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factors
affecting
performance
PDHPE in focus hsc course
c h a p t e r 1
energy systems
analyse each energy system by exploring:
Activities source of fuel
1 and 2
efficiency of ATP production
duration that the system can operate
cause of fatigue
by-products of energy production
process and rate of recovery
The human body is an incredible machine which requires energy to do vast amounts of work to meet
the demands placed on it by everyday living. Energy is found in food, and the energy content of food is
measured in kilojoules. A persons base metabolic rate (bmr) is the minimum amount of kilojoules the
body requires for it to function and stay alive; any extra activity will need extra energy.
Foods can be broken down into carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Each source of nutrient supplies a
different amount of kilojoules to the body:
protein contains 17 kilojoules per gram
fat contains 37 kilojoules per gram
carbohydrate contains 16 kilojoules per gram.
The kilojoule content of foods depends on the amount of carbohydrates, fats and proteins present in
the food. Fat supplies around twice the kilojoules as the same amount of carbohydrate and protein, so it is
a longer lasting source of energy but it also takes longer to digest.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are an ideal source of energy for the body, and are the main nutrient which fuel exercise of
a moderate to high intensity. They can be easily broken down into glucose, a form of sugar that is easily
used by the body. This breakdown into glucose is called glycolysis. Any glucose not needed immediately
gets stored in the muscles and the liver in the form of glycogen. Once these glycogen stores are filled up,
any extra gets stored as fat.
Carbohydrates can take the form of simple carbohydrates, such as sugars, or complex carbohydrates.
Natural sugars are found in fruit and vegetables and refined sugars are found in soft drinks, biscuits
and snack bars. Complex carbohydrates are starch-based foods and are available in root vegetables like
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factors affecting performance chapter 1
DIGESTED FOOD
Figure 1.1
FOOD Glucose ENERGY Proteins, fats and
Carbohydrates Amino acids FOR
Fats Glycerol carbohydrates
ACTIVITY
Protein Free fatty acids are changed from
chemical energy to
mechanical energy
potatoes, wholemeal breads and in refined foods, such as white flour based foods like pizza and sugary
processed breakfast cereals.
Carbohydrates stored as glycogen are easily used for exercise. It normally supplies the energy for the
first few minutes of any activity, either as the main energy source or it may be needed to break down fats
for longer lasting sports. Athletes should always ensure they have full stores of carbohydrates prior to
competition.
Fats
Fats are the main energy source for long and low to moderate exercise, such as cycling. Fats are not used
initially when supplying energy, as oxygen is needed to break down fats; so it takes some time for fat to
be converted to energy. Foods high in fat stay in the stomach for a long period of time and as such can
become detrimental to performance if consumed too close to competition.
The major energy component from fats in the body is triglycerides, which aid to insulate the body.
Triglycerides need to be broken down, through a process called lipolysis, into glycerol and free fatty
acids to provide energy for activity. These free fatty acids are then broken down into glucose, which
requires oxygen. This process is also known as oxidation. When the body is digesting fats blood is needed,
which can cause cramping and discomfort when performing.
Most adults have enough stored fat in the form of adipose tissue to fuel activity for hours or even days
as long as there is sufficient oxygen to allow fat metabolism to occur.
Protein
Proteins are not normally used for energy, but will do so in extreme circumstances after all the fats and
carbohydrates have been exhausted. If protein was used as energy this would stress the kidneys because
they have to work harder to eliminate the by-products of this protein breakdown. Proteins are primarily
used for repairing and rebuilding muscle used during exercise. Strength athletes, such as weightlifters,
require more protein than endurance athletes, such as marathon runners, and the average adult due to
isolated muscle use. Proteins are broken down into amino acids.
How the body uses energy
By having a basic understanding of how food provides energy for athletes it is important to understand
how the energy is used by the body.
Food provides energy in the form of chemical energy, which must be converted to mechanical
energy. The breakdown of food produces energy that is stored in the body for later use. Adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). ATP is an energy-rich compound that the body uses to maintain the survival of
essential processes, such as heart beating and temperature regulation, as well as to meet the demands of
any exercise requirements. Energy for activity is stored in the muscles in the form of ATP. ATP is stored in
small amounts in the body, which is sufficient to provide energy for a short burst of muscular effort before
it fully breaks down. However, through a process of resynthesis the body has the ability to produce more
ATP to continue the exercise effort, depending on the type and length of activity.
The ATP molecule is made up of a large molecule called an adenosine molecule and three smaller
molecules called phosphates as seen in Figure 1.2 Figure 1.2
A molecule
of adenosine
Adenosine P1 P2 P3
triphosphate (ATP)
Phosphate groups
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When the bond between phosphate 2 (P2) and phosphate 3 (P3) breaks it provides energy (Fig. 1.3),
which is then transferred to the cells and allows for movement to occur. The energy released allows muscle
cells to contract.
Figure 1.3
Adenosine
Adenosine P1 P2 ENERGY P3
triphosphate
is reduced to
adenosine
diphosphate (ADP)
or adenosine At this point the molecule has only two phosphate groups attached and is called adenosine
monophosphate, diphosphate and may also break down to a lower form of energy supply of adenosine monophosphate.
depending on how An average adult may break down or metabolise up to 40 kilograms of ATP per day to maintain bodily
many phosphate functions. This can rise to 0.5 kilogram per minute during strenuous exercise. The breakdown of glycogen
groups break off and creatine phosphate (PC) will supply energy to resynthesise adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to provide
energy. Short-term energy supplies do not require oxygen to replenish ATP, so the ATP/PC
and lactic acid systems are called the anaerobic systems.
Fuel sources needed to provide ATP for longer duration activities will require oxygen to be present and
as such are called the aerobic energy system.
There are three energy pathways in which the body uses and replenishes ATP molecules to facilitate the
requirements of physical activity. The energy supplied is a combination of energy systems dependent on
the intensity and duration of the exercise, determining which method gets used and when.
The body cannot easily store ATP (and what is stored gets used up within a few seconds), so it is
necessary to continually create ATP during exercise. In general, the two main ways the body converts
nutrients to energy are aerobic and anaerobic energy systems.
Figure 1.4
Energy systems
ENERGY
Anaerobic Aerobic
energy system energy system
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Figure 1.5
1 Adenosine P1 P2 P3
Alactacid energy
system
Adenosine triphosphate molecule
2 Adenosine P1 P2 ENERGY P3
The bonds between phosphate groups 3 and 2 break giving off energy for muscular
contractions. P3 is now a floating phosphate group
3 Adenosine P1 ENERGY P2 P3
A secondary reaction occurs when the creatine phosphate molecule splits, giving off energy.
This energy will be used to resynthesise (or rejoin) P2 and P3 with the adenosine molecule to
form ATP.
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Figure 1.8
Muscle and
Overview of the liver glycogen
aerobic energy
Aerobic Energy System
system
Fat Pyruvic acid
Acetyl CoA
Lactate H+
Krebs
CO2 exhaled ATP produced
cycle
source of fuel
The fuel for the aerobic system is primarily glucose and free fatty acids. Most humans have fats available to
be used and so have a limitless supply of fuel to keep creating ATP molecules, these fats are broken down
into glycerol and free fatty acids. This is essential in changing the structure of fat so it can be broken down
in the presence of oxygen.
efficiency of ATP production
For longer slower duration of exercise, the aerobic system is very efficient in being able to provide an
endless supply of energy to resynthesise ATP for an extended period of time. Compared to glucose, fats
can supply up to 10 times as many ATP molecules.
duration that the system can operate
The aerobic energy system can supply energy to the body from 23 minutes to a few hours. However, it is
used primarily during endurance exercise, which is generally less intense and can continue for long periods
of time. If a person is exercising at a low intensity (that is, below 50% of maximum heart rate), their
body has enough stored fat to provide energy for hours or even days, provided there is enough oxygen for
reactions to occur. Obviously the higher the intensity of the exercise, it will be easier to become exhausted
because all of the supplies in the body will be used up. The aerobic system is the same system the body
predominantly uses to maintain its everyday bodily functions.
cause of fatigue
The main cause of fatigue in this system is due to the depletion of glucose to the working muscles. Poor
respiration or circulation where it is difficult for oxygen and nutrients to get to working muscles and
subsequent poor removal of waste products can also lead to fatigue.
by-products of energy production
The by-products formed from using this system are carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), as a result of
chemical reactions. The water is lost through sweat or expiration and is also made available to other cells
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factors affecting performance chapter 1
Figure 1.9
ATP store Contribution of
in the body. The carbon dioxide is breathed out as exercise takes place. These by-products are not harmful
to the athletic performance.
process and rate of recovery
The rate of recovery is dependent on the type of activity that has taken place. High-intensity activity for
an extended period of time will take a longer time for recovery, than if the activity was low intensity. The
main factor to be aware of is to replenish lost glucose and glycogen, which could take days for the food to
be fully digested.
Note that the time taken for oxygen to reach the working muscles is between 24 minutes before ATP
is supplied predominantly by the aerobic system.
Pathways of energy systems
During exercise an athlete will move through the various energy pathways. As exercise begins, ATP is
produced through anaerobic metabolism from both the ATP/PC system and the lactic acid system. With
an increase in breathing and heart rate, there is more oxygen available and aerobic metabolism begins and
continues to resynthesise ATP molecules over an extended period of time.
The energy systems do not work independently of each other but rather have some contribution to all
sports as seen from Figure 1.11. The amount of contribution depends on the intensity of the activity, the
duration of the activity and how explosive the activity is.
Figure 1.10
Duration of
maximal % % Proportion of
exercise Anaerobic Aerobic aerobic/anaerobic
13 sec 100 0
production of
10 sec 90 10 energy (ATP) versus
30 sec 80 20 time
1 min 70 30
2 min 60 40
4 min 35 65
10 min 15 85
30 min 5 95
1 hour 2 98
2 hour 1 99
sources: brooks, g., fahey, t., white, t., 1996. exercise physiology. human bioenergetics and its applications and mole, p., 1983. exercise
metabolism in exercise medicine: physiological principles and clinical application
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Figure 1.11
Sport/activity ATP-PC Lactic acid Aerobic
Energy systems for
selected sports Baseball 80 15 5
Basketball 80 10 10
Source: Fox, E.L, Mathews, D.K, 1974. Interval training: conditioning for sports and general fitness, Saunders College Publishing, Orlando, Florida.
Figure 1.12
Tennis is 70%
ATP/PC, 20%
Lactic Acid and
10% aerobic
energy system
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T y pe Frequency D u r at i o n Intensity
( pe r w ee k ) ( pe r s e s s i o n )
Continuous 12 Race distance or longer (or Approximately 70% VO2
30120 minutes)
Fartlek 1 2060 minutes Variable 70% VO2 max with
bouts at or above lactate
threshold
Interval 12 35 minute interval Near VO2 max
(workrest ratio of 1:1)
Source: www.sport-fitness-advisor.com/aerobic-endurance-training.html, as adapted from Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning (2000) (8)
Continuous training
This is the simplest form of aerobic training where there is no rest, but rather continual effort and at an
intensity where the heart rate will be in the aerobic training zone for at least 20 minutes. Some examples
include jogging, swimming or cycling. This training can vary from long slow duration of between 60
80% maximum heart rate aimed at aerobic endurance, to higher intensities of approximately 8090%
maximum heart rate, which will train the bodys ability to deal with lactic acid for long periods of time
and possibly increase the OBLA. If there is too much continuous training an athlete would run the risk of
overuse injuries.
Fartlek training
Fartlek training involves alternating bursts of high-intensity activity while still maintaining the longer
slower style of training. This training is less structured than interval training with no predetermined
structure to follow. The athlete can then concentrate on feeling the pace and their physical response to it,
so that theyre able to develop self-awareness and pace judgment skills to set their own pace.
Workrest intervals can be based on how the body feels. Beginners tend to enjoy Fartlek training
because it is more flexible and can be done on all types of terrains, not specifically just on a track. This is a
good form of training for the aerobic energy system.
The athlete runs continuously and puts in some sections of higher intensity or slightly higher pace. For
example, an athlete may run at their normal pace for 300 m, then harder for the next 100 m; they then
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Exercise Circuits
Wee k Work Re s t Number Re s t
1 20 sec 20 sec 2 2 min
2 30 sec 30 sec 2 2 min
3 40 sec 40 sec 2 3 min
4 20 sec 20 sec 3 2 min
5 30 sec 30 sec 3 2 min
6 30 sec 30 sec 4 2 min
7 40 sec 40 sec 3 3 min
8 30 sec 30 sec 3 2 min
Source: www.brianmac.co.uk/circuit.htm
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Figure 1.14
1 Example of circuit
class of ten exercises
Sit ups
Press ups
9 Bent arm pullovers
Lie on back on bench. Dumbbell
Either narrow arm or wide
arm. Easier if knees in
3
held in two hands, taken back contact with ground, harder
behind the head and returned if feet on bench.
to in front of head.
Burpee Squats
7 5
Shuttle runs
Run around outside
of working area.
Seated dips Dorsal press
6
Sit with hands on edge of Lie on front on mat. Use arms
bench, legs extended in front. to hyperextend back and then
Allow body to descend to floor lower trunk back to lying position. Figure 1.15
and then press up. Higher
bench increases resistance. Walking is a great,
low-stress way to
Source: www.brianmac.co.uk/circuit.htm exercise
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Figure 1.17
PNF stretching is an excellent method of stretching for rehabilitation as it can stretch further than Hamstring stretches
static stretching in a controlled environment with minimal risk of injury. (a) PNF stretch
(b) PNF contraction
Dynamic stretching (c) static stretch
This method involves actively moving parts of the body being stretched to increase the length of the
muscle. It is a controlled movement, which takes the muscle to its limits where it is guided by the stretch
reflex on how far to stretch. Dynamic stretching does not force the muscle beyond its normal range of
motion. An example would be swinging a golf club just prior to a shot being played.
Ballistic stretching
Ballistic stretching is a form of dynamic stretching and uses the movement of the body to force it
further than its normal range of motion. This is stretching by bouncing into a stretched position, using
the stretched muscles as a spring which pulls you out of the stretched position. An example would be
toe touches to stretch hamstrings by bouncing down and touching the toes with your hands.
The main problem with this type of training is that the stretch can actually override the stretch reflex
mechanism and cause injury. So this type of stretching is not useful for beginners or intermediate athletes,
because it does not allow the muscles to relax in the stretched position. However, for elite athletes trained
in this method of stretching, it very useful because it replicates movement required for their specific
activity better than other methods.
strength training, eg free/fixed weights, elastic, hydraulic
Strength or resistance training is another training method used to improve athletic performance. Strength is the
maximum force against a set resistance that muscles can exert in a single effort. This force is related to the cross-
sectional area of the muscle fibre and subsequent muscle itself, for example, the bigger the muscle the bigger the
force given. This is a basic definition of absolute strength, however, there are other strength training methods,
such as power and endurance, all of which have different programs that athletes use to achieve their goals.
All sports use at least one form of strength or resistance training. In order to have a better
understanding of strength it is important to understand the following terminologies that are specific to
resistance training:
repetition: The number of times an exercise is repeated without a break.
repetition maximum (RM): The amount of resistance you can lift 1 time. For example, 12 RM is the
maximum weight you can lift 12 times.
set: The number of repetitions completed make a set. For example, 8 RM = 1 set; 8 RM done 3 times is
3 sets and is 24 RM total.
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rest: The period of time you allow for the body and muscles to recover between sets.
resistance: Another word for weight.
endurance: The ability for a muscle to repeatedly contract against a given resistance and reduce fatigue.
power: The ability for the muscle to exert force over a distance in a short time.
spotter: A partner who helps with an athletes exercises.
eccentric contraction: Lengthening of the muscle fibres.
concentric contraction: Shortening of the muscle fibres.
Muscles will contract in different ways depending on the type of training and the method used.
A muscle will either shorten or lengthen when undergoing a resistance program. Types of muscular
actions are:
isometric: A force is applied but there is little or no change in length of the muscle and its fibres. The
strength is specific to certain angles.
isotonic: Muscle fibres shorten or lengthen depending on the exercise and whether it is the agonist
or antagonist muscle in the exercise. For example, in biceps curl, the biceps shortens in a concentric
contraction while the triceps lengthens in an eccentric contraction.
isokinetic: The use of machines to ensure the weight is applied through the full range of motion. These
machines are elaborate in their design to ensure exercise is done correctly.
When a coach trains an athlete they take into account what physical activity the athlete will be doing,
the specific type of strength required and the muscle fibres that will be used to do it. The coach should
know the predominant types of muscular activity associated with the physical event, the movement
pattern involved and the type of strength required.
Most strength programs will require a recovery of 35 minutes between sets to enable the ATP/PC
system to replenish the PC component and for the fibres to recover somewhat (however, only minimum
recovery should be taken if strength endurance is the aim). The majority of athletic events are fast and
dynamic so this specific requirement must be present in any program.
There is also a variety of equipment available to increase strength.
ta b le 1 . 3
Types of strength
training programs
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factors affecting performance chapter 1
Weight machines
Weight machines enable correct positioning and
proper movement while an athlete is lifting weights.
Most machines are hydraulic in nature and are
excellent for isolating individual muscles. The
guided action and variable resistance when training
also make weight machines popular as rehabilitation
instruments, as they are much safer than free
weights or dumbbells. The weight in the machine
will only move if the athlete applies force to it
increasing safety for the user.
Weight machines are very expensive and are
not space efficient. Variable resistance machines
are effective tools for building strength and muscle
tone and are designed to work the target muscle in
isolation. However, this prevents the athlete from
recruiting other muscle groups when performing
Figure 1.18
exercise which the free weights do. Machine weights
Free/fixed weights versus free weights
Dumbbells and barbells can appear as either fixed or free weights. Some free weights are fixed at set
weights and some are adjustable. Free weights allow a greater range of motion than machines and allow
for symmetry to occur between both sides of the body when doing resistance training. Using free or fixed
weights also encourage better joint strength and a closer transfer of training to a given activity.
Free weights can isolate a particular muscle and enlist the help of the antagonist muscle at the same
time. The assisting muscles help stabilise the body, support limbs and maintain posture during a lift.
Lifting free weights improves the athletes coordination by making the neuromuscular pathways better.
Free weights are cheaper than fixed weights because they can be adapted for a number of exercises;
whereas fixed weights requires the athlete to have several different weight sizes available to alter the
resistance during strength training and not to overload the body. In terms of safety it is recommended that
when people use free or fixed weights they work with a spotter.
Figure 1.19
Elastic bands
Elastic bands are
A more recent form of resistance training is the use of elastic bands. These are a cheap alternative to a cheaper form of
weights and provide much the same resistance. They are extremely space effective and different elastics resistance training
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principles of training
analyse how the principles of training can be applied to both aerobic and
Activities resistance training
811
There are various principles of training that athletes must take into account if they are going to maximise
their training and have a successful performance. By adhering to the following principles the athlete will
be physically and psychologically prepared for their event.
Resistance training / 2 sets 5 reps 3 sets 5 reps 3 sets 8 reps 3 sets 8 reps
reps and sets 60% RM 65% RM 60% RM 65% RM
Continuous Run 5 km at 70% Run 5 km at 70% Run 6 km at 70% Run 6 km at 75%
training /reps and sets max HR max HR max HR max HR
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factors affecting performance chapter 1
squash player gets more transfer from their training by playing tennis. This will
then overload the relevant physiological systems and achieve a training effect
for the squash player and follow the principle of specificity. If training closely
resembles what the actual performance is then positive athletic gains will be
made.
reversibility
If training is stopped, gains made by the athlete will decline at approximately
one-third of the rate of acquisition. Athletes should maintain strength,
conditioning and flexibility throughout the competitive season, but at a lesser
intensity and volume. This is also called detraining as the training is going in
reverse.
A study of an Olympic rower in the United Kingdom found that after
8 weeks of rest it took the same athlete 20 weeks to achieve the level of fitness
they had prior to the rest. After 8 weeks of training previous fitness levels had
returned to about 50 % of their normal level.
As a result of the study, researchers suggest that complete rest last for no
more than 23 weeks, and that recommended training programs should limit
periods of complete inactivity to no more than
Figure 1.20
23 weeks. Extended periods of rest should be avoided if performance is to be maintained. Specificity training
It is certainly difficult to maintain training if the athlete is injured, but substitute training should
occur for the athlete to try and maintain previous levels of strength, flexibility or aerobic fitness prior to
Figure 1.21
the injury. This will reduce the detraining effect and allow the athlete to achieve their previous levels of AFL players
training earlier than normal. undertaking
cross-training
variety exercise
Coaches have a very important role to continually improve an athletes
performance and to sustain enjoyment in what they do with the athletes.
The principle of variety is important to maintain motivation and reduce the
athletes boredom in trainingdoing the same drills each week does little to
promote variety.
Coaches need to investigate different ways to meet the training objective
of their athlete while reducing boredom. For example, when team training
partner activities can promote working together, or doing a biathlon will
maintain aerobic fitness rather than doing one continuous run.
training thresholds
There is a minimum amount of exercise which is required to produce
improvements in athletic performance. For exercise to be effective, it must be
performed:
with sufficient frequency
at a high enough intensity
for sufficient length of duration (usually 20 minutes minimum).
Training thresholds are two points which indicate the zone for athletic
improvement to occur. The thresholds relate to the maximum heart rate of
the athlete. This is calculated using the Karvonen formula (after Dr Martti
Karvonen): 220 minus the athletes age. So a 25-year-old athlete has a max
heart rate of 195.
The lowest threshold an athlete must operate at is called the aerobic training
threshold and refers to the lowest point at which training is of benefit to the
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Figure 1.22
200
Aerobic and
anaerobic training te
180 um heartra
thresholds Maxim
160
hold
ic thres
140 Anaerob
Heart rate
120
ning zone
100 Aerobic trai
80
60
70 60 50 40 30 20
Age
athlete. It is roughly 60% of a persons maximum heart rate. The target heart rate zone (training zone)
is between 6080% of the maximum heart rate. Working within this zone gives a person the maximum
health and fat-burning benefits from their cardiovascular activity.
When an athlete trains above the aerobic threshold and below the anaerobic threshold they are
working in the aerobic training zone. Training in this zone develops an athletes aerobic endurance. All
easy recovery running should be completed at a maximum of 70% maximum heart rate. For example, a
25-year-old persons aerobic training zone is between the heart rates 117154. Training between 7080%
of maximum heart rate will increase the cardiovascular system.
The anaerobic threshold is where OBLA happens. As a result fatigue starts to occur so the body slows
down and trains once more in the aerobic training zone. Another test coaches use is the talk test. If the
athlete struggles to talk in a controlled manner, they are no longer working within the aerobic system but
rather the anaerobic system.
For athletes who rely heavily on the lactic acid system they would train as close as possible to the
anaerobic threshold. Through correct training, it is possible for an athlete to delay the threshold by
being able to increase the ability to deal with the lactic acid for a longer period of time or by pushing the
threshold higher.
warm up and cool down
Each training session is organised around three areas: the warm up, skills and conditioning, and then cool
down. The warm-up can be divided into three sections: a general body warm-up, stretching and activity-
specific where certain muscle groups are used. Overall warm-up should take no more than 10% of exercise
time.
In the first phase, a general warming-up occurs by using major muscle groups. This is designed to raise
the temperature of the body and its structures, such as the muscles. The idea is to increase mobility in
readiness for physical activity while reducing the risk of injury. The warm-up is best accomplished with a
full-body activity, such as jogging, and should last for at about 5 minutes, at an intensity to increase body
temperature yet should not lead to fatigue. Often included after this phase are some stretching exercises
that go through a functional range of motion, holding positions usually between 1030 seconds.
The cool down is effectively a warm-up in reverse. Cooling down after an aerobic exercise is important
to bring the heart rate back to normal slowly, so that the strain is taken off the heart and prevent blood
pooling in the extremities of the body, such as the feet. If a cool down is not done, muscle stiffness may
occur from waste that was built up in the muscles and not allowed to be worked out with a cool down.
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Sede n t a r y m a le s u b j e c t
Cardiovascular
HRrest (beats/min) 75 65 45
HRmax (beats/min) 85 183 174
SVrest (ml/beat) 60 70 100
SVmax (ml/beat) 120 140 200
Q at rest (L/min) 4.5 4.5 4.5
+
Q max (L/min) 22.2 25.6 34.8
Heart volume (ml) 750 820 1200
Blood volume (L) 4.7 5.1 6.0
Systolic BP at rest (mmHg) 135 130 120
Systolic BPmax (mmHg) 200 210 220
Diastolic BP at rest (mmHg) 78 76 65
Diastolic BPmax (mmHg) 82 80 65
Respiratory
YE at rest (L/min) 7 6 6
+
VEmax (L/min) 110 135 195
TV at rest (L) 0.5 0.5 0.5
TVmax (L) 2.75 3.0 3.9
VC (L) 5.8 6.0 6.2
RV (L) 1.4 1.2 1.2
Metabolic
(a-v )O2 diff at rest (ml/100m) 6 6 6
(a-v )O2 diff at rest (ml/100m)
14.5 15.0 16
VO2 at rest (ml kg1 min1) 3.5 3.5 3.5
+
VO2max at rest (ml kg1 min1) 40.7 49.9 81.9
Blood lactate at rest (mmol/L) 1.0 1.0 1.0
Blood lactate max (mmol/L) 7.5 8.5 9.0
Body composition
Weight (kg) 79 77 68
Fat weight )kg) 12.6 9.6 5.1
Fat-free weight (kg) 66.4 67.4 62.9
Fat (%) 16 12.5 7.5
HR = heart rate TV = tidal volume
SV = stroke volume VC = vital capacity
Q = cardiac output RV = residual volume
BP = blood pressure (a-v )O2 diff = arterial-mixed venous oxygen difference
V = ventilation VO2 = oxygen consumption
source: Wilmore, J.H., Costill, D.L., Kenney, W.L., Physiology of sport and exercise, p. 239
ta b le 1 . 5
Physiological
changes as a result
of training
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factors affecting performance chapter 1
As haemoglobin will increase with aerobic training, those athletes with fast twitch fibres and who train
anaerobically may not notice a significant increase in haemoglobin content due to their training programs.
muscle hypertrophy
Muscle hypertrophy refers to an increase in muscle size. As an immediate response to training, the muscle
fibres increase in size as more fluid goes to the muscle. As a response to extended training, the muscles
used will increase in size again as the fibres adapt to the training load and lead to an overall increase in
muscle size. These fibre changes also occur because of structural changes in the fibre by the increased size
of connective tissue or filaments or a combination of both.
effect on fast/slow twitch muscle fibres
The effect of training on the type of muscle fibreseither fast-twitch (explosive movement) or slow-twitch
(longer slower contraction)relates almost directly to specificity. Low-to-moderate activity will recruit slow-
twitch fibres and increase the cross sectional area of these fibres. As the fast-twitch fibres have not been recruited,
there is little change in their structure. Continued training for endurance can lead to slight structural changes in
fast-twitch fibres, but little evidence has been found to indicate fast-twitch fibres change to slow-twitch fibres.
An increase in the number of capillaries to slow twitch muscle fibres will also result in hypertrophy
of those fibres. These slow-twitch muscles are characterised by a high aerobic endurance capacity that
enhances aerobic ATP energy production system. Our modern lifestyle reinforces the recruitment of
slow-twitch muscle fibres in what we do daily. Any training athletes do for fast-twitch fibres must be
maintained, otherwise the effects of training will be lost due to reversibility.
Activities
Activity 1 (Page 86)
a. Design a presentation for coaches which outlines the following requirements of each
energy system:
source of fuel cause of fatigue
duration that the system can operate process and rate of recovery.
Al a c t a c i d s y s t e m Lactic acid Ae r o b i c s y s t e m
o r AT P / C P system
how it works
fuel
efficiency of ATP
production
duration
cause of fatigue
by-products
recovery
exercise type most
suited for this energy
system
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PDHPE in focus hsc course
Activities cont.
c. What is the dominant energy system for each of the following sports:
rugby union? triathlon?
surfing? netball?
golf?
www.brianmac.co.uk
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factors affecting performance chapter 1
Chapter
summary
109