International Journal of Remote Sensing

Vol. 27, No. 20, 20 October 2006, 44954512

New strike-slip faults and litho-units mapped in Chitral (N. Pakistan)

using field and ASTER data yield regionally significant results

SHUHAB D. KHAN*{ and NANCY F. GLENN{

{Department of Geosciences, University of Houston, 4800 Calhoun Rd., 312 S&R1,
Houston, TX 77204-5007, USA
{Department of Geosciences, Idaho State University, 322 E. Front St., Suite 240, Boise,
Idaho 83702, USA

(Received 6 December 2005; in final form 28 March 2006 )

Several image-processing techniques were used to map the Chitral area, northern
Pakistan. In this area, the worlds three greatest mountain ranges, the Himalayas,
the Karakoram, and the Hindukush blocks, merge together. The area is extremely
rugged; local relief is more than 2500 m. Many peaks are higher than 5000 m and
Tirch Mir, 12 km north of the mapped area, is 7702 m. ASTER imagery and a
digital elevation model developed from the ASTER data are used for decorrelation
stretches, principal components analyses, and spectral angle mapper (SAM)
classifications. These image-processing techniques were used to characterize the
lithology and structure of the area. This study produced the most current geologic
map for fully understanding the interaction between the Kohistan, western
Karakoram, and eastern Hindukush blocks along the Shyok Suture and the Tirch
Mir Fault. We utilized previously published geologic maps and fieldwork of the
area to validate the image classifications. We have discovered two new strike-slip
faults, and recent earthquake activity along the faults indicates that the faults are
active. Recognition of these faults has potential tectonic significance, as they may
be associated with the Chaman Fault a major transcurrent fault linking the
Indian plate with Pamir. Furthermore, we have discovered an anomalous
mineralized zone and further work may uncover new mineral deposits.

1. Introduction
The geology of northern Pakistan is a superb example of continental collision
tectonics. In this area, the worlds three greatest mountain ranges merge, the
Himalayas, the Karakoram, and the Hindukush. The mountain building processes
that formed these ranges commenced in Cretaceous time, when India started moving
and was carried northward (Molnar and Tapponier 1975, Scotese et al. 1988). During
that time (i.e. Early Cretaceous), Karakoram terrane sutured with eastern Hindukush
along the Tirch Mir Fault (Zanchi et al. 2000, Hildebrand 2001). Soon after, the intra-
oceanic Kohistan arc formed over a subduction zone that dipped beneath the arc,
either to the south or to the north (Khan et al. 1997). It is widely accepted that the
northward movement of India was concurrent with the accretion to Asia of an intra-
oceanic arc system, the Kohistan arc, that collided with Asia along the Shyok Suture.
The southern margin of Asia, including the Kohistan arc, then became an Andean-
type convergent margin, until India collided with Asia. Thrusting of the Kohistan

*Corresponding author. Email: sdkhan@uh.edu

International Journal of Remote Sensing
ISSN 0143-1161 print/ISSN 1366-5901 online # 2006 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/01431160600721830
4496 S. D. Khan and N. F. Glenn

terrane southward over the north Indian margin along the main mantle thrust (MMT)
probably took place in Late Cretaceous or Paleocene time and was completed by
55 Ma, forming the Indus Suture Zone (Searle et al. 1999).
Several models explain responses of these major collision events. For example, thin-
viscous models emphasize crustal thickening and shortening (England and Houseman
1985, 1989, Houseman and England 1986, 1993, 1994, Molnar et al. 1993) and
extrusion tectonics models explain shortening along continental-scale transform faults
(Molnar and Tapponnier 1975, 1977, Tapponnier et al. 1982, 1986, 1990, Harrison
et al. 1992a). However, the detailed internal kinematics and geometry of extrusions
within Indochina are poorly documented because the configurations of many
structures, including strike-slip faults, that accommodate the extrusion have not been
recognized or adequately mapped. This project focuses on identifying key zones to the
west that may impact the kinematics and geometry of Indochina to the east.
The best-known strike-slip fault in the Himalayas is the 1000 km long Karakoram
Fault extending from Pamir to northeast Himalayas (figure 1; Hodges 2000). Peltzer
and Tapponnier (1988) calculated a right lateral displacement of 1000 km. Another
major left lateral strike-slip fault, Chaman Ornach-Nal, extends for 860 km between
the northwestern margin of the Indian plate and Afghan block (figure 1; Lawrence
et al. 1992). This fault is well studied in the north and south (Lawrence et al. 1992,
Jadoon and Khurshid 1996), but in the eastern Hindukush region, very little is
known about it. There is a possibility that the Chaman Fault extends all the way to

Figure 1. Global topography data (GTOPO30) showing location of the study area and
major tectonic faults of the region. Source of faults Harrison et al. 1992b, Lawrence et al.
1992, Sorkhabi and Macfarlane, 1999, Hodges 2000. MKT5main Karakoram thrust,
MMT5main mantle thrust, MBT5main boundary thrust.
 New strike-slip faults and litho-units mapped in Pakistan 4497

Pamir, and thus makes a conjugate set with the Karakoram Fault, accommodating
crustal shortening of the Himalayas and linking Pamir in the north with the Indian
plate. Thus, the eastern Hindukush and the western Karakoram mountain ranges
hold important clues for understanding the Himalayan orogeny. However, we know
very little about this region, mainly because of inaccessibility, political instability,
and the remoteness of the area. Remote sensing provides a valuable tool for
mapping this region. For this reason, we have selected the valley of Chitral and the
surrounding area to evaluate with ASTER remote sensing data.
In the selected study area, the above mentioned three blocks are juxtaposed: the
Himalayas (Kohistan terrane), the western Karakoram block, and the eastern
Hindukush block, all with compositionally diverse suites of rock units (figure 1).
These include clastic, carbonate, and low grade metamorphic rocks of the
Hindukush block; Karakoram Batholith, paragneiss, Triassic limestone, and the
young clastic sediments of the Purit Formation of the Karakoram block; arc
volcanic and plutonic rocks of the Kohistan terrane, and rocks of the Shyok Suture
melange. Table 1 shows a brief description of the rock units and their ages.
Geomorphology of the area is characterized by rugged mountains and V-shaped
canyons (figure 2). The only flatlands are the minor terraces and narrow floodplains
composed of recent alluvium along the main valleys. Altitude ranges from 1200 to
5000 m, and the local relief is generally greater than 2500 m. Northeast of the area
lies Tirch Mir peak (7690 m) (figure 2). The high altitude and extreme relief causes
much of the area to be inaccessible. Thus, remote sensing provides a vital tool in
lithological and structural mapping of the area. Nonetheless, interpretation of
remote sensing data in this area is hampered by snow, clouds, vegetation, and
shadows from the high relief.
ASTER data were utilized for this exercise because of the availability of a cloud-
free image and its relatively high spatial and spectral characteristics. The ASTER

Table 1. Description of major rock units in the study area (source of data Calkins et al. 1981,
Pudsey et al. 1985, Hildebrand et al. 2001).

Formation name Dominant lithology Age

Quaternary alluvium
Snow/Glacier
Ghram Chasma Pluton
Tirch Mir Amphibolite
Tirch Mir Pluton
Wakhan Formation
Reshun Formation
Chitral Slate
Koghozi Greenschist
Purit Formation
Shyok Suture Melange
Dorash Volcanics
Kohistan Batholith
Alluvial sand, gravel, Recent
and boulders in the stream beds
Recent
Leucogranite 24 Ma
Metavolcanics Cretaceous
Porphyritic granite gneisses 1154 Ma
Slate, siltstone, quartzite, PermianTriassic
and calcareous schist
Marbles and calcareous phyllite Cretaceous
Fine-grained black slate and Lower Palaeozoic
thinly laminated phylite
Metavolcanics PermianTriassic
Clastic conglomerates, Cretaceous
sandstone, shales and slates
Ultramafics, serpentinites, Cretaceous
limestone
Mafic porphyritic lava flows CretaceousPalaeocene
(andesite and basalts)
and some tuff
Diorite, granodiorite, granite CretaceousTertiary
4498 S. D. Khan and N. F. Glenn

Figure 2. Chitral valley, Northwest Frontier Province (NWFP). Pakistan is the main
settlement in this area. Looking north, Tirch Mir, Hindukush, the highest peak in the back.

instrument on the Terra satellite was launched in December 1999 as part of NASAs
Earth Observing System (EOS). It provides three bands (not including the
backward-looking telescope in Band 3 for digital stereo-pair/DEM generation) in
the visible to near infrared (VNIR) at 15 m resolution, six bands in the short-wave
infrared (SWIR) at 30 m resolution, and five bands in the thermal-infrared (TIR) at
90 m resolution (table 2). The ASTER data have 60 km-wide swaths. All bands of
the ASTER data were investigated for use in this project. Specifically, the VNIR and
SWIR provided spectral information about the lithology and structure, as well as
providing a DEM (VNIR Band 3); the TIR bands were evaluated for information
about the lithology, based on differentiation of emissivity. Previous studies,
including Rowan and Mars (2003), Ninomiya et al. (2005), and Rowan et al.
(2005), used ASTER data for lithologic mapping, and this study expands on their
work.

2. ASTER data and image processing

ASTER Level 1B and Level 2 data were obtained from NASAs EOS Data
Gateway. The imagery consisted of an AST_L1B registered radiance at the sensor
dataset with related products AST_07 (Level 2 surface reflectance VNIR and SWIR)
and AST_05 (Level 2 emissivity TIR). The imagery was acquired by Terra on 28
September 2001.
We generated the DEMs with Level 1B (radiance at sensor) ASTER data from the
nadir and backward-looking Bands 3 (0.780.86 mm) data. This digital stereo-
generation is ideal for modelling steep terrain and visually inspecting the structure of
 New strike-slip faults and litho-units mapped in Pakistan 4499

Table 2. Major characteristics of ASTER data.

Bands Spectral range (mm) Ground resolution (m)

VNIR Band 1 0.520.60 15
VNIR Band 2 0.630.69 15
VNIR Band 3 0.780.86 15
SWIR Band 4 1.61.70 30
SWIR Band 5 2.1452.185 30
SWIR Band 6 2.1852.225 30
SWIR Band 7 2.2352.285 30
SWIR Band 8 2.2952.365 30
SWIR Band 9 2.3602.430 30
TIR Band 10 8.12511.65 90
TIR Band 11 8.12511.65 90
TIR Band 12 8.1258.475 90
TIR Band 13 8.4758.825 90
TIR Band 14 10.9511.65 90
Swath width: 60 km
Coverage interval: 16 days
Altitude: 705 km

the area. The nadirbackward-looking telescope in Band 3 allows nearly

simultaneous along-track data acquisition. The DEMs were processed with
AsterDTM 2.0 (SulSoft 2003). The absolute DEM product was generated with
ground control points (GCPs) collected in the field using a Trimble GeoXT Global
Positioning System (GPS) in May 2005.
The GCPs collected in the field were also used for georeferencing the map and
imagery. Georeferencing was performed using Environment for Visualizing Images
(ENVI) versions 4.1 and 4.2 software (RSI 2005) and ArcGIS (ESRI, Redlands,
CA). The reflectance and emissivity were obtained from the ASTER Level 2
products, AST_07 and AST_05, respectively. The AST_07 and AST_05 products
are based on validated algorithms; however, their applicability to rugged terrain still
needs to be tested. The AST_07 product provides atmospherically corrected
reflectance data in the VNIR (15 m) and SWIR (30 m) bands. The AST_05 product
provides surface emissivity at 90 m spatial resolution based on radiance and down-
welling irradiance. The VNIR data was primarily used in spectral angle mapper
(SAM) classifications. The SWIR data was used for principal components analysis
(PCA) and the SAM classifications, while the TIR was used in the SAM
classifications, as well as false colour images and decorrelation stretches.
Four band combinations of the SWIR data (table 2) were used in two different
PCAs. The two PCAs included first Bands 5, 6, 7, and 8; and then Bands 4, 6, 8, and
9. These bands were chosen based on previous work (Loughlin 1991) and on the
bands ability to spectrally subset carbonates. PCA Band 2 from each of these
transformations was most effective in delineating the formations (figures 3 and 4). A
decorrelation stretch was applied to three bands from the TIR (Bands 13, 12, and
10) (figure 5). A second analysis included normalizing the emissivity and developing
a simple RGB of these same bands (13, 12, and 10) (figure 6). The SWIR and TIR
datasets were resampled to 15 m and stacked with the VNIR in order to perform
SAM classifications. SAM classifications were chosen because of this algorithms
insensitivity to changes in albedo, which could play a major role in high altitudes.
Endmember spectra were derived from the imagery (figures 7 and 8, discussed
4500 S. D. Khan and N. F. Glenn

Figure 3. PCA Band 2 of SWIR Bands 5, 6, 7, and 8.

below). The SAM classification was performed using three different methods: (1)
using the stacked data and a threshold of 0.1 radians (figure 9); (2) applying the
minimum noise fraction (MNF) transform to the stack and using a threshold of 0.3
radians and all MNF bands (figure 10); and (3) applying the MNF transform to the
TIR data and developing a mask of the MNF Band 1 with a threshold of 3.4 (DN).
This threshold was applied in order to reduce banding that occurs in the first TIR
MNF band (Rowan and Mars 2003). The mask was then used in conjunction with
the VNIR and SWIR for the SAM classification (figure 11). A threshold of 0.5
radians was used in this classification.
In methods (2) and (3), the ASTER data was transformed using MNF. The MNF
transform is a two-phase PCA (Green et al. 1988). The output of the MNF is a
reorganized dataset with the pixels of highest variability (least noise) in the early
bands and pixels with the least variability (most noise) in the lower bands. The
accuracies of our classifications were qualitatively assessed by field truthing of
several units in the field in May 2005.

2.1 Endmember analysis

Endmembers for the SAM classifications were image-derived based on field
knowledge. Nine endmembers were identified using known locations on the
 New strike-slip faults and litho-units mapped in Pakistan 4501

Figure 4. PCA Band 2 of SWIR Bands 4, 6, 8, and 9.

imagery, photographs, and GPS data. These endmembers included the Chitral Slate
(Kr), Reshun Formation (Ks), Devonian rocks (Kl), volcanic greenstones (Kv), a
marble unit (Jd), an amphibole unit (Jda), granite (G), alluvium (Qal), and terrace
deposits (Qt) (figures 7 and 8). The Chitral Slate endmember has low reflectance
resulting from oxides in the mineralized zones of the Chitral Slate and, specifically, a
high chlorite content, resulting in Mg-OH metal-hydroxyl bond absorption at
2.3 mm (Band 8). While the Chitral Slate has a considerable clay composition, there
is not a clear minima in TIR Band 14 typical of carbonates (Ninomiya et al. 2005).
This is likely due to the mixing of clay, mica, and chlorite with thick bedded
greywacke. The Reshun Formation consists of marbles and phyllites with iron
leaching. The notable spectral characteristic of the Reshun Formation is the
absorption trend starting at 0.8 mm (Band 3) and extending across the SWIR to
strong carbonate absorption near 2.3 mm. Kl consists of Devonian rocks including
phyllites, choritequartz schists and carbonates (black graphitic limestone and
marbles). The Kl endmembers are characterized by slight absorption in the red band
(typical of quartz) with increasing reflectance in the NIRSWIR up to Band 4
(1.656 mm), and then absorption at 2.167 (Band 5) and 2.336 mm (Band 8), the latter
being influenced by the dominant carbonates. Kv consists of volcanic greenstones,
4502 S. D. Khan and N. F. Glenn

Figure 5. Decorrelation stretch of TIR Bands 13, 12, and 10.

basalt, and andesite. The resulting endmember is characterized by a relatively low

reflectance in the VNIR and SWIR and high reflectance in the TIR. The latter is
likely due to alterations and high SiO2 content. Jd is a marble unit, and its resulting
endmember has an absorption trough at 2.336 mm (Band 8) and strong absorption at
9.075 mm (Band 12), but without the Band 14 absorption typical of carbonates. Jda
is an amphibole unit but has calcitic plagioclase carbonates, resulting in low
reflectance in the SWIR Bands 5 through 9. The granite endmember is characterized
by a relatively high shoulder in the NIR typical of granites and silicates. The Qal
endmember shows relatively low reflectance and emissivity throughout the NIR
SWIR and TIR, respectively. This is likely due to moisture in the alluvium in the
valley causing a dampening effect on the reflectance and emissivity. The Qt
endmember has high reflectance throughout the NIR and SWIR with absorption at
2.167 mm (Band 5), similar to Kl and Kr.

3. Results
Our work has resulted in the discovery of two new strike-slip faults in hyper-rugged
northern Pakistan. Our work also improved the existing geological map of the area
(Calkins et al. 1981). A summary of our results is provided below.
 New strike-slip faults and litho-units mapped in Pakistan 4503

Figure 6. RGB of TIR Bands 13, 12, and 10.

3.1 Structure
The major faults (main Karakoram Fault (MKT), Reshun Fault, and Tirch Mir
Fault) are mapped on the ASTER VNIR image (figure 12). In addition to the three
regional faults, we have discovered two new strike-slip faults that were previously
unknown (figures 12 and 13). We name these two faults herein as Kalash Fault and
Chitral Gol Fault. We have confirmed these faults by our preliminary fieldwork in
May 2005. These faults truncate the Cretaceous marbles of the Reshun Formation
against Chitral Slate. They are identified based on the deflection of the Chitral River
and the lateral displacement of marbles. In figure 12, the yellow-circled areas show
two sharp bends in the Chitral River; this is likely due to movement along the faults.
Several researchers have noticed deflection of streams by tectonic deformation
(Molnar et al. 1998). Even subtle movement along faults may divert streams
sufficiently to leave a geomorphic or sedimentological fingerprint. The Kalash Fault
is left-lateral, whereas the Chitral Gol Fault is right-lateral, thus making a conjugate
pattern to indicate that these faults are accommodating regional compression.
We imported the ASTER imagery to ArcGIS (ESRI, Redlands, CA) and plotted
global earthquake data to identify any recent earthquake activity along these faults.
We used the preliminary determination of epicentres (PDE) data; these data were
acquired from the TETHYS database (Khan et al. in press). The PDE is a point
4504 S. D. Khan and N. F. Glenn

Figure 7. VNIR and SWIR reflectance of the spectral endmembers used in SAM. Y-axis has
an ASTER band scale factor of 0.001.

Figure 8. TIR emissivity of the spectral endmembers used in SAM. Y-axis has an ASTER
band scale factor of 1000.
 New strike-slip faults and litho-units mapped in Pakistan 4505

Figure 9. SAM classifier (threshold of 0.1 radians) using VNIR, SWIR, and TIR bands.

dataset and contains all earthquake events worldwide. This list is the most complete
computation of hypocentres and magnitudes performed by the United States
Geological Survey (USGS) National Earthquake Information Centre (NEIC)
(Sipkin et al. 2000). Usually, it is produced a few months after the event occurs. The
publication is preliminary because the final computation of hypocentres for the
world is considered to be in the Bulletin of the International Seismological Centre
(ISC), which is produced approximately two years after the earthquake occurs. The
NEIC PDE program contributes about one-third of all data used by the ISC. We
found four shallow (focal depth ,30 km) earthquakes along the Reshun Fault from
1998 to 1999. Two of these earthquakes are along the newly discovered Kalash and
Chitral Gol Faults.
In our preliminary fieldwork, we found signs of deformation, specifically
slickensides and crushed zones along the Kalash Fault (figures 14(a) and (b)). The
1998 earthquakes caused rock slides and damaged several houses in Bomborat
village; Bomborat is the home to the Kafirs of Hindukush, a tribe that is considered
to be descended from Alexander the Great and which practice ancient rituals.
4506 S. D. Khan and N. F. Glenn

Figure 10. SAM classifier (threshold of 0.3 radians) using MNF bands of VNIR, SWIR,
and TIR.

Figures 14(c) and (d) show rockslides and damage to a house caused by the 1998
earthquake.
The discovery of new faults is important for the overall tectonics of the region.
For example, determining how far to the west of this area does a major transcurrent
fault, the Chaman Fault system, pass. The presence of an active strike-slip fault in
this region may be accommodating the compression related to the Chaman Fault.
Alternatively, these faults may be linking the compression in the north to the fold
and thrust belt in the south. More work is needed in order to confirm these findings.

3.2 Lithology
We have created a geological map of this area using the PCAs and SAM
classifications (figure 13). We recognized a number of the rock units and named
formations mapped by Calkins et al. (1981), Pudsey et al. (1985), and Pudsey (1986).
In addition, we discovered a new mineralized zone (,20 km2) using the ASTER
imagery (figure 13). The PCA delineated the Reshun Formation along the Reshun
Fault and greenschists to the west of the Reshun Formation with PCA Band 2 of the
 New strike-slip faults and litho-units mapped in Pakistan 4507

Figure 11. SAM classifier (threshold of 0.1 radian) using VNIR, SWIR, and MNF Band 1
mask of TIR emissivity.

5, 6, 7, and 8 combination (figure 3). Both this combination and the second PCA
band combination identified the lineaments running northeast on the east side of the
image (Kalash Fault and Chitral Gol Fault). The second PCA band combination
also identified the previously unmapped mineralized zone (figure 4).
The TIR data analysis discriminated the Chitral Slate well (figures 5 and 6), while
the simple normalized emissivity RGB delineated the Reshun Formation, the Tirch
Mir amphibolite unit, and the northeasterly lineaments (Kalash Fault and Chitral
Gol Fault) (figure 6). The TIR RGB also delineated the granites on the eastern side;
it did not do well at delineating these granites on the western portion, likely because
of topographic distortion.
The SAM classified images overclassified the granites and Wakhan formations
(figures 9 and 10). However, the MNF Band 1 mask, in combination with the 0.1
radian threshold, was able to discriminate the Chitral Slate and Reshun Formation
(figure 11). The SAM classifier was able to assist in mapping the structure and
overall shape of the lithologic units, but the classifier is confusing granites with
marble and Tirch Mir amphibolite.
4508 S. D. Khan and N. F. Glenn

Figure 12. Aster 132 (redgreenblue) false colour combination, showing major faults
and recent earthquake data. Yellow dots show epicentre for shallow (,33 km) earthquakes,
red dots show epicentre for deep earthquakes (.33 km).

4. Discussion and conclusions

This local mapping has regional and global significance. For example, a conjugate
set of major strike-slip faults (Kalash and Chitral Gol) cutting the Reshun Fault is
important in terms of regional tectonics, as very little is known about what happens
to the Chaman Fault in Afghanistan, east of the Reshun Fault. Movement on the
Chaman Fault is similar to the San Andreas Fault, and connects India with the
Pamir block. The Chaman Fault has caused major earthquakes, including an M 7.7
earthquake that devastated the town of Quetta, Pakistan in 1935. This earthquake
caused 35,000 deaths, making it the second largest number of fatalities on the Indian
plate (Ambraseys and Bilham 2003). Movement along the fault in 1892 offset the
QuettaChaman railroad 75 cm in a left-lateral direction and 2030 cm downthrow
of the west block (Griesbach 1893, Davison, 1893). Ambraseys and Bilham (2003)
have reported more than 1000 earthquakes for the 18921997 time period in a
 New strike-slip faults and litho-units mapped in Pakistan 4509

Figure 13. Revised geological map of the Chitral area, including the new mineralized zone.

700 km long and 200 km wide zone in and around the southern portion of the
Chaman Fault.

4.1 Remote sensing considerations

The ASTER VNIR, SWIR, and TIR data products were complementary for
lithologic mapping, and were especially useful in discriminating the Chitral Slate
and Reshun Formation. The ASTER data was less proficient in delineating the
granites from the marble and Tirch Mir amphibolite. The lack of good exposure of
these units, potentially coupled with topographic distortion, is a prime example of
hindrances to mapping with remote sensing in steep terrain. The anisotropic
reflectance caused by steep topography is a major pitfall in generating spectral
endmembers and classifying the data. Previous studies have demonstrated the
potential for using a Minnaert constant based on a non-Lambertian assumption to
normalize images in order to reduce the variances in spectral values caused by steep
topography (Colby 1991, Bishop et al. 2003). Further investigations are needed to
define the Minnaert constant accurately in anisotropic land covers in order to
improve the lithologic mapping at scales relevant to this study (1 : 250 000).
Regardless of problems with illumination effects and exposure, ASTER data are
ideal for mapping remote regions such as the Himalayas. ASTER provides both the
spatial and spectral resolution relevant to lithologic mapping at 1 : 250 000 scale.
Furthermore, the ASTER data provides the opportunity to develop a 15 m
resolution DEM complementary to the spectral data, making it a comprehensive
mapping tool.
4510 S. D. Khan and N. F. Glenn

Figure 14. Field photographs of the Kalash Fault zone. (a) Slickenside in limestone and
marbles of Reshun Formation. (b) Cataclasite in limestone and marbles of Reshun
Formation. (c) Rock slide. (d) Fractures produced in the wall of a house.

Acknowledgements
This work is funded by a National Science Foundation, NDF (OISE) award No.
0350847 award to Khan. We thank Drs Tahir Shah and Liaqat Ali (University of
Peshawar) for their help in fieldwork. Dr Kevin Burke and Mike Murphy are
thanked for fruitful discussions on the regional tectonics.

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