External Sandhi, Summarized in Words

Permitted finals: vowels, k, , t, p, nasals, , (and r).

Word Devangar: leave space only after final vowels, , and .
spacing: (i.e.,) avoid virma ( ) mid-sentence (common exception: final n ).
Roman: leave space between all separate words, except when vowels combine.

FINAL ENVIRONMENT: RESULT EXAMPLE

k tp before unvoiced consonants: no change (stay unvoiced) [k + t > kt]

before voiced consonants or vowels: become voiced [k + d > gd]
before any nasal: become own homo-organic nasal [k + n > n]
before h: become voiced, h becomes homo-organic voiced aspirate [k + h > ggh]

t before palatal, retroflex, and l: becomes palatal, retroflex, or l, resp. [t + jh > jjh]
before : becomes c, becomes ch [t + > cch]

m before consonants: becomes [m + k > k]

n before unvoiced palatal, retroflex, or dental: becomes + homo-organic sibilant [n + t > st]
before voiced palatal or retroflex: becomes or , resp. [n + j > j]
before : becomes , becomes ch [n + > ch]
before l: becomes l ( ) [n + l > ll]
before vowel (iff also preceded by a short vowel): doubles to nn [in + i > inni]

, r at end of sentence/phrase: becomes/remains [ # > #]

before unvoiced velar or labial, or sibilants: becomes/remains [ + k > k]
before unvoiced palatal, retroflex, or dental: becomes homo-organic sibilant [ + t > st]

before voiced consonants or vowels: becomes [ + g > g]

i (etc.), ar before voiced consonants or vowels: become ir (etc.) / remain ar [i + g > irg]
before r: (double r avoided) /r is dropped, preceding short vowel lengthened [i + r > r]

a before voiced consonant: becomes o [a + g > o g]

before vowels (except a): becomes a [a + i > a i]
before a: becomes o, a is deleted ( ) [a + a > o ']

a, i, u, r (short or long) before like simple vowels (short or long): combine as long [i + i > ]
before ch: ch becomes cch [i + ch > icch]

a (short or long) before unlike vowel: combines with and strengthens following vowel [a + i > e]

i, u, r (short or long) before unlike vowel: become own homo-organic semivowel [i + u > yu]

e, o before a: remain, a is deleted ( ; ) [e + a > e ']

before other vowels: become a [e + i > a i]

ai before vowels: becomes [ai + a > a]

au before vowels: becomes v [au + a > va]

 Vocabulary and Concepts Required for Understanding External Sandhi

Permitted Finals (not permitted)

all vowels
k << kh g gh c ch j* jh * h* * In rare, exceptional cases, these >> or t.
<< h h
t << th d dh
p << ph b bh
all* nasals * and are extremely rare as finals.
<< s
( r )* * Reduced to for most purposes.
( y l v )* * Virtually never occur as finals.

Unvoiced Sounds Voiced Sounds

Homo-organic Sounds ( = same place in mouth)
w -

nt
vo mi

nt

ra
el
ila
l
se
sa

pi

vowels stops
sib
na

as

velar

palatal

retroflex

dental

labial

Vowel Strengthening (a.k.a. gua/vddhi)
a> i/ > e > ai u/ > o > au r /r > ar > r l > al