X International Symposium on

Lightning Protection
9th-13th November, 2009 Curitiba, Brazil

LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE OF COMPACT LINES

William A. Chisholm1, John G. Anderson2, Andrew Phillips3, John Chan3
1
Kinectrics/UQAC, Canada W.A.Chisholm@ieee.org
2
Consultant, USA jainfo@verizon.net
3
EPRI, USA aphillips@epri.com, jchan@epri.com
E-mail: W.A.Chisholm@ieee.org

1 INTRODUCTION

The period of transmission line development starting in the mid 1950s led to worldwide applications of Extra-High
Voltage (EHV) networks at system voltages at or above 345 kV. One of the engineering challenges faced and resolved
in this development was the problem of insulation coordination for switching-surge overvoltages. Test results in this
period suggested that generous dry-arc distances and tower clearances would be needed to provide adequate margin for
EHV lines. For example, overvoltage level of 3.2 per-unit on a 345-kV system leads to line-to-ground voltage of
900 kV, corresponding to the critical switching impulse flashover level of a rod-plane gap of 2.9 m [1]. The per-unit
(pu) system normalizes switching surges to the peak of the ac line-to-ground voltage.

It proved to be better to limit switching overvoltages through the application of pre-insertion resistors in circuit
breakers, as shown in Fig. 1, than to increase tower dimensions to accommodate the anticipated 3.2-pu switching surges
without them.

Fig. 1 Effect of Pre-Insertion Resistor Value on Maximum Switching-Surge Overvoltage Level for 500-kV Systems [2]

In cases where pre-insertion resistors could not be used in circuit breakers, the alternative of gapless metal oxide surge
arrester protection was also effective for limiting the peaks of switching overvoltages. These technology developments
led to the use of reduced phase-to-phase and phase-to-tower clearances on most EHV transmission lines, compared to
the practice that had been common in electrical layout of HV transmission lines of 115 to 240 kV system voltage.

Utilities obtained satisfactory switching-surge flashover operating experience on their EHV lines with closing resistors
and surge arresters. As a consequence, these utilities then started to consider the possibility of using the same
compact ratios of phase spacing to electrical strength on their HV lines. Many of the issues were summarized in
1978 [2][3]. Since that time, some utilities did make use of the extra margin in HV electrical dimensions to increase
system voltage (uprating). Others have used compact dimensions on their new HV lines as a way to reduce visual
impact and thus help gain public acceptance for new rights-of-way.

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A recent re-evaluation of the compact line design process [2] found it useful to refine the definition to consider more
than just the ratio of phase-to-phase spacing to system voltage. Another measure, which is the restraint of phase-
conductor motion, has proved to be fundamental to the reliable operation of compact lines. Phase spacing can be
maintained better in adverse weather on compact lines with shorter spans, post insulators rather than strings, and inter-
phase spacers. Either criteria, reduced phase spacing or conductor restraint, is now considered in the classification.

Several aspects of compact line design directly related to lightning protection have changed in the thirty years between
reviews [2,3]. These include the widespread availability of polymer insulators with suitable mechanical ratings for use
as horizontal line posts and as tension braces, along with experience leading to mechanical test standards for inter-phase
spacers. Transmission line surge arresters (TLSA) based on polymer insulator technology now offer an alternative for
lighting overvoltage protection to overhead groundwires (OHGW).

Utilities that carried out voltage upgrading projects, typically doubling the system voltage and at the same time
improving ground resistance, reported fairly successful operating experience in general. However, these changes never
improved the lightning backflashover performance, and in one case [3] an acceptable lightning outage rate on the old
circuit was unacceptable when the uprated line took its new role in the power system.

Direct lightning stroke protection with OGHW is still a feasible choice for compact lines, although the additional wires
and tower height add to visual impact and provide additional risk of phase-to-OGHW contact during conductor motion.
Effectiveness of OGHW depends largely on the lightning impulse impedance achieved at the base of each tower. In
lines with reduced insulation, combined with narrow-base poles with reduced soil contact area, it can be difficult to
achieve adequate backflashover performance without an extensive network of buried ground electrodes that is
vulnerable to theft and damage and raises transferred potentials under fault conditions.

Since 1978 [3], utilities have investigated the possibility of substituting transmission line surge arresters (TLSA) for
OHGW as the primary protection against direct lightning flashes. This elimination of OHGW supports the main reason
for selecting a compact design improved visual appearance - by trading off fewer wires in the air with more complex
towers. This alternative relaxes grounding requirements for backflashover performance, but instead calls for
equipotential grading or other countermeasures at each tower to mitigate touch potentials from power system faults.

The use of TLSA as a supplement to OHGW, rather than an alternative, is less desirable for compact lines but preserves
the important role of OHGW in managing fault currents and touch potentials. The use of an underbuilt groundwire
(UBGW) in combination with TLSA is discussed. The concerns with phase conductor sag and motion that normally
argue against the use of UBGW are relaxed with compact designs. Also, an UBGW is more effective than a second
OHGW for mitigating backflashovers on lines with vertical configuration.. Examples of UBGW applications on three
continents are given in the case studies.

2 DEFINITIONS OF A COMPACT LINE

There are several different definitions of a compact transmission line. One of the best is A transmission line that
looks like the common and acceptable distribution lines now running through urban areas. The compact transmission
line may feature:
o Single-pole structures
o Relatively short spans (30 to 150 m)
o Armless or single-arm construction
o Reduced separation between phases
o Suitable for narrow right-of-way or roadside installation

These features make the compact line designs suitable for use in congested urban areas. There are other benefits
compared to multiple distribution lines that could provide similar power transfer. Rebuilding an existing circuit at a
higher voltage level on the same right-of-way may be the only feasible way to increase capacity. The compact designs
may have lower capital and maintenance costs, lower line losses, and may achieve important reductions in electric and
magnetic fields. Compact design also tends to simplify some mechanical issues. When armless or single-arm
construction with post insulators is selected, conductors are fixed at each pole. This simplifies tension stringing,
thermal rating, wind loading and other design and construction issues. The short spans of a compact design reduce the
magnitude of high-temperature sag, galloping and large-amplitude conductor motion. In many cases, line tension can
be reduced, relaxing pole strength requirements and concerns about aeolian vibration damage.

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2.1 Phase-to-phase and phase-to-tower spacing

AC flashover of rod gaps is a linear function of gap spacing in the range of 20 to 250 cm. Figure 2 shows the critical
flashover at peak of ac wave is a high fraction (84%) of the positive critical lightning impulse flashover level (+LI).
The ac strength for conductor-to-tower and other geometries is adjusted with the use of gap factors, as described in [1].

Critical Flashover: Positive Impulse +LI compared to AC Peak of Wave Critical Flashover: Negative Impulse LI compared to AC Peak of Wave

Fig. 2 Rod-to-Rod Gap Critical Flashover Levels, adapted from [4]

Additional data from [4] are presented for the critical impulse flashover with nonstandard 1.2/5 s test waves as well as
for standard 1.2/50 s waves. These are used below to exercise models of flashover using the Destructive Effect (DE)
approach, and to optimize the DE parameters for the compact line analysis. For insulators [2], the Basic Impulse Level
(BIL, kV) that causes a 10% probability of flashover at standard conditions for insulators of length S (m) is given by:

BIL+ = 125 + 539 S BIL = 164 + 469 S (1)

+
The BIL values for insulators are rather similar to those for rod-to-rod +CFO values in Fig. 2, when the 1.28-
statistical margin is considered. These values are relevant for backflashover calculations. There is a considerable
reduction in negative impulse strength when insulators are present, compared to rod-rod gap values. This has a
negligible effect, because nearly every shielding failure causes a flashover, either from first or subsequent strokes [5].

Typical ratios of phase spacing to ac flashover spacing declined from 10:1 for 138-kV lines to 9:1 for 345-kV systems,
7.8:1 at 500 kV and 6.2:1 for 765-kV lines in the USA [3]. These compactions of electrical layout took advantage of
switching surge control measures such as closing resistors for the EHV systems.

Figure 3 shows a variety of shielded and unshielded compact configurations, with vertical configurations that have
significantly reduced horizontal extent and visual impact compared to the conventional 115-kV horizontal design.
Polymer line posts such as those shown in the compact designs of Fig. 3 typically have a 6.5:1 ratio of system line-to-
ground voltage to ac dry flashover level.

Compact 115-kV Configurations: Horizontal Unshielded; Horizontal Standard 115-kV Transmission Line Configuration with 3.7-m
Shielded; Vertical; Delta; Vertical Delta. Phase Spacing and 1.17-m Dry-Arc Distance

Fig. 3 Typical Compact and Standard Transmission Line Configurations [2]

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Tight spacing among phases of compact lines may lead to challenges, including higher voltage gradients on conductors
and insulators. These in turn may lead to unacceptable levels of audible noise, electromagnetic interference, and corona
degradation of hardware and polymer insulator materials. If the layout of the line is too tight, it may become
impossible to service the line or wash the insulators on potential, using live-line work methods. As conceived
originally, compact lines also used reduced insulation levels that lead to decreased lightning performance. In some
cases, compact lines and voltage uprating projects led to the use of unshielded designs that, like distribution lines, had
no OHGW at all. These will have fewer direct flashes (from reduced height) but almost all will cause lightning faults,
leading to elevated fault current at each tower base.

The insulation length plays a relatively minor role in the visual impact, expressed by the line cross-section area at the
tower. Instead, the visual and physical cross-section of a transmission line is a strong function of the span length.

2.2 Phase Conductor Restraint

The restraint of phase conductor motion is the hallmark of a modern compact line design. This restraint is achieved
with some combination of inter-phase spacers, rigid insulators at each pole and shorter span length compared to
conventional transmission lines. These factors tend to make certain aspects of OHGW lightning protection more
effective, while at the same time reduced foundation size of compact poles can make local grounding more difficult.

Inter-phase spacers are usually considered to manage relative motion of conductors in design of compact lines. This is
especially important in cold climates, where accretion of ice is nearly identical on large-diameter phase conductors and
smaller-diameter OHGW. Since the change in weight per unit length is relatively larger for the small OHGW, they
may sag and make contact with phases. Inter-phase spacers and spacers from phases to OHGW can hold the conductors
apart under these static loads. On de-icing, a second benefit may be derived. Ice tends to fall off phase conductors
first, and the cascade leads to upward sleet jump that can also cause conductor clashes. In addition, properly placed
spacers can control the amplitude of galloping, a large-amplitude skipping motion that occurs in icing conditions and
steady winds.

Suspension insulators typically use 16-mm fiberglass rods to achieve maximum design tension ratings of 67 kN
(15 kip). In contrast, the fiberglass rods are relatively weak in cantilever. This is a problem, because horizontal post
insulators in the designs of Fig. 3 transfer conductor and radial ice dead-weight to the towers mainly as cantilever loads.
There is thus a significant reduction in load-bearing capability as the length of the post and its impulse flashover level
increase. One option is to increase the diameter of the fiberglass rod, and Fig. 4 shows that increases from 64 to 76 mm
can double the cantilever capability. Another option is to improve stress transfer. Ongoing progress is seen in the
improvement in cantilever rating from 2006 to 2008, using the same 64-mm (2.5) fiberglass core diameter.

Fig. 4 Maximum Design Cantilever Load of Typical Polymer Line Post Insulatosr Wtihout Brace

In rough terms, the ratio of typical suspension insulator tension rating to cantilever load of line posts will indicate the
ratio of maximum span length. A line with suspension insulators can often achieve 400-m maximum span length using
67-kN suspension insulators of any BIL rating. If this line was constructed with line posts, using the premium products
from Manufacturers 2 and 3 in Fig. 4, it would require (20 kN/67 kN)400 m = 120 m spans with 500-kV CFO, or

48
(10 kN/67 kN)400 = 60 m spans with 1000 kV CFO. Both lines would qualify as compact designs, with about 2 m of
sag for the 120-m span on the 115-kV class line and less than 0.5 m of sag for the 60-m spans on the 230-kV class
line strung at typical transmission line tensions. However, the number of poles could be prohibitively costly.

With limitations in cantilever load rating for line posts with high impulse CFO, it is common to make use of a tension
brace to increase vertical load capability. Fig. 15, below, shows Urban Transmission Lines at the Brazilian utility,
COPEL. Line posts of suitable cantilever rating were available at 138 kV, but a braced-post design was selected for
similar span length at 230 kV.

2.3 Typical Span Lengths of Compact Lines

The sag of conductors between attachment points is approximately related to the span length and tension [5] by:

Span m2 Span m2 (2)

ACSR : Sag m = 0.0014 Steel : Sag m = 0.0009
% RTS % RTS

Typical spans on conventional 115-kV transmission lines like those in Fig. 3 are 200-300 m long, with conductor
tension approximately 18% of rated tensile strength (RTS) at 20C. With high-temperature operation, this tension will
fall to about 13% at 100C or perhaps 11% at 150C. Even with 200-m spans, the increase in sag is considerable at
high temperature. Phase-to-ground clearance established by the height of the insulator at the pole in Fig. 3 provides the
sum of required phase-to-ground electrical clearance (typically 6-8 m), the sag at 100C or150C (4.3 or 5.1 m), and
the length of the insulator (1.2 m). Lightning protection, given by a single OHGW in Fig. 3, adds another 2.5 m to the
line height for a total of 14-17 m. The minimum cross-section is (7.4 m wide x 14 m tall) = 104 m2, compared to
roughly 20 m2 for the vertical configuration and 32 m2 for the delta configuration in Fig. 3.

A compact 230-kV configuration such as the portal arrangement in Fig. 5, using a 105-m span length, was considered
at one utility for a 5.6-km line section. However, 26 tapered compact steel pole structures, shown in Figs 5 and 6, were
selected instead. Insulation distance was reduced from 14x146 mm standard discs (2.04 m) to 6x159 mm
semiconductive glaze bell insulators that provided the same pollution performance.

Conventional Lattice Structure Tapered Compact Steel Pole Structure Concrete Portal Structure
for 240-m Span for 240-m Span for 105-m Span

Fig. 5 Alternatives for 230-kV Transmission Lines [2]

Compact lines that made use of reduced dry-arc distance for insulation, such as the one shown in Figs. 5 and 6,
generally proved to have poor long-term reliability. The poor lightning performance caused by reduced insulation
strength was well understood in the conception phase but was poorly accepted by line operators, who expected all
230 kV-class lines to meet the same security goals, of less than one outage per 100 km per year. It was thought in
conception that improved contamination performance would be an acceptable trade-off, and for this reason
semiconductive glaze bell insulators were developed and applied. In the long term, current density proved difficult to
manage, leading to problems with integrity of metal-to-glaze contacts. Consequently, the 230-kV compact line in Fig.
5 and Fig. 6 was eventually rebuilt with conventional 14x146 mm glass suspension discs.

49
 Compact and Conventional 230-kV Lines Compact and Conventional 230-kV Lines
Original Compact Design with 6x159 mm Semiconductive Glaze Bell Rebuilt Subcompact Design
Insulators (June 2006) with 14x146 mm Glass Discs (Aug 2009)

Fig. 6 Compact and Conventional 230-kV Steel-Pole Lines in Ontario

It was necessary to extend the center-phase insulator arm in the rebuilt compact steel pole design at the right in Fig. 6,
and to add a metal brace to achieve adequate ground and phase clearance for the 1843-kcmil (40.6-mm diameter) phase
conductors.

2.3 Summary: The Modern Compact Line

The updated definition of a compact transmission line has mechanically restrained phases, but no longer requires a
reduced insulation length to achieve reductions in phase spacing. Some of the reasons for retaining a conventional dry-
arc distance include:

o Retention of a lightning outage rate similar to that of a conventional line of the same voltage class
o Improving cantilever ratings of polymer line post and braced post insulators in the 1-2 m range
o Reduced electrical stress per mm of leakage distance for long polymer insulator life
o Retention of adequate electrical performance in icing and contamination conditions

3 LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE ISSUES FOR COMPACT LINES

If the dry-arc distance and critical impulse flashover level is held constant in the design, then the following features of
compact transmission lines will lead to improved lightning performance:

o Reduction in the average spacing from OHGW to phase conductor

o Decrease in span length
o Decrease in average line height

Rigid insulators also solve many of the reliability problems related to flexible connections to transmission line surge
arresters (TLSA), and enable the use of externally gapped (EGLA) configurations that tend to be more robust. This
makes the alternative of TLSA protection, instead of OHGW, more feasible, offering additional reduction in line height
and improved appearance, except at the pole where extra components are apparent.

Compact transmission lines should be insulated sufficiently that the rate of flashover from induced overvoltages is
negligible. Direct stroke protection can be achieved through the use of overhead groundwires (OHGW), diverting most
of the flashes safely to ground, or through the use of transmission line surge arresters (TLSA) on the uppermost phase.

50
The TLSA protection will divert stroke currents to ground and limit overvoltage, but will not mitigate the effects of
stroke charge on metallurgical damage to the phase conductors.

3.1 Induced overvoltages

Lightning flashes that terminate near, but not directly on, a compact transmission line may induce overvoltages of
significant magnitude. The peak of the overvoltage is a function of the lateral distance to the flash, the peak stroke
current, the return stroke velocity and the local soil resistivity. The overvoltages induced from nearby lightning [6][7]
tend to have short times to half value, approximately 5 s compared to 50 s for a standard lightning wave [4]. Above,
Fig. 2 showed that the CFO for this nonstandard 1.2/5 wave was some 30-37% higher than the 1.2/50 level, depending
on rod-to-rod gap distance. There are similar increases in the flashover strength of insulators, which will be discussed
in detail for backflashover modelling.

The use of a minimum positive lightning impulse (+LI) CFO of 300 kV for a standard 1.2/50 wave is generally
sufficient to mitigate induced overvoltage flashovers in areas with low soil resistivity, <100 m. For soil with
=1000 m, a +LI CFO of 400-420 kV is recommended [6].

It is possible and practical to achieve these high levels of impulse strength with a combination of line post insulators
with series elements of wood or fiberglass. Isolated bonding, described in [5] and implemented in Fig. 7 from [8], uses
inexpensive fiberglass stand-offs to separate the pole bond electrically from the bases of each line post insulator.

Fig. 7 Isolated Bonding on Compact Wood-Pole Transmission Line with Line Post Insulators, adapted from [8]

The combination of polymer post electrical strength, pole path strength (wood or fiberglass) and fiberglass standoff
path strength can add up quickly to the desired level of +LI>420 kV. For example [9], the wood pole path in Fig. 7
adds about 210 kV CFO per meter of path length, and the fiberglass standoff path adds another 200 kV/m. If fiberglass
poles are used instead of wood, they add 410 kV/m between insulator bases.

3.2 Shielding failures

The IEEE [5] recommends that transmission lines with OHGW be designed for a nonzero failure rate on the order of
0.05 shielding failure flashovers per 100 km of line length per year. This design level calls for different shield angles in
areas of different ground flash density and for lines of different height.

The design curve for compact lines in Fig. 8 [2] relies on a model of stroke incidence, N=Ng/10(28h0.6+b) [10] where
N is the number of flashes to the line (per 100 km per year), Ng is the ground flash density (flashes /km2/year), h is the
height of the topmost wire at the structure (m), and b is the spacing between topmost wires. For the vertical
configuration in Fig. 7, b=0. There are a number of ways to calculate the lateral attractive radius of a conductor, with
[11] providing a preferred model from switching-surge physics that agrees closely with predictions of stroke incidence
from [10].

51
 Fig. 8 Fraction of Shielding Failures versus OGHW Shield Angle [2]

In areas with no reliable measurements of ground flash density, Ng can be estimated from optical transient density OTD
using Ng 0.3 OTD where both are in flashes /km2/year. For a region with Ng=6 flashes / km2 / year, a compact line of
vertical configuration with tower height of 20 m will receive about 100 flashes per 100 km per year. To achieve a
shielding failure flashover rate of 0.05 per 100 km per year, the ordinate in Fig. 8 must be less than 0.0005%, calling
for a shielding angle of < 30.

The attractive radius models of the form suggests that freestanding structures can provide direct stroke protection of
lines for a circular zone centered at the top of the structure. If the span lengths are sufficiently short, several
researchers have suggested it may be possible to achieve direct-stroke protection using tower masts without overhead
groundwires. Using [11], the approximate ratio of attractive radius Ra from a mast to the lateral attractive distance of a
conductor Da can be read out from Fig. 9.

Attractive Radius of Freestanding Mast, height h Lateral Attractive Distance of Horizontal Conductor, height h
Da=1.57 I0.69 h0.45

Fig. 9 Attractive Radius of Masts and Conductors [11]

For the low currents of interest for shielding calculations, the ratio Da/Ra is about 0.75, and this leads to a simple result
that the length of a span totally protected by the towers, without OHGW, is approximately 1.33 Ra.

52
 0.66Ra
Ra

Da= 0.75Ra

Fig. 10 Overhead View of Line Protection from Freestanding Structures

To achive a 1% proportion of shielding failures, a prospective current of 5 kA is appropriate. For a line height of 20 m,
the relevant attractive radius is also 20 m, and this means that span lengths less than 27 m would be needed. Wider
spacing of up to 40 m could be considered if each pole had a considerable vertical extension.

3.3 Midspan flashovers

A transmission line in Champion, NY used line surge arresters to improve outage rates. As part of the research, this
line was monitored closely with lightning cameras to find fault locations. Follow-up studies showed several places
where burn marks in covered conductor indicated midspan phase-to-phase phase lightning flashovers.

It may be prudent to evaluate the corona radius around a stricken conductor, using for example a radial gradient of
1500 kV/m at the edge of the corona envelope [5]. Corona normally increases common-mode voltage coupling to
nearby phases and reduces stress on insulation. However, if the corona envelope expands past the nearby conductors,
they may be increasingly prone to midspan flashover faults.

3.4 Backflashovers

Even if lightning is successfully attracted to one of the poles in Fig. 10, there remains an important risk of flashover. In
this simplified case, the stroke current will flow down the pole and into the ground. The thin wire connecting pole top
to base will introduce a series inductance of about L=1.5 H/m. The ground electrode, usually consisting of a driven
vertical rod, will have a resistance to remote earth, Rf. The potential rise on the ground system will rise as a function of
the impressed current and its rate of rise to V=RfI + L dI/dt at the top of the pole and its connection to the base of the
uppermost insulator.

Simplified models of lightning [5][12][14][18] assume that it is a current source, and its rate of current rise dI/dt can be
represented by a 2-s ramp, rising from 0 to I in 2 s. This simplifies the circuit model. During the rising phase of the
ramp, the voltage at pole top is given by V=I (Rf+L/2s). For Rf of 20 and a 30-H inductance of a 20-m pole bond,
the total is V=I (20 + 15), giving a wave impedance Zwave= 35 kV/kA at crest of wave. After the peak, the dI/dt is zero
and V=IRf.

Generally, the insulation strength of post or suspension insulators vertical, horizontal, or braced is a linear function
of the smallest dry-arc distance between energized and grounded points, including corona rings and arcing horns.
When negative lightning flashes strike the pole, the positive impulse strength of the insulator is tested. Eqn. 1 gives a
90% withstand strength (BIL) of 664 kV for S=1 m, corresponding to a +LI CFO of 639 kV.

Backflashover will occur in this simple case whenever the flash current I exceeds a critical current Icrit = BIL / Zwave.
For the flash to the pole, the critical current will be Icrit=639 kV / 35 kV/kA = 18 kA. So, while the 20-m poles spaced
at 27 m can capture 99% of the lightning (all of the currents exceeding 5 kA), any current above 18 kA will cause a
backflashover. The probability that a first negative return stroke will exceed Icrit and cause a flashover is
P(I>Icrit)=1/(1+(Icrit/31 kA)2.6) [5]. In the example, this probability is high - 80%. Of every 100 flashes to the line, on
average. one will be less than 5 kA and cause a shielding failure, and 80 will exceed Icrit=18 kA and cause a
backflashover.

53
In general, the backflashover process for transmission lines is very sensitive to the insulation level. The benefits of
including fiberglass stand-offs (200 kV/m) and wood pole path (210 kV/m) [9] were shown in Fig. 7. For a wood path
of 1 m and 1-m standoffs, the +LI CFO will increase from 639 kV to about (639 + 200 + 210) or 1049 kV. This will
raise the critical current in the simple calculation to Icrit=1049 kV / 35 kV/kA = 30 kA. The probability of exceeding
this peak current is only 52%. The simple modification will cut the outage rate by approximately one-third.

4 DIRECT STROKE PROTECTION OF COMPACT LINES WITH OHGW

Overhead groundwires (OHGW) located above the phase conductors provide four important benefits. They attract
flashes, especially away from the towers, that would normally terminate on phase conductors and cause flashovers.
They divert a fraction of the lightning surge current to adjacent towers. The voltage rise from the product of this small
fraction of current and the OHGW surge impedance illuminates the phase conductors, and the coupled voltage on the
phases subtracts from the tower-to-insulator impulse stress. The current fraction reaches adjacent towers rapidly (at
the speed of light) and flows into adjacent pole grounds, sending back a cancelling reflected voltage wave that reduces
the insulation stress at some delay in time. Finally, if there is a flashover, the OHGW provide a well-controlled 60-Hz
impedance that improves the speed of fault identification, allowing faster tripout of the circuit breakers and reducing
the hazards of touch potentials near towers and equipment damage from sustained short-circuit duty.

4.1 Statistics of first-stroke peak current, rise time and flash incidence

First, negative, downward lightning flashes are the most frequent and tend to have similar characteristics from region to
region. The distribution of peak stroke current magnitude is so wide, with values ranging from 2 to 200 kA, that it is
common to assume that the logarithm of peak current is normally distributed. Where a standard deviation =1 for a
distribution with mean of i=31 suggests that 68% of the values are within 1 (30<i<32) with a normal distribution, the
same standard deviation ln I = 1 for a log-normal distribution suggests that 68% of the values are within a factor of
exp(1), or (11.4<i<84.2).

The evidence from recent tower measurements in Japan, Brazil and other countries suggests that there is no strong
regional variation of the distribution of lightning parameters of downward flashes to structures in the height range of 60
to 140 m. Conversely, several researchers have noted how models of the final jump of the lightning flash, whether
downward from the electrogeometric model or upward from an attractive radius model, suggest that there will be a
dependence of median current on height near ground level. For substations [12] and in one study on unshielded lines
[13], a median ground-level current of 24 kA was used. The 31-kA median is retained in calculations of direct-flash
performance of distribution lines [14]. For calculation of lightning performance of compact lines, the recommended
parameters and waveshapes for first negative downward flashes remain the same as those in [15][16], as used in [5].

4.2 Effectiveness of direct stroke protection as function of footing resistance for single OHGW

One or two suitablly positioned OHGW will protects phase conductors from direct lightning flashes. This protection
remains vulnerable to effects of backflashover, but OHGW raise Icrit in two important ways.

Any surge voltage from the lightning flash will appear, with reduced amplitude, on the nearby parallel phase
conductors. The coupling in this case is establsihed by the ratio of self and mutual surge impedance. For an OHGW of
radius r1 and height h1 directly above a phase conductor at height h2, the coupling coefficient is given by C12 =Z21 / Z11
= ln((h1 + h2)/(h1 h2)) / ln(2 h1/r1). With typical 2-m phase separations in a vertical configuration, there is a
significant change in C12 with phase conductor height, for example from Cn = 0.33 to 0.21 from top to bottom phase.
With OHGW, the insualtor voltages are reduced to (1-0.33) to (1-0.21), independent of grounding. This may not seem
that important, but in the backflashover case in 3.4, the increase in Icrit from 30 kA to 30 kA/(1-0.33) = 45 kA reduces
probabiltiy of top-phase flashover from 52% to 28%. In fact, with a single OHGW, the most vulnerable phase in
vertical orientation will be at the bottom, where dI/dt voltage rise from the pole bond is lower. Corona tend to increase
the effective radius r1 of the OHGW, reducing Z11 and resulting in a voltage-dependent increase in Cn [5].

Corona effects, or ionization, also has an influence on the footing resistance at the base of each pole. Air supports a
voltage gradient of 1500 kV/m at the edge of the cylindrical zone around an OHGW under lightning conditions. Soil
can support a hemispheroidal zone [17] with maximum gradient of about 400 kV/m. The ionization around small
ground electrodes increases the surface area in contact with the soil, with higher currents giving more ionization and
lower resistance.

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Compact steel pole footings can be concrete foundations with 2-m depth and 0.5-m radius, giving a geometric radius of
s=2.1 m. Fig. 11, prepared with an implementation of the Korsuncev ionization model [18], predicts that ionization of
the stricken pole will occur at Icrit in the backflashover calculation when Rf<70 ( < 470 m).

Fig. 11 Effect of Ionization on Lightning Performance of Compact 138-kV Line with 1.3-m Insulatoin, calcuated with [18]

The soil ionization effect provides a remakable reduction in the lightning outage rate of the compact line. However, the
question of whether an uncontrolled ionization process should be allowed to occur in an urban setting should be
evaluated carefully. Accidental injection of lightning surge currents from the pole to buried infrastructure such as
water, gas or buried cables can be prevented by selecting pole ground electrodes with sufficiently large geometric
radius and surface area.

The ratio Rf=0.15 for the geometric resistance of a solid concrete pillar will vary depending on geometric radius
[17][18]. In at least two regions, tower-to-tower variations in Rf or over a 300-m scale were well described by log-
normal distributions with differing mean values but a shared, and rather large, log standard deviation of ln = 0.9.

4.4 Role of reduced span length

The OHGW is normally grounded at every pole of a compact line. This means that adjacent poles will share
significant fractions of surge current, with some time delay associated with propagation at the speed of light. Fig. 12
shows typical effects for a 2-s ramp current [5] and the CIGRE concave waveshape [15] when all poles have Rf=50-.

The insulator voltages plotted in Fig. 12 have taken into account the coupling from single OHGW to upper phase
conductor. The insulator voltages for the ramp current have times to half value on the order of 2 to 5 s, rather than the
1.2/50s voltage associated with the full first-stroke current and high voltage testing.. For transmission lines, the effect
of span length was evaluated in [5] with an empirical volt-time curve, for example E=(400+710 t-0.75) kV/m where E is
the peak voltage and the time to flashover t (s) was the return time of the reflection from the first adjacent towers. The
empirical model is applied correctly for ceramic insualtor strings to evaluate strength at the return of the reflection from
adjacent towers, just before the wave deviates from standard.

55
 Calculation with 2-s Ramp [5] Calculation with CIGRE Concave Waveshape [15]

Fig. 12 Insulator Voltage versus Time for 100-kA Peak Current into Compact Line with Variable Span Length

4.5 Improved DE Model of Insulator Flashover

For short span lengths, adjacent towers share surge current before the waveform reaches its peak. This means that an
improved model for the insulator flashover with nonstandard waves should be used for compact line lightning
performance evaluation. The recommended Destructive Effect model is of the form:
n
E Eo
DE = max ,0 dt (3)
0 CFO
A number of different sets of DE, Eo and n have been suggested, as summarized in [18][19].

Table 1: Suitable Parameters for DE Model of Nonstandard Lightning Impulse Flashover, Based on CFO (kV) of 1.2/50 Wave

n Eo DE 1.2/5 s +LI string +LI string +LI string +LI string +LI string +LI string
/CFO (1 s base) Rod-rod CFO 1.5 s 2 s 2.5 s 3 s 6 s 16 s
Reference Value (kV/m) 821 924 822 757 711 585 489
1 0.86 1.29 CFO 862 1148 927 810 738 586 534
1.36 0.77 1.15 CFO1.36 841 1034 867 776 718 583 520
2 0.60 1.36 CFO2 839 981 845 767 716 586 505
2.5 0.48 1.62 CFO2.5 829 943 822 752 705 583 498
3 0.32 2.57 CFO3 830 942 827 758 712 587 492
4 0 7.84 CFO4 823 934 823 757 712 585 477

The exponent of n=2.5 was recommeded in [19] as a best fit to the entire empirical volt-time curve for strings of
ceramic discs. The value of n=1.36 was suggested by [1] because it gives the desired characteristic of a 520-kV/m
CFO at 16 s on the volt-time curve. Table 1 and Fig. 13 show that n=1.36, with its associated values of Eo and DE,
also gives a satisfactory estimate of the CFO of the nonstanard 1.2/5 wave for a rod-rod gap when using the +LI rod-
rod CFO=608 kV/m for the standard wave.

56
 Rod-Rod Gap Flashover at 2 s, 1015 kV/m for 1.2/50 wave Rod-Rod Flashover at 6 s, 680 kV/m for 1.2/50 wave

Fig. 13 Comparison of 1.2/5 and 1.2/50 s Times to Flashover for Rod-Rod Gap with DE Model, n=1.36

The DE model with n=1.36 is less sensitive to narrow oscillatory transients and peaks and is preferred for calculation of
the lightning performance of compact transmission lines. The high-impedance pole bonds of compact lines generate
these narrow insulator voltage peaks in highly detailed modeling.

4.6 Lightning Performance Calculation for Compact Line with DE Model

A calculation of the lightning performance of a compact 138-kV transmission line, with 2-m phase spacing, a 30
shield angle, 1.3-m horizontal line post insulators and 20- resistance at each pole was carried out with the DE model
and [18] , giving the values in Table 2.

Table 2: Lightning Performance of Compact 138-kV Line showing Effect of UBGW and Span Length

Span # of Midspan Sag (m), 18% RTS OHGW Outages per 100 km per year
Length Poles at Phase OHGW, Height at Single OHGW OHGW + UBGW
(m) 2 s Conductors UBGW Pole (m)
250 3 4.9 3.1 26.6 18 8
150 5 1.8 1.1 23.5 14 5
100 7 0.6 0.4 22.3 7 2.5
70 9 0.4 0.2 22.1 7 2.5

The lightning performance improves considerably as span length drops form 150 to 100 m with the single OHGW
above the phases. Table 2 also introduces the Underbuilt Groundwire, located beneath the phase conductors. The
UBGW plays no role in shielding the phases from flashes. Instead, the UBGW improves direct-stroke protection by
reducing the inductance to adjacent grounded towers and by increasing the coupling coefficient Cn, especially to the
bottom phase that is furthest from the OHGW.

4.7 Case studies: Compact Lines with OHGW and Underbuilt Groundwires (UBGW)

Short spans and rigid insulators restrain phase conductor motion in compact lines. This restraint solves one of the most
common objections to the use of an underbuilt ground wire, running beneath or through the phase conductors. UBGW
have been recognized for many years as an effective way to improve lightning performance [1][5]. For example, the
lightning performance of a vertical double-circuit 345-kV line was calculated to improve from 0.6 outages per 100 km-
year with two OHGW to levels of 0.1 to 0 outages per 100 km per year when one or two UBGW were located 5 m
beneath the phase conductors [5].

Improved lightning performance has not proved to be a compelling reason to use an UBGW on most transmission lines.
Instead, many have been installed by accident to satisfy other purposes. Distribution circuits using the same poles as
transmission circuits form remarkably effective UBGW. Even without a neutral, the phase conductors flash over
easily, improving the transmission line performance, at the expense of a poorly performing distribution line. As another

57
example, at EnBW in southwest Germany, it was more convenient to install telecommunications conductors in optical
fiber groundwires (OPGW) located centrally beneath the phases, as shown in Fig. 14.

Dual-Voltage EnBW Structure with Twin Line Post Insulator Detail of UBGW Attachment to Lattice Tower

Fig. 14 - 380 kV Herbertingen-Gruenkraut/220 kV Bludenz-West Transmission Line at EnBW, Germany

This choice of UBGW location provides superior protection against direct flash charge ablation. The restraint of
conductor motion at the lattice tower in Fig. E is achieved with the use of double ceramic line posts. This control of
lateral conductor motion allows more confident placement of the UBGW to meet electrical and ground clearance
requirements simultaneously. Improved control of phase conductor sag at high operating temperature can also be
achieved with the substitution of steel-supported aluminum (ACSS) or composite core (ACCS) for traditional ACSR
conductors.

At COPEL, compact Urban Transmission Lines or UTL have been operated at 69 and 138 kV for almost thirty years.
Recently, UTLs at 230 kV have used bundles of two, 20-mm diameter conductors. Concrete pole length is limited to
22 m. Lightning protection is achieved with a 14-mm OHGW directly above the phases. As for the EnBW design, an
underbuilt ground wire (UBGW) beneath the conductors was installed for other purposes but also functions effectively
to improve lightning backflashover performance.

COPEL 138-kV UTL Compact Transmission Line with COPEL 230-kV UTL Compact Transmission Line with
OHGW and Underbuilt GW OHGW and Underbuilt GW
Fig. 15 Urban Transmission Lines (UTL) at COPEL, Brazil featuring Underbuilt Groundwires (UBGW)

58
A primary purpose of the UBGW in Fig. 15 is to reduce the inductive reactance of the connections to adjacent pole
grounds, as a means to manage fault currents. Each pole is grounded with three rods, each 6 m long and 6 m apart,
located 1.5 m below grade, and a surface layer of asphalt provides a high surface resistivity that helps to mitigate touch
voltage. The wire also provides mechanical protection against accidental contact and reduces electric fields at ground
level. The secondary purpose of the UBGW in Fig. 15, to improve the lightning performance of the 230-kV circuit,
was evaluated as follows [2]:

o 4.6 outages per 100 km per year with single OHGW in area with Ng=6 flashes/km2/year
o 2.4 outages per 100 km per year if two OHGW were located conventionally above the phases
o 1.9 outages per 100 km per year with single OHGW and UBGW, as shown in Fig.15

5 DIRECT STROKE PROTECTION OF COMPACT LINES WITH TLSA

The modern zinc oxide-based (ZnO) transmission line surge arrester (TLSA) allows utilites to convert the uppermost
phase of vertical lines into an OHGW under lightning surge conditions. Of course, by fitting TLSA to every phase, it is
theoretically possible to eliminate all lightning outages. Original applications of TLSA on 138-kV shielded lines [21]
sought to achieve this using externally gapped, horizontal TLSA that also fixed the conductor location at the towers.

5.1 Statistics of first-stroke and flash charge

Direct lightning flashes will lead to current flow through the TLSA, which are designed to hold their terminal voltage
to a level well below the +CFO of the insulation. The dissipated energy will be the integral of the impulse current and
this relatvely constant clipping voltage. If energy raises metal oxide varistor (MOV) core temperature above about
800C it will melt and fail, as a short circuit, and if average temperature exceeds about 200C there may be an
unacceptable downward shift in the clipping voltage. The energy for destruction can be expressed as a charge, and
compared with the distributions of charge for positive and negative flashes. While they are far less frequent, positive
lightning flashes tend to have median total flash charge of 85 Coulomb(C) compared to 7 C for the total negative flash
impulse charge. Considering that much of the positive charge is shunted to ground by other power system elements,
the relevant probability of impulse charge[18] for energy dissipation in TLSA is given by:

1 1
P (Q + ) = P(Q ) = (4)
1 + (Q / 19 ) 1 + (Q / 7 )
+ 1.34 1.7

The calculation of metal ablation damage to phase conductors uses the positive median value of total charge, 85 C, with
an exponent of 2 rather than 1.34 in (4).

5.2 Effectiveness of direct stroke protection as function of footing resistance for top-phase TLSA

For the horizontal configurations in Fig. 3, both outboard phases should have TLSA. It is often possible that the
resulting coupling to the unprotected phase is sufficiently high that center-phase backflashover rate is acceptable. A
comparison of TLSA-protected compact line and OHGW-protected convetional line is given in Fig. 17.

5.3 Effectiveness of direct stroke protection as function of footing resistance for all-phase TLSA

If there is a high regulatory or operating penalty related to momentary average interuption index frequency (MAIFI),
TLSA treatment of all phases at every structure may be appropriate. In common with distribution systems, if TLSA are
used on a compact design, every grounded pole should have an arrester. In practice, TLSA on compact unshielded
transmission lines may fail over time through mechanical problems and excess energy dissipation. At present, the time
constant of TLSA failure is between three and ten years, about the same as that observed for integrity of buried
grounding systems. Routine inspection and replacement of failed units will play a role in any successful long-term
application of either line component.

Elimination of lightning faults at every pole has the desirable effect of eliminating the majority of public exposures to
fault currents and their related touch potentials at tower base. This was a strong motivation for TLSA application on
unshielded 63-kV and 90-kV lines in France [24].

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5.4 Energy duty of TLSA on unshielded compact lines

TLSA applications on unshielded 138 kV [21] and 230 kV lines have made use of 76-mm and 60-mm ZnO block
diameter respectively. Line surge arresters with 63-mm block diameter can absorb a median charge (it) of about 10 C
[22] before destruction, independent of surge duration. Figure 16 shows an alternate way to describe energy duty,
namely as kJ per kV of maximum continuous operating voltage (MCOV).

Fig. 16 Cuumulative Probability of Failure of 41-mm diameter Metal Oxide Surge Arrester [2]

The ratio of MCOV to arrester voltage under surge conditions is needed to convert the kJ/MCOV units to charge, and
this ratio differes among manufacturers and samples. It is better to state energy ratings in terms of J/cm3 based on the
volume of the ZnO blocks. Typical vaues are in the range of 500 to 1700 J/cm3 for 63-mm blocks and 200 to
1000 J/cm3 for 40-mm diameter blocks, both with block height in the range of 40 to 45 mm [23].

The finding of constant it product for 63-mm blocks [22] has recently been confirmed by an expanded test series [23]
for some but not all manufacturers of ZnO blocks. Sidewall dielectric breakdown limits energy rating of some types of
63-mm diameter ZnO blocks and seems to be a dominant failure mechanism for 40-mm diameter specimens. The high
cuumulative probabiltiy of failure with increasing current density suggests that 40-mm diameter ZnO blocks may not be
presently appropriate for unshielded TLSA applications. It can be counter-argued that sharing of energy among parallel
arresters is effective, especially when all towers have approximately the same pole resistance Rf. However, it was noted
above that the statistical distribution of resistivity from pole to pole at a 300-m scale shows a log standard devation ln
Rf 0.9. This means that detailed modeling of arrester energy absorption needs the actual values of Rf as input data.
These may not be available for a new compact design, and a statistical evaluation may be necessary.

When operated in parallel, TLSA will divide current based on the individual V-I characteristics of each arrester, the
span inductance between arresters and the series resistance at each tower base. The V-I curve of a ZnO arrester can be
represented by a reference voltage Vref measured at a current density of 0.12 mA/cm2 [23]. Observations show that Vref
of 40-mm diameter ZnO blocks can change anywhere from 5 to 23% after a single severe duty at 500 J/cm3, depending
on manufacturer. Thus, the sharing of energy among some arresters will change every time one of them is stressed. A
reduction in Vref is problematic for highly exposed towers that may receive more flashes than average, since any
arresters on this tower will absorb increasing fractions of total current over time.

5.5 Charge damage to exposed phase conductors

Direct lightning flashes to optical fiber groundwires (OPGW) can ablate metal, cut several strands and possibly expose
internal fibers to the environment afterwards. The damage is caused by the continuing-current component, typically
hundreds of amperes for duration of 0.5 s in test methods. At present, lines that use OHGW protection have this same
problem, but the steel conductors are relatively immune to damage compared to aluminum, and any severe damage
leading to broken strands can be repaired with armor rods . With exposed phases, phase conductor damage rate on
compact lines protected with TLSA will be a multiple of the damage rate experienced on distribution lines in the same
region. The multiple will be given by the flash incidence model, with a typical variation of h0.45 in Fig. 9.

With overvoltage protection at every insulator, there remains a possibility of midspan flashovers from the stricken
phase to an adjacent phase. Flashover levels of the conductor-conductor gap are significantly higher because the

60
coupling is high. Covered conductor can increase the electrical strength, but also brings the risk of burn-down damage
for any flashovers and power system faults that do occur.

5.6 Grounding requirements for compact lines using TLSA direct-stroke protection

The ground resistance at the pole does not have much effect on the voltage and flashover rate of phases protected with
arresters. On lines that have top-phase TLSA, the backflashover rate on the bottom two phases will have much the
same dependence on pole resistance Rf as illustrated in Fig 11 for a single OHGW.

Typical variation in footing resistance from tower to tower will affect the division of current among parallel TLSA.
Towers in exposed locations may benefit from having a higher-than-average resistance, to compensate for the decline
in Vref with every additional surge duty, but this engineering calls for test results that give the change in Vref as a
function of surge duty.

Without OHGW, ac power system fault currents are restricted to the base of a single tower. High-speed detection of
faults may still be achieved, even with the large differences in pole-to-pole resistance, with the use of modern
differential relay schemes. Also, the choice of ground electrode changes from one that simply provides low resistance
to one that manages the touch potential gradient at the surface of the earth. Ring electrodes, rather than long buried
wires, may be needed to achieve touch and step coordination. Insulating covers, or fiberglass poles with the
groundwires run internally, can also be used to separate the public from the energized ground leads under fault
conditions.

5.7 Case studies compact lines with TLSA

In 2008, a CIGRE colloquium discussed TLSA applications, including [25][26] and many other contributions.
Generally, mechanical problems with broken leads and disconnection devices, rather than inadequate electrical
performance, have been noted in those papers describing practical experience. Figure 17 shows two implementations
of top-phase arrester protection for the Delta configuration of Fig. 3, along with an analysis of lightning performance.

Typical Top-Phase TLSA on Comparison Conventional OHGW protection on 26-m (Upper) with
Compact Lines [25] 84-kV MCOV TLSA Protection on 18-m Line (Lower) for Ng=2.8 flashes/km2/yr [26]

Fig. 17: Implemenation and Analysis of TLSA Protection of Compact Transmission Lines in Delta Configuration

In most cases, the length of the TLSA exceeds that of the post insulator, calling for the offset angles shown in Fig. 17.

61
 6 DIRECT STROKE PROTECTION OF COMPACT LINES WITH TLSA AND UBGW

The combination of OHGW and TLSA proctection can lead to excellent lightning performance, even in areas of high
resistivity that give high values of Rf at some or all poles. Reduced separation of phases is an advantage of compact
lines for this protection, and in particular the use of TLSA on the bottom phase should be evaluated as a means to
improve coupling to unprotected phases. However, the extra cost of both protection systems may not be warranted.

6.1 Advantages of Under-Built Ground Wires (UBGW) for compact lines

The use of short spans for control of wind-induced phase conductor motion tends to minimize the difference between
sags for steel and ACSR conductors in (2). Horizontal or braced posts provide fixed points at each pole that further
simplify layout. Figures 14 and 15 show that the motion restraint of double, single or braced line posts has already
allowed engineers to place UBGW beneath phase conductors, either as a retrofit of OPGW or as a new UTL design.
The improved performance of UBGW protection in combination with OHGW has also been illustrated in Table 2.

The UBGW also complements the use of TLSA on unshielded transmission lines. The benefits include:
o Consistent and low impedance for rapid identification of faults
o Multiply-grounded neutral for multi-point dissipation of power system fault currents
o Improved coupling and effectiveness of top-phase arresters
o Protection of OPGW from direct-stroke charge ablation damage
o Accord with electrical safety standards, calling for lowest-voltage circuits (OPGW) to be lowest on towers
o More effective location than OHGW for mitigating ground-level electric and magnetic fields

6.2 Case study compact line with TLSA and UBGW

In Fort Myers, Florida, the local utility constructed a double-circuit test line at 138 kV with the following features:
Local ground flash density of more than 9 flashes/km2/year
Thirteen concrete poles, average span 200 m, height 23 m
Vertical spacing of 2.13 m between phases
Dry arc distance of 1.55 m (850 kV CFO)
Top phases of double circuit line exposed to lightning (no OHGW)
Top and bottom phases protected with gapless TLSA rated at 98 kV MCOV
3/8 (10 mm) steel underbuilt groundwire (UBGW) attached to external pole bond at every structure
Operation starting in 2004

An inspection of the line in 2009 showed that one top-phase TLSA in Fig. 18 had failed in five lightning seasons.

Overall View Tower Head Layout with Top and Bottom Failed Top-Phase Arrester Falls Away,
Phase TLSA and UBGW with No Permanent Outage
Fig. 18 Lightning Protection Features of Unshielded Compact 138-kV Transmission Line in Fort Meyers, FL

Based on the incidence model in [11], there would be an average of 1.8 flashes along the line per year, or about 0.7
flashes to each tower over a five-year lightning season.

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 7 CONCLUSIONS

While reduced insulation length was considered important in original compact line designs, this is no longer the case.
Modern compact lines achieve reduced visual impact by using a combination of short span lengths, rigid insulators and
inter-phase spacers that reduce the height of the line.

Available horizontal line posts for transmission-class dry arc distances greater than 1 m can only support short span
lengths, since their cantilevler ratings are a small fraction of standard transmssion suspension insulators. Braced posts
can solve this problem but tend to clutter up the pole appearance, making it look different from a distribution line.

Compact designs with wood or fiberglass poles can make use of shorter line posts, of greater cantilever strength, than
designs with conducting steel or concrete poles, if the wood or fibreglass is used to provide additional impulse strength
using isolated bonding.

Calculations of lightning performance of compact lines should use a well-adapted Destructive Effect (DE) model for
flashover of nonstandard voltage waves. Three, five, seven or nine towers may be sharing surge current in parallel at a
2-s peak of wave for 270-m, 135-m, 90 m or 67-m span length respectively. The parallel towers reduce the time to
half value of the lightning overvoltage, and insulation models based on the volt-time curve of a standard 1.2/50 s
wave no longer apply. Reduced span length, and its associated reduction in line height, can combine to reduce
lightning outage rates of compact lines by a 2:1 margin over lines with standard 200-300 m spans.

It is feasible and in some cases convenient to improve the efficiency of OHGW protection on compact lines by fitting
an underbuilt groundwire (UBGW). This wire may also help to manage fault currents or to deliver optical fiber links to
customers. The main feature of modern compact line design, namely the restraint of phase conductor motion, simplifies
electrical and mechanical layout UBGW. Compact circuits with an OHGW and a UBGW have predicted outage rates
that are two to three times lower than those with only a single OHGW.

Tall-pole protection of compact lines is not feasible except for very short spans of less than 30 m. However, OHGW
can be elimiated instead by fitting transmission line surge arresters (TLSA) to the top phase or all phases of a line. The
use of rigid post insulators on compact lines makes installation of TLSA more robust, since the need for unreliable
flexible leads is elimiated. Externally gapped (EGLA) and gapless (NGLA) configurations are both feasible and each
offers some advantages.

The same or greater improvements in lightning performance with UBGW can be realized when TLSA rather than
OHGW are used to protect the top or upper phases of compact transmisison lines. The UBGW address most of the
ancillary concerns that occur when OHGW are removed from transmission lines, such as relaying and fault current
management.

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