Advanced Electrical Engineering: Michael E. Auer

Advanced Electrical Engineering
Michael E. Auer
Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

AEE Content
Advanced Circuit Analysis
Basic Concepts
Three-Phase Circuits
Transforms
Power Conversion and Management
Field Theory
Waves and Vector Fields
Transmission Line Theory
Electrostatics
Magnetostatics
Applications
Magnetic Field Applications
Basics of Electrical Machines

Chapter Content
Introduction
Voltage Rectifiers
Voltage Regulators
Switched Capacitor Circuits
Charge Pumps
Power Management and Harvesting

Diode dc Circuit Analysis: Basics
The loop equation for the diode circuit is:
V = I D R + VD
This is also called the load line for the diode.

The solution to this equation can be found
by:
Graphical analysis using the load-line method

V and R may represent the Thvenin
equivalent of a more complex 2-terminal Analysis with the diodes mathematical model
network. The objective of diode dc circuit Simplified analysis with the ideal diode model
analysis is to find the quiescent operating
point for the diode. Simplified analysis using the constant voltage
drop (CVD) model
Q-Point = (ID, VD)

Load-Line Analysis
Problem: Find diode Q-point

Given data: V = 10 V, R = 10 k.
Analysis:
10 = I D 10 + VD
4
To define the load line we use,

For VD = 0, ID = (10V 10k) = 1 mA
For VD = 5V , ID = (5V 10k) = 0.5 mA
These points and the resulting load
line are plotted. Q-point is given by
the intersection of the load line and
diode characteristic:
Q-point = (0.95 mA, 0.6 V)

Analysis using Diode Mathematical Model

Make initial guess VD0 .
Problem: Find the Q-point for a given diode Evaluate f and its derivative f for this value
characteristic. of VD.
Given data: IS = 10-13A, n = 1, VT = 0.025V Calculate new guess for VD using
Analysis:
VD1 = VD0
( )
f VD
0
V
I D = I S exp D 1 = 1013 [exp(40VD ) 1]
0
f (VD )
nVT Repeat steps 2 and 3 till convergence.
10 = 1041013 [exp(40VD ) 1] + VD Using a spreadsheet we get :
The solution is given by a transcendental Q-point = ( 0.9426 mA, 0.5742 V)
equation. A numerical answer can be found by Since, usually we dont have accurate
using Newtons iterative method. saturation current values and significant
tolerances exist for sources and passive
f = 10 1041013 [exp(40VD ) 1] VD components, we need answers precise to only
2 or 3 significant digits.

Analysis using Ideal Model for Diode
If an ideal diode is forward-biased, the voltage across

the diode is zero. If an ideal diode is reverse-biased,
the current through the diode is zero.
vD = 0 for iD > 0 and iD = 0 for vD < 0
Thus, the diode is assumed to be either on or off.
Analysis is conducted in following steps:
Select a diode model.
Identify anode and cathode of the diode and label
vD and iD.
Guess diodes region of operation from circuit.
Analyze circuit using diode model appropriate for
assumed region of operation.
Check results to check consistency with
assumptions.

Analysis using Ideal Model for Diode
Since source is forcing current backward

Since source appears to force positive current through diode assume, diode is off. Hence
through diode, assume diode is on. ID = 0 . Loop equation is:
(10 0)V 10 + VD + 10 4 ID = 0
ID = = 1 mA | ID 0
10k
Our assumption is correct, and the Q- VD = 10V | VD < 0
Our assumption is correct and the
Point = (1 mA, 0V)
Q-Point = (0, -10 V)

Analysis using Constant Voltage Drop Model for Diode
Analysis:
Since the 10-V source appears to force positive

current through the diode, assume diode is on.
(10 Von )V
ID =
10k
vD = Von for iD > 0 and (10 0.6)V
vD = 0 for vD < Von. = = 0.940 mA
10k

Chapter Content
Introduction
Voltage Rectifiers
Voltage Regulators
Charge Pumps

Rectifier Circuits
A basic rectifier converts an ac voltage to a pulsating dc voltage.

A filter then eliminates ac components of the waveform to produce a
nearly constant dc voltage output.
Rectifier circuits are used in virtually all electronic devices to convert
the 120-V 60-Hz ac power line source to the dc voltages required for
operation of electronic devices.
In rectifier circuits, the diode state changes with time and a given
piecewise linear model is valid only for a certain time interval.

Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with Resistive Load (1)
For the positive half-cycle of the input, the source forces positive current
through the diode, the diode is on, and vO = vS (for an ideal diode).
During the negative half cycle, negative current cant exist in the diode. The
diode is off, current in resistor is zero, and vO =0 .

Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with Resistive Load (2)
Using the CVD model, during the on-state of the

diode vO = vS - Von = (VP sint)- Von. The output
voltage is zero when the diode is off.
Often a step-up or step-down transformer is used to
convert the 120-V, 60-Hz voltage available from the
power line to the desired ac voltage level as shown.
Time-varying components in the rectifier output are

removed using a filter capacitor.

Peak Detector Circuit
As the input voltage rises, the diode is on, and

the capacitor (initially discharged) charges up
to the input voltage minus the diode voltage
drop.
At the peak of the input voltage, the diode
current tries to reverse, and the diode cuts off.
The capacitor has no discharge path and retains
a constant voltage providing a constant output
voltage:
Vdc = VP - Von

Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with RC Load (1)

As the input voltage rises during the first quarter
cycle, the diode is on and the capacitor (initially
discharged) charges up to the peak value of the input
voltage.
At the peak of the input, the diode current tries to
reverse, the diode cuts off, and the capacitor
discharges exponentially through R. Discharge
continues till the input voltage exceeds the output
voltage which occurs near the peak of next cycle.
This process then repeats once every cycle.
This circuit can be used to generate negative output
voltage if the top plate of capacitor is grounded
instead of bottom plate. In this case, Vdc = -(VP - Von)

Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with RC Load (2)
The output voltage is not constant as in an ideal peak detector, but has a ripple
voltage Vr.
The diode conducts for a short time T called the conduction interval during
each cycle, and its angular equivalent is called the conduction angle c.
T T (VP Von ) T
Vr (VP Von )
1

RC T R C
2T (VP Von ) 1 2Vr

T 1 RC V =
VP
P
2Vr
c = T =
VP

Half-Wave Rectifier Analysis
Problem: Find the dc output voltage, output current, ripple voltage,

conduction interval, and conduction angle for a half-wave rectifier.
Given data: secondary voltage Vrms = 12.6 (60 Hz), R = 15 , C=
25,000 F, Von = 1 V
Analysis: V =V V = (12.6 2 1)V =16.8 V
dc P on
VP Von 16.8V
Idc = = =1.12 A
R 15
(V Von ) T
Vr P = 0.747 V
R C
2Vr
Using discharge interval T = 1/60 s, c = T = = 0.290 rad =16.6o
VP
c 0.29
T = c = = = 0.769 ms
2f 120

Peak Diode Current
In rectifiers, nonzero current exists in the diode

for only a very small fraction of period T, yet an
almost constant dc current flows out of the filter
capacitor to load.
The total charge lost from the filter capacitor in
each cycle is replenished by the diode during a
short conduction interval causing high peak
diode currents. If the repetitive current pulse is
modeled as a triangle of height IP and width T,
IP = Idc 2T = 48.6 A
T
using the values from the previous example.

Surge Current
In addition to the peak diode currents, there is an even larger current through
the diode called the surge current that occurs when power is first turned on.
During first quarter cycle, current through diode is approximately
d
id (t ) = ic (t ) C VP sin t = CVP cost

dt

The peak value of this initial surge current occurs at t = 0+:
ISC = CVP =168 A
using values from previous example.
Actual values of surge current wont be nearly as large as predicted above
because of the neglected series resistances associated with both the rectifier
diode and transformer.

Peak Inverse Voltage Rating
The peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating of the

rectifier diode is the diode breakdown
voltage.
When the diode is off, the reverse-bias
across the diode is Vdc - vS. When vS
reaches its negative peak,
PIV Vdc vsmin =VP Von (VP ) 2VP
The PIV value corresponds to the minimum

value of Zener breakdown voltage required
for the rectifier diode.

Diode Power Dissipation

Average power dissipation in a diode is given by
PD = v D (t)iD (t)dt = Von iD (t)dt =Von P T Von Idc

1T 1T I
T0 T0 2 T
The simplification is done by assuming a triangular approximation for the diode

current and the voltage across the diode is constant at Vdc.
Average power dissipation in the diode series resistance is given by
PD = iD (t)RS dt = ID2 RS T = T Idc

1T 2 1 4 2 R
T0 3 T 3 T S
This power dissipation can be reduced by minimizing peak current through the
use of a minimum size of filter capacitor or by using full-wave rectifiers.

Full-Wave Rectifiers
Full-wave rectifiers cut capacitor discharge time

in half and require half the filter capacitance to
achieve a given ripple voltage. All specifications
are the same as for half-wave rectifiers.
Reversing polarity of the diodes gives a full-wave
rectifier with negative output voltage.

Full-Wave Rectifier Equations
(VP Von ) T
Vdc VP Von Vr
R 2C
2Vr T
1 T (VP Von ) 1 2Vr c = T = I =I
T = VP P dc T
VP
RC VP PIV = 2V
P

Full-Wave Bridge Rectification
The requirement for a center-tapped

transformer in the full-wave rectifier
is eliminated through use of 2 extra
diodes. All other specifications are
the same as for a half-wave rectifier
except PIV = VP.

Rectifier Topology Comparison
Filter capacitors are a major factor in determining cost, size and weight in
design of rectifiers.
For a given ripple voltage, a full-wave rectifier requires half the filter
capacitance as that in a half-wave rectifier. Reduced peak current can
reduce heat dissipation in diodes. Benefits of full-wave rectification
outweigh increased expenses and circuit complexity (an extra diode and
center-tapped transformer).
The bridge rectifier eliminates the center-tapped transformer, and the PIV
rating of the diodes is reduced. Cost of extra diodes is negligible.

Design Tradeoffs
Rectifier Parameter Half-Wave Rectifier Full-Wave Rectifier Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier
VP Von T VP Von T VP Von T

Filter Capacitor
C= C= C=
Vr R Vr 2R Vr 2R
PIV Rating 2VP 2VP VP
Peak Diode Current Highest IP Reduced IP/2 Reduced IP/2

(Constant Vr)
Surge Current Highest Reduced (C) Reduced (C)
Comments Least Complexity Smaller Capacitor Smaller Capacitor

Center-taped Transformer No Center-taped Transformer
Two Diodes Four Diodes

Rectifier Design Example

Problem: Design a rectifier with given specifications.
Given data: Vdc = 15 V, Vr < 0.15 V, Idc = 2 A Assume: Von = 1 V.
Analysis: Use a full-wave bridge rectifier that needs a smaller value of filter
capacitance, smaller diode PIV rating, and no center-tapped transformer.

VP Vdc + 2Von 15+ 2 T / 2
1 1
V= = = V =12.0 Vrms | C = Idc = 2 A

s
= 0.111 F

2 2 2 V
r
120 0.15V

1 2Vr 1 2(0.15V )
2
T 1/60s
T = = = 0.352 ms | IP = Idc = 2 A
= 94.7 A
VP 120 17V T 2
0.352ms
Isurge = CVP =120 (0.111)(17)= 711 A | PIV =VP =17 V

Chapter Content
Introduction
Voltage Rectifiers
Voltage Regulators
Charge Pumps

Analysis of Diodes in Reverse Breakdown

Choose 2 points (0 V, -4 mA) and (-5 V, -3 mA) to
draw the load line. It intersects the i-v characteristic
at the Q-point: (-2.9 mA, -5.2 V).
Using the piecewise linear model:
IZ = ID > 0
20 5100IZ 5 = 0
(20 5)V
IZ = = 2.94 mA
5100
Using load-line analysis: Since IZ > 0 (ID < 0), the solution is consistent
20 =VD + 5000ID with Zener breakdown.

Voltage Regulator Using the Zener Diode

VS VZ (20 5)V
IS = = = 3 mA
R 5k
VZ 5V
IL = = =1 mA | IZ = IS IL = 2 mA
RL 5k
For proper regulation, Zener current IZ must be
positive. If the Zener current < 0, the Zener
diode no longer controls the voltage across the
load resistor and the voltage regulator is said to
have dropped out of regulation.
The Zener diode keeps the
VS
R
voltage across load resistor RL IZ = V 1 + 1 > 0 | RL >

Z
=R
constant. For Zener breakdown R R RL V
min
S 1
operation, IZ > 0.
V

Z

Voltage Regulator Including Zener Resistance
Problem: Find the output voltage and

Zener diode current for a Zener diode
regulator.
Given data: VS = 20 V, R = 5 k, RZ =
0.1 k, VZ = 5 V
Analysis: The output voltage is now a
function of the current through the
Zener diode. VZ 20V VL 5V VL
+ + =0
5000 100 5000
VL = 5.19 V
VL 5V 5.19V 5V
IZ = = =1.9 mA > 0
100 100

Line and Load Regulation

Line regulation characterizes how sensitive the output voltage is to input
voltage changes.
dVL
Line Regulation = mV/V
dVS
RZ
For a fixed load current, Line Regulation =
R+ RZ
Load regulation characterizes how sensitive the output voltage is to changes in
load current withdrawn from regulator.
dV
Load Regulation= L
dI L
For changes in load current, Load Regulation = RZ R
Load regulation is the Thvenin equivalent resistance looking back into
the regulator from the load terminals.

Series Linear Regulator

With source follower
With emitter follower

Power:
Power effeciency:

Detailed Analysis of Series Linear Regulator
For the MOSFET circuit:

Series Linear Regulator with Adjustable Voltage

Transistor (MOSFET or BJT)
MOSFET circuit realization:

Series Linear Regulator with IC

Chapter Content
Introduction
Voltage Rectifiers
Voltage Regulators

Charge Pumps
Power Management Harvesting

Switched Capacitor Regulator Principle
Req should change dynamically to follow

the short- and long-term variations of input
voltage, and possibly the modified output
voltage requirements.

Switched Capacitor Regulator Realization
The feedback loop controls the VCO frequency.
The maximum frequency of the VCO fck,M gives the minimal equivalent
resistance. Ist value determines the drop-out voltage:

Chapter Content
Introduction
Voltage Rectifiers
Voltage Regulators
Charge Pumps

Charge Pump Principles (1)

Switched capacitors
circuit principle
clock phases

Charge Pump Principles (2)

real charge pump
Details

Charge Pump Cascade
Principle
Realization with diodes

Chapter Content
Introduction
Voltage Rectifiers
Voltage Regulators
Charge Pumps

Importance of Power Management

Battery cycle life at different
charge voltages
Aging of rechargeable battery

caused by fast charge rate

Factors of Power Management
A well-controlled and defined voltage used in charging cycles

preserves capacity and ensures long service life
Overcharging with voltages higher than what is prescribed

makes a battery unstable
Too-low voltages caused by persistent discharge make the

battery unusable (no recharging)
High temperatures are dangerous
Charge and discharge rates influence the batterys life

Power Harvesting
a future technology, which collects energy from the environment
(possibly stored in batteries or super capacitors
Solar cells
Piezoelectric devices
Electromagnetic radio or microwave signals

Advanced Electrical Engineering: Michael E. Auer

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Advanced Electrical Engineering

Advanced Electrical Engineering

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Diode dc Circuit Analysis: Basics

The loop equation for the diode circuit is:

This is also called the load line for the diode.

Graphical analysis using the load-line method

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Problem: Find diode Q-point

To define the load line we use,

Q-point = (0.95 mA, 0.6 V)

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Analysis using Diode Mathematical Model

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Analysis using Ideal Model for Diode

If an ideal diode is forward-biased, the voltage across

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Analysis using Ideal Model for Diode

Since source is forcing current backward

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Analysis using Constant Voltage Drop Model for Diode

Since the 10-V source appears to force positive

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

A basic rectifier converts an ac voltage to a pulsating dc voltage.

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with Resistive Load (1)

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with Resistive Load (2)

Using the CVD model, during the on-state of the

Time-varying components in the rectifier output are

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Peak Detector Circuit

As the input voltage rises, the diode is on, and

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with RC Load (1)

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with RC Load (2)

2T (VP Von ) 1 2Vr

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Half-Wave Rectifier Analysis

Problem: Find the dc output voltage, output current, ripple voltage,

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Peak Diode Current

In rectifiers, nonzero current exists in the diode

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Peak Inverse Voltage Rating

The peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating of the

PIV Vdc vsmin =VP Von (VP ) 2VP

The PIV value corresponds to the minimum

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Diode Power Dissipation

PD = v D (t)iD (t)dt = Von iD (t)dt =Von P T Von Idc

The simplification is done by assuming a triangular approximation for the diode

PD = iD (t)RS dt = ID2 RS T = T Idc

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Full-wave rectifiers cut capacitor discharge time

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04

Full-Wave Rectifier Equations

Michael E.Auer 24.05.2012 AEE04