofstede,1984).Inthislight,theabilityofJapaneseworkersandmanagersto
achieveasharedinterpretationofexperienceisnotsosurprising.InthehighlyindividualisticUnitedStatesandotherWesternsocieties,workplacecompetitionand
loneeffortarethenormandsharedinterpretationofexperiencebetweenworkersandmanagementishardertoachieve.Ontheotherhand,itisbeingachievedin
moreandmoreworkplaces.EntrepreneursseekingtomoveinthedirectionofsharedinterpretationwillfindFJAausefultoolforthispurpose.

ChoicesinFJAJobDesign:ShouldManagementStriveforTopDownRadicalChangeorBottomUpCI?

HammerandChampy(1993)proposedareengineeringapproachtojobdesignandorganizationchange.Reengineeringseekstohavecorporations"reinvent"
themselves:
Attheheartofbusinessreengineeringliesthenotionofdiscontinuousthinkingidentifyingandabandoningtheoutdatedrulesandfundamentalassumptionsthatunderlie
currentbusinessoperations.Everycompanyisrepletewithimplicitrulesleftoverfromearlierdecades:"Customersdon'trepairtheirownequipment.""Localwarehousesare
necessaryforgoodservice.""Merchandisingdecisionsaremadeatheadquarters."Theserulesarebasedonassumptionsabouttechnology,people,andorganizationalgoalsthat
nolongerhold.Unlesscompanieschangetheserules,anysuperficialreorganizationstheyperformwillbenomoreeffectivethandustingthefurnitureinPompeii.(p.3)

Thisistheheroicorcowboyinthewhitehatapproachtojobdesignandorganizationalchange.Thereengineeringapproachisexemplifiedbyacompanythat,after
yearsofmanagementneglectinthefaceofforeigncompetition,isreengineeredandturnedaroundfromnearbankruptcytoaworldclassmanufacturerbyasmall
cadreofeliteconsultantsandseniormanagers.Bytakinga"blanksheetofpaper"andwithaboldandimagi

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nativereconceptualizationofthecompany'scoreprocesses,theysetinmotionatopdownchangeprocesstorevitalizetheorganization.Reengineeredorganizations
literallyreinventthemselvesor,tobemoreprecise,arereinventedbyseniorleveldecisionmakers.Thismodelisconsistentwithbeliefintheefficacyofcommandand
controlmanagementfromthetopoftheorganization.

Incontrasttothereengineeringapproachthatseeksverylargegainsinproductivityatasinglethrow,theJapanesehavetakentheincrementalapproachofkaizen.
Ratherthan"discontinuousthinking,"theyexercisethedisciplineandpatienceofthecontinuousthinkingneededtoengageinincremental,gradual,evolutionary
improvementstoworksystemsandprocessesoverlongperiodsoftime.ToquoteImai(1997),amajorproponentofkaizen:
InJapanese,kaizenmeanscontinuousimprovement.Thewordimpliesimprovementthatinvolveseveryonebothmanagersandworkersandentailsrelativelylittleexpense.
Thekaizenphilosophyassumesthatourwayoflifebeitourworkinglife,oursociallife,orourhomelifeshouldfocusonconstantimprovementefforts.(p.1)

TheprefacetothisbooknotedthatFJArequiresitspractitionerstowalkin,andexperiencefirsthandtherealworldwhereworkgetsdone.Kaizenrequiresthisas
well.Imai(1997)usedtheJapanesewordgembatorefertothisrealworldtheshopfloor,theservicecounter,theclassroomwherefrontlineworkersaddvalue
totheproductorservice.Allotheractivitiesintheorganizationprojectandengineeringmanagement,finance,andmarketingmustbeinsupportoffrontlineactivity
otherwise,theworkdoingsystemwilleventuallyfailintoday'scompetitive,qualityandcostconsciousworld.Thisplacewherethecriticalactivityoccurs,where
valueisadded,mustberespectedandlivedinconstantlybybothworkersandmanagers.FJAowesitsexistenceanddrawsitsstrengthfromitsabilitytocapturein
wordsthevitalitythatexistsintheworkplace.FJAfindsitshomeinorganizationsthattakeworkerinvolvementtoheartanddirecttheirmanagerstopartnerwith
workerswheretherealactionhappens.

WhatevertherelativelongtermeconomicandproductivitybenefitsofreengineeringorCI,eachoftheseapproacheshasamarkedlydifferentimpactonworkers.
Peoplewhoendurewrenchingchange,includingthatintroducedbytopdownreengineering(oftenaccompaniedbyseveredownsizing)havetheirsenseofpersonal
controlandselfworthandtheirbeliefinastableandessentiallybenignenvironmentshattered.Trustandasharedinterpretationofexperiencevanishalongwiththe
familiarlandmarksofeverydayexperiencebuiltupthroughyearsinthesamejobandworkplace.Peoplebecomehelplessvictimsofcircumstancesand,evenifthey
keeptheiremploymentinareengineeredworkplace,havetostart

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overinmakingsenseoftheirnewworksituationandmappingawaythroughit.CI,ontheotherhand,allowstimeforworkerstoadjustandadapttotheincremental
changesintheworkplaceoftenintroducedattheirinitiative.Thesharedinterpretationofexperiencebetweenworkersandmanagementisnegotiatedandrenegotiated
onanongoingbasis,resolvingsmalldifferencesbeforetheybecomelargeonesandgivingworkersastable,ifevolving,setofmanagementexpectationstowork
toward.Clearly,CIisinsyncwithwhatbehavioralscientistsknowabouthumanadaptabilityandthemaintenanceofminimumstress,psychologicallyhealthy
organizations.ItisthereforesafetoassumethatorganizationsusingFJAtoembarkonjobdesignhaveaCIprocessinmindinpartnershipwiththeworkers.

FJA:AFlexibleToolforJobDesign

FJAissometimesmisunderstoodasbeingastatictoolforHRMplanning.SomemanagershavecometobelievethatFJAisaonetimeprocess:afocusgroupis
convened,ataskbankcollectedthensome"key"topdownmanagementdecisionsuchasdevelopmentofanewtrainingprogramorperformanceappraisalsystemis
madeandfinally,thetaskbankisfiledaway.SeveralyearsdownthelinewhenanothermajormanagementHRMinitiativeisintheworksthetaskbankisdustedoff,
revived,andupdated.Inthisview,theFJAtaskbankislikeamummy,enshriningajoboratleastagoodpartofit.Nothingcouldbefurtherfromthetruth.The
potentialofFJAcanbestberealizedifitisuseddailyandrevisedfrequentlyasjobsevolve.Ataskbankrepresentsanongoingconversationbetweenworkersand
managersbecauseitcapturesarealisticpictureofworkasitisactuallydonehereandnowandinthegrittyrealityoftheworkplacewherevalueisaddedtoany
productorservice.Itshouldbeusedliberallyincombinationwithothercontinuousimprovementtoolssuchascauseandeffectdiagramsandcontrolcharts,andas
jobdesignneedsevolveinthenormalcourseofevents.FJAshouldbefrontandcentertoassistandsupportworkersandtheirmanagersastheytacklethechallenges
ofcontinuousimprovement.

Choi,Rungtusanatham,andKim(1997)capturedtheessenceofthisideaintheirstudyofsevencompanieswhichinitiatedcontinuousimprovement:

Forthisconcept[flexibletaskroutinesincontinuousimprovementorCI]totakeroot,companiesmustreconsidertheirroutines.Traditionally,workroutinesareviewedas
unvaryingelementsofanorganization.Theyconstitutethebestwaysofperformingatask,andtheyaresomethingworkersmustabidebywhenevertheydotheirwork.However,
routinesdonothave

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tobemaintainedfaithfullyinstead,theycanbecomedynamicandbeconstantlyupdatedandupgraded.Forinstance,ratherthantellingaworkertosetupandrunamachineina
certainway,thelineleaderwouldencouragetheworkertoconstantlytrytothinkofnewandbetterwaystosetitup.Fromthisperspective,theoutputsareviewednotasa
functionofstaticproductionroutinesbutasafunctionofdynamicproductionroutinesthatencompassCIactivities.(p.45)

TranslatingtheaboveintoFJAterms,thetaskbankrepresentsthecumulativeexpertiseofbothworkersandtheworkorganizationforachievingproductivity.Thisis
whythetaskbankneedstobeconstantlyavailabletoworkersandmanagersfordailyuseandupdating.Ifongoingjobchangesnudgeworkerskilltohigherlevelsof
complexityorsignificantlychangethemixofTDPorientationsontasks,theconstantlyevolvingtaskbankimmediatelysignalsmanagersandworkersthatnewHR
requirementsareappearingintheworksite.Thesenewrequirementscanbedealtwithproactivelythroughadditionaltrainingorothermeansbeforetheybecomea
seriousimpedimenttooperations.FJAoffersameanstosensitivelycalibrateandmatchHRrequirementstoongoingtechnologicalandorganizational
changeswithinCI.FJAdata,includingratings,canbeusedtotheirbesteffectiftheyaretrackedovertimeandperiodicallyreviewedbyHRstaffinpartnershipwith
workersandlinemanagers,inordertoassurethatHReffortsarekeepingpacewithCIofprocessandenlargementofexpertise.

BasicFJAThemesAppliedtoJobDesign

FJAprovidesanobjectiveframeworktoasktherightquestionsduringongoingjobdesign.QuestionsworkersandmanagementshouldaddressduringCIefforts
include:

Whatisthelikelyimpactonustheworkersofintroducingnewtechnology(addedstress,workload)?Willtimebeallottedfromnormalproductiveactivitiesto
allowustoeaseintothenewtechnology?

Atwhatpointwillmanagementneedtochangetheselection,performanceassessment,andrewardprocessestobetteraccommodateongoingjobchange?

Howandwherehaveworkerskillrequirementschanged?Whattypesofskillsareinvolved?Whataretheimplicationsfortraininganddevelopmentofworkers?

Withallthischange,areworkersandmanagersasaccountablefor

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resultsintheirrespectivespheresofactivityastheywereundertheprevioussystem?

GiventhatperformancestandardsareamovingtargetinaCIsystem,whatarethosestandardsatpresent?

Iftheinitialinvestmentinthefocusgroupistopayoff,FJAmustbeviewedasaflexibletoolforjobdesignandanintegralpartofCIefforts.TheoverallFJAthemes
relevanttojobdesignarenowreviewedtounderscorethetypeofdiagnosticthinkingworkersandmanagerscanusetomakethemostofFJAinformation.

JobDesignAnticipatesWholePersonInvolvement

Theliteratureofindustrialandorganizationalpsychologyisrepletewithexamplesandstudiesoftheconsequencesoftreatingworkersasadjunctsofmachines.Oneof
themostfamousofthesestudies,astudyofautomobileassemblylinejobswasreportedinManontheassemblyline,byWalkerandGuest(1952).Allofthese
studiesmadethepointthatalthoughthejobsweredesignedfromthestandpointofefficiency,theywereessentiallyinhuman.Thejobsweredesignedtousepeoplein
limitedphysicalwaystoperformtasksrepetitivelyaccordingtothespeedofanassemblylineortheproductivecapacityofamachine.Manyjobsinmeatpacking
plantsandinsurancecompaniesweresimilarlydesigned.Allofthesejobswerebasedontheideathatincumbentscouldbetrainedquicklytobecomeexpertand
thereforehighlyproductiveinthefewoperationsinvolvedintheparticularworkstationtowhichtheywereassigned.Workerinitiativewasdesignedoutofthesejobs
inthefurtherbeliefthatsuchinitiativewoulddisturbtheproceduresandresultinaloweringofefficiencyandproductivity.Duringthe1950s,Finedirectedastudyof
4,000jobs,approximately18%ofallthejobsdefinedintheDictionaryofoccupationaltitles,andfoundthatmostofthesocalledlowend,semiskilledjobswere
characterizedasinvolving"repetitive,shortcycletasks."

Theengineereduseofpeopleasadjunctsoftechnologyoftenresultedinpoorqualityandhighpercentagesofwaste.Workerswereboredwiththiskindofworkand
dissatisfactionwasrife.Withinindustrialorganizationalpsychologythisfindingledtothemovementofdesigningjobstoincludevarietyandenrichment.Management
begantorecognizethatworkerswerewholepersonsandfunctionedbestiftherewerechallengestotheirpotentialintheirjobs.Managersfurtherrecognizedthat
workerswerehumanresourcesandcouldcontributefarmorevaluetotheirworkthanafewlimitedphysicaloperations.FJAbuildsonthisrecognitionthatwork

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ersarewholepersonsandjobsneedtobedesignedtoallowfortheexpressionofworkers'potentialratherthansuppressit.

JobDesignChangesDrawonBothJobContentandJobContext

ManyjobdesigneffortsfocusonchangingjobcontentasshowninthequotefromLawler(1986),whoisaleadingexpertintheintroductionofjobdesignintohigh
involvementworksystems:
Jobenrichmentdoesnotnecessarilyinvolvechangingmultiplesystemswithintheorganization.Thatis,mostjobenrichmentprojectsfocusonlyonchangingthecontentofthe
jobitselfanddolittletochangethemanagementinformationsystemandtrainingprograms.Infact,alltheothersystemsintheorganization,includingthepayandselection
systems,theoverallorganizationstructure,andthenatureofsupervisionareusuallyignored.(p.91)

TheFJAmodelrecognizesandattendstoLawler'sobservation.JobcontentinFJAisacombinationofwhattheworkerdoesandwhatgetsdonedrawingonthe
worker'sfunctionalandspecificcontentskills(seeFig.7.1).Jobcontextontheotherhandiscomprisedoftheenvironmentaworkermustadjusttoinperformingthe
jobcontenttoagivenstandardanddrawsontheworker'sadaptiveskills.Typically,jobcontentisthefocusofattentioninjobdesignorredesigneffortsandagain
typically,jobcontextisasecondaryconsideration,ifconsideredatall.Nevertheless,thecontextcannotbeescaped.Oneneedsonlytoberemindedoftheproblems
associatedwithgettinganimalstoreproducewhenremovedfromtheirnaturalhabitattoazoo(e.g.,pandas),evenwhenattemptsaremadetosimulatetheoriginal
environment.Redesigningjobstoincreasetheirorientationtopeople,asinshiftingtoteamworkproduction,ataminimumrequirestrainingworkersinpeople
interactionswithinthecontextoftheworksystem.Furthermore,redesigningjobsaddstothevarietyandlevelofskillrequiredandperhapsalsorequiressome
changesintherewardsystem.Forexample,equippingFSEwithportablecomputersprovidesdirectaccesstomaterial,design,andtroubleshootingresourcesand
reducestheirneedtocontactotherengineerseitheronpeerorconsultantlevel.ThereisanenrichedinvolvementwithData,alesserinvolvementwithPeopleinthe
organization,andanaddedphysicalskillcomputerproficiency.Thereisalsoachallengetotheworkers'adaptiveskills.Cantheworkeradapttothegreater
independencenowrequiredofanFSEanindependenceapproximatingthatofanindependentcontractor?Clearly,thisinvolvesreconsiderationofthereward
systemiftheorganizationisgoingtoretaintheservicesofsuchkeypersonnel.

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JobDesignIncorporatestheInteractionofWorker,Work,andWorkOrganization

TheFJAtaskstatementprovidesamoduleoftheworksystem.Indescribingthework,eachtaskstatementincorporatesworkerfunctioning,whatworkersdoin
ordertogettheworkdone(results).Theresultreflectsthevaluesaddedtofulfilltheobjectives,goals,andpurposeoftheorganization.Insofarastheobjectives,
goals,andpurposesofanorganizationarecommunicatedtoworkers,theyhaveabetterunderstandingofwhattheresultsoftheirworkmeantotheorganization.
Workerscanseethemselvesaspartoftheflowofthesystem.

Thissharingofinformationaboutgoalsandobjectivesisanirreducibleminimumforthesharedinterpretationofexperiencethathasbeenreiteratedthroughoutthis
bookasapreconditionfortrust.Trustisessentialifresourcesandconstraintstogettingworkdonearetobedealtwithcreativelybyworkersandsupervisors.There
islittlepointintalkingaboutworkershavingopportunitiesforexperiencingtheirpotentialunlesstheyarepartytotheresourcesandconstraintsthatareintegraltothe
workorganizationachievingitsgoalsandpurpose.

Managementhascometorecognizethebenefitsofsharinginformationwithworkers.Inrecentyearsithasimplementedthisrecognitionwithworkersthroughquality
circles,selfmanagingworkteams,managementworkercommittees,andsimilardevicestoboostproductivity,oftenwithsalutaryresults.Theseeffortsfitunderthe
umbrellaofkaizen.However,therearenumerousreportsofsituationsnotmeasuringuptoexpectations.Onepossibleexplanationisthattheywereundertakenona
piecemealbasiswithoutfullyexploringthesystemwideimplicationsoftheirintroduction.Thefactremainsthatwork,worker,andworkorganizationareinextricably
meshed.Changesinonearearequirefollowthroughintheentiresystem.

JobDesignLooksfortheInteractionofFunctional,SpecificContent,andAdaptiveSkills

Theinterrelatednessofthethreetypesofskills(functional,specificcontent,andadaptive)mustbetakenintoaccountinjobdesign.Considertheexampleofa
productionworkerinthepulpandpaperindustrywhopreviouslyperformedthehourlytaskofcompilingproductionandqualitycontrolfigures(e.g.,paperthickness,
watercontentofpulp)byreadingdialsandgaugesfixedonlargepapermakingmachines.Theworkerrecordedthesedataontheprescribedformsthatwerefiled
withtheproductioncontrolsupervisorattheendoftheshift.Anylargediscrepanciesfromstandardwerereportedtothesupervisorimmediatelyforappropriate
action

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(e.g.,stoppingtheline,askingoperatorstoadjustmachinesettings,etc.).Allthischangedwhenacomputerizedcontrolsystemwasnetworkedintothecontrol
systemsbuiltintothepapermakingmachines.Thiscomputerwaslocatedinthemiddleoftheproductionfloorandtheproductionworker'sjobbecamelargely
sedentaryinthatonelocation.Theworkernowalsohadtheresponsibilityforimmediateactioninresponsetoanydiscrepanciesinthecontrolreadings.Forexample,
theworkerwouldnowdecideonthelikelysourceofaproblemandcallonmaintenancestafftodealwiththeproblemorevenmakeminormachineadjustments.The
obviousimpactofthisjobchangeisontheFunctionalskillofData:TheworkhasmovedupfromLevel3B(Compiling)toLevel4(Analyzing).Whatmaybeless
obvious(butshouldbethoroughlyexploredjointlybytheworkerandmanager)istheimpactofthechangeonspecificcontentandadaptiveskills.Theworkermust
nowlearntousetheparticularcomputerkeyboardandterminalaswellasreadtheoutputofcomputersoftwarespecificallydesignedforproductionmonitoringon
papermakingmachines(aspecificcontentskill).Theworkeralsohastoexercisegreaterdiscretionbymakingthedecisionsabouthowtodealwithproduction
discrepanciespickedupfromthecomputerscreen.ReferencetotheWIScaleshowsthattheassignmenthasmovedfromaLevel1(almosteverythingtheworker
needstoknowiscontainedintheassignment)toaLevel3(theworkerhassomeleewayintheproceduresandmethodsusedtogetthejobdone).Theeffectsofthe
jobdesignrippleouttoaffectallthreecategoriesofskilltheworkermustexerciseonthejob.

JobDesignRequiresEmployerAccommodationsaswellasWorkerAdaptations

Whetherornotemployersshouldbeexpectedtomakeaccommodationstoworkerstofacilitatetheirjobperformanceisnowamootpoint.Ithasbeenlegislatedasa
requirementforphysicallyandmentallydisabledindividualsbytheADA.Therecognitionthataccommodationsshouldbemadeinextremesituationshasmadeitall
themoredejureandderigeurtomakethoseaccommodationswherevertheyareneededforeveryone.Theseaccommodationsincludeadaptationsandalterationsto
buildingsandstreets(ramps),machinesandequipment(liftingandslowingdevices),jigsandfixturesforthosewithvisualproblems,climatecontrolforpersonswith
allergies,timeandpaceofproductionadjustmentsforpersonswithemotionaldifficulties,andsoon.Morerecentadaptationshaveincludedjobsharing,flextime,
workingathome,andprovisionofdaycareforyoungchildren.Alloftheseadaptationsandalterationscanbecomepartofthedesignofjobworkersituations.Asis
evident,someofthesedesignchangesdealwithfunctionallevelandspecificcontent.Othersdealwithjobenvironmentandchallengeworkers'adaptiveskill.

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Althoughsomeworkercomplaintscanbeattributedtomalingering,othersmaybethetipoftheicebergofrealproblems.Workersneedtofeelfreetoreportwhen
theyareexperiencingstressintheirjobworkersituationsalthoughsometimestheworksituationisnotthesourceofthestress.Merelybeinglistenedtocanoften
resultinacorrectionofthesituation.Negative,dismissiveattitudesofmanagers(usuallywithTheoryXpresumptions)that''timesarerough''andworkers"needtodo
morewithless"arenolongerastenableastheyoncewere.Oneconsultantofsimilarpointofview,proposes"newworkhabitsforaradicallychangingworld,"
advocatessuchnostrumsas"becomeaquickchangeartist,""commitfullytoyourjob,""speedup,"and"acceptambiguityanduncertainty"(Pritchett,1994).Such
approachesarelessandlesslikelytoworkwhererealstressisbeingexperienced.Employersmustmeetworkershalfwayiffornootherreasonthanefficiency,
effectiveness,andproductivityoftheworkdoingsystem.

Themostfundamentalaccommodationthatmanagementcanmakeistoadoptagenuinelisteningstancetoworkers.Thislisteningstance,whichaspirestoashared
interpretationofexperience,isintendedtocontributetoanambienceofnondependenttrust.Inthistypeofrelationship,jobdesignthroughCIcanflourishandbecome
anongoingsharedactivityinresponsetotechnologicalchangeandoutsidecompetitivepressures.Theresultingjobchangesthenanticipatetheadaptiveneedsof
employeesaswellasthebusinessneedsoftheemployer.

SummaryofJobDesign

ThesuccessofsomuchelseinHRMstartswithsound,realistic,andwellinformedjobdesign.Welldesignedjobsinharmonywithcompetitivemarketplacedemands
throughCIarethefirmfoundationonwhichotherHRMactivitiesrest.Goodjobdesign,undertakeninanincrementalmannerbytheworkersthemselveswith
managementinthesupportingrole,channelshumaneffortandcapabilityinacoordinatedwayandinthedirectionofhighproductivity.Withtherapidfrequencyand
paceofchangetoday,thechallengeofjobdesignisgreaterthaneverbefore.Itmustbecomemoreresponsiveasjobrequirementsshiftconstantlyinresponsetonew
technologiesandcompetitivedemandsintheglobalmarketplace.But,asTaylorobservedalmost100yearsago,managersmustnotabandonworkerstoworkers'
owndevicesandinventions.Cooperationbetweenworkersandmanagementisessential.Neverhastheneedforapartnershipbeensogreatasitistoday.Ifsuch
partnershipsbetweenworkersandmanagers,assistedthroughthemediumofFJAfocusgroups,areextendedintothefundamentalbusinessof(re)designingthework
donethroughouttheworkdoingsystem,goodwillresult.

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Chapter18
FJAandtheLawMeetingtheLegalTest
U.S.companieshaveassumed,eithervoluntarilyorbydintofgovernmentlegislation,avitalHRMfunction:toprovideequalopportunityforallU.S.citizenstoaccess
therewardsprovidedbypaidemployment(pay,growth,training,status).Theoverridingprincipleisthatworkersshouldbehired,promoted,andrewardedina
nondiscriminatorywaybasedonindividualmerit.Theiremploymentsuitabilityshouldnotbeprejudgedbystereotypesassociatedwithrace,gender,handicap,orother
groupcharacteristics.

Duringthepast35years,asubstantialbodyoffederallawhasbeenpassedtoprohibitemploymentdiscrimination.TheUniversityofTexasatAustin,Equal
EmploymentOpportunityOffice(1997),providesanexcellentsummaryofthemajorlegislationandregulationsonitsWebsite:
TitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActof1964,asamendedin1972,1978,andtheCivilRightsActof1991ThemostprominentsourceofantibiasemploymentrulesisTitleVIIofthe
CivilRightsActof1964.Itforbidsdiscriminationinallareasoftheemployeremployeerelationship,fromadvertisementfornewemployeesthroughterminationorretirement,on
thebasisofrace,color,sex(includingpregnancy,childbirth,orabortion),religion,ornationalorigin.TheCivilRightsActof1991includedadditionalprovisionstoTitleVII
reversingorreinforcingcertainU.S.SupremeCourtdecisions,damagesforintentionaldiscriminationandremovalofexemptionsforpreviouslyexemptedemployeesofelected
officials.

ExecutiveOrder11246TheExecutiveOrder11246,asamendedprohibitsjobdiscriminationonthebasisofrace,color,religion,sex,ornationaloriginandrequiresaffirmative
actiontoensurequalityofopportunityinallaspectsofemployment.

AgeDiscriminationinEmploymentActof1967TheAgeDiscriminationinEmploymentActof1967,asamended,protectsapplicantsandemployees

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40yearsofageorolderfromdiscriminationonthebasisofageinhiring,promotion,discharge,compensation,terms,conditionsorprivilegesofemployment.

AmericansWithDisabilitiesActof1991TheAmericansWithDisabilitiesActof1990,asamendedprotectsqualifiedapplicantsandemployeeswithdisabilitiesfrom
discriminationinhiring,promotion,discharge,pay,jobtraining,fringebenefits,classification,referral,andotheraspectsofemploymentonthebasisofdisability.Thelawalso
requiresthatcoveredentities[employers]providequalifiedapplicantsandemployeeswithdisabilitieswithreasonableaccommodationsthatdonotimposeunduehardship.

RehabilitationActof1973Section503oftheRehabilitationActof1973,asamendedprohibitsjobdiscriminationbecauseofhandicapandrequiresaffirmativeactiontoemploy
andadvanceinemploymentqualifiedindividualswithhandicapswho,withreasonableaccommodation,canperformtheessentialfunctionsofajob.

VietnamEraandSpecialDisabledVeterans38U.S.C.4212oftheVietnamEraVeteransReadjustmentAssistanceActof1974prohibitsjobdiscriminationandrequires
affirmativeactiontoemployandadvanceinemploymentqualifiedVietnameraveteransandqualifiedspecialdisabledveterans.

EqualPayActof1963InadditiontosexdiscriminationprohibitedbyTitleVIIoftheCivilRightsAct,theEqualPayActof1963,asamended,prohibitssexdiscriminationin
paymentofwagestowomenandmenperformingsubstantiallyequalworkinthesameestablishment.

Thecentraltenetofantidiscriminationlegislationisthatdiscriminationoccursbecausepeopleprejudgeothersbasedonstereotypestheyholdabouttheother'sgroup.
Forexample,somemanagersmaybelesswillingtohirewomenforleadershippositionsbecausetheyholdastereotypeofwomenasbeingsoftandemotional.
Further,theyholdastereotypethateffectiveleadershipissynonymouswithmalestereotypedcharacteristicsoftoughnessortakingcharge.Inthemindofsome
managers,womenasagroupdonothavewhatittakesforleadershippositionsandarenottakenseriouslyandgivenachancetocompeteequallywithmenonthe
basisofmerit(i.e.,theirabilitytodothejob).Asecondareaofstereotypingoccursinpay.Comparableworthadvocateshavecomplainedformanyyearsthatjobs
heldpredominantlybywomenhavebeensystematicallyundervaluedincomparisontothosejobsheldbymen.Theyhavelobbiedfor,andinmanyjurisdictionsgotten,
equalpayforjobsofequalworth.Thetrickypartinallofthiscomesinsortingoutstereotypicbelieffrommeritwhenpromotingleadersortheequalworthofjobs
whensettingcompensationrates.Objectivityandimpartialityarerequiredtosortthewheatofbonafideoccupationalrequirementsfromthechaffofstereotypic
assumptions.ThischaptershowshowFJAisusedtoprovidetheobjectiveinformationrequiredfornondiscriminatoryandlegallydefensibleemploymentpractices.

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ParallelsBetweenFJAThemesandAntidiscriminationLegislation

Oneofthemostdestructivewaystopartializeothersistoviewandtreatthemasstereotypesratherthanasindividualswithtalentsandcapabilities.Oureveryday
languageunconsciouslypromotesasimplifiedviewofothersthroughnumerousstereotypingcategoriesBlackversusWhite,womenversusmen,oldversusyoung,
disabledversusablebodied.Thisstereotypingoverwhelmsourfieldofvisionsothatourperceptionofthatpersonbecomessynonymouswiththestereotype.Our
relationshipwiththatpersonbecomesonedimensionalandthetrustthatdevelopsfromrecognizingtheotherasamultifacetedandintegratedhumanbeingcannot
develop.

FJAassertsthattheworkermustbeviewedholisticallyinajobworkersituation:jobcontentandjobcontext.Thestereotypebreakingpowerofthisstatementcan
beillustratedbyansweringthefollowingquestionswhilereadingtheinformationcontainedinanFJAtaskbank:

Isitpossiblethatanymemberofthestereotypedgroup:

Cannotlearnthespecificcontentofthejob?

Doesnotpossesstherequiredfunctionalskills?

Cannotmeettheperformancestandardslaidoutbymanagement(lackstheability)?

Isneitherwillingnorabletoexpendtheeffortandassumetheresponsibilityrequiredofthejob?

Isneitherwillingnorabletofunctionwithintheworkconditionsofferedbymanagement?

InFJAtaskanalysesofhundredsofjobs,wehavenotyetfoundajobwherethesequestionscouldnotbeansweredintheaffirmativeforgroupmembershipbasedon
race,nationalorigin,color,orgender.Membersofsomereligiousdenominationsareoccasionallyatoddswithstandardssetbymanagementforworkattendanceon
certainreligiousdays,butfrequentlymanagementmakessuitableschedulingaccommodationsforthis.Disabledpersonscompriseanextremelyheterogeneousgroup
thatmustbedealtwithonacasebycasebasis.Providedthatmanagementoffersreasonableaccommodationfordisabledindividuals,theanswerstotheprevious
questionsareintheaffirmative(thatis,anindividualcanlearnthespecificcontentofthejob,andpossessestherequiredfunctionalskills,andsoon).

AntidiscriminationlegislationhaspromptedmanyorganizationstooverhaultheirHRprinciples,policies,andprocedurestoensureequality

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oftreatmenttoallpotentialemployees.Whethertheireffortsarevoluntaryorinvoluntary,antidiscriminationbecomesamaintenancegoalthemissionofthe
organizationremainstomanufactureandtosellaproduct,deliveraservice,orthelike.Therefore,seniormanagementadoptsthegoalofantidiscriminationwith
varyingdegreesofenthusiasm:theprincipleofEEOoraffirmativeaction(AA)maybepursuedwithvigor,oritmaybegivenlipserviceandlefttotheinitiativeof
individualmanagers.WhenusingFJAtoassistinputtingantidiscriminationpoliciesandproceduresinplace,theHRpractitionerhastoassessthedepthofsupportfor
theseinitiativesandsometimesworkwithfewerresourcesthandesirable.FJAtaskbankshavetobeusedasadataresourcesothatHRcansqueezeasmuchvalue
aspossibleoutofthemintheseresourceleansituations.

AcoreFJAconceptmustbekeptinmindwhenintegratingunderrepresentedornontraditionalworkersintoanorganization.Performanceisalwaysamatterofthe
interactionofthethreekindsofskills:functional,specificcontentandadaptive.Forexample,appreciationofthiscoreconceptwillleadaminingcompanyinAlaska,
whichisexpandingrepresentationofthenativepopulationinitsworkforce,todevelopverydifferentpoliciesandproceduresthanasocialserviceagencyin
Milwaukeeseekingtoincreasethenumberofphysicallydisabledindividualsinitsoffices.TheadaptiveskillsbroughttotheworkplacebytheAlaskannative
populationarefardifferentfromtheadaptiveskillsofpeoplewithEuropeanancestry.Inparticular,peopleraisedintraditionalInuitorIndianwaysscheduletheirtime
accordingtotherhythmoftheseasonsandthehunt.Theminingmanagerwhoexpectsworkerstobeavailableforwork52weeksayearwith3weeksvacation
duringthesummerwillfindtheseworkersconscientiousandfunctionallycapablewhenonthejob.However,heorshewillalsofindtheyexpecttobeabsentfora
monthormoreduringthespringhuntcausingseverestrainsfortheorganization.Bothworkersandmanagementhavetocomesomedistancetoresolvethese
differences.Ontheotherhand,thesocialserviceagencyinMilwaukeewillprobablyfindphysicallydisabledpersonshaveadaptiveskillsconsistentwiththegeneral
population,buttherewillbespecificimpairmentsinthefunctionalskillofrelatingtoThings.Basedonthedifferentconstellationofskillsthateachgroupbringstothe
workplace,thetwoorganizationshavetoimplementverydifferentpoliciesandproceduresinordertointegratetheserespectivegroupsintotheirworkforces.

Thedetaileddiscussionoflegislationhereshowsthattheconceptofreasonableaccommodationisacentralpillarofantidiscriminationefforts.Simplysaid,reasonable
accommodationisarestatementoftheFJAthemeofmanagementmeetingworkerconcernshalfway.Ifalisteningstanceandsharedinterpretationofexperiencecan
bedevelopedbetweenworkersandmanagement,thenreasonableaccommodationofworkerneedsbe

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comesroutine,whetherornottheseworkersareprotectedbyantidiscriminationlegislation.Thestageissetforarelativelypainlessandnaturalsegueintobecomingan
organizationthatlivesandbreathesEEO.

UsingFJAinTitleVIICompliance

ThebackboneofantidiscriminationlawintheUnitedStatesistheCivilRightsAct(CRA)of1866withitsamendmentsincludingTitleVIIoftheCRAof1964andthe
CRAof1991.ThislegislationhasteethandisenforcedbytheEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission(EEOCthecommissionhasalsotakenresponsibilityfor
enforcingotherfederalantidiscriminationlegislation,includingtheADA).Overtheyears,theCRAhasbeenappliedbycourtsindecidingnumerousdiscrimination
cases,includingkeydecisionssuchasGriggsvs.DukePowerin1971.(IntheGriggsdecision,theU.S.SupremeCourtruledthatitwasadiscriminatorypractice
foranorganizationtouseanunvalidatedemploymenttesthavingadverseimpactagainstBlacks.)TheCRAinitsvariousforms,alongwithinterpretationsand
precedentssetbycourts,establishedcoreprinciplesthatshouldbekeptinmindwhendevelopingandimplementingalltypesofemploymentsystems,includingthe
onesdescribedintheapplicationssectionofthisbook.Ofspecialinteresthereisthatcourtdecisionsfrequentlystresstheneedforjobanalysisasthebasicgrounding
foremploymentsystemsiftheyaretobedefensibleundertheCRA.

OnekeyEEOconceptisadverseimpact.Adverseimpacthappenswhenanemploymentpracticedisproportionatelyexcludesprotectedgroupmembersfrom
employmentopportunities.Theclassiccaseofadverseimpactoccurswherestandardizedtestsofcognitiveabilityareusedtoselectamongapplicantsforpolice
departments.OnaverageBlackindividualsscorelowerthanmajoritygroupmembersonthesetests,resultinginadverseimpact:fewerBlacks(asaproportionof
thoseapplyingforthejob)areselectedthanindividualsfromthemajoritygroup.Whenthishappens,theemployerisobligatedtoprovethattheemploymentpractice
(here,anemploymenttest)isjobrelatedforthepositioninquestionandconsistentwithbusinessnecessity.Theemployermustalsoshowthereisnoalternative
employmentpracticeavailablewithlessadverseimpact.Typically,whenitcomestovalidation,theemployerdemonstratesthejobrelatednessofanemploymenttest
byhavingitprofessionallyvalidated.Problemsposedbyselectionpracticesinemploymentaresignificantenoughthatin1978theEEOC(alongwithtwoother
governmentagencies)publishedtheUniformguidelinesonemployeeselectionprocedures(EqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission,1978)toprovide
technicalguidance,includingadviceonjobanalysis,toemployers.

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Whereanemploymentpracticetreatsgroupsdifferently(disparatetreatment),aprimafaciecaseofdiscriminationcanalsobeestablished.Therequirementthat
womenapplyingforajobasasteelworkermusttakeastrengthtestwhereasmaleapplicantsareexemptedfromthisrequirementexemplifiesdisparatetreatment.A
courtwouldobviouslyinferfromthisdifferentialtreatmentthattheemployerholdsanegativestereotypeofwomenasaclassandtreatstheminadiscriminatory
manner.Disparatetreatmentalsoencompassestherejectionofaqualifiedwomanforthejobofsteelworkerbutthecompanykeepsthecompetitionopentoseek
applicationsfrommaleswiththesamequalifications.Mixedmotivecasesoccurwhentheemployerhadbothlawful(jobrelated)anddiscriminatoryreasonsforan
employmentpractice.Amixedmotivecasemightoccurwherearetailingchainrefusestohirementoworkatitscosmeticscounters.Underthe1991Amendmentto
theCRA,mixedmotivebecameanunlawfulgroundforanemploymentdecisionandherebysetastandardthatmakesitmoredifficultfortheemployertowinan
antidiscriminationsuit.

FJAhasanimportantroletoplayifanemployer'sHRdecisionsmustbejustifiedtotheEEOCorincourt.Asthepreviouschaptershaveshown,FJAprovidesthe
basicgroundingneededtoestablishjobrelatednessforawiderangeofHRinterventions.FJAhasadvantagesoverstandardizedjobanalysismethodsinthatituses
plainlanguagetoestablishacommonsenselinkbetweenthetaskbankanditsapplicationsratherthanrelyingoncomputerprintoutsburdenedwithextensivestatistics
andtechnicaldetail.Becauseofitsdirectnessandsimplicityinestablishingjobrelatedness,FJAcanmeetthechallengesofTitleVII.

UsingFJAforAffirmativeAction(AA)

Manycompaniesandjurisdictions(e.g.,cities,municipalities)havesetupAAprogramsoverthepast25yearsinresponsetolegislationorasavoluntaryinitiative.
Theseprogramshavesomebasicfeaturesincommon.Employersmust:

determinethepresentrepresentationofdesignatedgroupmembers(e.g.,Blacks,handicapped)intheirworkforces

settargetsorquotasforhiringandpromotingdesignatedgroupmemberstoincreasetheirnumbersinareaswheretheyarepresentlyunderrepresented

putinplaceprinciples,policies,andprocedurestoremoveemploymentbarriersthathindertheadvancementofunderrepresentedgroupsand

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monitortheirprogresstowardrealizingemploymenttargetsorquotas.

AAprogramshavebecomecontroversialwithbothpoliticiansandthegeneralpublicarguingtheprosandconsofpreferentialhiringandpromotiontoaddressthe
historicalunderrepresentationofcertaingroupsinthelaborforce.Thesecontroversiesarenotaddressedhere.Instead,wediscusshowFJAcanassistAA
implementation.

FJAcontributestotheimplementationofAAby

providinganobjectivebasisfordescribingwhatworkersdoandwhatgetsdonewhichislesssusceptibletohandicap,race,gender,andotherstereotypesthanmore
informaldescriptionsofwork

assistingHRmanagerstoidentifysystematicemploymentbarriersblockingtheadvancementofdesignatedgroups,and

providingapracticalandeconomicalmeanstoeliminatethosebarriers.

Barrierstodesignatedgroupsaremostoftenfoundatseveralspecificpointsintheemploymentsystem.HowFJAcanhelptoremovebarrierstounderepresented
groupsatthesespecificpointsintheemploymentsystemfollowsabriefdiscussionofthesebarriers.
JobDesignTheoperativewordinjobdesignforAApurposesisaccommodation,thatiseitherjobcontentormoreoften,thejobcontext,hastobechangedtoallowamember
ofadesignatedgroupanequalchancetoperformthejob.ThebestwaytoaccomplishjobredesigningforAApurposesistoconveneapanelofmanagers,workerswhoare
membersofthedesignatedgroup,andotherswhohaveexpertknowledgeofthespecialneedsofthegroupmembers(e.g.,communitygroupsspecializinginemployment
placementforthatgroup).Forexample,mentallyhandicappedpersonshavealowrateofparticipationinemployment.Anemployerwhowishestoincludelargernumbersof
mentallyhandicappedinalocalplantcouldsetupajobredesignpanel.Thispanelcouldincludeemploymentexpertsidentifiedbythecityandstatesocietiesformentaldisability
andworkerswhoarepresentlyoperatingsuccessfullywiththedisability(eitherintheemployer'sbusinessorasimilarbusinesselsewhereinthecity)inadditiontoHRstaffand
linemanagers.Muchofthejob'sredesignwouldfocusonfunctionalandadaptiveskillsthementallyhandicappedworkerislikelytoneedagreateramountofstructureinthe
formofSOPsandWIthanotherworkersinthatjob.TheemployermaywellfindathoroughreviewofjobrequirementsaspartofanAAjobdesignisbeneficialforaccommo

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datingotherworkersaswell,therebyaddingadditionalvaluetotheAAeffort.Thisisillustratedbythefollowingexample.

NancyChristyrunstheWilsonStreetGrill,atrendyMadison,Wisconsin,restaurantwithanunusualstaff30%ofthe30employeeshavementalillnessesincludingmajor
depression,schizophrenia,paranoia,psychosis,andautism.Christy'sphilosophyandthatofcoownerAndreaCraigis"respectfulofpeople'sabilitiesandtolerantoftheir
disabilities."AccordingtotheCulinaryArtsdeanatMadisonAreaTechnicalCollegewhereChristyhelpeddevelopacourseonemployingmentallyimpairedindividuals,the
other70%oftherestaurantstaffisonboardwithChristy'sphilosophy.Restaurantsandthehospitalityindustryoffermanyjobswellsuitedtopeoplewithdisabilities.However
theseworkersneedalotofstructure,whichisprovidedbythesteady,repetitivenatureofbehindthescenesrestaurantworksuchasfoodpreparationandwashingdishes.They
alsoneedtotakebreakswhenevertheyfeeltheneed,andChristyandtherestofherstaffarecommittedtoaccommodatingthem.Oneemployee'sjobistocutbreaddoughand
putitintoamachine.Sometimestheloaveslookalittlegoofy,butthevariabilityissomethingChristyandtheotherscanlivewithandevenfindcharming."Wetakeajobandpull
itapartanddecidehowpiecesofthejobcanbedonebyothers....Theseguyshavetoperform,andtheydo,"Christysaid.Oneemployee,K.K.,age30,landedinahospitalafter
amajordepressiveepisodeandlivedandworkedparttimeinshelteredsettingswithsocialserviceagencysupport.Whenshestartedattherestaurantshecouldhandleworking
onlyanhourortwoaday.Afteralmostayear,shecanwork3to4hoursadayandsometimesreturnsatnight.Shehasexpandedherjobtoincludebackuphostessdutyand
makingsurepatronshaverefillsonwater,coffee,andbread.Althoughshestillconsidersherselfmentallydisabledanddoubtsherabilitytohandleafulltimejob,shefeelsthe
restaurant"isawonderfulplaceformetogrow.MymentalskillsaregettingbetterasIworkhere''(Marchione,1998,p.11).

Thearea(s)ofjobcontentand/orcontextaddressedbyjobdesigndependsonthedesignatedgroup.Trainingthatsensitizessupervisorsandmanagerstotheculturaldifferences
thatputextrastressonworkers'adaptiveskillsmaywellbenefitBlackandHispanicworkers.Womenbenefitfromjobredesign,whichoftenintroducessimpleequipmentandwork
aidssuchashandtrucksandhydraulicliftstomeetheavyliftingrequirements.Therangeofpotentialaccommodationsformentallyandphysicallydisabledpersonsiswide
becausethesedisabilitiesaresonumerousandvaried.Theyincludespellcheckersonwordprocessorsfordyslexicpersonsorrampstomaketheworkplacemoreaccessibleto
personsinwheelchairs.Employerscannotpossiblyanticipatethefull

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rangeofaccommodationspossiblenorhavetheentirecomplementofinhouseexpertiseneededtoputtheseaccommodationsinplace.Asnotedearlier,thebestoptionisto
conveneajobdesignpanelusingtheFJAtaskbankasastartingpointandthenrelyonexpertinputandassistancefromthelargercommunity.Thetaskbankoffersahighly
understandableandaccessibletool(asharedbasisofinterpretationaboutthejobcontentandcontext)thatprovidesacommonlanguageforpanelmemberswhocomefromvery
differentbackgroundsandperspectivesbutwhomustworktogethertodesignajobwithnecessarybutpracticalaccommodations.

RecruitmentTheAAprogram,whichisintendedtoincreaserepresentationofdesignatedgroups,faltersbadlyif,afterhiring,largenumbersofindividualsfromthese
designatedgroupsdiscovertheyarepoorlysuitedtothejobandthenleavetheorganization.Asshownpreviously,presentationofrealisticjobinformation,especiallyinthearea
ofadaptiveskills,allowsindividualsthechancetoselfselectbeforehiringandsoreducetheturnoverrate.However,thisstrategyisatwoedgedsword.Ifconditionsinthe
organizationarelessthanaccommodatingtodesignatedgroupmembers,theFJArealisticjobpreviewmakesthisapparentandpotentialapplicantswillselfselectout.The
organizationmustfirstcreateaworkerfriendlyenvironmentresponsivetothediversityofitsworkers.Ajobisthenmoreattractivetopotentialapplicantswhoselfselectforthe
rightreasonsandstaywiththeorganizationinthelongterm,thusfurtheringAAgoals.

SelectionStereotypingcanbeaseriousprobleminselection.Theconcernisthatthemanagerdoingthestereotypingwillmakesnapnegativejudgmentsaboutaperson's
capabilitiesandpotentialforthejobintheabsenceofsufficientobjectivedatatojustifythatjudgment.Insodoing,themanagerwillunfairlydisadvantagethedesignatedgroup
member.Stereotypescanoperateinmanyways,buttwoexamplesshouldsuffice.Inhiringanindividualforaleadershipposition,aseniormanagermayassumethattraditional
masculinetraitsoftoughnessanddecisivenessarerequiredforthejobandscreenoutallfemaleapplicants.Theirrationaleisthatfemaleswillnotbeabletomakethehard
decisions.AnFJAtaskanalysisofthejobmightshowthateffectiveleadersmustbegoodlisteners,beabletomobilizeconsensusintheunit,andbeabletogainthetrustof
subordinatesthroughparticipativemanagement.HereFJAprovidesthehardobjectivedatathattheseniormanager'soffthecuffjudgmentcannot.Oraninterviewermightview
anapplicantwithaspeechimpedimentassomeonewhoisunintelligentorlikelytorepresenttheorganizationinabadlight.TheFJAbasedinterviewwouldrequiretheinterviewer
tojudgethisapplicantstrictlyonthebonafidecri

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teriasetoutforhiringpeopleforthisjobandinsodoingdispelthenegativestereotype.Statedplainly,thebestantidotetostereotypinginemploymentistoprovidedecision
makerswithvalidinformationbasedonobjectivejobrequirementsandtoinsistthattheystickwiththesedatawhenmakingjudgmentsaboutthesuitabilityofpeopleseeking
work.

PerformanceAppraisalWorkersandmanagerssometimeslegitimatelydisagreewhenassessinganddiscussingperformance.Asculturalbackgroundsandexpectationsbecome
morediversethroughtheintroductionofAA,thenumberofdisagreementsoverperformanceassessmentslikelyincreases.Amanager'sbeststanceistofocusontheresultsand
performancestandardstheworkerisresponsiblefor,andifperformanceisatorbeyondexpectations,avoidwiderangingforaysintohowtheseresultswereachieved.AsFJA
shows,somedegreeofdiscretionisalwaysrequiredoftheworker,andheorsheappliesthisdiscretioninauniquewaydrawingonadaptiveandfunctionalskillsdeveloped
throughfamily,educational,andculturalexperiences.Thisisanecessarypartoftheholisticcapabilitiesthatworkersbringtotheworksituationandshouldnotbesecond
guessed.AAgoalsarebetterservedifthemanagerandworkertogetherfocusontheendstobeachievedtheperformancestandardsandenterintodialogueaboutmeans
onlyifperformancedoesnotmeetmanagementexpectations.

PromotionPromotionusuallyassumesthatperformanceappraisalshavebeenpreviouslyconductedandtheresultsfoundatleastsatisfactory.Thequestionthenis:Should
thispersonbepromotedtoapositionwithgreaterresponsibility?PromotionusuallymovesaworkertoajobofhigherWIandmorecomplexDataandPeoplerequirements.FJA
canbeusedtoidentifythebonafiderequirementsofthehigherposition.Thenanintervieworotherassessment(s)canbedevelopedfromthetaskbanktoevaluatepromotion
candidatesfortheircapabilitiesandqualificationsforthehigherlevelposition.GiventheaimofAAtobalancerepresentationofdesignatedandmajoritygroupsatall
organizationallevels,promotionbecomesacrucialHRMprocess.Bymakingthisprocessmoreobjectiveandlesssusceptibletostereotypingonthebasisofgroupcharacteristics
(e.g.,theerroneousbeliefminoritygroupscannotaccepthigherlevelsofresponsibility),FJAcanhelpanorganizationtoachieveAAtargets.

Layoff,Transfer,andTerminationAsappliedtodesignatedgroups,layoffandterminationusuallyhavethereverseeffectofpromotionbyreducingtheiroverallrepresentation
intheworkforce.Wherelayoffsoccurinorderofthebestperformingtopoorestperformingworkers,FJAhasaroleinreducingdiscriminatorypractices.Managersofemployees
affectedbythelayoffhavetomeetandmakethecaseforreten

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tionorlayoffbasedonthediscussionandcomparisonofresultstheirworkershaveachieved.Movementofworkersupordownthelayofflistshouldbemadewithreferenceto
thedatatakenfromthejobtaskbankandpreviousperformanceappraisalsforeachworker.Ifaworker'sreasonsforpreviouslowperformanceratingsdifferfromthesupervisor's
orpeers',theyshouldbetakenintoconsiderationastheyarepartoftherecord.Therationaleforlayoffdecisionsmustbedocumentedandlaidoffworkersshouldhaveaccessto
theirindividualrecordsstatingthedetailedreasonforlayoffandtheirrankinginthelayofflist.

FinewasaconsultanttotheU.S.DepartmentofLaborinacasewherealargescientificlaboratoryhada10%reductioninforce.Thelaboratoryclaimedthedischargedworkers
werefailinginperformance.AnFJAanalysisofasampleoftheincumbentsindicatedtheymettheirperformancestandardsconsistentlyoverperiodofyears.However,thefact
theywereall55yearsofageoroldersuggestedthetruereasonfortheirtermination.Theoutcomewasreinstatement.

Workertransfersoccurforanumberofreasonsaswhentheyareapartofajobrotationprogrammeanttoexpandtherangeanddepthofworkerskills.Theconcernhereiswitha
negativereasonfortransfer,forexample,amanagerwantsaworkeroutofhisorherunitduetopoorperformance,personalityconflicts,orotherreasons.AApurposesarebest
servedifthemanagerisheldresponsiblefordocumentingvalid,jobrelatedreasonsforthetransferandpresentingthosereasonstohighermanagementforreviewandapproval
(againFJAcanhelppinpointthistypeofinformation).Ifasatisfactoryrationalebasedonjobperformanceisnotpresented(andthisrationalemightbedoublecheckedbythe
managerresponsibleforAAorEEO),highermanagementshouldrejectthetransferrequestandsetinmotionaprocesstoinvestigateandmediateproblemswithintheunit.

Terminationisalwaysdifficultforbothmanagersandworkers,butasunpleasantasthismightbe,terminationsaresometimesnecessary.Ifaworkerisgrosslynegligentinhisor
herdutiesoristhreateningorabusingmanagersandotherworkers,terminationmaywellbecalledforandmustbecarriedoutwithduedispatch.Byandlarge,aterminated
worker'sdifficultieswillfindtheirsourceinafailureofadaptiveskillsonandsometimesoffthejob.Ifaterminationdecisionistobemadefairly,theseadaptiveskillsmustbe
thoroughlyunderstoodalongwiththeirimpactonjobperformance.FJAprovidesthetoolsneededforthispurposeandinthehandsofapsychologistcanbeveryusefulfor
uncoveringthesourcesofdifficultyandhowtheymightbedealtwith.Theinvestigationmayinfactindicatethataleaveofabsence,combinedwithcounselingorcoachingbya
skilledprofessional,isaviableandhumanealternativetotermination.Terminationmaybeespeciallyprob

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lematicwithdesignatedgroups,whereculturalorgenderdifferences,ordisability,raisequestionsofwhethertheworkerwasterminatedfortherightreasonsandwhether
reasonableaccommodationsweremadetoforestallthetermination.Wronglyterminatingworkersfromdesignatedgroups,inadditiontotheindividualinjusticeinvolved,makesit
moredifficultforemployerstomeetAAtargets.

UsingFJAtoComplywithDisabilitiesLegislation

FJAcanprovideassistancetoemployersinimplementingtheADAof1991andtheRehabilitationActof1973,whichhassimilarwording.TheADArequires
employerstoprovide''equalemploymentopportunitiesforqualifiedindividualswithdisabilities."Aswithanylegislation,thespecificdefinitionsofferedbecomepivotal
toproperlyimplementingtheADA.ThesedefinitionsarenowpresentedandrelatedtocoreFJAconcepts.FJAprovidesapowerfulmethodologyfortranslatingkey
ADAconceptstopracticalemploymentprinciples,policies,procedures,andpractices.
DisabilityTheADAdefinesthetermdisabilityas"a[n][individual]physicalormentalimpairmentthatsubstantiallylimitsoneormoreofthemajorlifeactivitiesofsuch
individual."Oneofthesemajorlifeactivitiesiswork.Theactfurtherdefinesphysicalormentalimpairmentas"anyphysiologicaldisorder,orcondition,cosmeticdisfigurement,
oranatomicalloss"affectingoneormoreofseveralbodysystemsor"anymentalorpsychologicaldisorder,suchasmentalretardation,organicbrainsyndrome,emotionalor
mentalillness,andspecificlearningdisabilities."Theexistenceofanimpairmentisdefinedwithoutreferencetomitigatingmeasuressuchashearingaids,prosthetics,medicines,
andthelike.UnderstoodinthelightofFJA,animpairmentsetslimitsonthephysical,mental,andinterpersonalpotentialsthataworkercanbringtobearinmeetingemployer
performancestandards(notethatsomeemotionalormentalillnessessuchasautismhavetheirimpactintheinterpersonalaswellasphysicalandmentalspheresofactivity).
Dependingonthedisability,thejobrequirements,andtheenvironmentthejobisperformedin,theselimitationsmaybequitebroadorveryspecificintheirimpactonjob
performance.

SubstantiallyLimitTheADAstatesthatadisabilitymust"substantiallylimit"oneormoremajorlifeactivities.Inotherwords,thedeterminationofwhetheraworkerhasa
disabilitydependsonthelimitingeffectthedisabilityhasinanindividual'slifeincludingwork,ratherthanbeingbasedonlyonthe"nameordiagnosis"oftheimpairment.

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Foranimpairmenttosubstantiallylimitaworker,thelimitationsmustapplytoaclassorfamilyofjobshavingsimilarrequirements(training,KSAs)inagivengeographicalarea.
TheFJAtaskbankanditsassociatedratingsprovideabasisfordefiningaclassorfamilyofjobshavingsimilarrequirements.Forthispurposethefollowinginformationalsources
canalsobeusedbecausetheydrawonconceptsandlanguagesimilartothatoftheFJAtaskbank:TheDictionaryofoccupationaltitlesoftheU.S.DepartmentofLabor,the
Canadianclassificationanddictionaryofoccupations,andtheNationaloccupationalclassificationofCanada.UseoftheFJAtaskbankhelpstoestablishwhethergiven
disabilities,identifiedonacasebycasebasis,doindeedsubstantiallylimitaworkerandplacehimorherundertheprotectionoftheADAorsimilarlegislation.

EssentialFunctionsAccordingtotheADA,thedecisionofwhetheranindividualwithadisabilityisqualifiedforajobhingesontwofactors:(a)heorshemustsatisfythe
prerequisitesofthepositionintermsofeducation,experience,skills,andsoonand(b)heorshemustbeabletoperformtheessentialfunctions(asopposedtomarginal
functions)oftheposition,withorwithoutreasonableaccommodation.Thedeterminationofwhatcomprisesessentialfunctionsofthejobbecomescrucialtotheproper
implementationoftheADA.FJAprovidesconsiderableguidanceinthismatteranduseofFJAtosortoutessentialfrommarginalfunctionsisillustratedintheexampleofthe
PolicyServiceRepresentative(PSR)presentedlater.

ReasonableAccommodationTheADAstatesthatapersonisa"qualifiedindividualwithadisability"ifheorshecanperformtheessentialfunctionsofthejobwithorwithout
reasonableaccommodation.Anaccommodationisdefinedas"anychangeintheworkenvironmentorthewaythingsarecustomarilydonethatenablesanindividualwitha
disabilitytoenjoyequalemploymentopportunities."Accommodationscanbeachievedinvariousways,includingmodifyingexistingfacilities,jobrestructuring,changesinwork
schedules,acquiringormodifyingequipment,andsoon.Theactstressesthattodeterminetheappropriateaccommodationtheemployerandworker(orjobapplicant)mayhave
to"initiateaninformal,interactiveprocesswiththequalifiedindividualwithadisabilityinneedoftheaccommodation."AtthispointtheFJAtaskbankbecomesespeciallyuseful
forreviewingthejobinathoroughyetefficientmanner.Itsusefulnessderivesfromthelanguageinwhichtasksarewritten.Thislanguageisimmediatelyconvertibletothe
trainingandKSAscalledforinorderforaworkertoperformthejob.Inadditiontheresultsexpectedareclearlydelineated.Thesupervisoranddisabledworker,withtheaidofthe
taskbank,arequicklyabletopinpointthenecessaryaccommodation(s)byreadingthroughthetaskbank

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together.Ifthedisabledpersonisajobapplicant,thetaskbankoffersaconvenientandreadilyunderstandabletoolthatthecompanyrecruiterandapplicantcanreviewtogether
indecidingwhetherposthireaccommodationscanbemadetothejob.

Closelylinkedwiththeconceptofreasonableaccommodationisthatofunduehardship.Underthisprovision,theemployerisnotobligatedtoprovideanaccommodation
imposinganunduehardshiptoocostly,extensive,substantial,ordisruptivetotheemployer.Inaddition,ifnoaccommodationcanbefoundthateithereliminatesorreducesa
directthreattothehealthorsafetyofthedisabledpersonorothers,thatindividualcanbedischargedorrefusedemployment.Thisdirectthreatmustposeasignificantriskof
substantialharmtorelieveemployersoftheirdutyforreasonableaccommodationundertheADA.

Waystousejobanalysismorespecifically,FJAinimplementingADA,havebeensuggested.However,theEEOC,whichadministerstheADA,goesfurtherthan
suggestingjobanalysisinitsinterpretiveguidelines.Theseguidelinesstatethatunlesstheaccommodationisobvioustoboththeemployerandqualifiedindividualwith
adisability(e.g.,theneedforwheelchairrampsuptothefrontdoorofabuilding),theemployershoulduse"aproblemsolvingapproach"thatinvolves"analyzing
actualjobdutiesanddeterminingthetruepurposeorobjectofthejob."Onlythencantheemployerandqualifiedindividualwithadisabilitytogetherassesstheeffects
ofthedisabilityonperformanceofthejob'sessentialfunctionsanddeterminetheaccommodationneeded.Inotherwords,jobanalysisisabasicandindispensable
toolforprovidingreasonableaccommodationinallbutsimplecases.

AnexamplewillhelptoclarifyhowFJAcanbeusedtoaccommodateamanbeingconsideredforhirebyaninsurancecompanyasaPolicyServiceRepresentative
(PSR).Themanisconfinedtoawheelchairandhasnouseofhislegsduetoaspinalcordinjury.PSRswiththiscompanyworkoutofindividualworkstationslocated
withinacubicleandequippedwithadesk,computer,printer,andtelephone.Thefirstquestioniswhetherthemanisqualifiedforthejobwithinthemeaningofthe
ADA.Throughtheuseofworksampletestsandastructuredinterview,itisestablishedthatthemanhasthenecessaryskills,training,education,andexperiencefor
theposition.Nextitmustbedeterminedwhetherhecanperformtheessentialfunctionsoftheposition.Atthispoint,theFJAtaskbankforthePSRisbroughtoutand
reviewed(thereisprobablynoneedtocollectadditionaldataalltherequiredinformationislikelytobecontainedinthetaskbank).EssentialfunctionsintheADA
areanalogoustoprimaryoutputsinFJA,thereforeoutputsinthePSRtaskbankprovidethebasicinformationforqualifyingindividualsundertheADAforthisjob.
Theoutputs

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fromthePSRtaskbankareasfollows(alongwithabriefsynopsisofthetaskscoveredundereach):

1.0Startingwork(3tasks:loggingontocomputerplanningtheday'sactivitiesandretrievingnecessarydocumentsandothermaterials).

2.0Handlingpolicylistings(2tasks:readingandreviewingcustomerpoliciessortinganddistributingcomputerlistingofpoliciesrequiringfurtheraction).

3.0Filingpolicymaterials(2tasks:sortinganddistributingmaterialsintobinsatcentralworkstationsortingandplacingprocessedchangeformsintogarbageor
shredder).

4.0Handlingcorrespondence(2tasks:writingletterstopolicyholdersprintingrelateddocuments).

5.0Issuingreinstatements(3tasks:reviewingandapprovingpolicyreinstatementrequestsroutingpolicyreinstatementletterstoworkprocessingdepartment).

6.0Makingpolicychanges(5tasks:reviewing,entering,changingandverifyingpolicyinformationusingcomputersystemcomputingclientpremiumssettingup
paymentplans).

7.0Contactingothers(3tasks:respondingtocustomerinquiriesandcomplaintsprovidingandrequestingpolicyandotherinformation).

Thedeterminationofwhichoutputsareessentialfunctionsandwhicharemarginalisassistedinthisinstancebyratingsoftaskimportancecollectedfromincumbents
bythejobanalyst.Theseratingsshowthetasksunderoutput3.0(filingpolicymaterials)areratedasbeingoflowerimportancethanthetasksoftheothersixoutputs.
Furthermore,filingisanoutputthatservesthemaintenancegoalsratherthanthemission/purposegoalsoftheorganization,andleadstotheconclusionthatthisoutput
isamarginalfunctionforADApurposes.Theremainingoutputsareessentialfunctions.Theyarerelativelyhighinimportanceandcloselyrelatedtothe
mission/purposegoalsofthePSR.Theyarealldirectlyinvolvedinorrequiredforservicingcustomeraccounts.Becauseoutput3.0alsorequirestheworkerto
frequentlymovefromtheworkstationtoacentralareaelsewhereinthebuilding(andallotheroutputsareperformedwithintheindividualworkstation),management
decidesthisdisabledworkercanbeaccommodatedbymovingthemarginaltaskoutofthisposition.Afterhire,theworkerwillreceiveafilingbasketatthe
workstationforallmaterialsneedingtobefiledandthoserequiringshredding.Theselattercanbemarkedwitharedtag.Anotherworkerwilltakethematerialsona
regulartriptothecentralworkstationandeitherdeposittheminabinorplace

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themintheshredder.Thedisabledapplicantmustbeabletoperformtheremainingoutputsdeemedtobeessentialfunctionswiththesereasonableaccommodations.
ThedisabledapplicantandamanagerreviewthePSRtaskbankandtogethervisitoneoftheindividualizedworkstations.Theydecidethatseveralrelatively
inexpensiveaccommodations(e.g.,aspecialchairfortheworkstation,settingsupplybinsandmanualswithintheworkstationtoareachablelevel),willenablethe
applicanttoperformtheessentialfunctionsofthejobandheissubsequentlyhired.

OnequestionmustbecontinuouslyaskedwhenreviewingtheFJAtaskbankwithreasonableaccommodationinmind:Cantheresultforthetask(s)beachieved
throughadifferentmeans(otherthantheoneusedbyatypicalnondisabledworker)?Agoodexampleofusingadifferentmeanscomesfromataskforthejobof
switchboard,officesupply,mailandfilespersonneltakenfromBenchmarktasksforjobanalysis(Fine&Getkate,1995).
PickupnewspapersatnewsstandandmailatU.S.PostalStationinbuilding,carryordrag(ifveryheavy)tomailroom,relyingonphysicalstrengthandfollowingSOPinorderto
havemailavailableforsortingandpapersreadyfordeliverytopersonsdesignated.

Assumethejustmentionedtaskispartofanessentialfunctionforthejob.Oneoftheworkerswhoisdisabledwithabackimpairmentrequestsreasonable
accommodation,andthisisoneofthetaskssingledoutforattention.Therequiredresultistohavethemail/newspapersavailableinthemailroomforsortingand
delivery(theADAemphasizesthatbothdisabledandnondisabledworkersaresubjecttothesameperformancestandardsaslongasreasonableaccommodationis
provided).Whatisupfornegotiationisthemeansbywhichthistaskwillbeperformed(action),equipmentandtoolsused,andtrainingorinstructionprovided.Itmay
notbenecessaryfortheworkertocarryordragmailbagstothemailroomifheorsheisprovidedwithahandtruck.Further,thedisabledworkercanreceivethe
trainingneededtosafelyliftthemailbagsonandoffthehandtruckwithminimalbackstrain.Thetaskcannowberewrittenasfollowstoreflecttheaccommodation:
PickupnewspapersatnewsstandandmailatU.S.PostalStationinbuilding,carryordrag(ifveryheavy)ordeliverbyhandtruck,tomailroom,relyingonphysicalstrength,
knowledgeofheavyliftingtechniquesandfollowingSOPinordertohavemailavailableforsortingandpapersreadyfordeliverytopersonsdesignated.

Thedisabledworkercannowperformthetasktoobtainexactlythesameresultasbeforedespiteabackinjury.Somenondisabledworkersmayalsooptforthehand
truckratherthancarryordragheavybagsresulting(coincidentally)ingreaterefficiencyinmovingthemailandfewerstraininjuriesonthejob.Inthiscase,a
straightforwardaccommodationfor

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thedisabledindividualresultedinworkimprovementsforthenondisabled,lowerworkers'compensationclaims,andgreaterefficiencyintheworkdoingsystem.Note
thatsuchaccommodationsarenotlimitedtotheADA.TheycouldalsoprovideequalemploymentopportunityforwomenunderTitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActorfor
disabledveteransundertheVietnamEraVeteransReadjustmentAssistanceAct.

UsingFJAforPayEquity

Anearlierreferenceinthischaptercitedpeople'stendencytostereotypeotherpeoplebasedontheirrace,gender,age,andsoon.Researchshowsthissame
tendencyoccurswithrespecttojobs:Historically,jobshavebecomeassociatedasbeingsuitedtomalesorfemales.Forexample,shopjobssuchaswelderor
pipefitteraremalestereotyped(heldmostlyby,andbelievedbestsuitedfor,men)andofficejobssuchasclerkorsecretaryarefemalestereotyped(heldmostlyby,
andbelievedbestsuitedfor,women).TheconcernaddressedbytheEqualPayActof1963,andbycomparableworthlegislationinanumberofstates,isthatthese
jobstereotypescauseorganizationdecisionmakerstosystematicallyunderpaywomen'sjobscomparedtomen'sjobsofeitherequalorcomparablevalue.This
legislation,byrequiringorganizationstomodifytheirexistingjobevaluationprocedurestoeliminateanygenderbiasintheirpaysystems,contributestoreducingthe
overallgapinwagesbetweenmenandwomen.AquestionaddressedinthispartofthechapteriswhetherFJAcanhelpinidentifyingandeliminatinggenderbiasin
jobevaluation.

TheFJAapproachtojobevaluationisdescribedinchapter16.FJAprovidestheonlyjobevaluationsystembasedonanexplicitlystatedtheoryofwork.Allother
systems,whetherranking,pointmethod,factorcomparisonmethod,jobanalysisquestionnairebased,orotherarebasedonamethodology,andnotatheory,ofjob
evaluation.ThetheorybasednatureofFJAbecomesanotableadvantagewhenusedinpayequity.Acentralconcernofpayequityistoremovegenderbiasfromthe
jobevaluationprocesstomakethepaystructureequitableandfair.

Cronshaw's(1991)IndustrialPsychologyinCanadadescribedfourstagesinthejobevaluationprocesswheregenderbiasismostlikelytooccur.Abriefsummary
ofthesestagesastheyoccurinFJAjobevaluationfollowsalongwithameanstoreduceoreliminategenderbiasateachstage.

Stage1

Genderbiascanmakemajorinroadsinjobevaluationwhenthejobanalysisisconductedandtheresultswrittenintoajobdescriptionforsubse

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quentratingbyajobevaluationcommittee.Intheirbook,Payequity:Issues,optionsandexperience,WeinerandGunderson(1990)statedthatbiasincollectingjob
informationisminimizedby:

havinganumberofknowledgeablepeople(preferablyjobincumbents)providethejobinformation,

usingastandardjobanalysis,and

employingonlyproperlytrainedjobanalysts

FJAisparticularlystrongonallofthesecriteria.

Stage2

Genderbiascanenterwhensubfactorsareselectedforinclusioninthejobevaluationsystem.Theconcernhereisthatsubfactorsforfemaleaspectsofthejob(such
asfinemotorskill,responsibilityforpeople,andamountofinterruptiononthejob)willbeexcluded.ThemajoradvantageofFJAinthisregardisthatitisbasedona
theoreticalunderstandingofworkthatreflectsallaspectsofaworker'sinvolvement(chap.16).Thefourcomponentsandtheirparticularfactorsarecomprehensive
ofbothfemaleandmalejobaspectsacrosstherangeofjobsinanorganization.Thisshouldworktominimizetheopportunityforgenderbiasbyexclusion.

Stage3

Genderbiascanenterwiththeweightingandassignmentofpointvaluestosubfactors.Forexample,ajobevaluationsystemmightassignmaximumscalescoreson
subfactorsrepresentingfemaleaspectsthataretoolowcomparedtomaximumscoresassignedtosubfactorsrepresentingmaleaspects.InFJAthisbiaswouldtend
toshowupontherelativevaluesthatanorganizationassignstoTDPincarryingoutitsoverallmission.Atthispointthebiasrepresentedbytheassignedvaluescanbe
questionedandcorrected.Thisapproachcontrastsstarklywithmanyotherjobevaluationsystems(forexample,theHaysystem),whichweightDataand,sometimes
Things,totheexclusionofPeople.Giventhefrequentcomplaintbypayequityadvocatesthatworkingwithpeople(afemalejobaspect)isgivenshortshriftinjob
evaluation,thebalanceamongthethreefunctionalareasThings,Data,andPeopleachievedbyFJAisagoodbeginningtoanongenderbiasedpaysystem.One
exampleofanadaptivesubfactorcommonlyoverlookedinfemaledominatedjobsisthestressthatresultsfromfrequentinterruptionsandmultipledemands.These
adaptiveskills(willingnesstoworkunderdifficultorexceptionalenvironmentalconditions)arebroughtoutduringtheFJAfocusgroupforthejob,butitisupto

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thejobevaluatortorecognizethemasPremiumfactorsandgivethemappropriateweightinginthejobevaluationsystem.

Stage4

Genderbiascanenterwhenajobevaluationcommitteeratesjobdescriptionsandassignsjobevaluationpoints.Inkeepingwiththethemeofopennessandtrust
stressedthroughoutthisbook,careshouldbetakentoensurethatacrosssectionofmanagementandworkersmakeupthemembershipofthejobevaluation
committee.Acceptanceofthefinalresultsofthejobevaluation(intheformofpostedpayrates)areenhancedifworkersandmanagementhavebeeninvolvedinall
aspectsofthedesignandadministrationofthepaysystem.NotethatFJArequiresworkerparticipationatthebeginningoftheprocessthejobanalysisfocus
groupandmuchisgainedbyenlistingthisworkerinvolvementthroughoutthejobevaluationandpaysettingprocess.Ofcoursethejobevaluationcommitteeshould
includebothwomenandmen,particularlywomenfromtheunderpaidpositionsmostimpactedbypayequityinordertoreducethepossibilityofgenderbiasatthis
stageofjobevaluation.

FJAjobevaluationresultsinaflatter,moreegalitarianpaystructurethanmostotherjobevaluationmethods.Thatis,thedifferencebetweenthelowestandhighest
paidjobsintheorganizationwillbenarrowerthanmostmanagersareaccustomedto.Foracompany,thepointspreadbetweenthehighestratedjobofexecutive
directorandthelowestratedjoboffoodserviceaidecanbethreetoone.IfinfactFJAworkstocorrectgenderbias,itistobeexpectedthatapplicationofFJAwill
reducepaydifferencesbetweenthetopandbottomoftheorganizationgiventhatwomeninlargeorganizationstendtoclusterinlowpayingjobs.ManagersusingFJA
forjobevaluationshouldbepreparedtohavetimewornassumptionsaboutpaychallenged,especiallythebeliefthatjobevaluationpointsshouldrevolvearoundData
functionswithaminorcontributionofworkingconditionsthrownin.Thistraditionalapproach,whichincidentallyfavorsseniorandmiddlelevelmanagerswitha
largerspreadinpayrelativetothelowerranks,mustbediscardedifpayequityistobefullyapproached.Theresultingpaysystemachievesgreaterbalanceinfinancial
rewardsbetweenworkersandmanagersandshouldinturnhelptosolidifythebasictrustbetweenworkersandmanagementonwhichorganizationssoheavily
depend.

SummaryofFJAandtheLaw

Asthischapterhasattemptedtoshow,jobanalysisisanindispensabletoolforproperlyimplementingawiderangeofantidiscriminationlegislation.

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Inajobanalysisworlddominatedbystructuredquestionnaireswithlimitedsensitivitytolocalconditions,FJAoffersameanstoeconomicallyandeffectively
implementimportantprovisionsofthislegislationonacasebycasebasis.ThemosteloquentstatementofthisneedisintheinterpretiveguidelinesoftheADA,''[we]
mustrelyonobjective,factualevidencenotonsubjectiveperceptions,irrationalfears,patronizingattitudes,orstereotypes."Employersneedtonotonlyapplythis
principleinenactingalltypesofantidiscriminationlegislationbutextendittoallaspectsoftheemploymentrelationship.ManyyearsofexperiencewithFJAhave
convincedusthatFJAcanplayasignificantroleinpromotingmoretrustingandrespectfulemploymentrelationshipsbygroundingworkers'andmanagers'everyday
experiencethroughasharedunderstandingoftheobjectiveandfactualbedrockunderlyingallwork.Theapplicationspresentedinthelastsectionofthisbookhelp
themworktogethertodeveloplessdiscriminatoryorganizationsandhealthierworkrelationshipsastheworldofworkundergoesorganizationalandsocietaltransitions
intothethirdmillennium.

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AppendixA
FJAScales

ThingsFunctionsScale

WorkingwithThingsliterallymeansthephysicalinteractionwithtangibles,includingtakenforgranteditemssuchasdesktopequipment(pencils,paperclips,
telephone,handstamps,etc.),blackboardsandchalk,andcars.Physicalinvolvementwithtangiblessuchasdesktopequipment,etc.,maynotseemveryimportantin
tasksprimarilyconcernedwithDataorPeople,buttheirimportanceisquicklyapparentwhenhandicaporineptnessoccurs.AninvolvementwithThingscanbe
manifestedinrequirementsforneatness,arrangements,and/orsecurityoftheworkplace.Workerswhomakedecisionsortakeactionsconcerningthedispositionof
Things(tools,materials,ormachines)areconsideredtobeworkingmainlywithData,althoughtheyphysicallyhandleThings(e.g.,records,telephone,andcatalogs).
TheThingsFunctionsScaleincludes:physicalinteractionwithandresponsetotangiblestouched,felt,observed,andrelatedtoinspaceimagesvisualizedspatially.

TheArabicnumberassignedtodefinitionsrepresentsthesuccessivelevelsofthisordinalscale.TheA,B,C,andDdefinitionsarevariationsonthesamelevel.

Level1A:Handling

Works(cuts,shapes,assembles,etc.),digs,moves,orcarriesobjectsormaterialswhereobjects,materials,tools,etc.,areoneorfewinnumberandaretheprimary
involvementoftheworker.Precisionrequirementsarerelativelygross.Includestheuseofdollies,handtrucks,andthelikewritingtools,telephones,andother
desktopequipmentandthecasualoroptionaluseoftoolsandothertangibles.

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Level1B:FeedingOffbearing

Inserts,throws,dumps,orplacesmaterialsinto,orremovesthemfrom,machines,equipment,ormeasuringdevicesthatareautomaticortended/operatedbyother
workers.Precisionrequirementsarebuiltin,largelyoutofcontrolofworker.

Level2A:MachineTendingIMaterialProductsandProcessing

Starts,stops,andmonitorsthefunctioningofmachinesandequipmentsetupbyotherworkers,wheretheprecisionofoutputdependsonkeepingonetoseveral
controlsinadjustmentinresponsetoautomaticsignalsaccordingtospecifications.Includesallmachinesituationswherethereisnosignificantsetuporchangeofsetup,
wherecyclesareveryshort,alternativestononstandardperformancearefew,andadjustmentsarehighlyprescribed.

Level2B:MachineTendingIIDataProcessingandDuplication

Starts,stops,monitorsthefunctioningofmachinesandequipmentthatarepreprogrammedtoperformthebasicfunctionsinvolvedindataprocessing,document
copying,andprinting.Machines/equipmentareactivatedatkeyboardterminalsortouchcontrolpanelsandcanaccomplishspecialeffectsforparticularactivities
throughtheinputofspecialcodes.Nonproductiveuseofcalculators,typewriters,andsimilarofficeequipmentisincludedhere.

Level3A:Manipulating

Works(cuts,shapes,assembles,etc.),digs,moves,guides,orplacesobjectsormaterialswhereobjects,tools,controls,etc.,areseveralinnumber.Precision
requirementsrangefromgrosstofine.Includeswaitingontablesandtheuseofordinaryportablepowertoolswithinterchangeablepartsandordinarytoolsaroundthe
homesuchaskitchenandgardentoolsusedforfoodpreparation,installation,andminorrepairs.

Level3B:OperatingControllingI

Starts,stops,controls,andadjustsamachineorequipmentdesignedtofabricateand/orprocessTDP.Theworkermaybeinvolvedinactivatingthemachine,asin
wordprocessingorturningwood,ortheinvolvement

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mayoccurprimarilyatstartupandstopaswithasemiautomaticmachine.Operatingamachineinvolvesreadyingandadjustingthemachineand/ormaterialaswork
progresses.Controllingequipmentinvolvesmonitoringgauges,dials,andsoon,andturningvalvesandotherdevicestocontrolsuchitemsastemperature,pressure,
flowofliquids,speedofpumps,andreactionofmaterials.(Thisratingisappliedonlytooperatorsofonemachineoroneunitofequipment.)

Level3C:DrivingControlling

Starts,stops,andcontrols(steers,guides)theactionsofmachinesintwodimensionalspaceforwhichacoursemustbefollowedtomovethingsorpeople.Actions
regulatingcontrolsrequirecontinuousattentionandreadinessofresponsetosurfacetrafficconditions.

Level3D:StartingUp

Readiespoweredmobileequipmentforoperation,typicallyfollowingstandardprocedures.Manipulatescontrolstostartupengines,allowsforwarmupandpressure
buildupasnecessary,checksmobilitywheremovementisinvolved,andworkingparts(asinconstructionequipment),brakes,gaugesindicatingserviceability(fuel,
pressure,temperature,batteryoutput,etc.)andvisuallychecksforleaksandotherunusualconditions.Includesreverseshutdownprocedures.

Level4A:PrecisionWorking

Works,moves,guides,orplacesobjectsormaterialsaccordingtostandardpracticalprocedureswherethenumberofobjects,materials,tools,andsoonembraces
anentirecraftandaccuracyexpectediswithinfinalfinishedtolerancesestablishedforthecraft.(Usethisratingwhereworkprimarilyinvolvesmanualorpowerhand
tools.)

Level4B:SettingUp

Installsmachinesorequipmentinsertstools,altersjigs,fixtures,andattachmentsand/orrepairsmachinesorequipmenttoreadyand/orrestorethemtotheirproper
functioningaccordingtojoborderorblueprintspecifications.Involvesprimaryresponsibilityforaccuracy.Mayinvolveoneoranumberofmachinesforother
workersorworker'sownoperations.

Level4C:OperatingControllingII

Starts,stops,controls,andcontinuouslymodifiessetupofequipmentdesignedtohoistandmovematerialsortransportpersonsand/ormaterials

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inmultidimensionalspaceincludestheoperationofheavyequipmenttoreshapeand/orpavetheearth'ssurface.Manipulationofcontrolsrequirescontinuousattention
tochangingconditions,andreadinessofresponsetoactivatetheequipmentinlateral,vertical,and/orangularoperations.

DataFunctionsScale

Datashouldbeunderstoodtomeaninformation,ideas,facts,andstatistics.InvolvementwithDataisinherentinthesimplestjobinstructionintheformofrecognizing
therelationshipofatooltoitsfunctionorthesignificanceofapointinginstruction.Dataarealwayspresentinatask,althoughthemajoremphasisofthetaskmightbe
dealingwithThingsand/orPeople.WhereThingsareprimarilyinvolved,Datatendtoshowupasspecifications.WherePeopleareprimarilyinvolved,Datatendto
showupasinformationaboutobjectiveeventsorconditions,informationaboutfeelings,orideasthatcouldbetingedwithobjectiveinformationand/orfeeling.The
DataScalemeasuresthedegreetowhichworkersmightbeexpectedtobecomeinvolvedwithDatainthetaskstheyareaskedtoperform,fromsimplerecognition
throughdegreesofarranging,executing,andmodifyingtoreconceptualizingData

Thedatafunctionsinworkandlearningarethesame,butthereisanimportantdifference.Inworksituationsthefunctionstendtobedemarcatedandallocatedto
specificassignmentsreflectingorganizationstructureandproductionflow.Inthelearningsituation,functionsknownobounds.Everynewlearningcanbeachallenge
involvingaspectsofcreativity(synthesizing),andhenceinvolveallsubsidiaryfunctionsintheDataScaleeitherslowlyorquickly.Thus,theDatascalebasically
reflectsthecognitivedevelopmentthatoccursinhumanlearning.
Dataareinformation,ideas,facts,statistics,specificationofoutput,knowledgeofconditions,techniquesmentaloperations.

TheArabicnumberassignedtodefinitionsrepresentsthesuccessivelevelsofthisordinalscale.TheA,B,C,andDdefinitionsarevariationsonthesamelevel.

Level1:Comparing

Selects,sorts,orarrangesTDP,judgingwhethertheirreadilyobservablefunctional,structural,orcompositionalcharacteristicsaresimilartoordifferentfrom
prescribedstandards.Examples:checksoillevel,tirepressure,worncablesobservesandrespondstohandsignalofworkerindicatingmovementofloadsizes,
sorts,andcullstangiblesbeingconveyedtoworkerscompareslistsofnamesandnumbersforsimilarity.

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Level2:Copying

Transcribes,enters,and/orpostsdata,followingaschemaorplantoassembleormakethings,usingavarietyofworkaids.Transfersinformationmentallyfromplans,
diagrams,instructionstoworkpieceorworksite.Examples:attendstostakesshowingagradelinetobefollowedwhileoperatingequipment.

Level3A:Computing

Performsarithmeticoperationsandmakesreportsand/orcarriesoutaprescribedactioninrelationtothem.Interpretsmathematicaldataonplans,specifications,
diagrams,orblueprints,transferringthemtoworkpieceforexample,readsandfollowsspecificationsonstakes.

Level3B:Compiling

Gathers,collates,orclassifiesinformationaboutTDP,followingschemaorsystembutusingdiscretioninapplication.Examples:considerswind,weather(rainor
shine),shape,weightandtypeofload,height,andcapacityofboominmakingliftusingacraneconvertsinformationinabook(title,author,subject,etc.,intoa
standardlibrarycode).

Level4:Analyzing

Examinesandevaluatesdata(aboutTDP)withreferencetothecriteria,standards,and/orrequirementsofaparticulardiscipline,art,technique,orcrafttodetermine
interactioneffects(consequences)andtoconsideralternatives.Examples:considers/evaluatesinstructions,siteandclimaticconditions,natureofload,capacityof
equipment,othercraftsengagedwithinordertosituate(spot)acranetobestadvantageresearchesaprobleminaparticularsubjectmatterareatoconsiderand
enumeratetheoptionsavailableindealingwithit.

Level5A:Innovating

Modifies,alters,and/oradaptsexistingdesigns,procedures,ormethodstomeetuniquespecifications,unusualconditions,orspecificstandardsofeffectivenesswithin
theoverallframeworkofoperatingtheories,principles,and/ororganizationalcontextsforexample,improvises,usingexistingattachments,ormodifiescustomary
equipmenttomeetunusualconditionsandfulfillspecifications.

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Level5B:Coordinating

Decidestimes,place,andsequenceofoperationsofaprocess,system,ororganization,and/ortheneedforrevisionofgoals,policies(boundaryconditions),or
proceduresonthebasisofanalysisofdataandofperformancereviewofpertinentobjectivesandrequirements.Includesoverseeingand/orexecutingdecisionsand/or
reportingoneventsforexample,selects/proposesequipmentbestsuitedtoachieveanoutputconsideringresources(equipment,costs,personnel)availabletogetthe
jobdone.

Level6:Synthesizing

Takesoffinnewdirectionsonthebasisofpersonalintuitions,feelings,andideas(withorwithoutregardfortradition,experience,andexistingparameters)toconceive
newapproachestoorstatementsofproblemsandthedevelopmentofsystem,operational,oraestheticsolutionsorresolutionsofthemtypicallyoutsideofexisting
theoretical,stylistic,ororganizationalcontext.

PeopleFunctionsScale

Thesubstanceoftheliveinteractionbetweenpeople(andanimals)iscommunication.Inthebroadestsense,thecommunicationcanbeverbalornonverbal.What
makescommunicationcomplexistheheavyloadthatmessagescarryforexample,Dataintheirobjectiveandsubjectiveformsthewayinwhichtheyaredelivered
(volume,tone,accompanyinggesture,andtheformalrulesandinformalcustomsthatgovernthecontextofthecommunication).Becausethereisalargesubjective
elementonthepartofboththesenderandthereceiverofacommunication,itisverydifficulttomeasureortoassignabsolutevaluesorprimaryimportancetooneor
anothertypeofinformationintheinteraction.

Whatfurthercomplicatespinningdownthenatureofspecificinterpersonalbehavioristhataffectcanserveasatoolformanagingoneselfintheinteractionaswellas
theinformationalsubstanceoftheinteraction.Affect,asinformationandastool,canoccurinthesimplestaswellasthemostcomplexinteraction.Forexample,affect
expressedasasulkymanner,perhapstogainattentionorperhapstoexpressresentmentonthepartofaworker,canquicklybecometheinformationalsubstanceof
theinteractionwhenthesupervisorasksnonreactively,''Don'tyoufeelwell?"andgetstheanswer,"No,Idon't.Mychildisill.Ishouldbehome."

ThefunctionsinthePeoplescaledealwiththesecomplexquestionsonlyindirectly.Theassumptionofordinalityismoretenuousthaninthe

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ThingsandDataScalesanddependsmoreheavilyonrole,status,andauthority,whichareoftenassociatedwith,butnotnecessarilyapartof,skill.Ineffect,the
functionstrytocapturethevarietyofinterpersonalbehaviorassignedinvariousworksituationsandaremoreorlessarranged,asintheotherscales,accordingtothe
need,ingeneral,todealwithincreasingnumbersofvariablesandwithgreaterdegreesofdiscretion.(ThefunctionleastlikelytofitthispatternisSupervising,which
probablycouldhaveascaleofitsown.)

Skillindealingwithpeopleisundoubtedlyasmuchanartasamethodology.Althoughmeasurementinthisareaisinaprimitivestate,itisessentialtodelineate
descriptiveandnumericalstandardsbywhichafunctioncanbeappraisedinthetaskinwhichitoccurs.Oneshouldespeciallynoteculturalboundaryconditionsin
mattersofcourtesy,diplomaticprotocol,and"rule"ofbehaviorinpatientdoctorrelationships.

Thepeoplescalemeasuresliveinteractionbetweenpeople,andpeopleandanimals.

Level1A:TakingInstructionsHelping

Attendstotheworkassignment,instructions,orordersofsupervisor.Noimmediateresponseorverbalexchangeisrequiredunlessclarificationofinstructionis
needed.

Level1B:Serving

Attendstotheneedsorrequestsofpeopleoranimalsortotheexpressedorimplicitwishesofpeople.Immediateresponseisinvolved.

Level2:ExchangingInformation

Talksto,converseswith,and/orsignalspeopletoconveyorobtaininformation,ortoclarifyandworkoutdetailsofanassignment,withintheframeworkofwell
establishedprocedureforexample,requestsclarificationofaverbalsignal(inpersonoronradio)orhandsignal.

Level3A:SourcingInformation

Servesasaprimaryandcentralsourcetoexternalpublicorinternalworkforceofsysteminformationthatiscrucialindirecting/routingpeopleorworkerstotheir
destinationorareasofconcern,whichmakesitpossibleforsystem/organizationtofunction.Examples:informationpersonnelinstoresandterminalsreception/routing
personinlargeofficeinventoryand/orstockclerk.

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Level3B:Persuading

Influencesothersinfavorofaproduct,service,orpointofviewbytalksordemonstration.Examples:demonstratessafetyproceduresrequiredonapieceof
equipmentforcompliancewithnewregulationssalespersonnelinhardwareandfurniturestoresorboutiques.

Level3C:Coaching

Befriendsandencouragesindividualsonapersonal,caringbasisbyapproximatingapeerorfamilytyperelationshipeitherinaoneononeorsmallgroupsituation
givesinstruction,advice,andpersonalassistanceconcerningactivitiesofdailyliving,theuseofvariousinstitutionalservices,andparticipationingroups.Examples:
givessupportorencouragementtoapprenticeorjourneypersononunfamiliarpieceofequipment,coachesstudentsonschoolathleticteam,sponsorsnewemployees
inatrainingsituation.

Level3D:Diverting

Amuses/performstoentertainordistractindividualsand/oraudienceortolightenasituation.Examples:daycareteachingstorytellingstreetentertaining.

Level4A:Consulting

Servesasasourceoftechnicalknowledgeandprovidessuchknowledgeaswellasrelatedideastodefine,clarify,enlargeupon,orsharpenprocedures,capabilities,
orproductspecifications.Examples:informsprojectmanagersofeffectiveandappropriateuseofequipmenttoachieveoutputwithinconstraints(time,money,etc.)
presentsoptionstosolveparticularproblems.

Level4B:Instructing

Teachessubjectmattertoothersortrainsothers,includinganimals,throughexplanation,demonstration,andtest,bringingthemtoadesiredlevelofperformance.

Level4C:Treating

Actsonorinteractswithindividualsorsmallgroupsofpeopleoranimalswhoneedhelp(asinsickness)tocarryoutspecializedtherapeuticorad

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justmentprocedures.Systematicallyobservesresultsoftreatmentwithintheframeworkoftotalpersonalbehaviorsinceuniqueindividualreactionstoprescriptions
(chemical,physical,orbehavioral)maynotfallwithintherangeofexpectation/prediction.Motivates,supports,andinstructsindividualstoacceptorcooperatewith
therapeuticadjustmentprocedureswhennecessary.

Level5:Supervising

Determinesand/orinterpretsworkprocedureforagroupofworkers,assignsspecificdutiestothemdelineatingprescribedanddiscretionarycontentmaintains
harmoniousrelationsamongthem,evaluatesperformance(bothprescribedanddiscretionary),andpromotesefficiencyandotherorganizationalvaluesmakes
decisionsonproceduralandtechnicallevels.

Level6:Negotiating

Bargainsanddiscussesonaformalbasis,asarepresentativeofonesideofatransaction,foradvantagesinresources,rights,privileges,and/orcontractualobligations,
givingandtakingwithinthelimitsprovidedbyauthorityorwithintheframeworkoftheperceivedrequirementsandintegrityofaproblem.

Level7:Mentoring

Workswithindividualshavingproblemsaffectingtheirlifeadjustmentinordertoadvise,counsel,and/orguidethemaccordingtolegal,scientific,clinical,spiritual,
and/orotherprofessionalprinciples.Advisesclientsonimplicationsofanalysesordiagnosesmadeofproblems,coursesofactionopentodealwiththem,andmerits
ofonestrategyoveranother.

Level8:Leading

Setsforth/assertsavisionthathasanimpactuponanddefinesthemission,culture,andvaluesofanorganizationsetsdirection,timeperspective,andorganizational
structureforachievementofgoalsandobjectivesmodelsbehaviorthatinspiresandmotivatesachievement(distinctfrommanagement).

WIScale

Level1

Inputs,outputs,tools,andequipment,andproceduresareallspecified.Almosteverythingtheworkerneedstoknowiscontainedintheassignment.

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Theworkerusuallyturnsoutaspecifiedamountofworkorastandardnumberofunitsperhourorday.

Level2

Inputs,outputs,tools,andequipmentareallspecified,buttheworkerhassomeleewayintheproceduresandmethodsusedtogetthejobdone.Almostallthe
informationneededisintheassignmentinstructions.Productionismeasuredonadailyorweeklybasis.

Level3

Inputsandoutputsarespecified,buttheworkerhasconsiderablefreedomastoprocedureandtiming,includingtheuseoftoolsand/orequipment.Theworkermay
havetorefertoseveralstandardsourcesforinformation(handbooks,catalogs,wallcharts).Timetocompleteaparticularproductorserviceisspecified,butthis
variesuptoseveralhours.

Level4

Output(productorservice)isspecifiedintheassignment,whichmaybeintheformofamemorandumorofaschematic(sketchorblueprint).Theworkermustwork
outownwayofgettingthejobdone,includingselectionanduseoftoolsand/orequipment,sequenceofoperations(tasks),andobtainingimportantinformation
(handbooks,etc.).Workermayeitherdotheworkorsetupstandardsandproceduresforotherstodoit.

Level5

SameasLevel4,butinadditiontheworkersareexpectedtoknowandemploytheorysothattheyunderstandthe''whys"and"wherefores"ofthevariousoptionsthat
areavailablefordealingwithaproblemandcanindependentlyselectfromamongthem.Workersmayhavetodosomereadingintheprofessionaland/ortrade
literatureinordertogainthisunderstandingand/orseekassistancefromatechnical"expert.''

Level6

Variouspossibleoutputsaredescribedthatcanmeetstatedtechnicaloradministrativeneeds.Theworkermustinvestigatethevariouspossibleoutputsandevaluate
theminregardtoperformancecharacteristicsandinputdemands.Thisusuallyrequirescreativeuseoftheorywellbeyondreferringtostandardsources.Thereisno
specificationofinputs,methods,sequences,sources,orthelike.

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Level7

Thereissomequestionastowhattheneedorproblemreallyisorwhatdirectionsshouldbepursuedindealingwithit.Inordertodefinetheproblem,tocontroland
explorethebehaviorofthevariables,andtoformulatepossibleoutputsandtheirperformancecharacteristics,theworkermustconsultlargelyunspecifiedsourcesof
informationanddeviseinvestigations,surveys,ordataanalysisstudies(strategies).

Level8

Informationand/ordirectioncomestotheworkerintermsofneeds(tactical,organizational,strategic,financial).Workermustcallforstaffreportsand
recommendationsconcerningmethodsofdealingwiththem.Heorshecoordinatesbothorganizationalandtechnicaldatainordertomakedecisionsand
determinationsregardingcoursesofaction(outputs)formajorsections(divisions,groups)oftheorganization.

ReasoningDevelopmentScale

TheReasoningDevelopmentScaleisconcernedwithknowledgeandabilitytodealwiththeoryversuspractice,abstractversusconcrete,andmanyversusfew
variables.

Level1

Havethecommonsenseunderstandingtocarryoutsimpleoneortwostepinstructionsinthecontextofhighlystandardizedsituations.

Recognizeunacceptablevariationsfromthestandardandtakeemergencyactiontorejectinputsorstopoperations.

Level2

Havethecommonsenseunderstandingtocarryoutdetailedbutuninvolvedinstructionswheretheworkinvolvesafewconcrete/specificvariablesinorfrom
standard/typicalsituations.

Level3

Havethecommonsenseunderstandingtocarryoutinstructionwheretheworkinvolvesseveralconcrete/specificvariablesinorfromstandard/typicalsituations.

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Level4

Haveknowledgeofasystemofinterrelatedprocedures,suchasbookkeeping,internalcombustionengines,electricwiringsystems,nursing,farmmanagement,ship
sailing,ormachining,andtheabilitytoaccessoptionalsolutionstoordinaryproblems.

Applyprinciplestosolvepracticaleverydayproblemsanddealwithavarietyofconcretevariablesinsituationswhereonlylimitedstandardizationexists.

Interpretavarietyofinstructionsfurnishedinwritten,oral,diagrammatic,orscheduleform.

Level5

Haveknowledgeofafieldofstudy(engineering,literature,history,businessadministration)havingimmediateapplicabilitytotheaffairsoftheworld.

Defineproblems,collectdata,establishfacts,anddrawvalidconclusionsincontrolledsituations.

Interpretanextensivevarietyoftechnicalmaterialinbooks,manuals,texts,andsoon.

Dealwithsomeabstractbutmostlyconcretevariables.

Level6

Haveknowledgeofafieldofstudyofthehighestabstractiveorder(e.g.,mathematics,physics,chemistry,logic,philosophy,artcriticism).

Dealwithnonverbalsymbolsinformulas,equations,orgraphs.

Understandthemostdifficultclassesofconcepts.

Dealwithalargenumberofvariablesanddetermineaspecificcourseofaction(e.g.,research,production)onthebasisofneed.

MathematicalDevelopmentScale

TheMathematicalDevelopmentScaleisconcernedwithknowledgeandabilitytodealwithmathematicalproblemsandoperationsfromcountingandsimpleaddition
tohighermathematics.

Level1

Countingtosimpleadditionandsubtractionreadingcopying,and/orrecordingoffigures.

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Level2

Usearithmetictoadd,subtract,multiply,anddividewholenumbers.

Readingscalesandgaugesasinpoweredequipmentwherereadingandsignalsareindicativeofconditionsandactionstobetaken.

Level3

Makearithmeticcalculationsinvolvingfractions,decimals,andpercentages.Mentallyactsupondimensionalspecificationsmarkedonmaterialorstakes.

Level4

Performsarithmetic,andalgebraicand/orgeometricproceduresinstandardpracticalapplications.

Level5

Haveknowledgeofadvancedmathematicalandstatisticaltechniquessuchasdifferentialandintegralcalculus,factoranalysis,andprobabilitydetermination.

Workwithawidevarietyoftheoreticalmathematicalconcepts.

Makeoriginalapplicationsofmathematicalprocedures,asinempiricalanddifferentialequations.

LanguageDevelopmentScale

TheLanguageDevelopmentScaleisconcernedwithknowledgeandabilitytospeak,read,orwritelanguagematerialsfromsimpleverbalinstructionstocomplex
sourcesofwritteninformationandideas.

Level1

Cannotreadorwritebutcanfollowsimpleoral,pointingoutinstructions.

Signnameandunderstandordinary,routineagreementswhenexplained,suchasthoserelevanttoleasingahouseemployment(hours,wages,etc.)procuringa
driver'slicense.

Readlists,addresses,trafficsigns,safetywarnings.

Level2

Readmaterialcontainingshortsentences,simpleconcretevocabulary,wordsthatavoidcomplexLatinderivatives(comicbooks,populartabloids,"westerns").

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Conversewithservicepersonnel(waitpersons,ushers,cashiers).

Copyordinary,everydaywrittenrecordsorbusinessletterpreciselywithouterror.Keeptaxidriver'striprecordorservicemaintenancerecord.

Level3

Comprehendorallyexpressedtradeterminology(jargon)ofaspecifictechnicalnature.

ReadmaterialonleveloftheReader'sDigestandstraightnewsreportinginpopularmassnewspapers.

Comprehendordinarynewscasting(uninvolvedsentencesandvocabularywithfocusoneventsratherthanontheiranalysis).

Copywrittenmaterialfromonerecordtoanother,catchinggrosserrorsingrammar.

Fillinreportforms,suchasMedicareforms,employmentapplications,andcardformforincometax.

Conducthousetohousesurveystoobtaincommoncensustypeinformationormarketdata,suchaspreferencesforcommercialproductsineverydaylife.

Level4

Writeroutinebusinesscorrespondencereflectingstandardprocedures.

Interviewjobapplicantstodetermineworkbestsuitedfortheirabilitiesandexperiencecontactemployerstointeresttheminservicesofagency.

Readandcomprehendtechnicalmanualsandwritteninstructionsaswellasdrawingsassociatedwithpracticingacraft.

Conductopinionresearchsurveysinvolvingstratifiedsamplesofthepopulation.

Guidepeopleontoursthroughhistoricalorpublicbuildingsandrelaterelevantanecdotesandhistoricalmaterial.

Level5

Writeinstructionsforassemblyofprefabricatedpartsintounits.

Writeinstructionsandspecificationsconcerningproperuseofmachinery.

Writecopyforadvertising.

Reportnewsforthenewspapers,radio,ortelevision.

Prepareanddeliverlecturesforaudiencesthatseekinformationaboutthearts,sciences,andhumanitiesinaninformalway.

Level6

Report,write,editarticlefortechnicalandscientificjournal(e.g.,JournalofEducationalSociology,Science,PhysicalReview,Daedalus)orjournalsspecial

 Page254

izinginadvancedliterarycriticism,(e.g.,TheNewYorker,NewYorkReviewofBooks).

Prepareanddrawupdeeds,leases,wills,mortgages,andcontracts.

Prepareanddeliverlecturesonpolitics,economics,education,orsciencetospecializedstudentsand/orprofessionalsocieties.

Comprehendandapplytechnicalengineeringdatafordesigningbuildingsandbridges.

Comprehendanddiscussworksofahighlysymbolicnature,suchasworksinlogicandphilosophy(e.g.,Kant,Whitehead,Russell).

 Page255

AppendixB
SelectingFunctionalJobAnalysts
FacilitatingFJAjobanalysissessionsrequiresprofessionalskillsakintocounselingandinterviewingskills.Theseskillsarebasedonadvancedtrainingandexperience
inpersonnelpsychology.IndividualswhomostprofitfromFJAjobanalysttrainingarepersonswhowishtobuildonsuchabackgroundandtaketheadditional
specificcontenttraining.Thisspecificcontent,listedinAppendixCofBenchmarkTaskforJobAnalysis(Fine&Getkate,1995),includes:

FJAmodel/method

FJAscales

Groupdynamics

Jobanalysis:purposeandapplicationsinHRM,forexample,selection,training,jobdesign

Roleofjobanalyst/consultant

EEOlegislation

Relevantprofessional/ethicalguidelines

Inaddition,thetraininginvolvesapracticumthatisrequiredforcertificationasanFJAfacilitator.

Asbackgroundselectionrequirements,apotentialFJAfacilitatormustpossessthefollowingessentialskills:

Verbalabilitythefacilitatormustbeabletounderstandrapidoralcommunicationsfromseveralsourceswherethisinformationmaybeofahighlytechnicalnature,
organizeandsortthroughthisverbalinformationmentally,andwritedowngrammaticallycomplexsentencestoforman

 Page256

FJAtaskbank.Aboveaverageverbalabilityisrequiredjusthowfaraboveaverageisnotknown,alotdependsontheotherrequisiteskills.

Listeningskills.

Facilitationskillsengagesfocusgroupparticipantsinacreativeendeavordevelopsrapport,communicatessupportandsenseofparticipants'selfworth,shows
sensitivitytoindividualfeelings.

Initiative,flexibility,adaptability.

Takentogether,theseskillshavemuchincommonwiththeTheoryYmanagementstylediscussedinPartIofthisbook.WhenfacilitatinganFJAfocusgroupthe
individualwithaTheoryYorientationcouldbeexpectedtoengageinanumberofbehaviorsessentialforasuccessfulfunctionaljobanalyst:

Listencarefullytoparticipantsuggestions.

Avoidimposingownwordingontaskformulations.

Avoidanycriticismofparticipantinput.

Provideparticipantswithconsiderablediscretioninorganizingthefocusgroupinformation(whilestayingwiththeoryandmethodologyframeworkprovidedbyFJA).

Reinforceparticipantownershipoftaskbank.

BesensitivetoparticipantdiscomfortwiththeFJAprocess.

Avoidpressuringfocusgroupparticipants.

Askquestionsasnecessarytoobtainclarification.

Respectindividualdifferencesinhowparticipantsgettheirjobsdone.

Reassureparticipantstheywillfinishontime.

Recognizeandshowsensitivitytodifferentpersonalitiesinthefocusgroup.

Encourageallparticipantstospeakupwhentheyhaveacontributiontomake.

Supporttherightofallparticipantstocontributetothetaskbankandexpressdifferenceswithwhatisbeingdeveloped.

Maintainanattitudeofopennessandcandoralways.

Allofthesefacilitatorbehaviorsshowtrustofandrespectfortheparticipants,aswellasconsideratebehaviordirectedtothemasindividuals.Theparticipantsare
thepreeminentauthoritiesonwhattheydo.Thisisrecognizedthroughoutthe2dayfocusgroupinfacilitatorwordanddeed.Initsmajorfeaturesthen,FJAhasa
greatdealincommonwithwhatMcGregorwouldaskoftheTheoryYmanager.Thesearedemandingstandardsto

 Page257

askafacilitatortomeetandnoteverypersonbeingconsideredasanFJAtraineeiscomfortablewiththeseexpectations.IftheprospectivefacilitatorprefersaTheory
Xstylewithitsemphasisoncontrolof,andadministrationover,theminutiaeoftheworker'sactivities,itcanbeexpectedthatthesameTheoryXstylecarriesover
intotheconductofthefocusgroup.Inthatcase,FJAfacilitationisdefinitelynotrecommendedbecausethefocusgroup,insteadofbeinganentirelynewanddifferent
experience,ismoreofwhatparticipantsareaccustomedtoandhavenofaithin.

Thesuggestedapproachtorecruitingandselectingsuitablefunctionaljobanalystsparallelstheapproachrecommendedtoorganizationsinrecruiting,selecting,and
interviewingworkersinChapters10,11,and12ofthisbook.Thethreestepsinthissuggestedapproachare:

ProspectiveanalystsaregivenarealisticFJApreviewsimilartotherealisticjobpreviewrecommendedinchapter10andallowedtoselectthemselvesoutiftheyare
uncomfortablewiththeFJAphilosophyandapproach.

Amanagerialstylequestionnairecanbeadministeredforexample,theManagerialPhilosophiesScaledevelopedbyJacobyandTerborg(1995).Individualswhose
resultsindicateaTheoryYstylewouldbedirectedtowardFJAfacilitation.

TheprospectiveFJAanalystcanbeinterviewedforsuitability.TheperformancestandardsprovidedforFJAfacilitationinAppendixCshouldhelpindesigningand
scoringinterviewquestionsofthistype.

Thepreviousthreesuggestionscouldbeaugmentedwithobservationsfromcoworkersandsubordinatesregardinganindividual'spreferenceforaTheoryXorTheory
Ystyle.

TheobviouswaytoassesswhetheraprospectivefacilitatorissuitedtoFJAworkistotrainanindividualandthenobservehimorherconductingafocusgroupduring
thecertificationprocess.Althoughthisapproachcertainlygivesthedesiredinformation,unnecessarycoststotheorganizationensueifthefacilitatordoesnothavethe
requiredskillsandorientationforFJAfacilitation.Alongwiththecostsoftrainingthefacilitator,theorganizationhastocontendwiththeproblemofapoorlywritten
taskbank(possiblyresultingintheneedtoredothefocusgroup),disgruntledparticipants,andbadpublicityfortheFJAprocess.Inthelongrunitischeaperand
moreefficienttorecruitandselecttherightFJAfacilitatorsthantoassumethatanystaffmemberisuptothejob.

 Page258

AppendixC
TrainingandAccreditingFunctionalJobAnalysts
FJAiscomplexintheory,methodology,andapplication.Finehascertifiedfunctionaljobanalystsonsatisfactorycompletionofatleastthreerequirements.

Attendanceata5dayFJAtrainingworkshopconsistingoflectures,demonstrations,andpracticalexercisescoveringFJAtheory,conductoftheFJAfocusgroup,
ratingoftasksonthefunctionalscales,andtypicalapplicationsofFJAtoHRM.Thisrequirementprovidesadequateknowledgeandinsightnecessarytounderstand
thepurposeofFJA,theroleoftheanalystinfacilitatingtheFJAfocusgroup,andthedynamicsoftheFJAfocusgroupitself.

Attendanceat,andobservationof,a2dayFJAfocusgroupfacilitatedbyacertifiedfunctionaljobanalyst.Theobserverandanalystneedtosetasideadequate
timeattheendofeachdaytodiscussthefacilitationprocessanddealwithanyquestionsthatarise.ThisrequirementgivestheFJAtraineeanappreciationoftheflow
andrhythmofawellconductedFJAfocusgroup.

TheFJAtraineethenconductsa2dayfocusgroupunderthesupervisionofacertifiedfunctionaljobanalyst.Adequatetimeduringcoffeeandlunchbreaksaswell
asintheeveningmustbeallowedforthecertifiedanalysttogivedetailedconstructivefeedbackonallaspectsofthefacilitation(theperformancechecklistincluded
herehasbeenfoundusefulasameansforgivingtargetedfeedbacktoFJAtrainees).Thissupervisionshouldcontinuethroughtheeditingandrevalidationofthetask
bank.Togetherthecertifiedanalystandthetraineeshouldrateatleastasubsetofthetaskswhenthefocusgroupparticipantsreturnthetaskbankafterrevalidation.

 Page259

Inindividualcases,moretrainingandexperiencemayberequiredbeforethetraineeiscompetenttofacilitateanFJAfocusgroup.Cronshawcanbecontactedto
arrangeforFJAtrainingworkshops,focusgroups,orsupervision.

PerformanceChecklistforCertificationofFJAFacilitators

InstructionstoRater

1.Besuretoread''GeneratingTaskDataWithWorkers:TheFJAFocusGroup,''whichischapter7ofthisbook.

2.Rateeveryitem.

3.CheckYesorNoinPerformsTaskcolumn.

4.IfcandidateperformstaskandisinMeetsRequirementsrange,checkthiscolumn.

5.Ifcandidate'sperformanceNeedsHelporisOutstanding,checkappropriatecolumnsandkeepnotes.Abackupcriticalincidentisrequiredforeach
oneofthesechecks.

6.AcandidatequalifieswhenheorsheMeetsRequirementsand/orisOutstandinginamajorityofitemsineachcategory.Inaddition,thecandidateshould
demonstrateresponsivenesstotheobserver'sevaluationandsuggestionsmadeonthebasisofratings.Thesesuggestionscouldbesharedduringthebreaks.

PerformsTask Req'ts Help
Outstanding
Preliminaries Yes No Meets Needs

HasFJAFacilitatorarrangedforandcheckedon
thefollowing:

OrganizationsendslettertoSMEsindicatingits
purposefortheworkshop.

PersonallettertoSMEsusingmodelletterprovided
andadaptedasnecessary.

Anorganizationpersontoberesponsiblefor
arrangements:

a)twoflipchartsandmarkers,b)aquietroomwith
seminarseating,c)refreshmentsfortwobreaks.

SomeonetotypethematerialproducedbySMEs
andwrittenonflipcharts.

Flipchartspreparedinadvance:ownnameandtitle
ofworkshop,thefivequestions,andtheFJA
paradigmforataskstatement.

 Page260

PerformsTask Req'ts Help
Outstanding
Meets Needs
Introduction Yes No

Greetsgroupwithenthusiasmisinformalin
manner.Ithelpstotellalittleaboutoneselfjob,
education,family.Afterall,theSMEsaresuspicious,
anditisnotlikelythattheyhaveeverbeen
approachedinthisway.

AsksSMEstoprintnamesonnamecardsandthen
tointroducethemselves.

AsksSMEsiftheyhaveanyquestionsaboutthe
letterstheyreceivedandanswerstheirquestions
franklyanddirectly.Ifdoesnotknow,saysso.

Explainsthatinformationtheygeneratewillbeused
asabasisforvariouspersonneloperationssuchas
trainingandselectionor,ifpartofaprogramof
activity,explaintheprogram.

Explainsthattheworkshopwilltaketwodayswith
morning,andafternoonbreaks(1015minutes)and
lunchbreak(6075minutes).Closurewillbeat4:30
p.m.(ifworkshophasstartedat8:30a.m.).

Statesthatworkshopwillfocusonthefive
questionslistedontheflipchartandbrieflyreviews
them.

Explainsthattaskstatementswillbewritten
accordingtotheFJAparadigmalsoillustratedonthe
flipchart.

AsksSMEsiftheyhaveanyfurtherquestionson
materialpresented.

ExplainsthateverythingSMEssaywillbewritten
ontheflipchartsandpostedonthewallssotheycan
check,correct,orchangewhatevertheyseefit.

Writesaslargeandclearlyaspossiblesothat
SMEscanreadtheirinputfromwherevertheyare
sitting.

MakescorrectionsrequestedbySMEsasneatlyas
possiblesoinputcanstillberead.

 Page261

PerformsTask Meets Needs Outstanding
Req'ts Help
Yes No

Explainsthatallthepostedmaterialwillbetyped
andgiventothemforcorrectionandeditingwhich
theywillthenreturntothefacilitatorforafinal
integrationofcomments.

NotesthattheTaskBankcanserveasapermanent
recordinSME'spersonnelfile(ifthisisthe
organization'splan)oritcanbekeptintheirpersonal
file.
Note:Theaboveitemsareespeciallyimportantfor
insuringcredibilityoftheassertionsthatthisisthe
SMEs'taskbankandtheircreation.
Outputs

AsksthefirstQuestioninstraightforward,matter
offactway.Canelaborateasfollowsifnecessary:
"Whatareyouexpectedtoproduce?Whatservices
areyouexpectedtodeliver?Whataretheoutcomes
ofyourwork?"Elaboratesonlyifgroupisslowin
gettingstarted.

Avoidsuseoftermslike"activities,duties,tasks,"
noting,ifbroughtupbySMEs,thattheywillbe
discussedlater.

Listenscarefullyandwritesdownwhatissaid
withoutbeingcritical.

Seeksclarificationwhenitappearsobviousthat
certainoutputsoverlap.

Pointsoutinnoncriticalmanner,whentasksare
proposedforoutputs,thatthesewillbegatheredlater
forQuestion4.Usesthistypeofofferingtoask:
"Whatoutputdoesthattaskcontributeto?"

WaitsacoupleofmomentswhenSMEsseemto
haverunoutofideas,andsays:"Letuspostwhatwe
have.Youcanalwaysaddtothislistwhenyouthink
ofsomething."

 Page262

Meets Outstanding
PerformsTask Needs
Req'ts
Yes No Help
KnowledgesandSkills/AbilitiesKSAs)

Usestwoflipcharts,oneheadedKnowledgeand
theotherSkills/Abilities

ExplainsthatSMEscanprovidetheinformationin
anyordertheychoose.Thequestiontheyare
answeringis:"WhatKSAsaretheydrawingonto
producetheOutputs?"

RespondstoquestionsfromSMEsconcerning
differencebetweenKandS/A,andSandAby
notingthatKsarenounsandSsareverbs.The
differencebetweenSandAismainlyamannerof
speaking.Avoidsgettingtechnical.

FollowsupcategoricalstatementsofKandS/Aby
askingforparticularsorspecificationsor"Howdo
youmeanit?"

Asksforclarificationofacronyms,jargon,and
othermystifyinglanguage,notingmeaninginplain
words.

Avoidsmakinganysuggestionswithpossible
exceptionofreading,writing,andarithmetic,which
canappearinbothlistings.

Postseachsheetonwallasitiscompletedor
enlistshelpofSMEs.

ConcludesthispartofworkshopwhenSMEshave
reachedalull,notingagainthatthelistscanbeadded
toanytime.
Suggestsadditionstolistswithapprovalofgroup,
whenadditionalitemscomeupduringthe
developmentoftasks.
Theanswerstothefirstthreequestionsarelikelyto
beattainedbythetimeofthefirstbreakorshortly
thereafter.Bythistimeitshouldbenoticeablethat
thefacilitatorhasattainedcredibilitywithregardto
usingtheSMEs'languageatalltimes.Itispossible
thatbythistimetheywillalsohavenotedthe
importanceofspecificity.Alsothefirstsignsof
interaction

 Page263

Meets Needs Outstanding

Performs
Task Req'ts Help
Yes No
amongtheSMEsmayalsohavebeenevidenced.
Tasks

Effectsaneasytransitiontotheproductionoftasks,
e.g.,announcingthatthelistofOutputswillserveas
anagendafortaskdevelopment.

RemindstheSMEsofthestructureandcontentofa
taskstatementbyreferringtothechartusedatthe
start,indicatinghowtheinformationtheyprovidewill
beorganized.

ReinforcesSMEownershipofdatadevelopedby
askingthemtoselectwhichOutputtheywishtowork
on.

Listenscloselyandcarefullyforconsensusandwhen
itappearstohavebeenreached,feedsitbackto
group:"Soundslikeyouwanttostartwith...DoI
haveitright?"Ifthegroupagrees,launchesrightinto
it.

ListstheOutputandassignsanumberasfollows:
AssumingtheOutputselectedisthefirstonthelist
thenthenumberforthisOutputwillbe1.0andthe
tasksdevelopedforitwillbenumberedinsequence
1.1,1.2,etc.Asimilarnumberingpatternwillbeused
forallotherOutputsandtasks.

Mayneedtomakethefollowingtypesofremarksto
getgroupstarted,dependingonmanifestedhesitancy:
"HowdoesworkonthisOutputgetstarted?Whatis
thefirsttask?Don'tbetroubledaboutgettingitjust
right?Youcouldevenstartinthemiddleandwork
backifyouchoose.Thingsusuallycomefullcircle."
Thefacilitatorneedstobesensitivetothefactthatthe
SMEshaveneverdoneanythinglikethis,anditis
difficultatfirst.

Anotherdeviceforobtainingtaskinformationforan
outputistoasktheSMEstobrieflyoutlinewhatgets

 Page264

Meets Needs Outstanding

Performs
Task Req'ts Help
Yes No

doneintheoutput(thevariousresults)andwhat
theydotoproducetheresults(theirbehaviors).The
facilitatorcandrawalinedownthemiddleofa
chartandnotewhattheSMEssaybehaviorson
theleftandresultsontheright.(Thissheetservesas
asortofscribblesheetandisnottobeposted.)At
thispointthefacilitatorcansay,"Itlookslikewe
have(#of)tasks"andthenproceedtooutlinewhat
heorsheseesaspossibletasks.Don'taskforor
expectabsoluteagreement.Simplysay:"Let'sget
startedwiththisfirstoneandseewhereittakesus."
Anapproachsuchasthiskeepsthemomentumof
theworkshopgoing.
Note:Momentum,aproductiveflowofinputfrom
theSMEs,isimportant.However,itisnotsomething
tobeproducedby"pullingteeth,"urgingon,orinany
waypressuringtheSMEs.Itisbestachievedby
questionsbuiltonthedataathand.Thefacilitatorcan
alwaysfallbackonsomethinglikethefollowing:
"Actuallyyourjobismoreorlessacontinuousflow,
likeeverydayliving.Whatwearetryingtodohereis
tostoptheactionatsomesignificantpointsinorder
togetaseriesofpictures(tasks)infocusand
describedindepth."

Listensactively,andwherenecessary,asks
appropriatequestionstodistinguishworkerbehaviors
fromresults.Isawareofthedifficultyallworkershave
inmakingthisdistinction,sincethetendencyisforall
workerstofocusonresults.Maystartwritingwhat
appearstobeabehaviorbutasthetaskgets
describedwilldiscoveritisaresult.(Thelanguageof
resultsismuchricherthanthelanguageofbehaviors).
Thefacilitatordoesnothesitatetoask:"Butwhatdo
youdotoget(suchorsuch)workdone?"For
example,whenanSMEsays,"Irecommend"or"I
determine''theseareusuallytheresultsofparticular
behaviors.

 Page265

Meets Needs Outstanding

Performs
Task Req'ts Help
Yes No

Isalerttothedangerofcapturingtasksthataretoo
narrow(moreliketimeandmotionstudy)ortoo
general(subsumeanentireactivity).Thisisacommon
tendencyforSMEs.Theformerareexpressedas
physical,thelattertendtobeintroducedbysuch
verbsas"conducts,performs,prepares,"which
obscurespecificbehaviors.Awareofthisproblem,
gentlypressesgrouptobespecificbutnotminute.

Usesseveralverbsasnecessarytocapturea
behavior.Thecriterionforknowingwhentheright
behaviorhasbeencapturedistomentallytranslateit
toafunctionintheWorkerFunctionScales.

Doesnotstartwritingataskuntilheorshehasa
clearideaofbehaviorandresultor,iftheinputfrom
theSMEstendstofocusonendresult,writesthis
downatbottomofflipchartandthensays,"O.K.
Nowwhatdoyoudotoachievethisresult?"

Issensitivetotheneedforabehaviorthatpertains
primarilytoThings,tohavearesultthatisprimarily
Thingsoriented.ThesameforDataandPeoplewhose
resultsmustbeprimarilyDataandPeopleoriented.

Doesnotinsistthattasksfollowadefinitesequence.
PicksuponthefactthatdifferentSMEsmayfollow
differentsequences.

Isalerttothefactthatcertainactivitiessuchasa
productionprocess,processingacontractorloan,
anddiagnosingorrepairingamechanicaldevice
frequentlydohaveadefinitesequencealthoughthere
maybemorethanone.Picksuponthisbyasking
SMEs,"Thenwhatdoyoudo?"

Foreachtask,generatesthenecessarydatarelating
toinstructionallevelandtheKSAsdrawnon.Checks
thattheKSAsareappropriatetothebehaviorand
result.Usesthephrase"drawing

 Page266

Meets Needs Outstanding

Performs
Task Req'ts Help
Yes No

on"precedingtheknowledges,and"relyingon"
precedingtheskills.

Aftereachtaskiswritten,readsitslowlytothe
SMEssotheyaresatisfiedthatitisOK,canseetheir
wordingandphrasinginit,andalsotheFJAstructure.
Thisreadingbackalsohelpsreinforcethefacilitator's
leadershipandcredibility.

Asappropriate,reinforcestheSMEsinthe
likelihoodtheydon'tallperformtheirjobsinexactly
thesameway,acknowledgesthereisroomfor
differenceswhichwillemergewhentheSMEsgetthe
taskbanksbackforeditingandareaskedtocheck
offthetaskstheyasindividualsdotogetthework
done.

Becomesaware,whenwritingagreattask,thatthe
taskneedsfurtherbreakdowninadvertentlythe
facilitatorhasbeencaughtinwhatislikelytobean
activity,orevenatechnology,andthatfurther
questioningisnecessarytodeterminewhatisinvolved.
(Anexceptiontothissituationcanoccurforhighly
skilledjobsofoccupationalorprofessionalstatus
wheretheincumbentisindeedengagedinthedetails
ofawholeseriesofactivities).

Note:Itisconfusingtouse"result"dealforaand
"why"interchangeably.Itisbesttostickto"result''or
"whatgetsdone.''The"result"ofataskisnotthe
sameas"why."

Asksforexamplesofspecificcontenttheobjects
ofbehavior.Suchexamplesareessentialforvalidating
thebehaviorandlatertoeditthetask.

Probestoestablishtheinstructionallevelofatask.
Aretherespecificationsfortheresult?Arethere
specificinstructionsinamanualorobtaineddirectly
fromthesupervisor?IstheSMEworkingfrom
guidelinesthatgivehimorherleeway,initiative,etc.?

 Page267

Meets Needs Outstanding

Performs
Task Req'ts Help
Yes No

Istheinstructionbuiltintothetraining?Doesthe
SMEinstructhimorherselfaccordingtoself
imposedstandards?Whatistheroleofstanding
operatingprocedures(SOP)?Howspecificare
they?
PerformanceStandards

Indicatesthequestionstobeaddressedinthis
category:"Whatdoyouattendto,watchoutfor,in
gettingajobdone?Whatdoyousee,feelwhenyou
cansay`ajobwelldone?'Arethestandardsyou
expectofyourselfasdemandingasthoseof
management?Whatdoyoudotoputqualityintoyour
work?"

Liststhestandardsastheyareexpressedalways
lookingfortheadverboradjectivethatindicates
quality.Asnecessary,asksSMEstoexpandonthose
standardsnotimmediatelyapparent.

AsksSMEsiftherearetaskstheyhavelistedthat
especiallyexemplifyparticularstandards.Thiscanbe
trickyastheymaywelltruthfullysaythatanyormany
ofthestandardsapplytoallofthetasks.Abandons
thislineofquestioningifitleadstogeneralities.

Isreceptivetostandardstakenfromofficial
appraisalformsbutstillencouragesexpressionof
personalstandards.

Takesnoteofallstandardsthatseemtoinvolve
stress,whethernegativeorpositive,sincesuch
standardsreflecttheneedforAdaptiveSkills.

Asksifthereareanynumericalstandardsthathave
tobemetandwhattheyare.
General

ReassuresSMEswhoexpressdoubttheywillfinish
describingalltheirtasks,thattheworkwillgofaster
as

 Page268

Meets Needs Outstanding

Performs
Task Req'ts Help
Yes No

theygetthedrift,severaloftheOutputswillnot
haveasmanytasks,andsomeoftheOutputsmay
collapseintoothers.Inanycasetheworkisusually
finishedintwodays.Ifitisn'tfinished,theSMEswill
beabletoaddtaskswhentheygettheirtaskbank
forediting.

Listenswiththe"thirdear"tothegroupdynamics,
theinteractionsamongtheSMEs,thekindsofthings
theyjokeaboutthatfrequentlyareobstaclesintheir
workandwhichrepresentthechallengetotheir
adaptiveskills.Thefacilitatorneedstomakemental
notesaboutthechallengesandtheadaptiveskillssince
theyhaveanenormousimpactonthequalityofwork
performed.

Hasbeencarefultonotintervenewithknowledgeor
wordingthatsuggestsgreatersophisticationwiththe
workthanthatofSMEs.

Fromtimetotimehastakenoffonapersonal
anecdoteorhumorousincidenttocementbondwith
groupandintroduceanelementoflightnessto
workshop.

Showssensitivitytodifferentpersonalitiesbynoting
thewaytheyexpressthemselvesandwherepossible
givingeachoneanopportunitytospeakup.For
example,aftercompletingthewritingofataskfocuses
onaquietSMEandaskifthiscorrespondstotheway
heorshedoesit.

Avoidsputdowns,particularlyagainstthoseSMEs
whoareveryexpressiveandtendtobedominant.
Useseyecontacttoinviteotherstoparticipateinsuch
instances.

Fromtimetotimethanksindividualsfortheir
particularcontributionsbutmakessureeveryoneisa
recipientofthesethanks.

Onrareoccasionsinterruptslongcontributionsor
discussionstoindicate

 Page269

Meets Needs Outstanding

Performs
Task Req'ts Help
Yes No

thattimeisoftheessenceandthatthegroupmust
moveon.

MakescertaintothanktheSMEsattheconclusion
oftheworkshopfortheircooperation,remindingthem
thattheywillreceivethematerialforfinaleditingand
returntothefacilitator.
Note:Theconclusionoftheworkshopisusuallya
verypositive,evenhappy,occasionwiththeSMEs
expressingwonderandsatisfactionaboutalltheydo
togettheirworkdone,andthankingthefacilitatorfor
theopportunitytodiscoverit.

 Page270

AppendixD
FJATaskBankEditingManual

Introduction

ThisappendixisanadaptationofFunctionalJobAnalysis:HowtoStandardizeTaskStatements,aneditingmanualforusewiththeNationalTaskBankbySidney
A.Fine,AnnM.Holt,MaretF.Hutchinson,andWrethaW.Wiley.Thismanualisanattemptatdefinitive,illustrativeguidelinesforeditingtaskstatements,written
accordingtotheprinciplesandtechniquesofFJA.Therefore,thismanualisintendedforusebypersonstrainedandcompetentinFJAtaskanalysis.Itisnotintended
asintroductorymaterialtothetechnique

Themanualwasdevelopedin1974asoneofaseriesofpublicationsoftheW.E.UpjohnInstituteforEmploymentResearchassociatedwiththefulfillmentofa
contractwiththeDepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare(DHEW),whichisnowtheDepartmentofHealthandHumanWelfare.Thatcontractinvolved
completingFJAsofhundredsofjobsinthehumanwelfarefieldandaccountsforthemanual'sexampletasksbeingfromthatfield.Thereisnodoubt,however,thatthe
sameissuesandproceduresarerelevantacrosstheentirespectrumofjobs.

Inadditiontoservingtheverypracticalpurposeofdemonstratinghowtowriteandedittaskstoachievereliability,validity,anduniformity,thismanualhashistoric
value.ItcontainswithinittheseedsoftheFJAoftodayinshort,ithaswithstoodthetestoftime.Itisespeciallyinterestingtonotethatasaresultoftheuseofthis
manualintrainingsessionsovertheyears,thewritingoftaskstatementshasimproved.Forexample,taskstatementsarenowwrittenwithknowledgeandabilities
moreexplicitlyintroducedbythephrases,"drawingon,"forknowledgeand,"relyingon,"forskillsandabilities.(SeeBenchmarktasksforjobanalysis,Fine&
Getkate,1995.)Thusthetestquestionsleadtoanswerswithmoreexplicitcontent.

 Page271

Withtheexceptionofeditingforgenderbiasandterminology(e.g.,"manpowerplanning"becomes"HRplanning"),nochangeshavebeenmadefromthetextinthe
originalmanual.

Thenextsectionreviewssomeoftheconceptsandassumptionsdealtwithingreaterdepthinthemainbodyofthisbook,whichareinvolvedintheformulationoftask
statementsandsomeoftheinferencesmadefromthem.Italsooutlinesaprocedureforstandardizingtaskstatementsthroughagroupeditingprocess.

Awordaboutthegroupediting.Theprojectforthegovernmentwashugeandspreadoverseveralyears.EmployeesoftheSocialandRehabilitationAdministration
ofDHEWwhoweretrainedintheFJAtechniquewrotemanyhundredsoftasksinthefield.Theresultingtasks,writtenontheTaskAnalysisformshowninthis
manual,weresenttotheUpjohnInstituteinWashington,DC,foreditingandinclusioninaNationalTaskBankoftasksinsocialwelfare.Ateamofeditorsfrom
UpjohnandtheSocialandRehabilitationAdministrationworkedformanymonthseditingthetasksreceivedfromthefield.Theprocedurefollowedbythoseeditorsis
theoneoutlinedinthefollowingsection.

TheconcludingsectionexplainshowtotestthereliabilityandvalidityoftaskstatementsbyusingtheChecklistforTaskAnalysis.Thissectionwaspartiallydeveloped
infulfillmentofthecontractwithDHEW.Wiley,aformerstaffmemberoftheUpjohnInstitute,wasinitiallyinvolvedinthepreparationofthereportforthatagency.

Innocaseisitintendedtosuggestthatthetechniquesaresofaradvancedthatonlyoneanswerispossible.Theimportantthingtorecognizeisthatthereisatechnique
andrationalethat,whenusedasdescribedherein,canproducereliableandvalidtaskstatements,usefulinHRoperations.

TheProcessofTaskAnalysis

Thechancesarethatyouareintheprocessoftaskanalysisbecauseyouaretryingtoanswerquestionslikethefollowinginawaythatprovidesyouwithconcrete
information.

Canmyorganizationofferjobsatalivablewageandprovideopportunitiesforadvancement?

Aremyorganization'spersonnelpoliciesflexibleenoughtoaccommodatepeoplewithlimitedworkexperienceanddifferentlifestyles?

HowdoIdesign(restructure)jobsandupgradepeopletomakeroomatthebottomofmyopportunitysystemandkeepmyproductivityhigh?

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HowdoImakethemostofmytrainingresources?

Howcanourtrainingpeopleorganizeeffectiveinhousetrainingcourses,particularlyforentryworkers?

Dosomeofourjobtitlesthatseemtorepresentdifferentworkandsalarylevelsactuallyhidethefactthatthetasksperformedaresubstantiallythesame?

Isourorganizationusingonlyafractionofthepotentialofourworkforceandlookingfortalentoutsidethatisalreadyinside?

Intryingtoanswerthesequestions,youtriedtousetheinformation(jobdescriptions,jobevaluationdata,etc.)availableinyourorganizationandfounditinadequate.
Youthereforelookedoverjobanalysismethodsthatwouldgiveyousubstantial,precise,andcontrolledinformation.Thisislikelytohavebeenoneofthereasonsyou
decidedtouseFJAinthefirstplace.LetusquicklyreviewsomeoftheconceptsandassumptionsofFJAthatwereinvolvedinyourproducingthetaskstatements
youarenowreadytorefineandedit,andthatarethebasisfortheirsubstantivenature.

ConceptualizationandDefinitionofTasks

InFJAabasicdistinctionismadebetweenwhatworkersdoandwhatgetsdonebetweenbehaviorandendresults.Thisdistinctioniscarriedintothemethodsof
analysis(datagathering)andtheformulationofthetaskstatements.Thedistinctionhasbeenessentialbecausehistorically,mostjobdescriptionsdweltprimarilyon
whatgotdone.AnotherkeyconceptorassumptionofFJAisthattaskstatements,althoughcertainlynottherealityofworkactivity,areasclosetothatrealityasyou
cangettocarryoutpersonneloperations.Taskstatementsareverbalformulationsofactivitiesthatmakeitpossibletodescribewhatworkersdoandwhatgetsdone
sothatrecruitment,selection,assignment,training,performanceevaluation,andpaymentcanbeefficientlyandequitablycarriedout.Therefore,thefocusofour
attentionmustbeontheformulationthewordsandtheorganizationofwordsinthetaskstatementusedtoexpressthetask.Theformulationmustsimulatereality
thatis,thoseperformingthetaskmustagreethat,insofarasthetaskcanbecommunicated,thetaskstatementdoesso.Furthermore,becauseataskispartofa
contextnamely,aworksituation,1itisessentialthatthelanguageoftheonetaskstatementbecompatiblewiththatofothertaskstatementsinthatcontextandthat
togethertheycandescribethetechnologyofaworksituation.Forpractical
1
Duringtheperiodoforiginalresearch,19481953,thiswasreferredtoasajobworkersituation.

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2
reasons,then,thetaskstatementisthetask,andintheremainderofthisdocumentthetwotermsareusedmoreorlessinterchangeably.

InFJAataskisdefinedintermsofacontrolledlanguage,acontrolledmethodofformulation,andinrelationtoasystemscontext.Thedefinitionisasfollows:

Ataskisanactionoractionsequencegroupedthroughtimedesignedtocontributeaspecifiedendresulttotheaccomplishmentofanobjectiveandforwhichfunctionallevels
andorientationcanbereliablyassigned.Thetaskactionoractionsequencemaybeprimarilyphysical,suchasoperatinganelectrictypewriterorprimarilymental,suchas
analyzingdataand/orprimarilyinterpersonal,suchasconsultingwithanotherperson.(Fine&Wiley,1971,pp.910)

Tasksconceivedandformulatedaccordingtothisdefinitionhavepermanencethatjobsandassignmentsofeverydayparlancetodonothave.Althoughmutable,tasks
canbecomebuildingblocksinpersonnelpracticeandHRplanning.Hence,itisimportanttoformulateandedittaskstatementscarefully.

AtaskformulatedaccordingtoFJAmethodologybecomesthemostfundamentalunitofaworkdoingsystem.Fromit,itispossibletomakereliableandvalid
inferencesabouttheworker,theworkorganization,andthework.
Theworker.Theworker'sfunctionallevelandorientationareindicativeofexperience,education,andcapabilitytoperformthetask.

Theworkorganization.ThemethodologyprovidedforandtheoutputoftheWorkerActionsmustcontributetotheObjectivesoftheorganization.

Thework.Theaction,objectoftheaction,equipmentprovided,andoutputareindicativeofthePerformanceStandardsandTrainingContent(bothfunctionalandspecific),as
wellasthebasicskillsinreasoning,math,andlanguagerequired.

Theinteractionofthesethreeelementscanresultinbothproductivityandworkergrowth(seeFigureD.1).

ReliabilityandValidityofTaskStatements

Reliableandvalidtaskstatementsareessentialforefficientandequitablepersonneloperations.Supervisorsandpersonnelofficersmustagreeon
2
Nevertheless,wemustneverforgetthat"themapisnottheterritory"andthereforethetaskstatementisnotthetaskitisasimulation,andwemustcontinuouslycheckback
withwhatitisactuallydoing.

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FIG.D.1.
Interactionofwork,workorganization,andworkertoachieve
productivityandworkergrowth.

whatmustgetdone,andonthequalificationsofworkerstogetitdone.Supervisorsandworkersmustagreeonthestandardsforoutputandonappropriate
procedurestobeused.Engineers,supervisors,andworkersmusthavethesameorsimilarexpectationsaboutthetechnologybeingusedtoachievetheoutput.Where
disagreementsoccuraboutthelevelofcomplexityoftheworkactivityorbehavioralinput,theremustbeawaytoresolvedisagreementsonthebasisofacommon
frameofreference.Theremustbenodoubtthatallthosemakingdecisionsaboutworkactivity,

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workerbehavior,workobjectives,andworkstandardsandinstructionsaretalkingaboutthesamething.

Inspiteofalltheeffortmadebythosemostconcernedwiththeproblemofcommunicatingaboutwork,littleprogresshasbeenmadetowardcontrolofthelanguage.
Formulatingreliableandvalidtaskstatementsandusingthemwithrelativeeaseinapracticalwayhaveremainedanelusivepursuit.Onereasonforthishasbeenthe
notionthat,becausetasksaredefinableasunits,theyreallyexistintheworldofworkactivityasdiscretephenomena,likerocksorbirds,andtheirattributescanbe
readilyobservedandclassified.This,ofcourse,isnotthewayitis.Wedefinetasksandascribeattributestothemforthepurposeofcopingwithproblems.Thetask
statementsreflectingourobservationsarecreationsofourwayofperceiving.Iftheinstrumentforarticulatingourperceptionistheimperfecttoolofeverydaylanguage,
itisnowonderthatformulatingreliableandvalidtaskstatementshasbeensodifficult.

ThetechniqueforwritingtaskstatementsaccordingtoFJAmethodologydescribedinFineandWiley(1971),andtaughtinthe[Upjohn]Institute'smultimediatraining
courseintaskanalysis(Fine&Bernotavicz,1973),resultsinreliabletaskstatements.Personstrainedinthismethodattainhighdegreesofagreementconcerningthe
meaningofthestatementsandtheinferencesthatcanbemadeabouttheworker,theworkorganization,andthework.Evidentlytaskstatementsalsoapproximate
realitybecauseitispossibletoorganizethemintoeffectivejobassignmentsandcareerladdersfromthestandpointsofproductivityandworkergrowth.The
organizationoftaskstatementsintoassignmentsandthedecisionsmadeonthebasisofsuchassignmentshaveresultedinpredictableoutputs.Thisistheultimate
payoff.Thisisvalidity.

WhyUndertakeTaskAnalysis?

Organizationsareundertakingtaskanalysisformanyreasons,includingwageandsalaryprograms,developmentofcareerladders,jobrestructuringforproductivity
and/orenrichment,improvementofsafety,HRutilizationstudies,anddevelopmentofaffirmativeactionprograms.Nomatterwhatthespecificobjective,theanalysis
inevitablydealswiththeorganization'smission(productionorservice)Goalsanditsmaintenance(facilityandworker)Goals.Everytaskhastoberesponsivetothe
question,"Why?"Whyisitbeingdone,andwhywerethestandardsprescribed?Inotherwords,whatisthetaskcontributingtotheorganization'sobjectivesand
ultimatelyitspurpose?

Thisisaverysensitiveandchallengingquestion.Itisespeciallysensitivefortheindividualsconcerned.WorkersarelikelytoconsiderFJAinterviewsquite
presumptuousunlesstheorganizationmakesknownits

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commitmenttothejobanalysisanditswillingnesstotakeasearchinglookatitselfatthesametimethatitasksworkerstolooksearchinglyattheiractivities.Only
throughthecooperativeeffortoftheworkersandtheorganizationinthisundertakingcanclearcutObjectives,whichprovidethemajormeasurableperformance
criteria,beestablished.

TheprocessofdeterminingObjectiveshelpstheorganizationtoclarifyitsPurposeandGoalsandtoestablishtheinterconnectednessofallthree.Inthelanguageofthe
systemsapproach,usedinconjunctionwithFJA,Purpose,Goals,andObjectivesareintimatelyrelatedandrepresentaphasingofactivitiesfromendstomeansover
time.

Thephasemostremovedintime,thePurpose,isthemostgeneralstatementofanorganization'slongrunaspirationitsends.TheemphasisofPurposeisonneeds
andvaluesbeingserved.Theintermediatephasesofanorganization'sactivityarerepresentedbyitsGoals.Goalsattempttooperationalizetheorganization'sendsby
emphasizingthewaysandmeansinherentinthestateoftheartstobeusedinachievingitsends,usuallywithin1to5years.Objectivesaretheresultofconfronting
Goalswiththerealityoftheimmediateavailableresourcesandexistingconstraints.Objectivesemphasizespecificmeans,suchasmoney,humanresources,numberto
beproducedorserved,andmarketarea.TheendresultsoftasksmustcontributetotheseObjectivesbecausesuchacontributionprovidesthebasisforobjective
evaluationoftheresultsoftaskperformance.Theendresultsoftasksarealsoimportantforfeedbacktotheworkerbecausetheyindicatewhetherornotagoodjob
isbeingdone.

TaskanalysisisusuallyundertakenwiththemaintenanceGoalsconcernedwithselection,training,assignment,andpromotionofworkers.MaintenanceGoalsrarely
receivethesamerespectandcommitmentasthemorepurposerelatedmissionGoals,andtendtobetoleratedratherthanembraced.Thus,itisespeciallynecessary
toclarifyandemphasizethecontributionofthetaskanalysisendeavortotheorganization'smissionGoalsandtoobtaintoplevelcommitmenttoitsspecific
Objectives.Withouttoplevelcommitment,thetime,money,andhumanresourcesnecessarytoachieveObjectivesmaynotbeavailable,andtheendeavorisina
vulnerableposition,intermsoftherespectandcooperationaccordeditaswellastheresourcesallottedtoit.

HowToProduceEffectiveTaskStatements

Followingtheorganization'sdelineationofitsPurpose,Goals,andObjectives,analyststrainedinFJAtechniquesproceedtogatherinformationabouttheactivitiesof
theorganizationandformulatethemintotaskstatements.Inthisprocess,theyusetheFJAscalesandtaskanalysisforms.

AlthoughtheFJAscalesandmethodgoalongwaytowardcontrollingananalyst'suniqueperceptions,personalviewpointnaturallyinfluences

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observations,analysis,andformulationoftaskstatements.Itisthereforeimportanttoclarifyasmanyoftheanalyst'sperceptionsaspossible,identifyandcorrectgaps
intaskinformation,andprovidefeedbacktotheanalystabouthowwellthetechniqueisbeingused.

Skillinthetechniqueisnotachievedwithoutconsiderablepracticeineditingtaskstatements.Itisnaturallyquitedifficulttoeditone'sownwork.Itismucheasierand
moreofalearningexperiencetoeditotherpeople'swork.Thatisthereasonforthismanual.Itassumesthatpersonshavealreadyhadthetraining,havealreadybeen
productive,andarenowreadyingtheirworkforfinaluse.Inasense,then,onefinallylearnstowritetaskstatementsbyeditingthem.

TheEditingGroup

TheUpjohnInstitute'sexperiencesuggeststhatthemosteffectivewayoftestingwhetherornottaskstatementscommunicateisforagroupofanalyststocompare
theirunderstandingsofthetasksandtoreachanagreementontheirmeaning.Thebroadertherangeofexperiencerepresentedbytheeditinggroup,themorelikely
thetaskstatementsaretobecomplete,accurate,andclearlystated,andthelesslikelytheinformationinthemistobedismissedasmerelyamatterofopinion.Group
editingcanincreasetheobjectivityoftaskanalysisand,therefore,thereliabilityoftaskstatements.Becausethetasksaretobeusedinoperations,whereverpossible
selectedprogrampeople,clericalworkers,supervisors,andmanagersshouldbetrainedinFJAandincludedinthegroup.Thisisparticularlyappropriateifaseparate
unitofanalystspreparesthetasksfrommaterialprovidedbyworkersandsupervisorsattheoperatinglevel.Editingprovidesanopportunityforagroupofanalyststo
bringtheoperationspeoplebackintotheprocessandtoobtainthefeedbackneededfromthemtocheckthereliabilityandvalidityofthetaskstatements.

Theoptimalsizeforagroupofeditorsfromthestandpointofproductivity,organizationalflexibility,andinputisthreetofivepersons.Twopersonsmaynotagreeon
anything,ortheymayagreeoneverything.Morethanfivepersonscreatesasituationofdiminishingreturnsbecausetoomanypointsofviewtendtoblockprogress.A
groupoffiveisgoodbecauseitprovidesfortheinevitableabsencesofmembers.Whenoneortwocannotmeetwiththegroup,asufficientnumberremaintogo
forwardwiththework.

TheEditingProcess

Werefertotheprocessofreachingconsensusinthegroupastaskediting.Unlikeliteraryediting,whichhasaestheticobjectives,taskeditinghasoperationaland
strategicobjectives.Thequestionsaddressedare:Dothetask

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statementswork?Dotheycommunicate?Doeseveryoneconcernedagreethattheyapproximatereality?

Thegoaloftheeditingprocessistoproduceaninventoryofeffectivetaskstatementsforuseintheorganization'sactivities.Theachievementofthisgoaldividesitself
intotwophases:(a)preeditingbyindividualstopreparethe''roughtasks''forgroupeditingand(b)groupeditingtoachieveconsensus.

Preediting.Theobjectiveofpreeditingisbasicallytointroduceeditorstotheworkaidsandguidelinesthatareusedintheeditingprocesssothattheeditorsmaycull
thetaskstatementsforunusablematerial,forrepeatedgrosserrorsonthepartoftaskwriters,andforthegoodmaterialthatchecksoutwellagainstthecriteria.

Thewordaidsincludetaskanalysisblanks(seeFig.D.2),modelsentenceworksheetsfortaskstatements(Fig.D.3),andaneditingform(Fig.D.4)tominimizethe
needforconstantrewritingbecauseofthesamecriticalcomponents.ThequestionsdiscussedinthelastsectionarecalledtheChecklistforTaskAnalysis.Theyserve
asthebasiccriteriaforindividualreviewaswellasforgroupediting,Onaformcontainingtheninequestions,analystscheckeachquestionagainsttheinformationin
eachtaskstatementtomakesurethatallpartsareconsistentandthattheperformanceofthetaskcontributestothedesiredresulttheachievementofanObjective.

Itisdesirablethatthepreeditingbyindividualsbestartedinagroupsituationsothatquestionsandproblemsabouttheworkaidsandguidelinescanberesolvedona
moreorlesscommonbasis.Thisalsohastheadvantageofinitiatinggroupfeelingandgroupprocess.However,afteroneortwosuchsessions,itmaybepreferable
forindividualstoworkaloneandthencometogetheratanappointedtimeforgroupediting.

GroupEditing.Assoonasthetaskshavebeenpreedited,thegroupcanbeginitsworkofachievingconsensus.Initsmeetingsthegroupshouldgoovereachrough
task,usingthesameworkaidsandguidelinesthatwereusedindividually.Duringgroupdiscussionsdetailsthatdidnotoccurtoanyonewhenataskwaspreedited
comeup,andthegroupmayneedmoredetailedguidancethanisprovidedbytheChecklistforTaskAnalysis.Theexamplesandexpandedguidelinesinthelast
sectionprovidethegroupwithastartingpointfromwhichtoworkinresolvingdifferences,identifyingconfusion,andkeepingthetaskstechnicallyreliable.

Toachieveconsensus,themembersofthegroupalsodrawontheirexperienceindifferentorganizationaloperations.Thisexpertiseenablesthemtoadd,subtract,or
modifytheinformationsothatthetaskstatementsdescribethewayworkisactuallydoneintheorganization.Insome

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Data People Things Data People Worker Reason Math Lang

Things Instruction
TASK
W.F.LEVEL W.F.ORIENTATION G.E.D. NO.

GOAL: OBJECTIVE:



TASK:

PERFORMANCESTANDARDS TRAININGCONTENT

FIG.D.2.
Taskanalysisblank.

 Page280

Analyst______________________________________________

Who? Performswhat Towhomor Uponwhatinstructions? Usingwhattools, Toproduce/achievewhat?(expectedoutput)

action? what? (Source?How equipment,work
Specific? aids?

Subject Actionverbs Objectof Phrase Phrase Inorderto...

verb
theworker




Taskstatement:

FIG.D.3.
Modelsentenceworksheetfortaskstatement.

FIG.D.4.
Editingform.

 Page281

cases,thegroupmaybesharplydividedaboutthewayaparticulartaskisperformed.Thiscanberesolvedbywritingtaskstatementsthatreflectthediffering
opinions.Thegroupeditingprocessiscompletedwhenthegroupagreesthatthetaskstatementscommunicateandarereliable.

Feedback

Aftertheeditinggrouphasachievedconsensusontasks,thetasksneedtobevalidated.Workersshouldbeabletoidentifythetaskswithwhichtheyareconcerned
andshouldbeabletorelatetotheapproachesproposedbytheeditinggroupforevaluatingperformanceandtheFunctionalandSpecificTrainingContent.Longterm
employeesfamiliarwithmanyoftheorganization'sinterrelatedoperations,SOPs,manuals,guidelines,andthelegalorregulatoryenvironmentoftheorganization's
operationsshouldalsobeconsulted.Finally,feedbackshouldbeobtainedfromthosepersons,suchaspersonnelandtrainingstaff,whowillusethetaskdata.

Whenfeedbackstartstocomein,theeditinggroupmayneedtoreeditthetaskstoensurethattheirtechnicalreliability(i.e.,thecontrolsrepresentedbytheratings)
hasnotbeencompromisedbychangesintaskdatathatweremadetoenhancevalidity.Thechiefproblemislikelytoberelatingtopreferredwaysofstatingataska
"yes,but"reactiononthepartoftheworker.Ingeneral,ifsuchrestatingdoesnotchangetheratingsineffect,doesnotchangethetaskthenthealteredwording
shouldbeused.

Atthissecondstageofthegroupediting,thegroupshouldcheckitselfcarefullyagainstthedangersofboredomresultingfromthenitpickingaspectsoftheediting
process.Itishelpfulatthisstageforeacheditortoassumetherolesofsupervisor,recruiter,andtrainerandcheckouthowthetaskcommunicatesandfunctionsin
operation.

MaintainingaTaskBank

Ataskbankacollectionoftasksproducedasdescribedisarelativelypermanentpersonneltool.Whileassignmentsandjobclassificationchange,thesechanges
arefundamentallychangesinthetaskmixorthefrequencywithwhichtasksareperformed.3Mostofthechangesinataskbankare
3
Agoodexampleisthetaskmixofatypist.Inmakingcopiesthetypistoccasionallyinsertscarbonpaperbetweenthesheets,butmorefrequentlyheorsheinsertssheetswith
carbonsattachedorusesacopyingmachine.Similarly,heorshemayeraseerrorswitharubbereraser,butmorelikelyheorshecoversuperrorswithcorrectivefluidortape.

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likelytobeadditionsofnewtasksordeletionsofoldtasks.However,changescanoccurinexistingtasksbecauseofchangesmadeinPerformanceStandardsto
meetrevisedObjectives.ThismayrequiresomechangeinSpecificTrainingContent.Anexamplecouldbeachangeinthenumberofunitstobeproducedina
specifiedunitoftime.Thesechangesneedtobetrackedandincorporatedintotheinventoryoftasksalongwithadditionsofnewtasks.Howcanthisbedonewithout
makingitanonerouspaperworkjob?

Thefundamentalansweristhatitshouldbedoneinthenormalcourseofessentialoperations.Forexample,whenasupervisorcallsforanewemployeetofilla
vacancy,thetasksconstitutingtheoldjobshouldbebrieflyreviewedandadeterminationmadewhetherthereareanynewtasks,changesinoldtasks,and/orchanges
infrequencyofspecifiedtasks.Similarly,atthetimeofannualperformancereview,eachworkershouldhavetheopportunitytoreviewhisorherindividualtaskmixto
determinethechangesthathaveoccurred.Thesechangesandothersdevelopingfromotherpersonneloperationsshouldbeforwardedtosomeagencythatrecords
theminthetaskbank.Thelogicalagencyforthispurposeistheeditingteam.Theeditingteamcanmeetperiodicallyoraccordingtoneed,revisethechanges,submit
themtotheeditingprocess,andissuethemtoallusers.

Conclusion

ItwasstatedinthebeginningthatFJAisapartofanongoingsystemsprocess.TaskeditingisapartofFJA.Althoughtheoriginaltaskinventorymayremainusefulfor
thelifeoftheorganization,itscontentwillhavetobealteredconstantlyaddedto,deletedfrom,andreorganizedtomeettheneedsofchangingorganizational
structure,Goals,andObjectives.

AnyorganizationundertakingFJAtaskwritingshouldbeabsolutelycertainthatitwantstocommitthenecessaryresourcesintermsoftime,money,people,and
facilitiestothedevelopmentandmaintenanceofthetasksbeforetheprojectisbegun.Otherwise,whenthetaskshavebeenwritten,theinventorywillbecome,likeso
manyorganizationalguidelines,manuals,andothergoodideas,anotherthingthatnooneuses.ItispooreconomicstocommittheresourcesrequiredtoentertheFJA
processwithouttheintentionofcarryingitthrough.

Astheprocessgetsbuiltintotheorganization,manymembersoftheorganizationbegintounderstandhowtheprocessworksandhowitaffectstheoperationsofthe
organization.Workersbegintounderstandtheireffectontheworkandtheworkorganizationandhowtheycangrowanddevelopwithinthestructure,bothinterms
ofwheretheywanttogoandwheretheorganizationwantsthemtogo.

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HowtoTestReliabilityandValidityofTaskStatements

Inanattempttoprovideapracticalhowtomanual,thematerialthatfollowsisorganizedaroundninequestions.Thesequestions,whicheditorsshouldaskabouteach
task,areeachexplainedthroughbriefnarrativeandexamples.Theninequestionsaresummarizedhereforquickreference.

1.DoestheendResultofthetaskmakeacontributiontotheoutputofwhichitisapart?

2.DoesthelanguagedescribingtheWorkerActionphraseofthetaskstatementsupporttheWorkerFunctionlevels?

3.AretheWorkerActionphraseandtheResultphraseofthetaskstatementinreasonablerelationtooneanother?

4.IstheResultidentifiedinthetaskaverifiableResult?

5.Canperformancestandards,eithernumericalordescriptivefortheactionandresult,beinferredandspecified?

6.AretheinferredPerformanceStandardsreasonableandusefultoasupervisorandtoaworker?

7.DoestheTrainingContentreflecttheknowledgesandabilitiesrequiredtoperformthetask?

8.IstheremorethanaonelevelspreadamongData,WI,andReasoningScaleratings?

9.DotheverbsusedintheWorkerActionphraseofthetaskstatementadequatelyexpressthecontextofthetask?

Question1.DoestheEndResultoftheTaskMakeaContributiontotheOutputofWhichItIsaPart?

Cananindependentreaderseethetaskresultasacontributiontotheoutputofwhichitispart?

Therelationshipofatasktoanobjectiveisevidentinthedefinitionofatask:

Ataskisanactionoractionsequence,groupedthroughtime,designedtocontributeaspecifiedendresulttotheaccomplishmentofanobjective,andforwhichfunctionallevels
andorientationcanbereliablyassigned.Thetaskaction,oractionsequence,maybeprimarilyphysical,suchasoperatinganelectrictypewriterorprimarilymental,suchas
analyzingdataand/orprimarilyinterpersonal,suchasconsultingwithanotherperson.(Fine&Wiley,1971,p.9)

 Page284

Ataskisnot"makework"or"busywork,"butisanactivitydesignedtocontributetoanoutput.Thisisconfirmedwhentheworkeractionprovidesclearcutcriteria
fortheachievementofthetaskResult.Thesecriteriaareimpliedorexplicitperformancestandards.

Question2:DoestheLanguageDescribingtheWorkerActionPhaseoftheTaskStatementSupporttheWorkerFunctionLevels?

AretheratingsofWorkerFunctionlevelsbytwoindependentratersinsubstantialagreement?

Ifnot,
A.Reexamine:AretheActionverbsexplicitandconcrete,ordotheydescribeworktobedoneonthelevelofobjectives,butnotspecificactionsofaworker?

B.Rewritetask:Addorsubtractmaterialuntilindependentreadersgetthesamepictureofwhattheworkerisexpectedtodo.

C.Remember,however:Thattheoriginalintentofthetaskshouldnotbesacrificedintheconsensusprocess.Theeditedtaskmustbecleartotheoriginalwriter,toresource
people,toothereditors,andtoyou.

Examples:Guides/escortsclientsfromreception/intakeareaoftheagencytoaspecificofficeinagencyonrequestofsupervisor,inordertoenableclient
toreachaparticularoffice.

Rater"A"

WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED

Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language

1A 10 2 65 1B 25 1 1 1 1

Rater"B"

WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED

Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language

1A 5 2 50 2 45 1 1 1 1

Independentraters"A"and"B"disagreedonthelevelofthePeoplefunctioninvolvedinguidingandescortingclients.Aswritten,thetaskdoesnotinvolvemorethan
physicallyleadingtheclienttoanoffice.How

 Page285

ever,RaterBthoughtthattheworkerwouldbetalkingwiththeclient,puttinghim/heratease.RaterAconcededthispossibility,butfeltithadnotbeenmadeexplicit
enoughtojustifyLevel2.

Question3:AretheWorkerActionPhraseandtheResultPhraseintheTaskStatementinReasonableRelationtoOneAnother?

IstheWorkerActiondescribedlikelytoproducethestatedResult?
Example:Setsupprojector,lectern,blackboard,andotherequipment,adjustslightingandventilation,inorderthatcommunitymeetingtointerpretagencypolicyand
proceduresonincomemaintenancecanbecarriedout.

Settinguptheequipmentinameetingroomdoesnotresultinameeting'sbeingheld.AmorereasonableResultwouldbe,"toprepareequipmentandroom
conditionsforcommunitymeeting."SettinguptheneededequipmentandreadyingtheroomcanproducetheResultofpreparingtheroomforthemeeting.

Question4:IstheResultIdentifiedintheTaskaVerifiableResult?

Doestheworkerknowwhatheorsheisexpectedtoproduce?Doesthesupervisorknowwhatheorsheshouldevaluate?

Examples:(a)inordertomakerecordofscheduledappointments,(b)toprepareequipmentandroomconditionsforcommunitymeeting,or(c)toprepareletterforsignature.

AlloftheaboveResultsoroutputsarerelativelyconcreteandtangible.Ineachcase,theexpectedoutputisclear,bothtothesupervisorandtotheworker.Dataand
ThingsorientedtaskstendtoproducetangibleResults.

TheResultphrasesinPeopleorientedtasks,however,tendtobelesstangible,andlesseasilyobserved.Forexample,(d)topersuadefamiliestoapplyforafoster
childor(e)toinformclientofagency'spoliciesandprocedures.WhentheResultphrasedoesnotdescribeatangible,easilyobservedoutput(asintheprevious
example),theResultshavetobeinferredfromthemoregeneralizedoutputrepresentedbytheobjectiveandincludedinaPerformanceStandard:

APerformanceStandardderivedfromanobjectivethatclarifies(d)mightbe:X%offamiliescontactedsubmitapplicationsforfosterchild.Astandardofthis
natureusuallyisinterpretedinrelationtoanestimatedresultonthebasisofsomepreviousrelatedexperienceortest.ItisnecessarytorememberthattheStandard
indicatedprobablydependsontheinputsofanumberoftasks,andnotjusttheoneindicated.

 Page286

APerformanceStandardderivedfromanobjectivethatclarifies(e)mightbe:lessthanX#ofcomplaintsfromclientsthattheydidnotunderstandhowto
obtainservices,duetoincompleteorinaccurateexplanationofpoliciesandproceduresbyworker.

Question5:CanPerformanceStandards,EitherNumericalorDescriptivefortheActionandResult,BeInferredandSpecified?

EXAMPLE:Drivesown/agencycar,onrequestofsupervisor,inordertotransportclientstoagency,neighborhoodcenter,doctor'soffice,etc.

Independentratersassignedthefollowingpercentagestothistask:

RaterA
Things Data People

W.F.ORIENTATION
50% 10% 40%

RaterB
Things Data People

W.F.ORIENTATION
55% 40% 5%

Bothraters'emphasisonThings(drivingtotransporttoaspecificplace)isobviouslycorrect,butwithoutfurtherdetail,bothcanjustifytheirsecondaryemphasison
DataorPeoplebymakingappropriateinferences.Suchinferencesshouldbemadeexplicit.

RaterA:TherateremphasizingDatamayhaveinferredknowledgeoftrafficpatterns,routings,signs,regulations,formstobefilledout,andsoon.However,inorder
forothereditors/readerstoagreewiththisrating,theinferencesmustbemadeexplicit:

Drivesown/agencycar,onrequestofsupervisor,selectingroutesonbasisofknowledgeofcityandschedule,inordertotransportclienttoagency,neighborhoodcenter,
doctor'soffice,etc.

RaterB:TherateremphasizingPeoplemayhaveinferredinteractionbetweenclientanddriver.Suchinferenceshouldbemadeexplicit,inorderforother
editors/readerstoagreewiththerating:

 Page287

Drivesown/agencycar,uponrequestofsupervisor,greeting/talkingwithclients,inordertotransportclientstoagency,neighborhoodcenter,doctor'soffice,etc.

AthirdpossibilitycouldinvolveahigherThingsrating,andequallylowPeople/Dataratings.Thispossibilitywouldexcludeeitherofthepreviousinferencesand
emphasizethefactthatthedriverfollowedpredeterminedroutes.

EXAMPLE:Evaluatesacceptedapplications,considersnatureofcase,currentworkload,andcompetenceofstaff,inordertodecideonassignmentofnewcasesforfoster
homestudy.

Independentratersassignedthefollowingpercentagestothistask:

RaterA
Things Data People

W.F.ORIENTATION
5% 40% 55%

RaterB
Things Data People

W.F.ORIENTATION
5% 90% 5%

ThereisnodirectinvolvementwithPeopleinthistaskaswritten."Evaluatingacceptedapplications"isprimarilyaDataorientedtask,asithasbeenanalyzedby
RaterB.RaterAmayhaveinferredthattheworkerwasalsoverballyassigningcasestostaffmembers.However,thisisnotstatedinthetaskasitwaswritten.Atask
statementthatwouldincludethisinference,andwouldreflectRaterA'sorientationassignments,is:

Verballyassignstasks/givesdirectionstothestaffmembers,explainingandansweringquestionsaboutprescribedanddiscretionaryelementsofproceduresandperformance
requirements,basedonpriorassessmentofoperationflow,workload,andworker'scapabilities,inordertoensurethattheworkerunderstandshis/herdutiesand
responsibilities.

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Question6:AretheInferredPerformanceStandardsReasonableandUsefultoaSupervisorandtoaWorker?

Dotheytellasupervisorwhattolookforandhowtoassessperformance?Dotheytellaworkerthequalityandquantityofworkexpected,andhowtojudge
when/whetherthatqualityandquantityhasbeenreached?

A.Haveperformancestandardsbeengeneratedtoevaluateboththeworkeraction(behavior)andtheresult(output)?
EXAMPLE:Asksclientquestions/listensto/transcribes/writesanswerstospecifieditemsonapplicationform,inordertocompleteapplicationformforclient.

PerformanceStandards
Descriptive
Numerical
Formisaccurate, All(100%)ofspecified
complete,andlegible. itemsarefilledoutonform.
Asksquestionsclearly. LessthanX%ofclients
complainoflackofclarity
inquestioning...
Mannerispleasantand ...orofworker'smanner.
courteous.
Whatisbeingevaluated?
Result:completedform.Aportionof
WorkerAction:transcribes/writes.
OnephaseofWorkerAction:asks
questions.
Worker'sbehavior/Actiontoward
theclient.ProcessofActions:asks.
../listens...thatResultin:
completedform.

B.Performancestandardsshouldbeconsistentwithorientationpercentage/result.

DataemphasisyieldsDataStandards.

PeopleemphasisyieldsPeopleStandards.

ThingsemphasisyieldsThingsStandards.

EXAMPLE:Visuallyinspectsapplicants'files,notingmissinginformation,andindicatesomissionsonformletter,inordertocompleteformlettertoapplicantrequestingthe
missinginformationbyreturnmail.

Things Data People

W.F.ORIENTATION
15% 80% 5%

 Page289

PerformanceStandards
Descriptive Numerical
Checksfilescarefullyandthoroughly.Missing NomorethanX#ofapplicantscomplain
informationisrecordedaccuratelyand aboutbeingrequestedtosendindata
completelyonformletter. previouslysubmitted.
Filesareinspectedandomissionsnotedwith NomorethanX#ofcomplaintsof
reasonablespeed. incompleteinformationinfilesdueto
omissionsfromformletters.

TheseStandardsreflecttheorientationofthetasktowardData,withaminimalmentionofThings(handlingoffiles,paper,etc.).TherearenoPeopleStandards,as
thereisnosignificantinterpersonalinteractioninvolvedinthistask.The5%assignedreflectstheFJArulenevertoassign0%ontheassumptionthat,althoughnot
apparent,somerelationtoPeoplemayexist.

C.Performancestandardsmustbefeasible.

BepreparedforthefactthatNumericalStandardsusuallyrequirethatanorganizationdevelopmechanismsandcontrolsforgeneratingandmonitoringthem.The
statementoftheseStandardsmaypointtowaysinwhichtheorganizationmustbeinnovativeandtheymayalsohighlightitsdependenceonthediscretionofworkers,
andthelimitationsofwhatitcanexpectfromsupervisorycontrol.
EXAMPLE:Visuallyinspectsapplicant'sfiles,notingmissinginformation,andindicatesomissionsonformletter,inordertocompleteformlettertoapplicantrequestingthe
missinginformationbyreturnmail.

PerformanceStandards
Descriptive Numerical
Mannerispleasantandcourteous NomorethanX#ofcomplaintsfromclients
aboutworker'smanner.

Isthereaprocess/procedureforcomplaints?

Aretheclientsawareofit?

Howreliableisthedata?

Doyouheargoodaswellasbad?

Canyoutelliftheclientisunhappywiththesystemorwiththeworker?

 Page290

Noteonperformancestandards:

BecausetheWorkerActionisaverb,ittendstobedescribedbyanadverb:

Asksquestionsclearly.
verb adverb

BecausetheOutput/Resultisanoun,ittendstobedescribedbyanadjective:

Planisthorough.
noun adjective

Question7:DoestheTrainingContentReflecttheKnowledgesandAbilitiesRequiredtoPerformtheTask?

DoestheFunctionalTrainingContentreflect(a)therequiredknowledgesofprocessesand(b)therequiredabilitiestofunction/performactionsorbehaviors?Does
SpecificTrainingContentreflect(a)therequiredknowledgesoftheplantororganization(procedures,andhowtheydeterminetheapplicationofFunctionalabilities)
and(b)therequiredabilitiestoperformunderlocalconditionsandspecifications(accordingtoknowledgeofspecificorganizationorplant)?
Example:Calculates/performsstatisticalanalysisonpopulationmovementswithinstate'scorrectionalfacilities,usingadeskcalculator,inordertocomputedatatobeused
inreportrequestedbytheBureauDirector.

WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED

Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language

1C 35 4 60 1A 5 3 3 3 3

TrainingContent
Functional Specific
Howtooperateacalculator. HowtooperateXtypeofcalculator.
Howtoperformbasicstatisticalanalysis Knowledgeofgenerallimitationsofparticular
(formulaeforcomputingmeasuresofcentral data:howcollected,whattypeofsample,etc.
tendency,deviations,correlations,etc. Knowledgeofagencyformatforpresenting
statisticaldata.

 Page291

Question8:IsThereMoreThanaOneLevelSpreadAmongData,WI,andReasoningScaleRatings?

Ifso,canyoudefendthedifference?

EachoftheseScaleslooksatcognitivefunctioningfromasomewhatdifferentpointofview.ThereisnotanequivalenceamonglevelsinthesethreeScales,butthey
docloselyparalleleachother.Ifthereismorethanaonelevelspread,thedifferencemustbejustifiablewithevidenceavailableinoneoranotherofthecolumns.

EXAMPLE:Guidesparentsinselectionofresourcestohelptheirexceptionalchild,exploringwiththemtheneedsandbehaviorofthechildandtheirpreferences,and
advisingthemregardingtheuseofavailableevaluation,training,treatment,andplacementresources,inordertohelpparentstodecideonandutilizetreatment/placement
resources.

Oneanalystratedthistask:

WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED

Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language

1A 5 4 40 4A 55 6 5 3 5

ThereismorethanaonelevelspreadbetweentheDataLevel4andtheWILevel6.Isthisdifferencejustifiable,usingtheinformationinthetaskstatement?The
spreadintheratingsforData,WI,andReasoning(4,6,5,respectively)shouldraisethequestionofwhetheroneoranotheroftheratingsistoohighortoolow.The
taskofguidingparentsintheselectionofresourcesfortheirexceptionalchildinvolvesmorethan''examining,evaluatingdatawithreferencetocriteria,
standards,andrequirementsofaparticulardiscipline''(DataScale,Level4,Analyzing).

Inordertoguidetheparentsasindicated,itisnecessarythattheworker"modify,alter,and/oradaptexistingdesigns,procedures,ormethodstomeetunique
specifications,unusualconditions,orspecificstandardsofeffectivenesswithintheoverallframeworkofoperatingtheories,principles."Wecanalterthe
AnalyzingratingtoDataLevel5,Innovating,makingitmoreconsistentwiththeotherratingsandthetaskstatement.

WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED

Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language

1A 5 5A 40 4A 55 5 5 3 5

 Page292

Ontheotherhand,ifInnovatingisnotnecessary,andthetaskinvolvesnomorethanAnalyzing,thenithasbeenwritteninawaythatexaggeratestheperformance
expectationswithregardtodiscretion(levelofinstructions)andtheLevel6ratingshouldbereconsideredandpossiblyloweredtoLevel5.

Question9:DotheVerbsUsedintheWorkerActionPhraseoftheTaskStatementAdequatelyExpresstheContextoftheTask?

Intheprocessofclarifyingandmakingtheactionverbsexplicit,thecontextofthetaskmaybelostoratleastobscured.Thisisparticularlytrueifthetaskiscompleted
overanextendedperiodoftimeandtheactioniscomplex.

AtaskwrittenandanalyzedaccordingtotheprinciplesandtechniquesofFJAprovidesastructureddescriptionofwhataworkerdoesandwhatgetsdone.
However,itisonlyadescriptionandnotrealityitself.Aworkerdoingthesametaskmaysay,"It'snotquitewhatIdo"withoutbeingabletopindowntheproblem.

Thiscommunicationproblemcanberesolvedtosomedegreebyusingacombinationofbroadprocessverbsthatestablishthecontextforthetaskandverbalphrases
thatdescribethecontinuityoftheworker'sactioninthatprocess.Togethertheytendtoconnotethedynamicsaswellasthestructureoftheaction.
EXAMPLE:Advises/counselsmotheronemotionalandlegalconsequencesofdecisiontoplaceherchildinadoptivehome,listeningtomother,askingquestions,and
reflectingherfeelingsandsuggestingwaysofcopingwithproblems,guilt,andanxietiesarisingfromseparation,inordertohelpmotheradjusttopermanentseparationfrom
child.

Advises/counselsareprocessverbs.Theyexpressthecontextofasequenceofactions.However,theyareunclearwhenusedalone.Theprocessisclarifiedby
listening,asking,reflecting,andsuggesting.Heretheactionsaresuggestedbyverbalphrasesemphasizingcontinuityandinteractionratherthanarbitrarylinkageat
thesametimetheprocessisclarified.

Thistaskcouldalsohavebeenwrittenasfollows:

Advises/counselsmotheronemotionalandlegalconsequencesofdecisiontoplaceherchildinadoptivehome,listenstomother,asksquestions,andreflectsherfeelingsand
suggestswaysofcopingwithproblems,guilt,andanxietiesarisingfromseparation,inordertohelpmotheradjusttopermanentseparationfromchild.

 Page293

Inthisexampleitiseasiertoidentifyandbreakdowntheactionverbs.However,inreadingthetask,someofthesenseofprocessanddynamicsmaybelostand
thenatureofthetaskmaybelessclear.

Addendum

InreviewingthematerialsubmittedbyparticipantsintheReliabilityValidityStudyforinclusionhere,considerablevariationwasfoundintheratingsforthetaskdealing
with"translation,"whichfollows:
Translatefromonelanguagetoanotherquestionsontheapplicationformandclient'srequestforassistance,inordertoenabletheclienttocompletetheform.

Independentratersassignedthefollowinglevels:

RaterA

WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED

Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language

1 5 4 70 2 35 3/4 3 1 4

RaterB

WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED

Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language

1A 5 3B 30 2 65 3 4 1 4

RaterC

WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED

Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language

1A 5 4 40 2 55 4 4 1 4

RaterD

WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED

Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language

1A 5 2 65 2 30 3 3 1 3

 Page294

RaterE

WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED

Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language

1A 10 1 30 2 60 2 3 1 3

RaterF

WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED

Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language

1A 5 5B 25 2 70 3 3 1 4

Thistypeoftaskisoftenmisunderstoodintermsofitsfunctionallevel,becauselanguageistypicallytakenforgranted.Itshouldbenotedthatwearenotreferringhere
tothecasual,imprecise,wordforword,potlucktranslationsexperiencedbytouristsorbyresortingtoafriendoracquaintancewith,"YouknowalittleSpanish
pleasetellmewhatthisclientissaying."Obviously,inthesesituationsthetranslatorisnotresponsiblefortheaccuracyofthetranslationmade.

Althoughtheworkerinthistaskisconvertingthematerialfromthewords(symbols)usedbyspeakersofonelanguageintothewords(symbols)usedbyspeakersof
another,thebasictaskthatis,theoneforwhichprimaryperformancestandardsareappliedisnotthetranslationitself,buttheexchangeofinformationthatthe
translationenablestheworkerandtheclienttoachieve.Thus,thetranslationisviewedasacatalyst(tool)togettheessentialjobdone.

Thetaskwaseditedasfollows:

Talksabout/discusses(inXlanguage)itemsonEnglishlanguageapplicationformwithclient(speakerofXlanguage),answeringclient'squestionsandexplainingmeaning
andpurposeofitemsonform,elicitsanswerstoitems,andrecordsanswersinEnglishonform,usingownspeaking,reading,andwritingknowledgeofEnglishandX
language,inordertocompleteformforclient.

WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED

Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language

1A 5 4 45 2 50 3 3 1 4

 Page295

RatherthanattempttocoverthedegreeofskillthattheworkermusthavetocompletethetaskaspartoftheScaleratings,itshouldbedealtwithinPerformance
Standards,inwhichtheeditorcandescribesuchthingsasdegreeoffluency,orcorrectnessofpronunciationandclarityofspeech.

InvestigationindicatesthatitispracticallyimpossibleforatranslatortofunctionatanyDatalevellowerthanAnalyzing.Thetranslatorhastodecidewhethertomakea
wordforwordtranslation,ortotranslateidiomatically.Inwordforwordtranslation,alargepartofthemeaningoftheoriginalstatementmaybelost,becausewords
havenotonlydictionarymeanings(denotativemeanings),whicharestandardforallusersofthelanguage,butalsoconnotativemeanings,ortheemotionalweightof
thewordsgovernedbyeachuser'sexperience.

Thisinvolvestheworkerwithawiderangeofvariables,andagreatdealofdata.Heorshemustcomplywiththerulesofstructure,syntax,andsemanticsofboth
languages.Heorshemustalsounderstandthecontentofthestatementintheoriginallanguage,anditsequivalentinthesecondlanguage,inordertogiveafull
translation.Thus,thetranslatormustAnalyze.

InAnalyzing,he/shemust:
Examineandevaluatedatafor

languageequivalentsandstatementcontent.

Considerwithreferencetocriteria,requirements,andstandards

thecontentofthestatementintheoriginallanguage,

theuseforwhichtranslationisintended,

thedesiresoftheoriginatorofthestatement,and

thestructures,syntax,andsemanticsofbothlanguages.

Considerinteractioneffectsandalternatives

todeterminewhichofseveralpossiblerenderingsoftheoriginalstatementintothesecondlanguageispreferable.

Incertainsituations,thetranslatormayhavetoInnovate.Forinstance,intranslatingapieceofliteratureheorshemay:

Modify,alter,oradaptexistinglanguagewithoutdepartingtoofarfromstandardcriteriaofstructure,syntax,orsemanticsofthetwolanguagesandwithouteliminatingthe
originalmeaningofthelanguagerenditioninorderto

achievethedenotativemeaningoftheoriginalstatementandincludetheconnotativemeaningofsuchthingsasrhyme,rhythm,andmeter.

 Page296

Becausethetranslatormustinterpret,evaluate,andmakechoicesamongalternatives,hisorherownstyle,orpersonalmethodofusingbothlanguagesmakesitself
felt.ThismakesitnecessarythattheratingontheLanguageScale(GED)benolowerthanLevel4,thefirstlevelatwhichtheuser'sstylecomesintoplay.The
languagelevelwillrangethroughLevels4,5,and6,dependingonthecontentandtechnicality(relativeabstruseness)ofthemessage,asdelineatedbythescale
examples.

Thispointappliesonlytotrulybilingualtasks,andnottothoseinwhichtheworker,althoughbilingual,isusingonlyonelanguage,bothinreceiptandtransmissionof
signals.TheEnglishabilityoftheworkerhasnothingtodowithhisfunctioninginasituationdemandingonlySpanish,andviceversa.

AlthoughAnalyzingappearstobetheminimumDatafunctionwhentrulybilingualtranslationtasksareinvolved,thefunctionalrelationtopeoplecanrangefrom
ExchangingInformation(whichoccurseveninTakingInstructionsandServingsituations)throughConsulting,and,possibly,Negotiating,whereinclusionofaslang
termoratermfromanotherlanguageotherthantheprimarylanguageofthediscussionorcontractisatissue.

AdditionalNote

Althoughbilingualismisnotinvolved,tosomedegreethefunctionaljobanalystmustfunctioninasimilarmannerintranslatingtheeveryday,casuallanguageofjob
description(ofteninvolvingthemetaphoricuseofverbs,nouns,adjectives,andadverbs)totheprecise,taxonomicmeaningsofFJA.Thefunctionaljobanalystmust
continuallyprobetoestablishthetrueinvolvementoftheworkerinthetasksothatareliablecommunicationcanbeachievedonereplicableonthebasisofscales.

Glossary

Theseareonlybriefdefinitionsoftermsexplainedthroughexampleshere.InordertounderstandthemwithintheconceptualframeworkofFJA,pleaserefertothe
firstsixchaptersinthisbook.

FunctionalJobAnalysis(FJA):Aconceptualsystemfordefiningdimensionsofworkeractivityandamethodofmeasuringlevelsofworkeractivitythatprovidesasetofscales
forestablishinglevelsoftasks.

Task:Anactionoractionsequence,groupedthroughtime,designedtocontributeaspecifiedendresulttotheaccomplishmentofanobjective,andforwhichfunctionallevels
andorientationcanbereliablyassigned.

 Page297

WorkerFunctionScales:ThreehierarchiesofworkerfunctionsthatdefinethesimplesttothemostcomplexworkerbehaviorsinrelationtoTDP.

Orientation:AmeasurethatindicatestherelativeinvolvementoftheworkerwithTDPintheperformanceofagiventask.

ScaleofWI:Ascaleformeasuringtheproportionsofprescriptionanddiscretionintheperformanceofagiventask.

ScalesofGED:ThreescalesReasoning,Math,andLanguagefordeterminingthebasiceducationalskillrequirementsnecessarytoperformajobatspecifiedTDPlevels.

PerformanceStandards:Thecriteriaagainstwhichtheresultsofaworker'stasksareassessed.Therearetwotypes:descriptiveandnumerical.

TrainingContent:Theskillsandknowledgesrequiredtoperformagiventask.Therearetwotypes:functionalandspecific.

 Page299

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AUTHORINDEX

Arthur,W.,Jr.,129,300

Balaban,S.,29,143,299

Bernardin,H.J.,122,126,301

Bernotavicz,F.D.,275,299

Berscheid,E.,190,302

Briscoe,D.R.,116,299

Campbell,J.P.,120,302

Campion,M.A.,132,300

Cardy,R.L.,95,96,97,299

Carr,A.W.,61,62,63,71,74,81,210,301

Champy,J.,28,103,211,300

Choi,T.Y.,213,299

Churchman,C.W.,18,299

Cox,J.,28,300

Cronshaw,S.F.,129,236,299,302

Croson,D.C.,64,301

Csikszentmihalyi,M.,140,141,149,158,159,168,209,299

Dahmus,S.A.,122,126,301

Davis,J.H.,56,300

Deming,W.E.,156,299

Dobbins,G.H.,95,96,97,299

Erikson,E.H.,180,299

Fields,D.,207,299

Fine,S.A.,94,111,125,235,255,270,273,275,283,299,300,301

Fleishman,E.A.,43,300

Ford,J.K.,122,301

Getkate,M.,94,235,255,270,299

Gilmore,D.C.,131,300

Glastris,P.,121,300

Goddard,T.,58,300

Goldratt,E.M.,28,300

Guest,R.H.,215,301

Gunderson,M.,237,302

Hackman,J.R.,59,301

Hammer,M.,28,103,211,300

Heckscher,C.C.,65,300

Hellervik,L.,131,300

Hillkirk,J.,60,301

Hofstede,G.,211,300

 Page304

Holt,A.M.,270,299

Huffcult,A.I.,129,300

Hutchinson,M.F.,270,299

Imai,M.,210,212,300

Jacoby,J.,257,300

Jacques,E.,53,300

Janz,T.,131,300

Jennings,M.,125,301

Johnson,D.L.,122,126,301

Kamarck,E.,58,300

Keita,C.,29,143,299

Kim,JS.,213,299

Latham,G.P.,132,140,157,300

Lawler,E.E.,59,190,192,216,300,301

Levering,R.,103,300

Locke,E.A.,140,157,300

Lunger,D.,29,143,299

Lutz,T.,29,143,299

MacLachlan,R.,104,300

Marchione,M.,227,300

Mayer,R.C.,56,300

McGregor,D.,58,59,300

Melohn,T.,115,119,130,300

Miller,K.I.,60,300

Monge,P.R.,60,300

Morfopoulos,R.,105,300

Morin,W.J.,56,57,60,66,300

Mowday,R.T.,117,301

Mumford,M.D.,111,122,301

Myers,D.111,125,301

Nolan,R.L.,64,301

O'Herron,P.,178,301

Olson,H.C.,125,301

Owens,W.A.,111,122,301

Partlow,C.G.,92,156,301

Patten,T.H.,25,42,43,61,301

Petersen,D.E.,60,301

Polanyi,M.,35,301

Porter,L.W.,59,117,301

Pritchett,P.,219,301

Pursell,E.D.,132,300

Quaintance,M.K.,43,300

Quinones,M.A.,122,301

Reilly,M.E.,43,300

Renfrew,C.,173,301

Riback,C.,58,300

Roth,W.,105,300

Rungtusanatham,M.,213,299

Rush,H.M.F.,57,301

Saari,L.M.,132,300

Schoorman,F.D.,56,300

Shapiro,E.R.,61,62,63,71,74,81,210,301

Simonsen,P.,178,301

Spreitzer,G.M.,66,301

Stamatis,D.H.,92,95,301

Steers,R.M.,117,301

Stewart,T.,1,301

Stokes,G.S.,111,122,301

Taylor,F.W.,208,301

Teachout,M.S.,122,301

Terborg,J.R.,257,300

Villanova,P.,122,126,301

Wachiralapphaithoon,M.,29,143,299

Walker,C.R.,215,301

Walster,E.,190,302

Walster,G.W.,190,302

Weiner,N.,237,302

Wernimont,P.F.,120,302

Wiesner,W.H.,129,302

Wiley,W.W.,270,273,275,283,299,300

Zuckerman,L.,165,302

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SUBJECTINDEX

Ability,37

AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct,221,231

Careerdevelopment,177,179180

careercounseling,178

influencesofFJA,180

professionalcounselor,186

DictionaryofOccupationalTitles,46,49,215

Employeraccommodation,108,119,218

FJAnalysts,255

selecting,255257

training,258269

FJAemploymentinterview,129130

assessingskills,130133

adaptive,130

functional,133

behaviordescriptionquestions,131132

closinginterview,136

hiringapplicant,136

hypotheticalscenarioquestions,132

traininginterviewers,136

instructionalinterviews,128129

FJAfocusgroups,71,7780,86

environment,81

KSA,76

momentum,80

outputs,7475

performancestandards,82

presentation,73

setting,72

taskgeneration,7780

FJAandlaw,220

affirmativeaction,225230

antidiscriminationlegislation,222

disabilitieslegislation,231236

TitleVIIcompliance,224

FJAScales,240250

FJATaskBankEditingManual,270297

Flow,140,149,158,209

Goalsetting,25,140

HRM,14,99100

IntroducingFJA,84

editingtaskbanks,87

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management,85

reinventingwork,88

Jobdesign,207208

synergy,208

workerandmanager,208210

Jobevaluation,195205

Knowledge,36

Languagedevelopment,252254

Languageofworkerbehavior,46

TDPvocabulary,4647

Mathematicaldevelopment,251

Outputs,74

Pay,190

payequity,236238

waysofpayingworkers,191

Performanceappraisal,156

evaluatortraining,171

FJAthemes,165169

FJAsuggestedprocedures,169

interview,173176

jobanalysis,169

ratings,170,196

records,172

requirements,157158

useoftaskbankin,159163

Performancestandards,150,163

descriptive,151152,164165

numerical,164165

quantifiable,151152

Preemploymentquestionnaire,109113

Quality,90

continuousimprovement,211

howFJAhelps,91

managers'role,9497

standardization,9394

Reasoningdevelopment,250

Recruitment,101

functionallevelofwork,104

growthopportunities,107

recruitment,traditional,109

visionandmission,103

workingconditions,105

Sharedinterpretationofexperience,63,210

Skill,37,40

adaptive,39,8081,148,162

functional,39,146,152,162,195

evaluationinpay,192195

specificcontent,39,148,153,162

Tasks,4952

generatingtasks,7780

structure,75

systemmodule,49

TDPconcept,181,198

jobpreferences,182

personalgrowth,183

RIASEC,183

workerfunctionchart,38

Testingapplicants,115

degreeofselectivity,116

measurementissues,126

performancetesting,123126

psychologicaltesting,120

screeningprocess,115

TheoryXY,5860,97

Training,139

buildingrelationships,140

experience,149150

needsanalysis,146147

orientation,142

skills,152154

Trust,56

assumptions,57

building,62

communityofpurpose,66

nondependent,67

obstacles,61

Validation,126

content,126

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constructoriented,127

criterionrelated,126

Validity,126

face,127

Work,45seealsoWorkdoingsystemWorkorganization

content,35,119,167,216

context,35,119,167,216

Workdoingsystem,13,55seealsoWorkWorkorganizationWorker

advantages,14,1718

characteristics,1417

components,1923

example,13

limitations,1819

Workorganization,24seealsoWorkWorkdoingsystemWorker

constraints,15,24

feedback,16,27,158,166

goals,2526

maintenance,26

mission,26

objectives,25

policies,29

principles,28

problems,31

procedures,30

purpose,25

resources,15,24

Worker,34seealsoWorkWorkdoingsystemWorkorganization

functions,38,48

growth,34,107

holisticviewpoint,3435,199203

jobdesign,4244

needs,108109

tacitknowledge,35

wholepersonconcept,34,119,166,179,215

Workerinstructions,5254