Applied Linguistic: State of the Art

1. The term applied linguistic initially used in Britain as a label for serious intelectual and
academic activity in the School of Applied Linguistics.
2. The BAAL stands for the applied linguists, it is concern with speech communication,
national language policy, speech pathology, and all brances of language teaching and
learning, the member of this association are also the members of at least one or more,
the other bodies such as the Philological Society, the Linguistics Association, IATEFL, the
Modern Language Association,etc.
3. According to Brown, Applied Linguistics has been considered as a subject of linguistic for
several decade, and it has been interpret to mean the application of linguistics principles
or theories to certain more or less practical meeting.
According to Anthony, Applied Linguistics is as the portion of the body accumulated
knowledgecalled linguistics which are applied by the practitioner of a different discpline
in doing their work.
4. Applied linguistics is a science that mediates between the theoretical linguistics and the
practical problems. Applied lingistics is a science, which seeks insight from linguistics,
and other language informative sciences, which produce principle on, which is develop a
methodology to solve specific language-related problems.
5. The role played of applied linguistics fo problem no4 is essentially problem-oriented,
perceiving problems for solution, and then seeking in sights to explain and solve them.
6. The role of applied linguistics in second language teacher education is to identify what is
relevant to problem, to show what the relevance is and to suggest how it may be
realized in methodology.
7. The importance of the familiarity of language teacher with applied linguistics is the
teacher can solve the problems by applied linguistics which proposes the principal and
methodology, which provide the rational context. Applied linguistics also has played a
very important role in helping to bridge the gap that has existed between practicing
teacher and academies and research scientific.
8. Some common core of knowledge which is usually presented in applied linguistics
courses are English Grammar, English Language Teaching, Approach to English
Language Teaching, History of Language Teaching, Translation, Expository Writing and
Language Speaking.
 BEHAVIORISM
1. Behaviors are learned by building up series of responses.
2. He added a unique dimension to Watsons theory of Behaviorism. He created a new
concept called Operant conditioning. It was concerned mainly with respondent behavior,
behavior that is elicited by a preceding stimulus.
3. In classical conditioning it based on subject self but in Operant conditioning it based on
subject and environment.
4. Behaviorism has significant influence on foreign language teaching it provides the
learning theory, which underpins the existence of Audiolingual Method of the 1950s and
1960s. this method has laid down a set of guiding teaching principles such as learning a
language is habit formation.
5. The mechanistic classroom practice in audiolingual method are: Repetition, Inflection,
Replacement, Restatement, Completion, Transposition, Expansion, Contraction,
Transformation, Integration, Rejoinder, Restoration
6. Learning a language is a process of acquiring a set of appropriate language stimulus-
response chains, a mechanical of habit formation. Habit formation is brought about
trough repetition, mimicry, and memorization. This has become the standard practice of
teaching based on Audiolingual Method.
7. Positive reinforcement
- The students response what the teacher says.
- The students repeat what the teacher says correctly.
- The students answer the question from the teacher.
- The students do the teacher order.
- The students not do many errors.

Negative reinforcement
- The student makes many errors
- The students dont response the order
- The student cant answer the question
 COGNITIVISM AND FOREIGN LNGUAGE LEARNING

1. The concept of cognition is the usage of humans mind in the learning process. A
human has a mind which is viewed as an agent in the thinking learning process. The
mind is active and determining agent in the acquisition and storage of knowledge. The
learning process can be performed by thought or mind, not by human behavior,
because a behavior can be happened because of mind. People learn not through
respond to environmental stimuli. People are rational beings that require active
participation in order to learn and who can use their cognitive power such as problem-
solving to acquire knowledge. According to Cognitive psychology, the term cognitive
process refers to individual internal mental operation. It may involve conscious attention
to some point the teaching is making, conscious reorganization of material to
understand better the concept being learned, or conscious attempts to recall previously
learned information. The cognitive processes are mental processes such as thinking,
memory, knowing, and problem solving need to be explored. The Cognitive psychology
viewed the learning process as a two-way process between the organism and its
environment. In the cognitive theory the mind is viewed as an agent in the learning
process. So, learners are active processors of information and the role of the teacher is
to recognize the importance of the students mental assets and mental activity in
learning (in Cognitive Code Learning).
2. Information processing. The proponent: Broadbent
- Artificial Intellegence. The proponent : Allen Newell and Herbert Simon
- Transformational linguistics. The proponent : Noam Chomsky
3. Cognitive psychologists have attempted to find out the answers to mental structures,
such as what is stored and how it stored, and to mental processes concerning how the
integration and retrieval of information is operated. The theoretical assumptions in
cognitive psychology provide instructional systems for the design of efficient processing
strategies for the learner to acquire knowledge such as mnemonic devices to reduce the
workload of the short-term memory, rehearsal strategies to maintain information, and
the use of metaphors and analogies to relate meaning of the new information.
4. The min differences of learning concept between behaviorism and cognitivism :
behaviorism tries to explain how n externl event (a stimulus ) caused a change in the
behavior of n individual ( respone). People are conditioned to learn many forms of
 conditioning, including language, though the process of training or conditioning.
Cognitivsm: sentences are not learned by imitation and reputation but generated from
the learners underlying competence.
5. The crucial factors determining whether learning is rote or meaningful is the manner in
which the material is learned. Rote learning is process in which the material is learned
arbitrarily and verbatim. Meaningful learning is material learned in a meaningful ways is
acquired in a non-arbitrary and a non-verbatim fashion.
6. meaningful learning is best achieved through three factor: 1. the most important factor
influencing learning is the quantity, quality, and organizing of the learners present
knowledge which consist of facts, concepts, propositions, theories, and raw perceptual.
2. learning is influenced by the extent to which new information being received or
considered is relatable to the learner must approach to the learners existing cognitive
structure. 3. the learner must approach the learning task with the intention to relate it
in a meaningful way to what they already know.
7. According David Ausumbels cognitive theories of learning is that learning must be
meaningful. The learner must understand what is to be learned. Ausumbel ( 1968: 61)
state that acquisition of large bodies of knowledge is simply impossible in the absence
of meaningful learning . The implication is that learning must involved active mental
processes in order to be meaningful and that only trough meaningful learning can
students acquire significant amount of knowledge. From this statement we can
conclude that learning meaningful if in teaching learning process students can
understand the material and students can improve of knowledge from the learning
process.
8. The application cognitive theories of learning emphasize understanding rather than
habit formation (cf. Audiolingual Method). The teachers task is to facilitate student
acquisition, organization, and storage of knowledge. The goal of the teachers is to
expand the students ability to create meaningful replies. On the other hand students
should always be aware of what they are learning. In deductive learning a situation is
created in which in the target item is embedded in meaningful context. Learner are told
the rule and given the opportunity to apply it to several practice examples. In inductive
learning, the student is given a number of examples and asked work out the rules
through a process of guided discovery. The cognitivists are also much lenient about
 learners mistakes or error. They believe making mistakes is an important part of
learning process. Errors give proof that learning process takes place
9. - Decdutive learning, a situation is created in which the target item is embedded in a
meaningful context. Learners are told the rule and then given the opportunity to apply
it to several practice example.
- Inductive learning, the student is given a number of example and asked to work out
the rules through a process of guided discovery.
10. In Audiolingual Method, learner errors are viewed as avoidable, by following the
teachers intruction in the learning process. Example: > repeat after me > be polite >
answer the question > etc. In Cognitive Code Learning, learner errors are viewed as
inevitable, to be used constructively in the learning process. They belive that making
mistakes or errors is an important part of learning process. Errors give proof that
learning process take place, that is errors are inevitable sign of human fallibility, for
example, as the consequence of lack of attention or poor memory on the part of the
learners, incomplete knowledge of the language, or inadequacy of the teachers
teaching.
 HUMANISM AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING
1. The differences between behaviorism, cognitive, and humanistic view of human being :
a. Behaviorism assumes that humans have a "physical being" composed of the stimulus
- response which gradually became a habit.
b. Cognitivism believes that people are rational beings that require active participation
in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of thinking.
c. Humanism assumes that humans are emotional beings and emotional beings and
emotions influence how they receive and react to information from the
environtment.
2. There are some view of prominent figures in humanistic approach :
a. Erik Erison claims that human psychological development depends not only on the
way in which individuals pass through predetermined maturational stages, but on
the challenges that are set by society at particular times in their lives. He calls this
the fundamental epigenetic principles.
b. Maslow attempted to develop a theory by which to explain the diversity of human
needs and motivation. In the course of his studies, he was able to develop a model
to express these needs that has since become quite popular across the world, being
referred to as either the "hierarchy of needs" or sometimes "Maslow's Pyramid". For
Maslow, the goal of any human being is to reach a state of "self-actualization" in
which all their needs are met and a state of contented happiness is achieved.
c. Carl Rogers advocate for the importance of "unconditional positive regard", a way of
viewing one's self in which one is unconditionally positive and accepting, maintaining
the right to be critical without being judgmental or overly harsh. For Rogers, this
state of positive regard towards one's self was essential to psychological
development, and in maintaining strong personal relationships.
3. According Roger human being is a whole person who should be viewed as a physical
and cognitive, but primarily emotional, being.
4. The Paedogical implication of humanism approach is the psychological approach which
states that the human is the most important thing, more important than the complex,
the disorder, the behavior, or the environment. It seeks to help people live better lives
through practical therapeutic measures. Believing that the universe is inherently
 meaningless, existentialists see themselves as ultimately free creatures able to define
their own personally meaningful destinies.
5. Classroom activities which are based on humanistic principles :

a. Student-centred learning : there are takes place when the teacher becomes a
facilitator, taking the focus from herself as the bearer of knowledge. The student
takes on an important role in this type of classroom. Lessons originate and develop
from the interests of the student. The child is able to showcase his creativity in this
type of open classroom, which increases self-esteem and a willingness to learn.

b. Emotional Support
A humanistic classroom is inclusive of everyone. This type of class seeks to support
both individuality and diversity by finding the similarities among children. Lessons
are developed not for the group, but for the individual. Diversified lessons give each
child a chance to succeed and receive positive reinforcement. Each child knows how
it feels to succeed, and stratification of students is eliminated. Each child learns at an
individual pace without labels and stereotypes that can stigmatise.

6. Fully-functioning person has the following qualities like Openness to experience,

Existensial living, Organismic trusting, Experiential freedom, Creativity

7. Learning is the context that means understanding specific contexts of learning is

essential to understanding the development of thinking, then there is a need to deal
with noise as a part of the analysis,with events or responses that are observed but that
shouldnt be included in the statistical equation or should otherwise be accounted for. It
means collecting special kinds of data, namely, observational case study data,
ethnographic and linguistic information, and other qualitative measures, in other words,
looking at context.

8. The five most important functions of teacher are as foloows :

a. The cognitive function

b. The classroom management function

c. Practical goals
 d. The personal or interpersonal function

e. The humanistic function

9. Wang describes humanistic teacher as someone with the following qualities :

a. Capable of developing the whole person of the students intellectually as well as

emotionally.

b. Have genuine trust and acceptance of the students as worthy, valuable individuals,
and help them to build up positive self-concept.

c. Teachers should be real facilitators of learning and focus more on how to learn than
what to learn.
 CONSTRUCTIVISM
1. Behaviorism emphasized observable and external behavior, which avoids reference to
meaning, representation and thought. Besides, in behaviorism also called with physical
being that views learning as the process of building a habit and using mechanical
activity. But Constructivism takes a more cognitive approach. In the perspective of
constructivism, students are required to participate and discuss in class and trained to
build creative thinking, problem solving abilities, and self-confidence.
2. For Dewey, education depended on action. Knowledge and ideas emerged only from a
situation in which learners had to draw them out of experiences that had meaning and
importance to them.
Piagets constructivism is based on his view of the psychological development of
children. In a short summation of his educational thought, Piaget called for teachers to
understand the steps in the development of the childs mind.
3. One conception states that ZPD is the zones between what Vygotsky calls actual
development (what the learner can do independently) and potential development (what
the learner can do in the future, with the help of others now). Every act of learning
occurs within a ZPD, building on what the learner already knows and can do. Each
learner has two levels development: a level of independent performance and a level of
potential performance. To sum up, ZPD is the gap between these two levels.
4. Based on Vygotskys ZPD, Bruner (1986) also develops the concept of scaffolding, that
is, a process through which a teacher or more competent peer gives aid to the students
in their ZPD as necessary, and reduce this aid as it becomes unnecessary (as an
analogy, much as a scaffold is removed from a building during construction). So, ZPD is
the heart of the concept of scaffolding. According to Balaban (1995:52), scaffolding is
the way the adult guides the childs learning via focused questions and positive
interaction.
5. The pedagogical implication of constructionist approach:
-peer collaboration
-problem based instruction
-web quest
-anchored instruction
6. Some classroom activities based on constructionist principles:
 a. Building knowledge of the students by sharing experiences, discussing vocabulary,
grammatical pattern, and so on.
b. Modeling of Text (MT) where students listen to the statements of short functional
texts, conversations, and monologues that are geared around a certain
communicative purpose.
c. Join Construction of Text (JCT). at this activity, they try to develop spoken text with
their peers and with the help from teacher.
d. Independent Construction of Text (ICT). At this activity, students can speak
spontaneously.
7. The characteristics of teacher role based on constructionist principle:
-teachers just act as the facilitator in the classroom.
-teachers can be motivator to the students in learning.
-teachers give much more opportunity to the students who will be active person in the
classroom.
8. Every cycle begins with context exploration. This phase resembles the pre-
listening/reading/speaking/writing. The next stage is text exploration based on model
text. Model texts play a crucial role in this phase, providing, in Vygotskys term, the
necessary object-regulation. Others-regulation continuous and takes centre-stage in the
next stage, joint construction. Here referring to the model texts, and making use of the
knowledge and awareness gained from the exploration of the text, the students work
with the teacher to construct their own texts (spoken and written) in the text-
type/genre. After that, the last stage is individual application, as the name suggests,
requires learners to work individually/ independently, for example, in the case of writing,
to produce individual essay.
 SLA
1. The term second language acquisition is a study of the process in which learners learn a
second language. Language practitioners, can take significant benefit from studying SLA,
for example, we can gain insights of the way learning process of the learners takes
place. With such insight we can modify and create different techniques the target
language.
2. SLA is also beneficial for languagelearners. Their specific awarness to the way second
language is acquired can facilitate their efforts in learning the target language. Their
insights of SLA could strengthen and lead them to the correct path in mastering the
language they are learning.
3. Basically SLA has two major goals: description and explanation. Discuss each goal and
provide examples. . .
Descriptive goals is to identify how learners acquire a second language (or L2,
hereafter) (Ellis, 2004:4)
Example: collected a different points in time, it may be possible to find out how
learners knowledge gradually develops change overtime.
Explanation goal is to identify the external and internal factor that account for
why learners acquire an L2 in the way they do (Ellis, 2004:4)
Example: is more beneficial for the learners than that of authentic one.
4. Discuss several factors which influence the learners acquisition of a second language. . .
SLA aims at identifying the external as well as internal factor, which influences the
learners in acquiring the target language.
External: external factor may include social environment as well as the language
input it self
Internal: the internal factor may comprise the learners cognitive mechanism, the
learners mother tongue, and the learners learning strategies.
5. a. The are two ways to learn second learning, the acquisition (the suconcious process
that generally used by children to develop their knowledge) and learning (the concious
rocess that result in grammar rules or knowing about language.
b. Generally learners may acquire certain gramatical aspects early and other
grammatical aspect late.
 c. Concern on the relationship between the acquired system and lered system during
second language performance.
d. Attemps to explain how the learner acquires a second language.
e. A number of affective variables play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in secons
language acquisition. This variable include: motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety.
6. The application can be on the form of Natural Approach (NA) by follwing this steps:
a. Start with TPR
b. Use TPR to teach nmes of body parts, number, etc
c. Introduce classroom term. Any items which can be brught to the class can be
incoporate
d. Use names and items to make meanings of the key word clearer
e. Use visuals, magazine picture to introduce new vocabulary
f. Combine observation about picture with command
g. Using several pictures, ask student to point picture being described.
7. As an SL teacher it will always be a challenge to strike a balance between encouraging
accuracy and fluency your students. this balance will depend on numerous variables
including the level of the students, the context of language use and the personal goals
of each student. this balance is also known as communicative competency