Professional Documents
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8H A P T E R
Portions of Part 6 are reprinted with permission from Donald J. Wulpi, Understanding How Components Fail, 1985, ASM International,
Materials Park, OH. Reprinted with permission. Reference number 9 superscripted in headings indicates sections adapted. ASNT has revised the
text in 1993 and 2010, and deficiencies are not the responsibility of ASM International.
PART 1. Metal Processing
Sheet Lamination
Pipe
During solidification, molten metal
shrinks. In the case of a casting, there
eventually can be insufficient molten
metal for completely filling the top of the
mold. Shrinkage occurs all over the
casting as the metal cools. As a result, a
cavity forms, usually in the shape of an
inverted cone or cylinder (Fig. 3).
If this shrinkage cavity is not
completely removed before rolling or
forging into final shape, it becomes
elongated and appears as voids called pipe
in the finished product. Pipe can also
Cold shuts surface or subsurface meeting of two streams of liquid metal that do not fuse
Hot tears surface adherence to core or mold during cooling
Inclusions surface or subsurface contaminants introduced during casting process
Pipe, shrinkage subsurface absence of molten metal during final solidification
Porosity surface or subsurface entrapped gases during solidification of metal
Segregation surface or subsurface localized differences in material composition
Pipe
Porosity
Porosity
Rolling direction
Legend
Indicates section of ingots used for
rolling bars below
Segregation
Segregation is a localized difference in a
materials chemical composition. During
solidification of molten metal, certain
13 mm elements may concentrate in limited
(0.5 in.)
areas, resulting in an uneven distribution
of some of the alloying elements of the
steel. Equalization of the compositional
differences can be achieved by hot
working (forging or rolling). However,
segregation is sometimes carried into the
wrought product.
When not detected, segregation can
(b) affect corrosion resistance, forging and
welding characteristics, mechanical
properties, fracture toughness and fatigue
resistance. Furthermore, quench cracks,
hardness variations and other
discontinuities are likely to result during
heat treating of materials that exhibit
segregation of alloying elements.
(c)
Rolling
direction
(b)
(c)
Hydrogen Flakes
Flakes are formed while cooling after the
FIGURE 10. Stretcher strains are irregular
forging or rolling operations. Flakes are
surface patterns of ridges and valleys that
internal fissures attributed (1) to stresses
develop during drawing.
produced by localized metallurgical
transformations and (2) to hydrogen
embrittlement, decreased solubility of
hydrogen after rapid cooling.
Hydrogen is available in abundance
during most manufacturing operations.
When permitted, hydrogen dissipates
(a)
25mm
(1 in.)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Rolling direction
Rolling direction
Rolling direction
Rolling
direction
Rolling direction
Rolling direction
Rolling direction
Rolling direction
Rolling direction
The discontinuities described below relate Porosity is usually spherical but can
mainly to fusion welding; a few may also occur in various shapes and sizes,
apply to resistance and solid state depending on welding conditions. The
processes. The discussion covers pores usually lack sharp edges and
discontinuities that lend themselves to corners.
detection by visual testing (Table 3). 1. The porosity may consist of single,
Acceptance or rejection of a weldment, isolated pores.
based on the detection of a particular 2. The distribution of porosity within the
discontinuity, is determined by the weld metal may be clustered, usually
requirements of the designer and the because of improper initiation or
applicable code. The Structural Welding termination of the welding arc.
Code, published by the American Welding 3. The porosity within the weld metal
Society, is specified for many diverse may be linear. Linear distribution can
projects.8 result from welding over a
Although many of the following contaminant in a linear junction such
discontinuities occur in several types of as a corner or crevice.
welded joints, the differences in joint
geometry produce differences in the Porosity can be distributed in ways
location and orientation of the related to welding condition and may be
discontinuities. found anywhere throughout the weld
metal. It will not be found in the
unmelted heat affected zone.
Porosity often results from dirt, rust or
Porosity moisture on the base or filler metal
Porosity is composed of cavities or pores surface before welding and can be
that form when the weld metal solidifies. prevented by maintaining cleanliness and
Gases result from chemical and physical dryness. Other contributing factors
reactions during welding. These gases include base metal composition (such as
dissolve in the metal while it is hot and high sulfur content), high solidification
then separate as it cools. The solubility of rate and improper welding technique
gases in metals can be very high at high (such as excessive arc length or lack of
temperatures. A certain amount of gas is shielding gas).
always generated in standard welding but Most welds contain some porosity. All
is usually not detectable. At times, but the smallest surface pores should be
however, excessive gas is produced and visible to the unaided eye.
leads to the discontinuity called porosity. The restrictions on porosity in some
welds may be rather lenient. Spherical
Cold cracking surface or subsurface combination of atomic hydrogen, hardenable material and high residual stresses
Hot cracking surface or subsurface segregation during solidification (see Liquation and Solidification)
Inclusions, oxide subsurface mixing oxides on base metal surface into weld pool
Inclusions, slag subsurface improper cleaning of a previous weld pass
Inclusions, tungsten subsurface molten weld pool or filler metal comes in contact with tip of tungsten electrode
Lack of fusion surface or subsurface failure of weld metal to coalesce with base metal
Lack of penetration surface or subsurface inadequate penetration of weld joint root by the weld metal
Lamellar tearing surface delamination of the base material during solidification and cooling of weld metal
Liquation surface or subsurface segregation in heat affected zone of material
Porosity surface or subsurface vaporized constituents in molten weld metal are entrapped during solidification
Overlap surface insufficient amperage or travel speed
Solidification surface or subsurface dendritic segregation of low melting point constituents opening during solidification
Undercut surface oversized weld pool (related to excessive amperage, travel speed and electrode size)
Hot Cracking
Hot cracking is a term applied to several
varieties of weld metal and heat affected
zone cracking, all of which occur at
elevated temperatures. The following
types are the most common hot cracks. 20 mm
(0.8 in.)
Arc Strike
Lamellar Tearing
A lamellar tear is a base metal crack that
occurs in plates and shapes of rolled steel
exhibiting a high nonmetallic inclusion
content. These inclusions are rolled flat in
the steel plate manufacturing process, 10 mm (0.4 in.)
severely reducing strength and ductility in
the through-thickness direction. When
the shrinkage stresses induced by weld
solidification are imposed in that
direction on the base metal plate,
Arc Strikes
Arc strikes are discontinuities that result
from establishing the welding arc in zones
other than a weld. They consist of
remelted metal or portions of electrode
metal in unscheduled places. Their
potential danger arises from steep changes
in metal properties that develop when a
material such as steel has been subjected
to very rapid heating and cooling.
Excessive hardness can result, leading to
possible fracture during welding or
service.
The condition is identified by its
position (away from the weld metal) and
by a small patch of extra thickness that is
often intermittent but linear.
Grinding cracks surface localized overheating of material because of improper grinding procedure
Heat treating cracks surface stresses from uneven heating or cooling and beyond tensile strength of material
Machining tears surface improper machining practice or dull tool
Pickling cracks surface residual stress being relieved
Plating cracks surface residual stress being relieved
Quench cracks surface sudden cooling from elevated temperature
Pickling Cracks
A pickling operation is used to remove
unwanted scale (Fig. 27) for the purpose
of a more thorough test of the base
material. It can also be used to prepare the
surface for finishing operations such as
plating. Pickling cracks are predominantly
found in materials that have high residual Rolling direction
stresses (hardened or cold worked metals)
and in materials with voids or similar
discontinuities.
Creep surface or subsurface high temperature and stress below yield strength
Fatigue surface or subsurface cyclically applied stress below ultimate tensile strength
Hydrogen cracking surface or subsurface applied tensile or residual stress in hydrogen enriched environment
Stress corrosion cracking surface static tensile load in corrosive environment
Erosive Wear
Wear9 Erosive wear (or erosion) occurs when
particles in a fluid or other carrier slide
Wear is the undesired removal of material and roll at relatively high velocity against
from contacting surfaces by mechanical a surface. Each moving particle contacting
action. Although typically not as serious the surface cuts a minute particle from
as fracture, wear is expensive and is often the surface. An individual particle is
predictable. Contacting surfaces are insignificant, but removal of many
expected to wear in any machine. In particles is erosion.
many cases the deterioration can be Erosive wear can be marked during
minimized by lubrication, oil filtering, visual tests by any of the following
materials engineering and proper design, conditions, depending on the test object.
among other measures.
In many respects, wear is similar to 1. A general removal of soft surface
corrosion. Both have many types, of coatings or material is a common form
which two are usually occurring of wear for fan and propeller blades. In
simultaneously. Both are somewhat automotive applications, for example,
predictable in stable environments. Both the paint on the trailing end of the
are extremely difficult to evaluate in concave side of the fan blade is usually
accelerated laboratory or service tests, removed by the scouring or cutting
with rankings of materials subject to action of dust and dirt particles in the
change depending on seemingly minor air.
changes in the test conditions. Finally, 2. Grooves or channels eroded in the test
wear and corrosion both are of enormous surface are common in assemblies that
economic importance. move liquids or gases where the design
In visual testing, it is necessary to of the component is such that the
understand the history and operation of fluid flows faster or in a different
the mechanism involved. In many cases, direction at certain locations.
Examples include impellers with vanes
that push particle laden fluids into
various passages. The inside of tubes
FIGURE 30. Photograph of hydrogen or pipes is often damaged at curves
cracking found in heat affected zone next to because the inertia of the particles and
weld. the fluid forces them against the
outside of the curve. Sudden, sharp
curves or bends cause more erosion
problems than gentle curves. In textile
machinery, high velocity thread or
yarn can cause erosion when a sudden
change in direction causes grooving in
an eyelet. Grooving and channeling
are also quite common in various
types of nozzles where high speed or
high pressure fluids scour through the
metal. Drops of liquid can lead to
erosive wear, as is frequently seen on
the leading edges of high speed
aircraft.
Fretting Wear
Fretting wear is similar to adhesive wear
in that microwelding occurs on mating Wear debris
surfaces. The difference is that adhesive particle
wear is related to moving surfaces and
Temperature
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Metal (C) (F)