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A Guide To

Coalbed Methane
Operations
A Guide to
Coalbed Methane
Operations

v v v

Copyright 1992 by Gas Research Institute


All Rights Reserved

By

Vicki A. Hollub
Taurus Exploration, Inc. (Birmingham, Alabama)

Paul S. Schafer
Schafer Associates (Oxford, Ohio)
1

About the Authors

Vicki A. Hollub, P.E. works with Taurus Exploration, Inc. as a reservoir engineer at the GRI Rock
Creek research project in Alabama. She previously worked ten years with OXY USA as a drilling
engineer and as a senior production engineer. Vicki holds a B.S. in Mineral Engineering from The
University of Alabama and is a registered professional engineer. She is a member of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers (SPE) and currently serves as chairperson of the SPE Professional Engineering
Registration Committee.

Paul S. Schafer owns and operates Schafer Associates, a consultancy that provides technical
communication services to the petroleum and petrochemical industries. He previously worked ten
years with Marathon Oil Company as a production and operations engineer and as an advanced reservoir
engineer. Paul holds a Master of Technical and Scientific Communication from Miami University at
Oxford, Ohio and a B. S. in Petroleum Engineering from Marietta College. He is a member of the
Society of Petroleum Engineers and the Society for Technical Communication.

Disclaimer
LEGAL NOTICE: This publication was prepared as an account of work sponsored by
Gas Research Institute (GRI) and other organizations. Neither GRI, members of GRI, nor
any person acting on behalf of either:
a. makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respect to the
accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of the information contained in this publication, nor
that the use of any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this publication
may not infringe privately owned rights; or
b. assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from
the use of, any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this publication.

Reference to trade names or specific commercial products, commodities, or services in this


publication does not represent or constitute an endorsement, recommendation, or favoring
by GRI of the specific commercial product, commodity, or service.
1
A
About This Guide

A Guide to Coalbed Methane Operations provides practical


information on siting, drilling, completing, and producing coalbed
methane wells. Whether youre an experienced coalbed methane
producer or youre exploring coalbed methane operations for the first
time, this guide will give you the information you need to make
informed decisions about producing this resource.

This guide is a working reference. It will help you in


planning and performing field activities. Each chapter
provides an overview of key field operations as well as
specific guidelines for performing them. The chapters also
describe the equipment and materials required for each
operation. Though the guide focuses on developing mul-
tiple coal seams in the Black Warrior Basin, you can apply
many of the concepts to other coal basins as well.

You will notice an emphasis on practical applications rather


than lengthy technical explanations and engineering data.
However, if you want to investigate any of the topics in
greater depth, the Additional Resources section at the end
of each chapter will guide you to selected references.

The information in this guide represents the shared knowl-


edge and expertise of many specialists in the coalbed
methane field. Much of this information resulted from
GRIs Rock Creek Methane from Multiple Coal Seams
Completion Project and from several operators and service
company representatives in the Black Warrior Basin of
Alabama. We hope this guide contributes to greater un-
derstanding of coalbed methane production and more
economical development of this gas resource.

i
Table of Contents
About this Guide i
List of Figures and Tables iv
Conventions Used in This Guide vii
Acknowledgments viii
About Producing Coalbed Methane x

Chapter I Selecting and Preparing a Field Site 1-1


Protecting Wetland Areas 1-2
Disposing Produced Water 1-3
Controlling Non-Point Source (NPS) Pollution 1-4
Preventing Spills 1-13
Safety and Operating Guidelines 1-14

Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore 2-1


Planning the Drilling Program 2-2
Drilling the Wellbore 2-32
Coring the Wellbore 2-36
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore 2-4

Chapter 3 Wireline Logging 3-1


Sources for Estimating Reservoir Properties 3-2
Open Hole Logging Tools 3-4
Selecting an Open Hole Logging Suite 3-35
Guidelines for Open Hole Logging 3-36
Cased Hole Logging Tools 3-37
Selecting a Cased Hole Logging Suite 3-41
Guidelines for Cased Hole Logging 3-42
Production Logging Tools 3-44

Chapter 4 Completing the Well 4-1


Reservoir Considerations in Completing Coalbed Methane Wells 4-2
Objectives of Completing the Well 4-2
Completing in Open Hole 4-4
Completing in Cased Hole 4-8
Accessing the Formation 4-10
Selecting Production Tubing 4-27
Working Over Wells 4-27

ii
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams 5-1
Performing a Minifracture Test 5-2
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design 5-4
Preparing for a Fracture Treatment 5-30
Performing a Fracture Treatment 5-35
Evaluating a Fracture Treatment 5-48

Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities 6-1


Estimating the Volume of Water to be Produced 6-2
Pumping Equipment 6-3
Power Supply for Pumping Equipment 6-19
Surface Production Facilities 6-23
Gas Compressors 6-35
Gas Dehydration Equipment 6-40

Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment 7-1


Preparing Surface Facilities for Production 7-2
Unloading the Well 7-3
Bringing the Well on Line 7-8
Troubleshooting Well and Equipment Problems 7-8

Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water 8-1


Characteristics of Coalbed Methane Produced Water 8-2
Regulations and Permitting for Water Disposal 8-6
Considerations for Designing a Water Disposal System 8-8
Methods for Treating and Disposing Produced Water 8-10

Chapter 9 Testing the Well 9-1


Performing Pressure Transient Tests 9-2
Evaluating Production from Multiple-Seam Wells 9-21

Appendix A Summary of Permitting Requirements for Drilling a Coalbed


Methane Well in Alabama
Appendix B Quality Control and Job Supervision Guidelines for Stimulation
Treatments
Appendix C Procedures and Surface Equipment for Implementing the Forced
Closure Fracturing Technique

iii
T
Figures and Tables
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore 2-1
Figure 2-1 The Planning Process for Drilling a Coalbed Methane Well 2-2
Figure 2-2 Setting Casing Through Zones with Lower Fracture Gradients 2-5
Figure 2-3 Selecting Hole Size 2-7
Figure 2-4 Casing Selection Chart 2-11
Figure 2-5 Conventional Rotary and Rotary-Percussion Drilling Techniques 2-16
Figure 2-6 Typical Cementing Manifold 2-50
Figure 2-7 Two Stage Cementing 2-52

Chapter 3 Wireline Logging 3-1


Figure 3-1 Bulk Density Log 3-6
Figure 3-2 Comparison of Conventional and Mineral Logging Density Logs 3-9
Figure 3-3 Dual Induction/Shallow Log 3-13
Figure 3-4 Phasor Induction Log 3-14
Figure 3-5 SP Log 3-20
Figure 3-6 Compensated Neutron Log 3-21
Figure 3-7 Comparison of Cleat Orientation from Microscanner Log & Cores 3-23
Figure 3-8 Sonic Log 3-25
Figure 3-9 Full Waveform Sonic Log 3-27
Figure 3-10 Geochemical and Carbon/Oxygen Log 3-29
Figure 3-11 VOLAN Log 3-30
Figure 3-12 Spectral Gamma Ray Log 3-32
Figure 3-13 Computer-Processed Coal Quality Log 3-34
Figure 3-14 Cement Bond/Variable Density Log 3-40
Figure 3-15 Wellhead Configuration for Annular Logging 3-44
Figure 3-16 Flowmeter Developed for Coalbed Methane Wells 3-46
Figure 3-17 Flowmeter Log 3-47
Table 3-1 Primary Non-Log Sources for Estimating Reservoir Properties 3-2
Table 3-2 Logging Sources for Estimating Reservoir Properties 3-3
Table 3-3 Matrix Densities for Common Formations 3-7
Table 3-4 Photoelectric Absorption Index for Common Formations 3-10
Table 3-5 Total Natural Radioactivity of Common Formations 3-11
Table 3-6 Responses for Logs Commonly Used to Evaluate Coals 3-16
Table 3-7 Logging Tools for Open Hole Exploration Wells 3-35
Table 3-8 Logging Tools for Open Hole Development Wells 3-36
Table 3-9 Logging Tools for Cased Hole Wells 3-42

Chapter 4 Completing the Well 4-1


Figure 4-1 Single-Zone Open Hole Completion 4-5
Figure 4-2 Multiple-Zone Open Hole Completion 4-8
Figure 4-3 Multiple-Zone Cased Hole Completion 4-9

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Figure 4-4 Perforated Cased Hole Completion 4-12
Figure 4-5 Slotted Cased Hole Completion 4-13
Figure 4-6 Fracture Communication from Restricted Access 4-21
Figure 4-7 Limited Entry Multiple-Zone Completion 4-22
Figure 4-8 Lithology of the Well P5 Interseam Completion 4-25

Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams 5-1


Figure 5-1 Instantaneous Shut in Pressure (ISIP) 5-8
Figure 5-2 Wellbore Configurations for Fracturing 5-13
Figure 5-3 "Dead String" for Measuring Bottomhole Pressure 5-16
Figure 5-4 Nolte Plot for Evaluating Fracture Pressures 5-38
Figure 5-5 Tiltmeter Sensor 5-53
Figure 5-6 Tiltmeter Installation 5-54
Figure 5-7 Tiltmeter Displays for Fractures 5-55
Table 5-1 Minifracture Tests 5-2
Table 5-2 Information for Designing a Fracture Treatment 5-5
Table 5-3 Pumping Schedule for a Gel Fracture Treatment 5-28
Table 5-4 Pumping Schedule for a Foam Fracture Treatment 5-29

Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities 6-1


Figure 6-1 Beam Pumping System 6-5
Figure 6-2 Top-Seating Pump Hold-Down 6-8
Figure 6-3 Bottom-Seating Pump Hold-Down 6-9
Figure 6-4 Gas Anchor 6-10
Figure 6-5 Progressing Cavity Pump 6-13
Figure 6-6 Gas Lift Installation 6-16
Figure 6-7 Electric Submersible Pump 6-18
Figure 6-8 Water Flow Path for Fields In Black Warrior Basin 6-24
Figure 6-9 Gas Flow Path for Fields In Black Warrior Basin 6-30
Table 6-1 Artificial Lift Methods for Coalbed Methane 6-4
Table 6-2 Comparison of Gas Flow Meters 6-32
Table 6-3 Typical Sales Gas Specifications 6-33

Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment 7-1


Figure 7-1 Beam Pumping System 7-10
Figure 7-2 Troubleshooting Beam Pumps (I) 7-11
Figure 7-3 Troubleshooting Beam Pumps (II) 7-12
Figure 7-4 Troubleshooting Progressing Cavity Pumps 7-16

Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water 8-1


Figure 8-1 Water Disposal System in Black Warrior Basin 8-13
Table 8-1 Typical NPDES Water Discharge Limitations 8-7

v
Figures and Tables (Cont'd)

Chapter 9 Testing the Well 9-1


Figure 9-1 Slug Test Equipment Configuration 9-4
Figure 9-2 Typical Coalbed Methane Production Decline Curve 9-23
Figure 9-3 Two-Seam Well Test Using the ZIP Tool 9-24
Figure 9-4 Three-Seam Well Test Using the ZIP Tool 9-25
Table 9-1 Data Frequency for Slug Tests 9-8

v i
Conventions Used in
This Guide

S everal special elements in this guides text will help you quickly
identify different types of information:

4. Numbered information gives step-by-step instructions for a


procedure.

n A solid box indicates general guidelines to follow before or


during a particular task.

v A cut diamond highlights a list of characteristics, features,


benefits, or limitations of an object, technique, or procedure.

u A solid diamond describes a circumstance or condition you


might encounter and then explains possible ways to respond to
the situation.

Caution
A triangular caution note warns you about a situation that could
be unsafe, environmentally hazardous, or damaging to equipment.

Important
Information that is particularly important for you to understand is
highlighted with the symbol above.

vii
1
A
Acknowledgments

A Guide to Coalbed Methane Operations was possible because of the


generous contributions of experience and knowledge by the people listed
below:

Dr. Richard Schraufnagel Gas Research Institute (GRI)


Senior Project Manager, Coalbed Methane Engineering
Dr. Schraufnagel generated the concept for this guide and
provided important guidance and support throughout its develop-
ment.

Stephen Spafford Taurus Exploration, Inc.


Manager, Rock Creek Project
Selecting and preparing a field site, drilling, completing, fractur-
ing, and treating and disposing produced water

Francis Dobscha GeoMet, Inc.


Special thanks to Fran for his extensive contributions on selecting
and preparing a field site, drilling, completing, fracturing, select-
ing production equipment, operating wells and production equip-
ment, treating and disposing produced water, and testing wells

Jerry Saulsberry Taurus Exploration, Inc.


Drilling, wireline logging, fracturing, and testing wells

Peter Steidl Taurus Exploration, Inc.


Wireline logging

Paul Stubbs GeoMet, Inc.


Testing wells

Randy McDaniel Taurus Exploration, Inc.


Selecting and preparing a field site, and treating and disposing
produced water

Brian Luckianow Taurus Exploration, Inc.


Selecting and preparing a field site, and treating and disposing
produced water

viii
Jerry Sanders and Eddie Jones Black Warrior Methane, Inc.
Drilling, fracturing, selecting production equipment and facili-
ties, and operating wells and production equipment

Michael Conway Stim-Lab, Inc.


Completing and Fracturing

Allen Neel and Bill Lawrence Black Warrior Drilling and


Completion Company
Drilling and completing

Brad Taff and Ted Martin Halliburton Logging Services, Inc.


Wireline logging

Daniel Felcman and Doug Womack Tidewater Compression


Services, Inc.
Selecting gas compression equipment

Brad Benge and Roger Hudson Tidewater Compression


Services, Inc.
Operating and maintaining gas compression equipment

Richard Montman, Dick Bretzke, and Robert Singleton Halliburton


Services, Inc.
Fracturing and cementing

Jerry Broadway Black Warrior Drilling and Completion Com-


pany
Selecting and operating progressing cavity pumps

Adam Olszewski ResTech, Inc.


Wireline logging

Larry Strider AMPCO Resources, Inc.


Drilling, completing, and selecting pumps

Gary Conner Computalog Wireline Services, Inc.


Production logging

David Stuart Robbins and Myers, Inc.


Selecting and operating progressing cavity pumps

Matt Hollub Graphic Artist


Cover Art

ix
About ProducingCoalbed
Methane

C oalbed methane is produced commercially in the United States, and it


has attracted worldwide attention as a potential source of costcompetitive natu
ral gas. Since the beginning of the coalbed methane industry in the mid1970s,
operators have modified and applied petroleum industry technology to
improve the operation of their fields. However, conventional oil and gas tech-
nology does not always work effectively for producing coalbed methane.
Because coal geology is so different from that of typical gas formations, you
must use a different approach that takes into account:
The composition of the rock. Coal is 90 percent organic, whereas conven
tional gas formations are nearly 100 percent inorganic.

The different mechanical properties of coal. Coal is brittle and


weak, and it tends to collapse in the wellbore.

Coals naturally occurring fractures, or cleats. These fractures,


called face cleats and butt cleats, are extensive in coals. Most coal
reservoirs, however, require hydraulic fracturing to stimulate produc
tion.

Coals gas storage mechanism. Gas is adsorbed or attached onto the


internal surfaces of the coal, whereas gas is confined in the pore spaces
of conventional rocks.

The large volumes of water present in the coal seams. Water must be
pumped continuously from coal seams to reduce reservoir pressure
and release the gas.

The low pressure of coal reservoirs. Backpressure on the wellhead


must be kept low to maximize gas flow. And all produced gas must be
compressed for delivery to a sales pipeline.

The modest gasflow rates from coal reservoirs. Capital outlays and
operating expenses must be minimized to produce an economical
project.

x
These unique characteristics of coalbed reservoirs will allow few ineffi-
ciencies. Successfully developing a coalbed methane field requires pru
dently managing the technical as well as the economic aspects of the project.

To develop techniques for economically producing coalbed methane fields,


Gas Research Institute (GRI) and Taurus Exploration, Inc. designed The
Rock Creek Methane from Multiple Coal Seams Completion Project. This
field research site is located in the Black Warrior Basin southwest of Bir
mingham, Alabama.

The overall objective of this project, initiated in 1983, is to develop tech


nology for more cost-effective production of methane from shallow, thin
multiple coal seams using single vertical wellbores. Ile project has specifi
cally focused on determining the best combination of drilling, completing,
stimulating, and operating techniques to economically produce these wells.

The Rock Creek project and the work of other operators in the Black War-
rior Basin have produced many practical techniques and guidelines for
developing coalbed methane fields. The cooperation and open communi-
cation between operators and service companies in the Black Warrior
Basin have been necessary to advance both basic knowledge and applied
experience in producing methane from coal seams.

xi
1
Chapter
Selecting and Preparing a Field Site

I n selecting and preparing a field site, you will make some of the
most important decisions about the coalbed methane project. These
decisions will affect the environmental, safety and operations aspects
of the project. These factors, in turn, will likely influence the projects
economic success.

Environmental Guidelines
As citizens become increasingly aware of and concerned about envi-
ronmental issues, the number and scope of environmental regulations
continue to grow. Certain activities related to coalbed methane
production are regulated by State and Federal agencies to help prevent
damage to the environment. By incorporating sound environmental
management into the planning and operation of a coalbed methane
field, you will help protect the environment, minimize current regula-
tory requirements, and possibly avoid costly penalties.

You should become familiar with the applicable environmental regu-


lations in your area before selecting and preparing a field site. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has primary jurisdiction
over environmental regulations in the United States, but administra-
tion of regulations varies from state to state. In the Black Warrior
Basin of Alabama, the Alabama Department of Environmental Man-
agement (ADEM) and the Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE) admin-
ister most environmental regulations.
Chapter 1 Selecting and Preparing a Field Site

The primary environmental regulations for developing coalbed


methane sites in the Black Warrior Basin are:
Protecting Wetland Areas

Disposing Produced Water

Controlling Non-Point Source (NPS) Pollution

Preventing Oil Spills

Protecting Historical Sites

Protecting Wetland Areas


The impact of wetlands presents the single most critical regulatory
issue in establishing right-of-way for pipelines, roads, and pads.
Operating coalbed methane facilities often requires some activity in
wetlands (e.g. an access road or a pipeline system). Coalbed methane
facilities or activities which occur in wetlands are regulated and
require a permit.

By knowing wetlands regulations, you can incorporate them into site


planning to avoid or minimize dirt fill placed in wetlands. If you
consider wetlands at the onset of planning, you can likely locate most
facilities in non-wetland (upland) areas and thus avoid or minimize
regulatory permitting.

To identify or verify wetlands areas within the proposed site, you


should have a qualified biologist who knows the wetlands regulations
conduct a field survey. Make sure this wetlands survey is conducted
before completing final field development plans.

Regulatory agencies use The Federal Manual for Identifying and


Delineating Wetlands (Federal Manual) as the technical basis for
identifying and delineating wetlands. The person conducting the field
investigation must be familiar with wetlands and must be trained to use
this manual.

Because the ACOE makes final decisions on jurisdictional wetlands


delineations, you should confirm the findings of the field survey with
the ACOE. If the area is determined to be a wetland, a jurisdictional
wetland boundary should be delineated. If possible, you should move
the proposed facility site to avoid or minimize impacts to wetlands. If
you cannot avoid impacts to wetlands, you must apply for a wetlands

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Disposing Produced Water

permit. For more information about permits, refer to Additional


Resources at the end of this chapter.

Disposing Produced Water


The ability to dispose produced water is key to the successful operation
of a coalbed methane field. Produced water must be managed to
comply with the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES) requirements. The NPDES is governed by the U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency (EPA) and is administered locally by the
states. If NPDES standards are not met, production from the field
could be forced to stop. Therefore, you must carefully plan for the
management of produced water when selecting the field site.

The NPDES program defines the criteria for discharging water


produced from coalbed methane wells into waterways. No produced
water can be discharged into a river or stream without an NPDES
permit. In the Black Warrior Basin, this program is administered by
the Alabama Department of Environmental Management (ADEM).

Your selection of a field site should be based on a thorough analysis


of water treatment and disposal options (refer to Chapter Eight for
more information). Begin by learning the NPDES permitting require-
ments and procedures in your area. Give special attention to the
questions below, which could influence your choice of a site:

What is the maximum volume of produced water which I will


need to dispose?

What is the chemical composition of this water?

Are there waterways near the site that could be used for water
discharge?

Do these waterways have sufficient year-round flow to allow


discharge in compliance with discharge limits?

Are other operators using the same drainage basin to dis-


charge produced water?

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Chapter 1 Selecting and Preparing a Field Site

What discharge limits do the regulatory agencies place on


the waterway overall and on individual dischargers into the
waterway?

What is the life of a discharge permit?

How do I renew a discharge permit?

For more information on treating and disposing of produced water,


refer to Chapter Eight.

Controlling Non-Point Source (NPS) Pollution


The Alabama Department of Environmental Management (ADEM)
defines a pollutant as any item entering a waterbody that changes the
composition of the water. A pollutant entering a waterbody through
a NPDES permitted discharge is called a point source discharge.
However, a pollutant that reaches a waterbody by other means that are
not traceable to an identifiable facility, such as storm water runoff,
seepage, percolation, etc., is called a non-point source discharge.

Non-point source regulation, which is controlled in Alabama by


ADEM and EPA, probably receives the highest priority of any
regulation during coalbed methane development, and has increased
the finding cost for methane significantly in recent years. Therefore,
when planning a field site, you should consider the requirements
concerning non-point source pollution.

One of the best ways to manage potential non-point source discharge


is by implementing a Best Management Practices Plan (BMP) A BMP
presents policies and procedures that can lessen the probability of
initial causes of non-point source pollution. The Coalbed Methane
Association of Alabama developed such a plan to assist operators in
the Black Warrior Basin. This BMP, which is presented below,
provides sound guidelines for:

Controlling Erosion

Siting and Constructing Roads

1-4
Controlling Non-Point Source Pollution

Developing Drilling Locations

Siting and Constructing Pipelines

Preventing Oil Spills

Controlling Erosion
The major component of non-point source pollution is sedimentation
from soil erosion. Sedimentation reduces stream capacities, interrupts
ecosystems, carries other pollutants into a waterbody and may cause
other potential environmental problems. Soil types, which vary
greatly from one location to another, significantly influence soil
erosion characteristics and are a factor in designing and implementing
BMPs.

To minimize erosion when constructing coalbed methane facilities,


practice these general erosion control techniques:

Divert runoff from well sites and roads onto level vegetated
areas, terracing, riprap, or other areas that will disperse the
water and prevent soil erosion.

Install temporary erosion controls such as hay bales and/or silt


fences in the natural drainage areas before or during the
construction of well sites, roads, etc.

Install more permanent erosion control devices (i.e., geotextiles,


riprap, matting, etc.) in areas of severe erosion.

Line, fertilize, and seed and/or mulch roadsides, drilling loca-


tions and pipelines where slopes are sufficient to cause high
velocity flow and erosion.
Perform this operation as soon as practical after construction and
use accepted soil conservation practices.

1-5
Chapter 1 Selecting and Preparing a Field Site

Pave and cover with gravel or plant vegetation on all disturbed


areas, regardless of location.
Perform this operation as soon as practical, and maintain all
erosion controls until the disturbed area is covered or permanent
vegetation is re-established.

Reuse onsite topsoil, if available, on the surface of each site.


This action will help maintain vegetation in disturbed areas.

Siting and Constructing Roads


Roads are necessary to provide access to each well and to facilities.
Permanent access roads are usually built so that equipment can be
moved in and out of the locations as needed initially and during later
maintenance. Roads also provide access for monitoring wells and
facilities.

When siting access roads, follow the guidelines below to the extent
practical:

Use existing roads, when suitable, to prevent further soil


disturbance.

Site roads along ridge lines to minimize road grades and to


lessen the potential of disturbing a water course.

Minimize road grades whenever practical.

When constructing roads, follow the guidelines below whenever


practical:

Construct roads and roadway drainage only under the guid-


ance of a person experienced in road construction techniques
and erosion control.

Install velocity breakers (stabilized water bars) to control high


velocity flow and potential stream erosion.

1-6
Controlling Non-Point Source Pollution

Avoid constructing roads through areas having highly erodible


soils, wetlands or wet meadows.
If necessary to build roads in these areas, use erosion control
methods and wetland road construction techniques to minimize
disturbance.
If operations are not permitted under Section 404 of the Clean
Water Act (Nationwide Permit) you must obtain individual permits
from the U.S. Corps of Engineers (ACOE) before disturbing any
wetland area. In addition, you may need an ACOE permit under the
requirements of Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899
and/or section 193 of the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctu-
aries Act.

Test quarterly for pH any mine tailings (i.e., black or red rock)
used in roadbed construction.
Test each source of black or red rock.
The pH must range from 6 to 9 pH units.
Keep good records of the testing for three years.

Important Never use known hazardous or toxic materials in constructing


roadbeds.

Maintain vegetated filter strips of sufficient length to assist


sediment deposition between streams and roads.
If terrain limitations necessitate, use other permanent methods
(geotextiles, riprap, matting, etc.) instead of or in conjunction with
vegetated filter strips, provided the water course is not altered or
diverted.

Take measures to prevent construction materials (dirt, boul-


ders, rock, trees, etc.) from being deposited into water-bodies.
If these materials inadvertently enter the water, take environmen-
tally sound measures to remove them immediately. These mea-
sures should prevent further environmental damage.

Constructing Stream Crossings


Because of the topography of coalbed methane operations in many
areas, you may need to cross a stream with a road. Roadways can cause

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Chapter 1 Selecting and Preparing a Field Site

more water course disturbance, redirect flow, and/or possibly limit


movement of stream life. Through planning and careful construction,
you can eliminate or significantly lessen potential environmental
damage when crossing streams.

When developing roadstream crossings, follow the guidelines below


whenever practical:

Minimize stream crossings whenever practical. Use existing


culverts, bridges, fords and/or other crossings whenever pos-
sible.

Make stream crossings at right angles to the main stream


channel, when practical and/or when it will limit environmen-
tal damage.

Test quarterly for pH each source of mine tailings (black or


red rock) used for fill material during construction of the
stream crossing.
The pH must range from 6 to 9 pH units.
Keep good records of the testing for 3 years.

Important Never use known hazardous or toxic materials in constructing


stream crossings.

Submit a stream crossing plan for pre-approval to the state


environmental agency.
In Alabama, these plans are based on mean stream water flow of
less than 10 cfs (using the best available historical data). If the
crossing plan is for a stream with mean water flow of 10 cfs or
greater or where there is greater than 200 cubic yards of fill below
the plane of the ordinary high water mark, you must coordinate the
plan with the Alabama Department of Environmental Manage-
ment (ADEM) and the Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE) or the
environmental agency in your state.

1-8
Controlling Non-Point Source Pollution

Developing Drilling Locations


Drilling pads are constructed to allow movement of a drilling rig and
other heavy equipment into the location. This location is usually an all-
weather installation that provides access for field people to maintain
and observe the well.

A drilling or reserve pit is a temporary earthen pit for storing materials


used or generated in drilling or working over the well. The reserve pit
may also be used as an emergency catch basin for location runoff,
water produced during drilling operations, or oil from equipment
which may be inadvertently spilled. This pit helps prevent environ-
mental damage by eliminating discharge of liquids and solids off the
drilling pad.

To eliminate or minimize environmental damage, practice the follow-


ing guidelines, whenever possible, in constructing drilling pads:

Keep the size of the drilling pad as small as practical to lessen


the amount of surface area disturbed.

Minimize all slopes and use appropriate erosion control and


construction techniques to lessen erosion of those slopes.

Construct pads and/or pits at a sufficient distance from a


waterbody for maintenance of a streamside management zone
(SMZ).
A streamside management zone is an area along a stream bank
where existing vegetation is not disturbed, which helps prevent
soil from moving into the stream.
If pads and/or pits are necessarily built adjacent to water bodies,
take appropriate measures to protect that waterbody and water
quality.
If sufficient SMZ area is not available, use other erosion control
measures in conjunction with available SMZ to lessen potential
water quality and water body damage, provided the water course
is not altered or diverted.

Take measures to prevent construction materials (dirt, boul-


ders, rock, trees, etc.) from being deposited into waterbodies.
If these materials inadvertently enter the water, take environmen-

1-9
Chapter 1 Selecting and Preparing a Field Site

tally sound measures to remove them immediately. These


measures should prevent further environmental damage.

Contour sites during construction to prevent stormwater


runoff from creating erosion paths.

To eliminate or minimize environmental damage, practice the follow-


ing guidelines, whenever possible, in constructing drilling pits:

Do not use materials that adversely affect pit wall integrity


(i.e., trees, tree stumps, large boulders, etc.).

Construct pits, if practical, in cut or non-disturbed areas


instead of areas that have been dirt filled.
If necessary, to construct pits in fill, take measures to compact the
pit walls to ensure structural integrity. Compact all fill areas and
all containment pits built in fill material.

Line pits with polyethylene or other non-permeable material


in areas where soil types do not prevent potential contamina-
tion of groundwater.

Dispose of pit waste waters under the guidelines established by


the ADEM Interim Land Application Guidelines (or your
state environmental agency), and the subsequent BMP plans
filed by each operator for handling these fluids.

Do not place in or over levees or walls siphons or openings that


would permit escape of contents thereby causing pollution or
contamination.

Do not allow liquid level in pits to rise within two feet of the pit
levees or walls. Maintain pit levees or walls at all times to
prevent deterioration, subsequent overfill, and leakage of
contents to the environment.

1-10
Controlling Non-Point Source Pollution

Do not place into a reserve pit any oil, trash or other materials
which would increase the difficulty in cleanup of the pit or
otherwise harm the environment.
Properly store or dispose such material according to applicable
state or federal regulations.
Do not burn or bury garbage on site. Dispose all garbage at an
approved landfill site.

You may burn trees and stumps (not household garbage) on


location after notifying the Alabama Forestry Commission
and according to local, State, and Federal regulations.

Empty and close drilling pits by burying them after drilling


and fracturing operations are completed. Contour and seed
the area.
Before closing the pit, drain and haul away liquids in the pit and
remove or perforate the pit liner.

Siting and Constructing Pipelines


Pipelines are necessary in coalbed methane operations
to collect produced water to a central facility and discharge site.
Pipelines are also needed to collect natural gas from individual wells to
compression facilities, and from compression facilities to gas sales
lines. Because pipelines are usually buried, they disturb a water course
for a very short time.

By applying proper erosion/sedimentation control techniques, you can


limit environmental damage. When siting pipelines, follow the guide-
lines below to the extent practical:

Site gathering lines along road rights-of-way.

Minimize stream crossings if you cannot follow roadways.


If necessary to cross streams while constructing a pipeline, mini-
mize stream disturbance and use erosion control techniques to
prevent sedimentation of the stream body downstream of the
crossing.

1-11
Chapter 1 Selecting and Preparing a Field Site

If operations are not permitted under Section 404 of the Clean


Water Act (Nationwide Permit), the operator must obtain indi-
vidual permits from the Army Corps of Engineers before disturb-
ing any wetland area.

Minimize pipeline grades where practical.

Minimize rights-of-way within acceptable pipeline construc-


tion techniques.

When constructing pipelines, follow the guidelines below to the extent


practical:

Construct pipelines only under the guidance of a person


experienced in pipeline construction techniques and erosion
control.

Install water bars on extreme pipeline right-of-way grades to


reduce runoff velocities.

Avoid areas of highly erodible soils, wetlands and wet mead-


ows.
If necessary to construct pipelines in these areas, use erosion
control methods and wetland pipeline construction techniques to
minimize disturbance to these areas.

Maintain vegetated filter strips of sufficient length to assist


sediment depositions between streams and pipelines.
If terrain limitations necessitate, use other permanent methods
(geotextiles, riprap, matting, etc.) instead of, or in conjunction
with, vegetated filter strips.

Backfill trenches with soil according to accepted pipeline


construction techniques.
Minimize pipeline surface disturbance.

1-12
Preventing Spills

Preventing Spills

By properly siting a coalbed methane facility, you can greatly reduce


control requirements and impacts associated with a release event
(spill).

Any coalbed methane operation must prepare a Spill Prevention


Control and Countermeasure Plan (SPCC) to prevent the discharge of
oil from any facility into or upon any waters of the state. This plan is
required under Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 112
(40 CFR 112), Oil Pollution Prevention-Non-Transportation Related
Onshore and Offshore Facilities.

The basic elements of an SPCC Plan consist of the identification and


description of the following:

General setting of the facility

Inventory of spills and potential spill sources

Structures and/or equipment to prevent spills from reaching


waters of the state and conformance with applicable SPCC
guidelines.

The operator of a coalbed methane operation is responsible for


determining which specific parts of the regulation apply to his opera-
tion.

When planning a coalbed methane site, you should carefully consider


where you locate potential oil spill sources such as compressor stations,
bulk waste oil storage, and fuel bulk storage. For example, in most
cases it is advantageous to locate compressors on top of hills or knolls.
However, if a large oil spill occurred at the compressor, oil could
migrate quickly down the hill and into streams.

Siting a facility away from potentially environmentally sensitive areas


such as streams, rivers, and wetlands greatly reduces exposure to any
mitigative action required in the event of an oil release.

Planning facilities to comply with SPCC requirements will help reduce


unforeseen spill cleanup costs. If a spill should occur, effective control

1-13
Chapter 1 Selecting and Preparing a Field Site

measures will help reduce impacts to the environment and necessary


clean-up efforts.

Protecting Historical Sites


To protect any sites having potential historical or cultural significance,
you should have an historical or cultural resource assessment per-
formed on the site before beginning any development. Such an
assessment can identify areas that should not be disturbed and can help
avoid unnecessary problems in developing the site. To find a person
qualified to perform an historical or cultural resource assessment, you
can contact a university or historical center in your area.

Safety and Operating Guidelines


In planning a coalbed methane site, you will make many important
decisions that will affect the safety of workers and the efficient
operation of the field throughout its life. To help ensure a sound site
development plan, follow the guidelines below:

Pre-Planning
Learn all applicable State and Federal environmental regula-
tions before selecting and preparing a site. For more informa-
tion see Environmental Guidelines in this guide.

Important Establish good relations with landowners and residents near


the field site.
These people can be great allies for your project if treated with
courtesy and respect. They may be instrumental in granting
mineral rights and access rights-of-way and in reporting any
trespassing or vandalism at the site.
Meet and talk with landowners and residents individually before
conducting any site surveys or other field activities.
Explain plans for developing the field and what types of activities
they could expect from a coalbed methane operation. Candidly
address their questions, concerns, and fears.

1-14
Safety and Operating Guidelines

Before beginning site development, delineate roads, drilling


pads and pits, and facility locations with visible reference
markers. Carefully review development plans with the site
developers.
These preparations will minimize environmental impact and help
ensure that site developers do not harm life or property of nearby
landowners and residents.

Clearing Timber
If site development will involve clearing a substantial amount
of timber, you may consider contracting with a timber com-
pany to cut and purchase the timber. Obtain necessary autho-
rization from landowners before clearing any timber.
Contracting timbering to a qualified timber company may make
site development safer and easier. In addition, revenue from
selling the timber may help offset any payments to landowners for
timber removed during site preparation.

Constructing Access Roads

Place gravel or similar material on roadbeds to provide a stable


surface for heavy equipment.
Road surfacing is especially important during the winter and wet
seasons.

Plan main access road(s) into the site with the help and
cooperation of a county commissioner (or equivalent public
official) to help ensure safe road design.

Construct roads along ridge tops when practical. Attempt to


design roads so drivers will have a clear line of sight.

Avoid designing roads with sharp curves, blind spots, steep


grades, or in or near streams, valleys, or severe drop-offs.

Place state-approved caution signs on both sides of the en-

1-15
Chapter 1 Selecting and Preparing a Field Site

trance to the road(s) from any highways. Consult the state


Department of Transportation for the correct specifications
and placement of these signs and any other requirements.

Developing Well Sites

Develop the well site at least several months in advance of well


work.
This step will facilitate proper drainage and create a more stable
surface for heavy equipment.

Develop well sites during the dry summer months to signifi-


cantly reduce costs.

Determine the size of the well site based on the space needed
to accommodate not only the drilling rig, but the fracturing
equipment (fluid tanks, pumps, blenders, turbines, etc.) as
well.

Locate production equipment (separators, meters, compres-


sors, tanks, etc.) around the perimeter of the site to create an
open work area near the wellhead.

Locate production equipment (separators, meters, compres-


sors, tanks, etc.) near main gas and water collection lines and
power lines to avoid digging up the well pad area for repairs.

1-16
Additional Resources

Additional Resources

Best Management Practices Plan For Non-Point Source Discharge


Control, Coalbed Methane Resource Extraction Industry, Coalbed
Methane Association of Alabama and Alabama
Department of Environmental Management, 1990.

Environmental Protection Agency Regulations on Oil Pollution


Prevention, 40 CFR 112, March 26, 1976.

Federal Interagency Committee for Wetland Delineation, 1989. Fed-


eral Manual for Identifying and Delineating Jurisdictional Wet-
lands, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and U.S.D.A. Soil
Conservation Service, Washington, D.C. Cooperative
Publication.

Federal Register, Part II Department of Defense, Corps of Engineers,


Department of the Army, 33 CFR Parts 320 through 330, Regulatory
Programs of the Corps of Engineers, Final Rule, Vol. 51, No. 219,
Thursday November 13, 1986, Rules and
Regulations.

Luckianow, B.J., W.C. Burkett, and C. Bertram, Overview of Envi-


ronmental Concerns for Siting of Coalbed Methane Facilities,
Proceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The Univer-
sity of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, (May 13-16).

Simpson, T.E., Environmental Overview, Coalbed Methane Gas


Development in Alabama, 1984-1989, Dames & Moore, 1989.

1-17
2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

T o successfully drill and case a coalbed methane well, you must


consider several operational factors not usually encountered with
conventional wells. For example, most coalbed wells in the Black
Warrior Basin are drilled into relatively shallow (500-3500 feet), low-
pressure coal formations. Because these formations produce very low
rates of gas, project economics require an extremely efficient and cost-
effective drilling program. A significant part of this drilling program
will be shaped by the stimulation treatment and completion methods
you select for the wells. Similarly, the unique mechanical properties
of coals require that you use procedures that avoid damaging the coal
formation. This chapter explains these and other important consider-
ations for drilling a coalbed methane well.

This chapter will guide you through:

Planning the Drilling Program

Drilling the Wellbore

Coring the Wellbore

Casing and Cementing the Wellbore


Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

Planning the Drilling Program


By carefully planning your coalbed drilling program, you can help
ensure productive, economical coalbed methane wells. Figure 2-1
illustrates the steps of an effective planning process. Each of the
steps is explained below.

Figure 2-1
The Planning Process for Drilling a Coalbed Methane Well

1. Collecting 2. Evaluating 3. Selecting


Information Formations Casing Setting Depth

6. Selecting a 5. Selecting Casing 4. Selecting


Drilling Technique Weight and Grade Hole Size

7. Designing the Hydraulics 8. Selecting the


of the Drillstring Drillbit and Drillstring

10. Selecting the Drilling Rig 9. Designing the


and Drilling Equipment Cementing Program

11. Complying with Regulatory


Permitting Requirements

2-2
Planning the Drilling Program

1. Collecting Information
Before you can make informed decisions about a drilling program, you
must learn as much as possible about coalbed drilling and production
operations in your area. Begin by collecting any well information
available from offset coalbed methane operators. You may also find
some of this information recorded as public information at your local
and state oil and gas regulatory agencies. Specifically, you should try
to obtain this well information:

Formation depth, pressure, and production

Type of coal and non-coal formations

Well logs

Rig type and drilling assembly

Drilling fluid specifications

Casing program

Drilling problems encountered

Stimulation and completion methods

In addition, you should talk with drilling contractors who have


substantial experience in your area of interest. You should try to find
out:

Types of rigs, surface and downhole equipment commonly


used

Drilling problems typically encountered

Drilling procedures for eliminating problems

Equipment cost and availability

You should also become familiar with considerations for preparing the
well site for drilling operations. For information on this topic, refer to

2-3
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

Chapter 1 of this guide.

Finally, you should consult with your local and state oil and gas
agencies and environmental agencies to learn what laws and regu-
lations you must follow.

2. Evaluating Formations
After collecting offset well information, you should evaluate any
available well logs and drilling records to determine approximate
depths for prospective coal intervals. You should also attempt to
identify any potential problem zones, such as:

Depleted zones that may cause lost circulation

Sloughing shales

Overpressured zones or water disposal zones

Fresh water aquifers

Accurately identifying prospective coal intervals and problem


zones will help you to design an effective casing and cementing
program.

3. Selecting Casing Setting Depth


To select the casing string and drilling equipment, you must first
determine at which depths to set casing in the wellbore. The casing
setting depths will depend primarily on these factors:

Fracture gradients of coal seams and adjacent


formations

Regulatory requirements

Drilling problems

Isolation of coal seams

Before selecting the casing setting depth, you first must determine
the fracture gradient, or pressure per foot of depth, required to
fracture the coal seams and adjacent formations. In general, you
should set casing through zones that have a fracture gradient that is

2-4
Planning the Drilling Program

significantly different than the fracture gradient of deeper zones.


Figure 2-2 illustrates how an operator could prevent possible lost
circulation problems by setting casing through a low-fracture-
gradient coal seam before drilling ahead through a coal seam
having a significantly higher fracture gradient.

Figure 2-2
Setting Casing Through Zones with
Lower Fracture Gradients

You can predict fracture gradients by using various published


correlations or by using a fracture gradient formula, such as
Eatons Equation, shown below:

F = ( S-P x v
D 1- ) + P
D
v
where:
F = fracture gradient, psi/ft
S = overburden stress, psi
P = wellbore pressure, psi
D = depth, ft
v = Poissons ratio

2-5
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

Fracture gradients for coal seams in the Black Warrior Basin range
from as low as 0.5 psi/ft to over 1.0 psi/ft.

To determine proper casing setting depths, you must also consider the
requirements of state and local regulatory agencies. For example,
regulatory agencies governing the Black Warrior Basin require that
you set a minimum of 300 feet of surface casing in wells up to 4000
feet deep.

You should also consider potential drilling problems when determin-


ing casing setting depths. Set casing to isolate zones that may cause
problems such as water influx, sloughing shales, or abnormal pres-
sures.

Finally, when selecting casing setting depths, you should isolate


prospective coal seams to optimize well completions. For example,
set surface casing deep enough to eliminate drilling problems, but try
not to set surface or intermediate casing across coal intervals that you
plan to complete. A well completed through two strings of casing
(surface and production casing) will likely be much less productive
than a well completed through only one string.

4. Selecting Hole Size


Before the rest of the drilling program can be designed, you must
first determine the sizes of the hole to be drilled. You should base
the hole sizes on the casing program rather than selecting casing
based on a pre-selected hole size. By carefully planning the hole
and casing sizes, you can avoid many operational problems later in
the life of the well.

This section will guide you through the steps for determining
proper hole sizes. Figure 2-3 illustrates the steps in this process.
Each of these steps is explained below.

2-6
Planning the Drilling Program

Figure 2-3
Selecting Hole Size

Production Considerations Other Considerations

Production Performing
Rates Stimulation
Treatments

Artificial Lift Method


Removing Drilling
Cuttings

Tubing Size

Performing Future
Workovers and
Completion Method Recompletions

Select Optimum
Production Casing Size

Select Production
Hole Size

Select Optimum
Surface Casing Size

Select Surface
Hole Size

2-7
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

Production Considerations in Selecting Hole Size


Production Rates
To select optimum hole size, you should begin by esti-
mating the expected water and gas production rates
for the well. You may be able to obtain these esti-
mates from offset well data, as explained earlier in Collecting
Information.

Artificial Lift Method


Next, you must decide what method of artificial lift you
will use to remove water from the wellbore. Because
coalbed methane reservoirs typically have very low
pressures, you must select a lift system that will main-
tain a low wellbore water level to minimize bottomhole pressure
and optimize gas production. For more information on selecting an
artificial lift system, refer to Chapter 6.

Tubing Size
When you design the artificial lift system, you will de-
termine the optimum production tubing size to install in
the well. This decision is based on the type and size of
lift system you select as well as the estimated produc-
tion rates. For more information on selecting tubing
size, refer to Chapter 4.
Important
Selecting an insufficient tubing size may pre-
vent you from effectively dewatering a coalbed
reservoir, and thus severely limit ultimate gas
production.

Completion Method
Next, you should consider how you will complete the
well. Your choice of an open hole or cased hole completion will
influence the amount and size of production casing you run. For
example, you must select casing sizes that will accommodate the
diameter of completion tools (e.g., perforation guns, slotting tools,
underreamers) you will need to complete the well. For more
information on designing the well completion, refer to Chapter 4.
After determining the optimum casing string for your tubing and
completion requirements, you should consider several other factors.

2-8
Planning the Drilling Program

Other Considerations In Selecting Hole Size


Performing Stimulation Treatments
In addition to the production considerations above, you must also
consider whether you will perform a fracture stimulation on the well.
If you plan to fracture the well, determine whether the fracture will be
pumped down the tubing string or down the casing string. If you plan
to pump the treatment down the casing, size the casing large enough
to accommodate the desired treatment rates. In addition, you must
determine whether you will run isolation baffles for fracturing treat-
ments. If you plan to use isolation baffles, you must install them when
you run the casing string. For more information on fracturing
considerations, refer to Chapter 5.
Important
Selecting an insufficient casing size can limit the injection rate or
fluid type needed for an effective fracture treatment.

Removing Drilling Cuttings


You should also determine the hole size required to effectively remove
cuttings from the hole. Because of the shallow, low-pressure coal
formations in the Black Warrior Basin, most wells in this basin are
drilled using compressed air or air mist instead of drilling mud. To
effectively remove cuttings from an air-drilled hole, you must prop-
erly size the hole and the air compressors. The larger the hole size you
select, the greater will be the volume of air required to remove cuttings.
As you increase hole size, you also increase the horsepower required
to lift cuttings. Therefore, when selecting the optimum hole size for
removing cuttings, you must also consider the cost for the size of
compressor you will use.

Performing Future Workovers and Recompletions


When selecting hole size, you should also consider the sizes of any
downhole tools that you may need to run to workover or recomplete
the well in the future. Make sure casing strings have sufficient
clearance to accommodate these tools. For more information on the
types of tools you may need to use, refer to Chapter 4.

2-9
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

Analyzing Production Considerations and Other Considerations

Next, independently evaluate the hole size requirements of each


production and other consideration explained above. Then select the
optimum production casing size that best satisfies all these require-
ments.

For additional guidance in evaluating hole sizes for particular appli-


cations, consult with drilling contractors, service company represen-
tatives, and well operators who are experienced in drilling, stimulat-
ing, completing, and producing coalbed methane wells. These people
can explain the specifications and operation of their tools and discuss
the requirements of your particular operation.

Selecting Optimum Production Casing Size


Select the production casing size that best satisfies all of the produc-
tion and other considerations explained above.

Many operators in the Black Warrior Basin run 4-1/2 inch or 5-1/2
inch production casing. Most of the wells at the Rock Creek Project
were cased with 5-1/2 inch production casing.

Selecting Production Hole Size


The size of the production casing you select will help determine the
size of the production hole required. The hole size you select should
be large enough to prevent the casing from sticking while being run.
In addition, the hole size should allow sufficient annular space to
provide an effective cement job. Many operators in the Black Warrior
Basin drill a 7-7/8 inch production hole to accommodate a 5-1/2 inch
production casing string. For additional guidance in selecting a proper
hole size, refer to Figure 2-4.

2-10
Planning the Drilling Program

Figure 2-4
Casing Selection Chart

You can use this chart to select the casing, hole, and bit sizes for many drilling programs. To use the chart, follow the steps below:
1. Determine the size of the last casing to be run.

2. Enter the chart at that casing size.

3. Follow the arrows to select the hole size required to set that size pipe (e.g., 5 in. casing inside 6-1/8 in. or 6-1/2 in. hole).
Solid lines indicate commonly used bits for that size pipe. This bit size will normally provide adequate clearance to run and
cement the casing (e.g., 5-1/2 in. casing inside 7-7/8 in. hole). Dashed lines indicate less common hole sizes (e.g., 5 in. casing
inside 6-1/8 in. hole). If you select a dashed path, you should carefully consider casing connections, mud weight, cementing,
and doglegs. Large OD connections, thick mudcake buildup, problem cementing areas (high water loss, lost returns, etc.), and
doglegs may aggravate attempts to run casing when clearance is low.

4. Follow the arrows to select a casing large enough to allow passage of a bit to drill the hole selected in step 3.
Solid lines indicate commonly required casing sizes, encompassing most weights (e.g., 6-1/2 in. bit inside 7-5/8 in. casing).
Dashed lines indicate casing sizes for which you can use only the lighter weights (e.g., 6-1/8 in. bit inside 7 in. casing).

5. Repeat steps 2-4 until you have selected all casing sizes for the well.

2-11
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

Selecting Optimum Surface Casing Size


The size of the production casing you select will determine the size of
the surface casing string to run. You should select surface casing large
enough to accommodate the bit needed to drill the hole for the
production casing string. If you plan to run a cement collar on the
production string, make sure the drift diameter of the surface casing
is large enough to accommodate the bit required to provide the
maximum hole size for the cementing collar, as specified by the
cementing collar manufacturer.

Many operators in the Black Warrior Basin run an 8-5/8 inch surface
casing string. Most of the wells at the Rock Creek Project were also
cased with 8-5/8 inch surface casing.

Selecting Surface Hole Size


The size of the surface casing you select will determine the size of the
surface hole required. Many operators in the Black Warrior Basin drill
a 12-1/4 inch surface hole to accommodate an 8-5/8 inch surface
casing string. For additional guidance in selecting surface hole size,
refer to Figure 2-4.

5. Selecting Casing Weight and Grade


Before beginning your casing and cementing program you should
obtain a casing and cementing handbook from one of the major
oilfield service companies. This handbook provides specifications
and other useful information on casing and cementing equipment
and materials.

When you design a casing string, you must consider three principal
forces:

Burst Pressure

Collapse Pressure

Tensile Load

2-12
Planning the Drilling Program

Burst Pressure
Burst pressure refers to a condition of unbalanced internal pressure.
Burst pressure is probably the most important factor in designing
the coalbed casing string because the pipe will likely experience the
greatest pressures during fracturing stimulations, when treating
pressures can exceed 5000 psi. You can estimate the treating
pressures required by using the fracture gradients you predicted
when determining casing setting depth (step 3 above). Once you
have estimated fracture gradients for the coal seams of interest, you
can select the proper casing weight and grade. For more informa-
tion on casing specifications, refer to a service company casing
handbook.

Collapse Pressure
Collapse pressure is the unbalanced external pressure imposed on
the pipe. The worst operational case is for the pipe to be empty
with a normal hydrostatic pressure gradient exerted on it from the
outside. The greatest differential pressure exerted on the casing is
most likely to occur during flowback of a fracture treatment or
during the later stage of production when pressure inside the
wellbore decreases significantly. You should design the casing
string for this worst case scenario.

Typically, water levels in coalbed wells are pumped down to


minimize hydrostatic pressure and optimize gas production. The
collapse pressure becomes a more significant factor in deeper
coalbed wells. Because of the relatively shallow wells (500-3500
feet) in the Black Warrior Basin, casing collapse has posed few
problems in this area. However, the collapse strength of the casing
may be reduced by mechanical operations such as slotting or high
density perforating.

Tensile Load
Tensile load is the force exerted on a joint by the weight of the
joints below it. Because each joint supports all the weight below it,
the greatest tension occurs at the top of the string. Most coalbed
wells in the Black Warrior Basin are shallow; therefore, tensile load
is not a primary consideration for this area.

Production casing is usually available in sizes ranging from 4.5 inches


to 7.0 inches and in a variety of weights and grades. Casing is also

2-13
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

classified as API (American Petroleum Institute) standard casing or


limited service casing. API standard meets all specifications for wall
thickness, outside diameter, inside diameter, drift, collapse, internal
yield, and joint yield strength ratings for its respective grade.

Limited service casing is also called mill reject because one or more
specifications does not meet API standards. However, limited service
casing may also be tested to 80 percent of the minimum yield as set
forth by API specifications. Therefore, to reduce cost you may choose
to use limited service casing for some applications.

Typical casing grades are F-25, H-40, J-55, K-55, C-75, N-80,
C-95, and P-110. These grades represent the strength of the casing. A
variety of casing weights and wall thicknesses is also available for use
according to well conditions. Select the size, weight, and grade of
production casing based on the individual well design and completion
technique. For more information on completing coalbed methane
wells, refer to Chapter 4.

Important
Before ordering casing, find out the limitations of casing weight
and length for the rig you will use to run the tubulars. By
ordering Range Two casing and tubing, which have lengths of
28-32 feet, you may be able to use a smaller, less costly rig.

Casing Used in the Black Warrior Basin


Most Black Warrior Basin operators complete coalbed methane
wells simply using a production string set through a shallow sur-
face casing. They generally run 5-1/2 inch casing in a 7-7/8 inch
hole. The surface casing usually consists of 300 feet of 8-5/8 inch
casing set in a 12-1/4 inch hole.

Caution Using casing smaller than 4-1/2 inch (O.D) limits the size of
production tubing you can run inside it. If the casing/tubing
annulus is too small, the flow path for gas will be restricted and
the annulus can easily plug.

2-14
Planning the Drilling Program

6. Selecting A Drilling Technique


To select the most effective drilling technique for your area of
interest, you must consider the geologic and reservoir conditions of
the coal basin. Generally, wells drilled in the eastern United States
target shallow coal beds (less than 4000 feet) in geologically older
(Pennsylvanian) and more competent formations. Operators in this
area usually employ relatively simple drilling techniques. In
contrast, complex drilling techniques are used to drill wells in the
western United States, which usually target younger (Cretaceous)
formations that are deeper, over-pressured, and less competent.

Operators in the Black Warrior Basin frequently drill coalbed wells


using the rotary-percussion technique, with air or air-foam mist as
the circulating fluid. Figure 2-5 shows a comparison of the con-
ventional rotary and the rotary-percussion drilling techniques.

Rotary-percussion drilling has become a standard technique in the


Black Warrior Basin because it typically yields higher penetration
rates and lower drilling costs than conventional rotary drilling. In
addition, the rotary-percussion technique minimizes formation
damage because it uses no drilling mud.

In the northern end of the Black Warrior Basin, where the surface
formations are hard, coalbed wells are often drilled from surface to
total depth using the rotary-percussion technique. In this area,
drilling with a tri-cone rotary bit yields lower penetration rates
because at shallow depths it is not possible to apply sufficient
weight on the bit.

In the southern end of the Black Warrior Basin, however, where the
softer Cretaceous formations are encountered from surface to as
deep as 500 feet, the surface hole must be drilled using a tri-cone
rotary bit with drilling fluid (usually water) to prevent hole col-
lapse. After drilling through the Cretaceous formations and setting
surface casing, drillers usually switch to rotary-percussion drilling
to achieve greater penetration rates in the harder formations.

Most of the coalbeds in the Black Warrior Basin are water satu-
rated, low pressure, low permeability formations. In some parts of
the basin, little formation water flows into the wellbore during
drilling, and air circulation can easily remove not only cuttings, but
any produced water as well. When the wells at the Rock Creek site

2-15
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

were drilled, a mixture of water and liquid soap was added to the
compressed air to enhance lifting of cuttings and cleaning of the
hole. For more information on removing drilling cuttings, refer to
step 7, Designing the Hydraulics of the Drillstring.

Figure 2-5
Conventional Rotary and Rotary-Percussion
Drilling Techniques

2-16
Planning the Drilling Program

In most cases, you can achieve the greatest penetration rate in hard
formations by using a percussion bit with an air hammer. However, if
you encounter a particularly hard formation when drilling with a tri-cone
roller bit, you may switch from air to water to better cool the bit. All of
the wells at the Rock Creek site were drilled using only air or air mist
as the circulating fluid.

The main benefits and limitations of drilling with air circulation are:

Benefits
Eliminates possible filtration damage to coal

Reduces loss-of-circulation problems

Provides straighter holes because of less weight-on-bit

Lower cost because no mud is used

Faster drilling rate

Limitations
Unable to effectively lift large volumes of water

Bit gauge can degrade appreciably during drilling

Drillpipe can wear excessively from sandblasting effect

Air compressor packages may not be available in some areas

When drilling in some parts of the Black Warrior Basin, you may
encounter permeable faults and fracture systems that produce large
volumes of water. Because state and federal environmental regulations
prohibit overflow of drilling pits, you must stop air drilling if a well
produces water faster than it can be hauled away. This problem can
severely jeopardize projects with economics based on the lower cost of
air drilling.

Water producing zones can also cause loss of circulation problems with
wellbores that are rotary drilled with fluid. Using conventional lost
circulation materials to control fluid loss has sometimes proven ineffec-
tive and expensive. In addition, lost circulation materials may greatly
reduce the effective permeability and the gas producing potential of coal
formations. Similarly, squeeze cementing to control water influx and
loss of returns can be prohibitively expensive.

2-17
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

Alternating Drilling with Air Mist and Water


To solve these water problems, a drilling contractor in the Black
Warrior Basin has successfully used a system of alternately drilling
with air mist and water. The contractor has successfully demon-
strated that if the wellbore is generally competent, you can drill
with air mist until all surface recovery tanks are full of produced
formation water. You can then continue drilling by switching to
water circulation until the surface storage tanks are pumped dry.
By continuing this process of alternating air mist and water drill-
ing, you can drill to the total depth of the well. This technique of
alternating drilling fluids can minimize excess water production
and allow you to reach target depths without pumping potentially
damaging lost circulation materials or expensive squeeze cement
treatments. For more information on this technique, refer to
Additional References at the end of this chapter.

To optimize the alternating fluid technique, you should strive to


circulate a mixture of air and water that will balance the pressure in
the hole. That is, the mixture should neither permit a large influx
of water into the wellbore nor a large loss of fluid to formations.
This balance requires carefully monitoring the drilling pits and
adjusting the water/air mixture. When you achieve the proper
mixture, the pits will neither lose nor gain large amounts of water.

If you use the alternating fluid technique, you should use bits that
do not contain jets. (Air bits usually do not have jets installed.) If
you must use jets, they should be large enough to keep standpipe
pressure below maximum compressor pressure. (For more infor-
mation on drillbits, refer to step 8, Selecting the Drillbit and
Drillstring).

Caution When drilling with a rotary-percussion assembly, you cannot


use the technique of alternating air mist and water. Percussion
hammers operate pneumatically and will not tolerate large
amounts of water.

2-18
Planning the Drilling Program

7. Designing the Hydraulics of the Drillstring


Designing a hydraulics program for the drillstring involves select-
ing the proper combination of drilling fluids and drillbits. An
optimum drilling hydraulics program can accelerate drilling rate
and lower rig cost. A poorly designed program can slow penetra-
tion, increase cost, and possibly damage the formation.

The design of the hydraulics program for deep coalbed methane


wells can be complex. If you plan to drill in an area where drilling
fluids are needed to control formation pressure and maintain
wellbore integrity, you should consult with experienced drilling
engineers. They can use hydraulics software to determine the
optimum design for your application. Service companies can also
assist you in designing an effective hydraulics program.
Fortunately, most coalbed methane wells in the Black Warrior
Basin can be drilled with air and thus require a relatively simple
hydraulics program. The three main considerations in designing
the hydraulics program are:

Minimizing Damage to Coal Formations

Effectively Cleaning the Hole

Cooling and Lubricating the Bit

Minimizing Damage to Coal Formations


By minimizing damage caused by invasion of drilling fluids into
prospective coal intervals, you can help ensure optimum gas pro-
duction rates. You should drill holes using air, air mist, or water
instead of drilling muds, when possible, to minimize formation
damage. Air circulation exposes the coal to less solids and chemi-
cal additives, and it exerts minimal hydrostatic pressure on the coal.

Important If you need to use a drilling fluid to control formation pressures,


you should carefully select the type of fluid and additives. If
formation pressures permit, the safest and most economical fluid
to use is fresh water with a small amount of bentonite to add
viscosity. Using heavy muds could plug or even fracture the coal.
You should use them only as a last resort. You should also avoid
chemicals that could damage the coals.

2-19
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

Effectively Cleaning the Hole


Effectively removing drilling cuttings from the hole increases the
penetration rate and thus reduces rig time. Keeping the hole clean
can also increase the life of the drillbit. Air drilling removes
cuttings from the hole effectively if the air is circulated at an
adequate rate.

Determining the Air Rate Needed to Lift Cuttings


The optimum air circulation rate is a function of drilling depth, the
annular area between drillpipe and hole, and the rate of penetration.
In 1957, R. R. Angel published a set of charts that show the mini-
mum air circulation rate at various depths for given drillpipe
diameters and hole sizes. These charts are based on the minimum
annular velocity of 3000 ft/min, which is necessary to lift cuttings
from the hole. Angel converted this velocity to volumetric flow
rates based on depth, the annular areas for various pipe and hole
sizes, and the effects of bottomhole pressures and air compressibil-
ity on the downhole volumes.

Recent research has shown the actual volumetric rate of flow


necessary to efficiently lift cuttings is slightly higher than the
volumes in the Angel curves. Some drilling contractors in the
Black Warrior Basin recommend using an air volume at least 25%
greater than the values in the Angel curves.

Determining the Air Pressure Needed for Air Drilling


To effectively clean the hole, you must also inject air at sufficient
pressure to keep cuttings from falling back. Determining the
required surface, or injection, pressure in advance of drilling will
help you to properly size the air compressor for the job.

You can estimate the required surface air pressure using the equa-
tion below:

Psurf = Pf + Pah + Pcsg

where:
Psurf = the compressor discharge pressure at the surface

Pf = the friction pressure of air in the drillpipe and the friction


pressure of air, water, and cuttings in the annulus

2-20
Planning the Drilling Program

Pah = the total hydrostatic head in the annulus minus the hydro-
static head in the drillpipe.

Pcsg = the backpressure on the discharge line to the drilling pit.


(This pressure should be zero under normal drilling
conditions.)

The most difficult variable to estimate is Pah. For example, if you


are drilling with air and there is no influx of formation water into
the annulus, there would be air in the drillpipe and air plus cuttings
in the annulus. Thus, Pah could be near zero, depending on the
amount of cuttings in the annulus. However, if water flows into the
annulus, Pah would be essentially equal to the hydrostatic pressure
created by that water influx.

Because it is difficult to predict the amount of water influx, it is


likewise difficult to accurately estimate the surface air pressure
required. In the Black Warrior Basin, drilling contractors have
found they can drill a 7-7/8 inch hole with an air compressor capable
of an air injection rate of 2000 cfm. Most compressors used for air
drilling have a maximum allowable discharge pressure of 350 psi. If
you need greater pressure, you can route the primary compressor
through a booster compressor.

If you are drilling with an air percussion hammer, you should


consult the hammer manufacturers air pressure charts for the
surface pressure required to operate the hammer.

Using Air Mist to Remove Cuttings


To enhance removal of cuttings, you can use a mixture of air, water,
and chemicals to create an air mist drilling fluid. Common chemical
additives for air mist systems are detergents for foaming, lubricants
for reducing friction, corrosion inhibitors, and viscosifiers.

Because air mist fluids have a higher viscosity than air fluids, they
can effectively lift cuttings at a much lower flow velocity than air.
For example, air circulation usually requires a flow velocity of
3000 ft/minute to effectively clean the hole, whereas a stable foam
fluid may require a velocity of only 200-300 ft/minute. The high
flow velocity needed for air drilling can erode and enlarge the hole,
greatly reducing the ability to remove cuttings.

2-21
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

To effectively remove cuttings from an air or air mist hole, you


must properly size the hole and the air compressors. The larger the
hole size you select, the greater will be the volume of air required
to remove cuttings. Therefore, as you increase hole size, you also
increase the horsepower required to lift cuttings. When selecting
the optimum hole size for removing cuttings, you must also con-
sider the cost for the size of compressor you will use.

Cooling and Lubricating the Bit


In wells drilled with drilling mud, the mud helps reduce the large
amount of heat that is generated as the bit cuts through rock. Muds
also help to reduce the torque and drag on the drillstring by lubri-
cating the wellbore.

When drilling with air or air mist, you do not have the advantage of
drilling fluid in the wellbore to cool the bit. However, specially
designed tri-cone rotary bits are available for air drilling. These
bits contain ports that allow air to circulate around the bearings in
the bit to dissipate heat and extend bit life.

When using a common rotary bit with air mist drilling, the water in
the mist helps to cool the bit. If you encounter a particularly hard
formation when drilling with a tri-cone roller bit, you may switch
from air to water to better cool the bit. You will find more infor-
mation on drillbits for air drilling in the next section.

8. Selecting the Drillbit and Drillstring


The drillstring includes the drillbit, drill collars, and drillpipe. In
some areas, you may also use stabilizers to control hole deviation.

DRILLBITS
When determining the bit program for a coalbed well, you should
consider these factors:

Bit cost
Formation types
Drilling techniques
Hydraulics
Rig cost

2-22
Planning the Drilling Program

Before selecting the bits for your drilling program, the data that you
gathered as discussed in Section 1 should provide information about
formation types, drilling techniques, and commonly used hydraulics.
The bit records of offset wells should be included in that data. If not,
this type of information can often be obtained from bit suppliers. A
review of the offset bit records will help to estimate the number and
types of bits to use.

You will determine the size of the drillbits based on the sizes of the holes
for the surface casing and production casing, which you selected in step
4, Selecting Hole Size, earlier in this chapter.

The bits most commonly used in drilling coalbed methane wells are tri-
cone rotary bits and percussion bits.

Tri-Cone Rotary Bits


The sealed bearing,tri-cone rotary bit is the most common and the most
versatile bit used in the oil and gas industry. These bits are available for
drilling a variety of different formations.

A specially designed tri-cone rotary bit is available for air drilling. This
bit contains ports which allow air to flow through the bearing assembly
for cooling. Most tri-cone air bits are open port bits and are thus more
susceptible to corrosion than sealed bearing tri-cone rotary bits.

If you drill with air only, a tri-cone air bit may provide the longest bit
life. However, if you plan to alternate drilling air mist and water, a
sealed bearing bit will likely last longer. You should consider using
sealed bearing bits to provide the flexibility of drilling with either air-
mist or water.

Percussion bits
Percussion bits are used in combination with air hammers. This type of
bit is used exclusively for drilling hard formations with air or air-foam
mist. As discussed earlier in step 6, Selecting a Drilling Technique,
percussion drilling is necessary when drilling hard formations at very
shallow depths. Percussion bits with air hammers cannot be used in soft
or sloughing formations. A typical percussion bit and air hammer is
shown in Figure 2-5. If you encounter a soft formation, such as the
Cretaceous in the Southwestern part of the Black Warrior Basin, you
should use tri-cone rotary bits with fluid.

2-23
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

At the Rock Creek project, the surface holes were drilled with
rotary bits because the first several feet of the hole are in a soft
formation. Because the State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama
required less surface casing then than it does now, drilling was
continued with the rotary bit down to the setting depth for the
surface casing. After setting surface casing, the production holes at
Rock Creek were drilled with percussion bits and air hammers.

Drill Collars
To select the number of drill collars for the drillstring, you must
consider the weight-on-bit that the operator or drilling contractor has
determined necessary to drill the hole. You can determine the opti-
mum weight-on-bit by conducting drilloff tests or by estimating it
from offset bit records. For more information on determining weight-
on-bit, you may consult with drilling contractors in your areas of
interest as well as drillbit suppliers.

When air drilling, the drillstring and bottomhole assembly (BHA) are
subjected to high vibration loads. This vibration is often extreme on
the bottomhole assembly and the connection between the BHA and the
drillpipe, especially when drilling hard formations. To protect the
drillstring and the drillstring/BHA connection, you should design the
drillstring so that the neutral point between axial, tensile, and com-
pressive stresses during normal drilling is located in the drill collars.
You can calculate the length of drill collars needed to achieve this
condition by using this equation:

Length of drill collars = BW ,ft


(BF) (CW)

where:

BW = Desired bit weight, lb

BF = Buoyancy factor, dimensionless


(The BF for air is 1.0 because the collar weights are
measured in air.)

CW = Collar Weight (in-air), lb/ft

2-24
Planning the Drilling Program

Industry experts recommend adding ten percent to this calculation


to account for unforeseen forces such as bounce, hole friction, hole
deviation, etc.

Operators in the Black Warrior Basin typically run enough 6-inch


collars to provide a weight-on-bit of approximately 5000
pounds/inch for tri-cone bits and 500 pounds/inch for air-hammer
bits.

Drillpipe
When selecting drillpipe, you should base your selection on the
worst case drilling scenario. If you are drilling wells in a devel-
oped area, consult with drilling contractors in the area. They likely
have gained enough experience to recommend drillpipe designs that
work effectively in that area. In the Black Warrior Basin, most
drilling contractors use 4-1/2 inch drillpipe. For more information
on designing drillstrings, refer to Additional Resources at the end of
this chapter.

Stabilizers
Stabilizers are sometimes run in the drillstring to control hole
deviation. The operator must usually decide what arrangement of
stabilizers, if any, to run. When determining the type and number
of stabilizers to run, you should consider the desired weight-on-bit,
penetration rate, and type of formations to be drilled. To learn
what arrangements of stabilizers work best in your area of interest,
you should consult with drilling contractors in the area.

In most parts of the the Black Warrior Basin, drilling contractors do


not use stabilizers because controlling hole deviation is not a
problem. Most of the wells in the basin are drilled with air or air
mist. Because air drilling requires less weight-on-bit than fluid
drilling, there is less tendency for the bit to walk, or deviate.

However, in a few parts of the Black Warrior Basin stabilizers are


needed to prevent deviation. These are areas where the formations
are stressed by extensive faulting and folding. When stabilizers are
used, the typical bottomhole assembly includes:
Drillbit
Percussion hammer

2-25
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

Short drill collar


First stabilizer
Full drill collar
Second stabilizer

Check Valves
You should install check valves at specific intervals in the
drillstring to:

Prevent backflow of cuttings into the drillstring during


connections or other shut-downs that would otherwise plug
the bit.

Reduce the volume of air that must be bled off when mak-
ing a connection.

To learn what combination of check valves works best in your area


of interest, consult with drilling contractors experienced in the area.
For the Rock Creek Project, check valves were usually placed at
intervals of 400 feet in the drillstring.

9. Designing the Cementing Program


Because coals have a low mechanical strength, you must design the
cementing program to prevent the weight of the cement from
fracturing the coal formations. You can avoid fracturing coal
formations during cementing by selecting proper cement and
additives and proper cementing techniques.

Selecting Cement and Additives


To select a cement that is strong enough to provide a sufficient
bond, but that will not fracture the coal because of its weight,
follow these procedures:

2-26
Planning the Drilling Program

1. Determine the fracture gradient of the coal formation(s) you


plan to cement.
For more information on fracture gradients, see step 3, Selecting
Casing Setting Depth, earlier in this chapter.

2. Determine the depth for the top-of-cement based on regula-


tions of the oil and gas regulatory agencies.

3. Using the equation below, calculate the maximum cement


density that the coal can support.

Maximum height of cement = FG-(0.052 m Td) , ft


0.052(c - m)

where:

FG = fracture gradient of the coal, psi/ft

m = density of drilling mud in the hole, lbs/gal

c = density of the cement, lbs/gal

Td = depth to the coal seam, ft

4. If the coal formation(s) cannot support a cement column to


the required top-of-cement depth (using a cement with the
lightest acceptable density), calculate the maximum height
of cement the coal can support.

5. Design a two-stage cement job based on the height of cement


calculated in step 4.

For more information on specific types of cement and additives,


refer to Selecting Cement and Additives, later in this chapter.

2-27
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

Selecting Cementing Techniques


Use cement placement techniques that will minimize stress on the
coal formations. For information on these techniques, refer to
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore, later in this chapter.

10. Selecting the Drilling Rig and Drilling Equipment


After you have designed the casing, drillstring, and hydraulics
programs, you can select a drilling rig. If the availability of drill-
ing rigs is limited in your area, you may have to modify the casing,
drillstring, and hydraulics programs to meet the rigs capabilities.

When selecting a rig for your drilling program, consider each of


these factors explained below:

Type of Drilling Rig


Air Compressors
Derrick
Drive System
Blowout Preventers or Diverter System
Other Rig Equipment

Type of Drilling Rig


You can normally use a portable (truck-mounted) rig to drill
shallow coalbed methane wells. Portable rigs are normally more
economical than conventional rigs because they require less rig-up
and rig-down time. Most wells drilled in the Black Warrior Basin
are drilled with portable rigs.

Air Compressors
In the Black Warrior Basin, most wells are drilled with compressed
air. To determine the number and size of air compressors needed
to drill a particular well, you must first estimate an air circulation
rate and maximum injection pressure. For information on estimat-
ing air circulation rate and injection pressure, refer to step 7,
Designing the Hydraulics of the Drillstring, earlier in this chapter.

2-28
Planning the Drilling Program

At the Rock Creek site, an auxiliary compressor was used to pro-


vide the additional volumes of air at higher pressures needed to
drill deeper formations and formations that produced large volumes
of water. The auxiliary compressor ensured sufficient air velocity
to carry cuttings to the surface. It also helped prevent flooding the
downhole air percussion hammer with excessive water.

Derrick
You should select a rig with a derrick weight capacity that will
enable the operator to use the designed drillstring and to run the
desired casing string. The maximum loading on the rig usually
occurs when running casing. You should also select a derrick
height (single or double stand) that fits your well location size and
is compatible with the depth of your well. The increased cost for a
rig that can run doubles (two joints of pipe connected), may be
justified in deeper wells because it could significantly reduce trip
time. However, a rig with a single-stand derrick is usually suffi-
cient for most coalbed wells.

In the Black Warrior Basin, drilling contractors generally use single


and double rigs. Some portable rigs have a derrick capacity up to
350,000 pounds, which is more than adequate for drilling in the
Black Warrior Basin.

Drive System
In general, you can choose from two types of drive systems. The
most common system is the conventional rotary table and kelly used
in most oil and gas fields.

The other is a top-drive system. The top-drive system uses a power


swivel on top of the drillstring to rotate the string. The power swivel
eliminates the rotary table and kelly. Because the top-drive system
requires fewer drillpipe connections, it can reduce drilling time as
well as provide greater safety.

In the Black Warrior Basin, drilling companies use both conventional


drives and top drives. The selection of a drive system is mostly a
matter of personal preference and rig availability.

2-29
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

Blowout Preventers or Diverter System


The blowout preventer (BOP) stack used to drill most conventional
wells includes a set of pipe rams, blind rams, and an annular
preventer. However, drilling contractors in the Black Warrior
Basin do not use a conventional BOP stack. Instead, they use a
diverter system. The diverter system consists of an annular
preventer called a rotating head and two remotely-controlled valves
which open to separate flowlines that vent to the reserve pit.

Other Rig Equipment


Though the equipment listed below is usually supplied by the
drilling contractor, you should verify that the equipment has the
proper capacity and other specifications to meet the requirements of
the job.

Blooey Line
The return line, or blooey line, carries the exhaust air and cuttings from
the annulus to the flare pit. The blooey line should be long enough to
keep dust from interfering with rig operations. In most cases, the line
should be 100-300 feet long.

You should size the blooey line so that the internal cross-sectional area
is about 10% greater than the annular area of the near-surface
borehole. This slightly larger area is needed to compensate for the
fluid energy loss that occurs as the air and cuttings make a 90-degree
turn from vertical flow to horizontal flow under the rig floor.

The end of the line should terminate downwind from the prevailing
wind direction. You should also make sure the end of the blooey line
is tied down securely.

Chemical Pumps
Chemical pumps are used to inject water or chemical foamers into the
wellbore during drilling.

Orifice Plate Meter


A standard orifice plate meter is normally used to measure the rate of
air circulation. The size of the orifice plate selected will depend on the
circulation rate needed to effectively clean the hole. To ensure
accurate readings, make sure the meter has been calibrated recently.
An alternative to the orifice plate meter is the turbine meter. If no

2-30
Planning the Drilling Program

meter is available, you can estimate the air rate based on the size of the
compressor and the suction and discharge pressures.

Pump Gauges
Accurate pressure gauges should be installed on the standpipe and at the
compressor discharge. These gauges can be used to monitor wellbore
conditions and predict potential downhole problems.

Bleed-Off Line
A bleed-off line should be installed to bleed pressure off the standpipe
and the drillpipe down to the top check valve. This pressure is bled
through the blooey line.

Burn Pit
A burn pit at the end of the blooey line can be used to catch any wellbore
effluent (such as chemicals or hydrocarbons) that would otherwise
contaminate the reserve pit. Because few chemicals are used to drill
coalbed methane wells in the Black Warrior Basin, contamination of
the reserve pit is usually not a problem. Thus most drilling contractors
vent the blooey line directly to the reserve pit.

11. Complying With Regulatory Permitting Requirements


Before spudding a well, you must satisfy all state and federal regulatory
requirements. In some states, two or more regulatory agencies are
involved in permitting wells. Typically, one agency regulates actual
well activities (drilling permits, well completion permits, pit prepara-
tion, production allowables, etc.). However, several other agencies
may regulate the environmental aspects of site selection, site prepara-
tion, spill prevention, spill clean-up, and disposal of produced water.
For information on selecting and preparing a field site, refer to Chapter
1. For information on treating and disposing produced water, refer to
Chapter 8.

In some states, obtaining necessary permits requires approval from


several different agencies which work interdependently. Therefore, in
many cases you may have to obtain all required environmental audits
and/or permits before the oil and gas regulatory agency will grant
approval to spud a well. Consequently, permitting can be a lengthy

2-31
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

process, depending on the number of agencies involved and their


relationships with each other. In some states, the process to permit a
well could take as long as six months to a year.

When planning a coalbed project, you should read and understand


the state and local regulations that may affect your operation. In
most states, the initial application for a permit to drill a well must
include a certified survey showing the exact well location. Some
field procedures, such as cementing and testing casing, may require
that you notify the proper agency and obtain approval before
proceeding on to the next step in the operation.

Though permitting requirements vary from state to state, many


requirements are similar. To get some sense of typical regulations
for coalbed methane operations, refer to the summary of
Alabamas well permitting procedures, shown in Appendix A.

Drilling the Wellbore


Drilling practices for coalbed methane wells can vary significantly
from one coal basin to another. The depth and geology of the coal
seams generally determine the drilling techniques and equipment
that work best. When you are new to an area, you often can avoid
many drilling problems and save considerable money by applying
the experience gained by other operators in that area. Try to keep
an open mind about unfamiliar practices that at first seem inappro-
priate. They may turn out to be the most successful and cost-
effective methods.

During the past 10 years, operators and drilling contractors in the


Black Warrior Basin have learned much about drilling coalbed
methane wells through trial and error. They have found the general
procedures below particularly effective for drilling coalbed meth-
ane wells in the Black Warrior Basin:

Caution 1. Before beginning drilling, stake down the return (Blooey)


line and chain down all compressed air lines. An air line
that blows out can seriously harm workers if it is not prop-
erly secured.

2-32
Drilling the Wellbore

2. If there is any loosely compacted fill dirt at the surface, install


conductor casing through it. Drill a 16-inch surface hole and
install 14-inch conductor pipe down to solid earth. Backfill
and compact dirt around the outside of the conductor pipe.
The conductor casing provides for return of drilling water while
drilling the surface hole and for cement slurry while cementing
surface casing.

3. Drill the initial part of the surface hole (20-30 feet) using a tri-
cone roller bit with compressed air.

If the surface formations are unconsolidated (such as the


Cretaceous section in the Black Warrior Basin), drill these
formations using tri-cone rotary bit with drilling fluid.

4. After drilling initial surface hole or after reaching competent


formations, switch from the tri-cone bit to an air-hammer
and hammer-bit assembly to drill the remainder of the hole.

If you encounter a hard formation at a shallow depth, you may


use a percussion bit with an air hammer. Conventional bits
may yield low penetration rates at shallow depths because of
the inability to apply sufficient weight on the bit while
drilling.

When drilling 7-7/8 inch hole, the optimum rate of rotation for
a percussion bit and air hammer is 10-30 RPM, and the
optimum rate of rotation for a tri-cone rotary bit is 50-60
RPM.

Important Drill with air, whenever practical, to achieve the best


penetration rate and to minimize damaging the coal forma-
tion with liquid drilling fluid invasion.

Do not use an aerated drilling fluid (air and water mixed)


when using an air-hammer assembly. Water can flood an
air hammer.

5. Circulate compressed air at a rate that lifts cuttings and


water to the surface.

2-33
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

If you use the Angel curves or charts from a drillbit


company to determine the air circulation rate needed to
effectively lift cuttings, add at least 25% to these values.

The Angel curves show circulation rates required for air


drilling. These curves are presented in Volume Require-
ments for Air and Gas Drilling, R.R. Angel, Gulf Publish-
ing Company, Fourth Printing 1985.

If the drilling cuttings are fine dust instead of large angular


pieces, you should increase the air circulation rate.
Fine dust is created when cuttings are pulverized by the bit
instead of being removed from the hole. This action
reduces the penetration rate and the bit life. For more
information on keeping the hole clean, see Designing the
Hydraulics of the Drillstring, earlier in this chapter.

If you encounter a hard formation that causes a large


decrease in penetration rate, switch from air to an air mist
drilling fluid to help cool the bit.

6. If you encounter a formation that produces significant


water when drilling with a tri-cone rotary bit, you may
have to switch from air to water circulation to effectively
lift cuttings to the surface. If you are drilling with a per-
cussion bit and air hammer, you may have to switch to a
tri-cone rotary bit with water circulation.

Caution Once you begin circulating water, you must continue using
some water to drill the rest of the hole. If you switch back
to just air after using water, you risk mixing dry and wet
cuttings and causing severe plugging in the drillpipe-casing
annulus.

If you are drilling with water, add ordinary laundry deter-


gent to the water to create a foam that will help clean up
the hole.

7. If the well begins to flow while drilling, switch to a heavy-


weight clear water or mud drilling fluid to control forma-
tion pressure.

2-34
Drilling the Wellbore

Caution Use drilling mud and other additives only if clear heavy-
weight fluids are not available or are not sufficient to
control formation pressure. Drilling mud invasion into the
coal may cause formation damage and may permanently
destroy the productivity of the well.

8. Monitor and control weight on bit to optimize penetration


rate and drilling hydraulics.

In the Black Warrior Basin, the optimum weight-on-bit for


a tri-cone bit is approximately 5000 lb/inch and 500 lb/inch
for a percussion bit.

Important 9. Drill at least 250 to 300 feet below the deepest target coal seam
to provide adequate sump for logging, fracturing, and pro-
duction operations.

10. After drilling to the total depth of the well, circulate a


mixture of air, water and soap, until returns are free of
cuttings and the water is clean. You may also circulate water
with a viscous pill to clean up the hole.
This practice will eliminate excessive fill in the hole and make
casing installation easier.

11. After the drillbit is removed from the hole, measure the
diameter of the bit to make sure the diameter of the hole will
provide the required clearance for the casing and casing
hardware.

If the bit has been worn below the minimum diameter


required, you will have to ream the hole to the appropriate
size with a bit or hole opener.

For more information on drilling the wellbore, refer to the Additional


Resources at the end of this chapter.

2-35
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

Coring the Wellbore


Analyzing core samples obtained from wells is one of the earliest
methods of formation evaluation, and it continues to be the most
reliable method of obtaining detailed formation descriptions and
specific rock properties. Some of the most important coalbed reser-
voir data are obtained from cores. These data include gas content,
desorption rate, adsorption isotherms, cleat and fracture data, coal
rank, gas quality, and porosity.

This section explains the equipment used for three different coring
methods as well as important considerations and guidelines for coring
operations:

Coring with a Drilling Rig

Coring with a Coring Rig

Coring with Sidewall Tools

Special Considerations for Coring

Guidelines for Coring with a Rig

Coring with a Drilling Rig


In conventional oil and gas fields, cores are usually obtained with a
drilling rig during drilling operations. However, this method is not
often used to core coalbed methane wells because it requires pulling
the drillstring to retrieve the core. The trip time can allow significant
gas to escape from the core sample. In addition, coring with a drilling
rig is usually more expensive than the other coring methods.

The conventional coring barrel assembly consists of a coring bit, a


finger type catcher, an outer barrel, and a floating inner barrel.
Coring bits may be drag bits, rolling cutter bits, or diamond coring bits.
The inner barrel contains a check valve (or a dropped ball sealed on
a seat) at the top, which allows flow upward out of the barrel, but not
downward into the barrel. This check valve diverts the drilling fluid
(usually water) from the drillpipe to the bit via the annulus between the
outer barrel and the inner barrel. This designprevents the drilling
fluid from eroding the core.

2-36
Coring the Wellbore

The primary advantages of coring with a drilling rig are:

Can obtain a large-diameter core. Larger cores provide a more


representative sample of the coal seam

Can recover a high percentage of the formation cored

Requires no additional surface equipment

Provides a larger wellbore, which allows using standard oilfield


equipment for completion, production, and
workover operations

The primary disadvantages of coring with a drilling rig are:

Must pull drillstring to recover the core

May lose an excessive amount of gas from the core, which


adversely affects estimates of gas content

Requires good stratigraphic control to accurately select the


coring point

Coring with a Coring Rig


When coring with a dedicated coring rig, you can retrieve the core by
pulling the drillstring (as in conventional coring) or by wireline.
Operators in the Black Warrior Basin usually core coalbed methane
wells with a coring rig and then retrieve the core with wireline to
minimize the amount of gas lost. They generally use a coring rig to
obtain at least one core for each of their fields. The cores are used to
determine the reservoir and mechanical properties mentioned at the
beginning of this section. This coring method is a reliable and
relatively inexpensive way to gather this critical data.

To retrieve cores by wireline, you will need a hoisting assembly,


including a wireline reel, sheave, and wireline lubricator, along with
the normal surface drilling equipment. Additional subsurface equip-
ment includes a special coring drill collar and bit; a coring barrel, bit,
and bit plug; and a wireline guide and overshot. The special drill collar
and bit are part of the drillstring. The coring barrel and bit plug are
run inside the drillstring. During normal drilling, the bit plug is
installed inside the special drill collar. The bit plug drills the inside
area that the core bit does not drill. Prior to coring, the bit plug is

2-37
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

pulled with the wireline overshot, and it is replaced with the coring
barrel. The coring barrel (and core catcher) is dropped inside the
drillpipe and it automatically latches into the drill collar. After the core
has been cut, the barrel (with the core inside) is pulled with the wireline
overshot.

The primary advantages of retrieving cores by wireline are:

Can cut and recover consecutive cores without pulling the


drillstring

Does not require continuous coring. Can alternate coring and


drilling without pulling the drillstring

Allows quicker retrieval of the core, which reduces the amount


of gas lost before the core is tested

Usually lower cost

The primary disadvantages of wireline coring are:

Requires considerably more surface equipment

The diameter of the core is limited. The diameters for wireline


retrievable cores range from 1-1/64" to 2-13/32".

Coring With Sidewall Tools


Sidewall cores are usually taken from the side of the borehole using
a wireline tool that is equipped with hollow bullets that are fired into
the formation. These bullets are attached to the gun body by short
cable wires. To use the sidewall coring tool, the gun is positioned at
the selected depth and then each of the bullets are individually fired
electronically from the surface. The bullets are then withdrawn by the
cable wires. Sidewall coring is performed during open hole logging
operations after the hole is drilled.
The primary advantage of wireline sidewall coring is:

Can take cores from any depth after the hole is drilled

The primary disadvantages of wireline sidewall coring are:

Samples may be too small for complete and accurate analysis

2-38
Coring the Wellbore

Samples may be partly crushed or at least severely altered

To reduce the possibility of crushing the core inherent in wireline


sidewall coring, a newer sidewall coring tool was developed. This tool
uses a rotary sidewall drill rather than a bullet gun. The wireline-
conveyed rotary tool has a diamond bit that drills the core horizontally
from the side of the wellbore. Rotary sidewall coring may provide
cores that are less disturbed than those obtained with wireline sidewall
coring. However, this method is usually more expensive than wireline
sidewall coring. The rotary sidewall coring tool is offered by Halliburton
Logging Services.

Special Considerations for Coring


In many respects, coring coalbed methane wells is similar to coring
conventional wells. However, you may improve your coalbed coring
operations by considering the guidelines below:

If coring with a coring rig, retrieve the core with a wireline


assembly to minimize the amount of gas lost from the core.
Cores that are quickly retrieved by wireline usually provide more
reliable gas desorption data.

Fill the wellbore with fluid before coring to reduce the amount
of gas lost from core samples.
Cores taken from air-drilled holes may lose a large amount of gas.

Data on coal joints and/or cleats can be obtained by oriented


coring. Oriented coring allows the directional measurement of
geologic features.
Oriented coring was used successfully at the Rock Creek project
to determine cleat direction, rock joint orientation, faults, etc.

Unconsolidated or highly fractured formations can be cored


with a rubber sleeve core barrel.
Because the inner diameter of a rubber sleeve is smaller than the
diameter of the core, the rubber sleeve stretches and contracts
around the core as it enters the catcher. The rubber sleeve may help
preserve the core enough to allow identification of fractures and
lithological features.

2-39
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

Guidelines for Coring with a Rig


When coring coalbed methane wells with either conventional or
wireline retrievable tools, you may find the guidelines below useful:

Select core points with competent rock above and below the
coal interval.
Competent core above and below the coal in the core barrel will
increase the probability of successfully retrieving the core.

Run the core barrel into the hole slowly.


Running in the hole at excessive speeds may damage the barrel if
a dogleg is hit or may cause the barrel to plug.

Begin coring with a light bit weight and low rotary speed and
then gradually increase weight and speed as cutting is estab-
lished.

Use low pump rates when coring to avoid washing away the
coal.

Monitor the pump pressure to ensure that fluid is passing over


the bit and that the core barrel is not plugged. If the pump
pressure increases, raise the bit off bottom. If raising the bit
does not decrease pump pressure, the core barrel is
probably plugged and should be pulled.

A sudden decrease in penetration rate that is not caused by a


formation change could indicate the core barrel is plugged or
jammed and should be pulled.

When finished coring, pull the drillstring very slowly.


Pulling the drillstring too quickly can create suction, which can
pull the core out of the barrel.

2-40
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore

Casing and Cementing the Wellbore


A proper wellbore casing and cementing job is critical to the
successful completion of a coalbed methane well. When designing
the casing program, you should select the proper equipment and
materials for your application. If you have not read Selecting Hole
Size and Selecting Casing Weight and Grade earlier in this chapter,
you may want to do so now.

This section will help you in:

Selecting Casing Hardware

Selecting Cement and Additives

Running the Casing String

Cementing the Casing String

Selecting Casing Hardware


You should select casing hardware that is compatible with the
cementing, stimulation, and completion plan for the well. Because
of the marginal economics for coalbed wells, most coalbed meth-
ane operators try to minimize investment in casing hardware.
However, savings on casing hardware can be easily overshadowed
by formation damage or loss in well control caused by lack of
proper equipment.

Before beginning your casing and cementing program you should


obtain a casing and cementing handbook from one of the major
oilfield service companies. This handbook provides specifications
and other useful information on casing and cementing equipment
and materials.

Operators in the Black Warrior Basin use a variety of casing


hardware when running casing. The purpose and procedure for
using several of these tools is described below:

2-41
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

Cement Wiper Plug


A cement wiper plug is a rubber plug (or rubber with a cast alumi-
num insert) used to separate the cement slurry from the displace-
ment fluid to prevent contamination and/or dilution of the tail end
of the slurry. Because water is normally used as the displacement
fluid in coalbed methane wells, slurry contamination is usually not
a problem, but dilution could occur. The wiper plugs are mounted
in a cementing head at the top of the casing so they can be released
directly behind the slurry without shutting down.

Guide Shoe
A guide shoe is a short heavy-walled pipe or collar with a round
nose on bottom. The shoe is installed on the bottom of the casing
to prevent the casing from hanging on ledges or other borehole
irregularities. The guide shoe is attached to the bottom of the
production casing before running the casing into the hole.

Float Collar
A float collar contains an internal valve which prevents backflow
of cement up the casing string during cementing operations. It also
increases the buoyancy of the casing, thus reducing the load on the
rig while running casing. In addition, the float collar serves as a
stop for the cement wiper plug so that all of the cement is not
inadvertently pumped out of the casing. The float collar is usually
installed one joint above the guide shoe.

Casing Centralizers
Casing centralizers ensure the casing remains in the center of the
wellbore during cementing operations to allow for cement coverage on
all sides of the casing string. Centralizing the casing improves the
probability of effective cement jobs and zone isolation. In addition,
centralization reduces the negative effects of bends or doglegs in the
casing which could hamper artificial lift equipment and workover
operations.

When cementing across a coal seam, you should always run central-
izers above and below each seam that may be produced at some future
time.

2-42
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore

The number of centralizers that you should run in the rest of the casing
string depends on the hole size and the amount of hole deviation. When
running 5-1/2 inch casing in a 7-7/8 inch hole, most service companies
recommend running a centralizer at least every third or fourth joint. If
the hole is highly deviated, you will need to space the centralizers closer
together.
Important
Inadequate centralization of the casing can prevent an effective
cement job.

Cement Basket
A cement basket is a tool attached to the outside of the casing to
provide support for the cement column while it cures. Cement baskets
can be placed above zones that have low fracture gradients to prevent
them from breaking down. If cement baskets become filled with
debris, they may inhibit reciprocation of casing.

Baffle Plates with Latch-Down Plugs


Baffle plates are installed in the casing, usually instead of or along with
other cementing equipment. The plates are installed between the
guide shoe and the first joint of casing or between the first two joints
of casing if you would like to have one joint filled with cement at the
bottom of the string. Baffle plates are held in place by the pin end of
the casing or tool (such as a float shoe) below them.

The latch-down plugs wipe the casing free of cement during displace-
ment. The wiper plug latches in an internal catch in the baffle plate to
prevent flow back into the casing after cementing.

Float Shoe

A float shoe is a combination guide shoe and float collar. It has a round
nose, and it contains a check valve and may also contain a catcher for
the wiper plug. A latch-down plug may be used to prevent backflow
in case the check valve fails. A float shoe can be used instead of a float
collar and guide shoe.

2-43
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

External Casing Packer


An external casing packer, which is run in the casing string, forms
a seal between the casing and the hole. If running casing in a deep
well or in a well with weak coal zones (i.e., coals with low fracture
gradients), you can run an external casing packer in the casing
string to help support the cement column and reduce the pressure
the cement exerts on the coal formation.

To operate the packer, a plug is pumped down to a seat below the


packer such as a baffle plate or cementing collar. Once the plug is
seated, pressure is applied above it to open the ports to the packer.
When the ports open, cement can be pumped. The cement fills the
packer and inflates the packer element against the wall of the hole.
After the packer is inflated, the ports in the cementing collar above
the packer can be opened by applying additional pressure, allowing
cement to flow into the annulus above the packer.

External casing packers are normally used in coalbed methane


wells to protect the lower-most coal seam in open hole comple-
tions. This technique is described in Chapter 4 - Completing the
Well.

Multi-Stage Cementing Tool


A multi-stage cementing tool is used when the required column of
cement is too large to be pumped in a single slurry. The tool
contains a plug catcher and side ports. To activate the tool, a plug
is dropped, and then the casing is pressured up. This pressure seats
the plug in the plug catcher to seal off the casing and open the side
ports. Then the second cement stage is pumped, and it flows out
the side ports to the annulus. This tool is run with the casing string.
It is installed in the casing at a depth above the calculated top of the
primary cement and above the coal formation to be isolated from
cement intrusion.

For more information on stage cementing, refer to Cementing the


Casing String, later in this chapter.

2-44
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore

Selecting Cement and Additives


Because coals have a low mechanical strength, you must select a
proper cement density to prevent the weight of the cement from
fracturing the coal formations. For information on calculating
proper cement density, refer to Designing the Cementing Pro-
gram earlier in this chapter. After you have determined the
correct cement density for your well, you can then select the proper
cement.

Experience in the Black Warrior Basin has demonstrated that you


can usually avoid potential cementing problems and accommodate
the tight economic constraints of coalbed methane completions by
using one of the following cement slurry applications:

Class A Slurry
Pozmix Slurry
Silicalite Slurry

Foam Slurry
Specialized Slurry

Cement Slurry Designs

Class A Slurry
Operators have used several different types of cement in coalbed
methane wells. The simplest type used is Class A, which is a
common portland cement. Class A cement has a density of 15.6 ib/
gal without additives. Adding bentonite to Class A cement can
lower its density by increasing the maximum allowable volume of
water that can be added to the cement. Adding 6% bentonite can
reduce the density to 13.5 lb/gal.

You can use Class A cement for relatively shallow coals if the coal
will support its density. The maximum depth recommended for
Class A is 6000 ft. Class A cement is more economical than the
other premium cements.

2-45
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

Pozmix Slurry
Pozzolans are siliceous or siliceous/aluminuous materials which you
can use to lower the density of cement slurries, much the same as
bentonite. If you are working in an area where the coal formation will
support cement densities of 12 to 14 lb/gal, you can use a Pozmix
slurry to provide zone isolation and adequate compressive strength.

A typical pozzolan blend is 50% Class A and 50% pozzolan. This


mixture is commonly called "50/50 Poz." A 50/50 Poz cement has a
density of 14.15 lb/gal. An advantage of pozzolan slurries is their
resistance to corrosive fluids. A disadvantage is their lower compres-
sive strength compared to Class A cement.

A Pozmix cement design which has been used successfully at the


Rock Creek project is listed below:

1. To mix the lead slurry, combine a 50/50 blend of Pozmix/


Class A cement with 4% total bentonite for a slurry weight of
12.7 to 12.8 lb/gal.

2. To mix the tail cement slurry, combine the same mixture as


for the lead cement, but mix at 13.5 lb/gal.
You can also mix a tail cement of 15.6 lb/gal using neat cement,
if the coal formation will support this weight.

Silicalite Slurry

A Silicalite slurry is a blend of Class A, Pozmix, and Silicalite.


Including Pozmix and Silicalite in the blend helps reduce the
density by inceasing the amount of water which may be added to the
slurry.

In areas where coals will not support cement densities of 12 to 14 lb/


gal, a Silicalite cement may work effectively.You can mix a
Silicalite slurry with a density from 11 to 13 lb/gal. A typical
Silicalite slurry has a density of 11.5 lb/gal.

Because the properties of silicalite cement are so well suited to


coalbed methane wells, some operators use this slurry even in
wellbores strong enough for a higher weight cement. The cement has
excellent fluid loss characteristics, low slurry viscosity, set times

2-46
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore

faster than Pozmix blends, essentially no free water, and high


early compressive strengths.

Foam Slurry
Operators often use foam cement slurries to cement shallow, low
pressure coalbed methane wells where weak zones would break
down if a normal density cement were used. If you are working in
an area where wellbore integrity requires slurries under 11 lb/gal,
you may consider using a foam cement.

Foam cement is usually a mixture of basic cement, foaming agents,


stabilizing agents, and nitrogen. This combination provides a light-
weight cement slurry with a high yield. Foam cement slurry may be
the most economical if you have nearby access to nitrogen facilities.

If nitrogen is not readily available, you may consider using conven-


tional cement with multistage cementing tools. When comparing the
cost of using a multistage tool to the cost of using foam cement,
be sure to include the drillout cost for the multistage tool.

Caution Pumping foam cement at too high a rate may create a higher
friction pressure in the casing annulus than would other types
of cement. This increased friction pressure may offset the
benefit of the lighter weight of foam cement. To fully realize
the benefits of foam cements lighter weight, do not pump foam
cement at an excessive rate.

Specialized Slurries
You can use a variety of specialized slurries and additives to meet
individual well requirements. For example, if you encounter a highly
permeable zone that causes lost circulation, you could seal it off using
a thixotropic cement, which sets very quickly. Thixotropic cements are
also very effective for secondary or remedial cementing.

Some types of light weight cement achieve lower densities by utilizing


additives which allow adding more water to the slurry. However, the
added water lowers the ultimate compressive strength of the cement.

If you need a light cement for a primary cement job, you might use a
special cement that incorporates hollow glass beads, or microspheres,
with a base cement. You can add these hollow microspheres to any type

2-47
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

of cement to produce slurries ranging in density form 9 to


12 lb/gal. This type of slurry can greatly reduce the density of the
slurry without significantly reducing the compressive strength of
the cured cement.

Some glass microspheres may begin to crush at pressures near


4000 psi. Because the crush resistance of glass microspheres
varies, you should check with the manufacturer or supplier of
microspheres before using them. Though the depth to which glass
microsphere slurrries can be used is limited, most coalbed methane
wells are shallow enough to use them.

Cement Additives
Special additives are usually mixed with the base cement to alter or
improve slurry properties. You can use additives to accelerate or
retard cement curing, to reduce slurry density, to control fluid loss or
lost circulation, or to modify other slurry properties. For example, you
can add calcium chloride or sodium chloride to cement to accelerate
the time required for the cement to set or to hydrate. As mentioned
earlier, you also can add pozzolans or bentonite to reduce the density
of the cured cement.

When designing your casing program, consult several different ce-


menting company representatives who are trained and experienced in
cementing coalbed methane wells. They can provide information
about a variety of additives available for altering slurry properties to
meet the requirements of your particular well.

In areas where leakoff is high, consider the following guidelines:

Add a low fluid loss additive to the slurry. Use an additive that
does not delay thickening time or increase slurry
viscosity.

Add a lost circulation material such as gilsonite, cellophane


flakes, or walnut shells to help prevent cement contamination
of the fractured coal.

2-48
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore

Cementing the Casing String

The following techniques have proven effective in cementing


coalbed methane wellbores in the Black Warrior Basin.

Before the Cementing Job


Before beginning to pump cement, you should follow the procedures
below:

1. Several hours before pumping the cement, meet with the


service company people to discuss the goals of the cement job
and the responsibilities of each person. Also discuss contin-
gency plans for handling possible operational problems.
Invite questions or suggestions regarding any aspect of the
operation.

2. Several hours before pumping the cement, conduct a safety


meeting with all people who will be on location during the
cementing job. Discuss safe operating procedures, use of
safety equipment, and contingency plans in case of an emer-
gency.

3. Obtain a sample of the actual dry cement mixture (with


additives) that will be pumped.
Maintain this sample as a quality control check in case problems
arise on the cement job. You can have it sent to a lab for analysis,
if necessary.

4. Install the cementing manifold with plug(s) (from the ce-


menting company) on top of the casing.
Figure 2-6 shows a cementing manifold similar to the type used
to cement the wells at the Rock Creek project.

5. Pressure test all surface pumping lines with water. Test up to


the maximum anticipated surface pump pressure.

2-49
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

6. Obtain a sample of the mixed cement slurry so you can


monitor its strength and curing characteristics over time.

Figure 2-6
Typical Cementing Manifold

Single Stage Cementing


Operators in the Black Warrior Basin have successfully pumped single
stage cement jobs on air drilled holes using only one plug.
The procedures they use are listed below:

1. Establish circulation down the casing and up the annulus with


fresh water.
This circulation will flush any debris in the wellbore to the surface.
If the wellbore contains large amounts of debris, first circulate
the wellbore with water, and then circulate again with a gelled
fluid to more effectively flush out cuttings and debris.

2-50
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore

2. Pump the cement slurry.


To help ensure the cement slurry distributes evenly around the
casing, reciprocate or rotate the casing string while pumping
the slurry.

3. Release the plug from the cementing manifold.

4. Pump the displacement fluid (usually fresh water).

5. Pump fluid until the plug bumps bottom.


When the plug bumps, you will see a sharp increase in surface
pump pressure.

Caution
Be careful not to bump the plug so hard that the pressure
increase exceeds the casing burst pressure. Make sure the
cementing service company uses a pump operator with enough
experience to avoid this problem.

If the well was drilled with mud, pump a bottom plug ahead of the
cement slurry to wipe the mud from the casing and prevent contami-
nation of the lead cement. As an alternative to pumping a bottom plug,
you can pump a spacer or a mud preflush ahead of the cement. In wells
drilled with air and circulated with fresh water, you do not need to
pump a plug or spacer ahead of the cement.

Multiple Stage Cementing


A common problem with cementing coalbed wells has been forma-
tion damage caused by fracturing the coal with cement. Early in
the Rock Creek research project, a stage cementing technique was
successfully used to prevent cement from contracting coal seams.
The stage cementing procedures below were uesd at the Rock
Creek project:
Pumping the first stage
1. Calculte the volume of cement needed to fill the
annulus from the float shoe to the desired cement top.
To determine this volume, use caliper log and add a
safety factor of 10-20%.

2-51
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

2. Establish circulation down the casing and up the annulus


with fresh water.
This circulation will flush to the surface any debris in the
wellbore.

If the wellbore contains large amounts of debris, first circu-


late the wellbore with water, and then circulate again with a
gelled water fluid to more effectively flush out debris.

3. Pump the first stage of cement.

4. Run a rubber closing plug above the cement at the cement-


ing head. See Figure 2-7.
The closing plug prevents the displacement water from inter-
mingling with and contaminating the cement.

Figure 2-7
Two Stage Cementing

2-52
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore

5. Pump the volume of displacement water behind the closing


plug needed to move the plug to the bottom of the casing.
You should see a sharp increase in pump pressure when the
plug bumps bottom.
After the plug reaches the bottom of the casing, it latches into a
seat in the float shoe, preventing any further flow into or out of
the annulus.

Pumping the second stage

6. Calculate the volume of cement needed to fill the annulus


from the cement collar up to the desired height above the
collar.
To determine this volume, use the caliper log and add a safety
factor of 10-20%.

7. Drop an opening plug down the casing to the opening plug


seat in the cementing collar. See Figure 2-7.

8. After the plug is set, apply pump pressure inside the casing
to open the lower sleeve of the cementing collar or to open
the ports of the external casing packer, whichever is used.
For more information on cementing collars and external casing
packers, refer to Selecting Casing Hardware, earlier in this
chapter.

9. Pump water to establish circulation up the annulus to the


surface. Circulate until returns are clean.

If using a cement collar only, allow at least 6 hours be-


tween the primary cement job and the second stage.
This time is needed for the primary cement to gain
sufficient strength to support the second stage.

If using an external casing packer, you do not need to


wait for the primary cement to cure. The packer will
support the weight of the cement above it.

10. Pump second cement stage into the casing.

2-53
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

11. Release a rubber closing plug at the cementing head.


See Figure 2-7.

12. Pump water behind the plug to displace the cement into
the annulus. See Figure 2-7.
When the closing plug reaches the closing seat, the pump
pressure in the casing closes the cementing collar ports to the
annulus.

13. Shut in the well for at least 48 hours to allow the cement
time to cure. A curing time of 72 hours is even better.

14. Pump into the casing with water and pressure test the
cement to 1000 psi or to the pressure specified by your
company.

Pumping additional stages

15. Repeat steps 6 through 14.

Because all of the internal parts of the cementing collar and float shoes
are drillable, you can pass drillbits through the casing to complete
open hole intervals below the casing.

For information on completing the well, refer to Chapter


4.

Rotating or Reciprocating Casing while Cementing


One of the factors critical to the success of primary cementing jobs on
mud-drilled holes is the displacement of the mud during cementing.
Mud that is not displaced occupies space that should be filled with
cement. Channels in the cement are often caused by mud that was not
properly displaced.

Rotating and/or reciprocating the casing during cementing operations


helps to break the gel strength of the mud and thus allows the cement
to more effectively displace the mud. Studies have demonstrated that
for shallow wells (less than 6000 ft) rotating the casing is more

2-54
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore

effective than reciprocating the casing. Some operators prefer to both


rotate and reciprocate the casing.

Caution Reciprocating casing too rapidly can create pressure surges in the
wellbore and fracture the coal. To prevent pressure surges,
reciprocate the casing no more than 15-20 ft over a period of two
minutes.

Because wells drilled with air contain no drilling mud, rotating or


reciprocating the casing is not needed to displace mud. Many air-
drilled holes in the Black Warrior Basin have been successfully
cemented without moving the casing. However, in air-drilled holes
which have casing that is not centralized, cement may tend to channel
up one side of the casing. In this case, rotating the casing may help to
more evenly distribute the cement around the casing. Using an
adequate number of centralizers can help centralize the casing and
promote an effective cement job.

2-55
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore

Additional Resources

Adams, N.J., and T. Charrier, Drilling Engineering: A Complete


Well Planning Approach, Pennwell Publishing Company, Tulsa,
Oklahoma, 1985.

Graves, S.L., J.D. Niederhofer, and W.M. Beavers, A Combination


Air and Fluid Drilling Technique for Zones of Lost Circulation in the
Black Warrior Basin, SPE Paper 12873, SPE Drilling Engineering,
February 1986.

Lambert, S.W. et al, Multiple Coal Seam Well Completion Experi-


ence in the Deerlick Creek Field, Black Warrior Basin, Alabama,
Proceedings of the 1987 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The Univer-
sity of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (November 16-19).

Lambert, S.W., M.A. Trevits, and P.F. Steidl, Vertical Borehole


Design and Completion Practices to Remove Methane Gas from
Mineable Coalbeds, U.S. Department of Energy, Carbondale
Mining Technology Center, Carbondale, Illinois, 1980.

2-56
3 Wireline Logging

T o evaluate the gas producing potential of a coal formation, you


must first know the reservoir and mechanical properties of the coal.
Knowing these properties will also enable you to design effective,
economical well completions and stimulations. You can determine
most of these coal properties by analyzing data from wireline logs and
whole cores retrieved while drilling the well. After the well is
completed, you can obtain additional reservoir data from well tests.

This chapter will guide you through:


Sources For Estimating Reservoir Properties

Open Hole Logging Tools

Selecting an Open Hole Logging Suite

Guidelines For Open Hole Logging

Cased Hole Logging Tools

Selecting a Cased Hole Logging Suite

Guidelines For Cased Hole Logging

Production Logging Tools


Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

Sources for Estimating Reservoir Properties


The sources for obtaining the properties you will need to
evaluate coal reservoirs are shown in Tables 3-1 and 3-2 below.

Primary Non-Log Sources


For Estimating Reservoir Properties
Table 3-1

Reservoir
Property Source

Coal Thickness Core Test

Permeability Well Test

Adsorbed Gas Content Core Test

Desorption Isotherm Core Test

Desorption Time Core Test

Initial Water Saturation Well Test

Porosity Core Test, History


match with simulator

Ash Content Core Test

Initial Pressure Well Test

3-2
Sources For Estimating Reservoir Properties

Table 3-2
Logging Sources for Estimating Reservoir Properties

Reservoir
Property Open Hole Log Cased Hole Log

Coal Density, Neutron (Pulsed or


identification Gamma Ray, Compensated)
Caliper

Net thickness High Resolution Neutron (Pulsed or


Density Compensated)

Proximate High Resolution None


Analysis* Density,
Compensated Neutron,
Gamma Ray,
Spectral Density,
Sonic

Permeability* Dual Laterolog, None


(qualitative Microlog,
estimate) Resistivity/SP

Cleat Formation None


Orientation* MicroScanner

Mechanical Bulk Density, None


Properties* Full Waveform Sonic

* For a detailed discussion of each of these properties and how to


obtain them, refer to The Development of Formation Evaluation
Technology for Coalbed Methane - Annual Technical Report
(December 1990 - December 1991) by ResTech, Inc. for GRI.

3-3
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

Open Hole Logging Tools


To estimate reservoir properties for coal seams, you can use a variety
of wireline logging tools. This section provides a background for these
logging tools; however, it does not cover log interpretation. For
information on interpreting these logs, refer to Additional Resources at
the end of this chapter. The operation of each tool, its response in
coalbeds, and important considerations for using the tool are explained
below.

Open Hole Logging Tools for Identifying Coal Seams


When possible, you should log the open hole as soon as practical after
drilling and cleaning it up. This practice helps to reduce the chance of
damaging the formation before measuring its properties. It also
decreases the possibility of encountering hole obstructions when
logging. You can identify and estimate the thickness of coal seams
using the logging tools listed below:

Bulk Density Log


Spectral Density Log
Caliper Log
Natural Gamma Ray Log
Dual induction/Shallow Induction Log
High Resolution Induction Logs

Bulk Density Log


The density log measures the bulk density of the formation as emitted
gamma rays are scattered by the formation. In most non-coal
formations, you can relate bulk density to porosity when you know the
lithology.

The bulk density log is an excellent tool for identifying and evaluating
coal seams. Generally, you can identify coal seams by comparing

3-4
Open Hole Logging Tools for Identifying Coal Seams

the bulk density of coal (1.20 to 1.80 g/cc) to that of other formations
(2.2 to 2.7 g/cc). The density of coal is affected by ash content. The
higher the ash content, the higher the density response on the log.

Density instruments generally consist of a gamma source (usually


Cesium 137) and two detectors. The source and detectors are located
on a skid (pad) which is forced against the side of the hole. The long-
spaced detector primarily measures the formation. The short-spaced
detector measures the formation and the materials that occur between
the pad and the formation. For wells drilled with air, the short-spaced
tool will read the formation unless there is a washout in the wellbore.

Gamma rays are emitted from the source into the formation and then
are scattered by the orbital electrons of the atoms in the material being
measured. This phenomena, called Compton Scattering, causes the
gamma rays to lose energy. If the material is very dense (i.e., contains
many electrons), the gamma rays become more scattered and more of
them are absorbed by the material. Because of this absorption of
gamma rays near the detector, fewer gamma rays reach the detector.
In formations with fewer electrons (lower density), the gamma rays are
not slowed as much and therefore more of them reach the detector.

Identifying coal seams using the density log is generally straightfor-


ward. Figure 3-1 shows a bulk density log run at the Rock Creek
Project. The relatively low bulk density in the Mary Lee seam at 1045-
1048 ft (RHOB = 1.24 g/cc) and in the Blue Creek seam at 1051-1057
ft (RHOB = 1.4 g/cc) sharply contrasts with the density of the
surrounding formations. A washout or borehole caving could cause a
similar logging response; however, you can look at the caliper log and
gamma ray log to check the hole condition across the interval.

3-5
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

Figure 3-1
Bulk Density Log

3-6
Open Hole Logging Tools for Identifying Coal Seams

Some of the more common matrix densities are listed in Table 3-3.

Table 3-3
Matrix Densities

for Common Formations

Mineral Density (g/cc)

Sandstone 2.65 - 2.70


Shale 2.2 - 2.65
Limestone 2.71
Dolomite 2.83 - 2.89
Anhydrite 2.94 - 3.00
Salt (halite) 2.03
Coal
Anthracite 1.4 - 1.8
Bituminous 1.2 - 1.5
Lignite 0.7 - 1.5

Once you determine from the density log that an interval contains a coal
seam, be sure also to check the caliper log and gamma ray log to verify that
the density response was not caused by a hole washout.

Evaluating seam thickness using log data is directly related to the vertical
resolution and sample rate of the logging device. The distance of the
detector from the radioactive source strongly influences the vertical
resolution of the logging device. Most standard oilfield density tools have
a source-to-detector spacing of 18 inches. The vertical resolution of this
tool has been improved by increasing the sample rate from every 6 inches
to every tenth of a foot. Currently, oilfield density tools can provide a
resolution of about 6 inches. The oilfield density logs can be computer
enhanced to provide results similar to the density tools available from
mineral logging service companies.

3-7
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

The density tool available from mineral logging service companies


has a source-to-detector spacing of 0.75 inch and samples data at a
rate of 50 samples per foot. This device has a vertical resolution of
approximately one inch. Because the mineral logging density tool
is smaller in diameter than a standard bulk density tool, make sure
the mineral logging tool can offer the log quality for the wellbore
size you have drilled.

Figure 3-2 shows a comparison of the mineral logging density


(high resolution) and the oilfield density (computer enhanced). The
comparison shows that computer enhancement of the oilfield
logging measurement is an accurate method for improving vertical
resolution. [From The Development of Formation Evaluation
Technology for Coalbed Methane - Annual Technical Report
(December 1990 - December 1991) by ResTech, Inc. for GRI]

Important When using a density log, make sure to question the validity of
density measurements across washed out zones. The density tool
is a pad device which requires good borehole contact to measure
accurately.

As a guide for determining net pay thickness of coal seams for use in
reservoir simulators and well test analysis, ResTech, Inc. recommends
using a density cutoff of 1.75 g/cc. The coal thickness obtained using
this method should be compared to core data (if available). In thin coal
seams, the density value on the density log can be erroneously high.

3-8
Open Hole Logging Tools for Identifying Coal Seams

Figure 3-2
Comparison of Conventional Density and
Mineral Logging Density Logs

Spectral Density Log


The spectral density tool is similar to the bulk density tool
described earlier. However, in addition to measuring gamma rays
from Compton Scattering, which is indicative of bulk density, it also
measures gamma rays from the photoelectric effect, which is indica-
tive of lithology. By comparing these two different gamma ray
counts, you can determine the photoelectric absorption index (Pe) and

3-9
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

the lithology. The average photoelectric absorption index for some


common formations is shown in Table 3-4.

Table 3-4
Photoelectric Absorption Index
for Common Formations

Photoelectric
Formation Absorption Index

Sandstone 1.810
Shale 3.420
Coal 0.180

Caliper Log
The caliper log measures the gauge of the borehole. Formations
may remain in gauge during drilling or they may have severe
washouts. The hole condition will depend on the formations en-
countered and the drilling techniques used.

If a well has severe washouts, you could easily mistake a low


density log reading across the washout for a coal seam. By check-
ing the caliper log, you may avoid such an erroneous interpretation.

Conversely, a washed out interval could occur across a coal seam.


To make sure a washed out interval does not contain a coal seam,
you should check all available data, such as gamma ray log, neutron
log, sonic log, cores, or drilling cuttings.

Figure 3-3 shows a caliper log run with a bulk density log. The caliper
shows that the Mary Lee seam at (1045-1048 ft) and the Blue Creek
seam at (1051-1057 ft) are in gauge.

3-10
Open Hole Logging Tools for Identifying Coal Seams

Natural Gamma Ray Log


The natural gamma ray log records natural radioactivity in forma-
tions and is useful for correlating coalbeds. All rocks exhibit some
natural radioactivity: the amount depends on the concentration of
potassium, thorium, and uranium. Table 3-5 shows the total natural
radioactivity for sandstone, coal, and shale.

Table 3-5
Total Natural Radioactivity of
Common Formations

Total Natural Radioactivity


Formation (API units)

Sandstone 10 - 30
Coal <70
Shale 80 - 140

Because coal usually exhibits low total natural radioactivity (usu-


ally less than 70 API units), you can identify coal seams by the
deflection of the gamma ray curve to the left. Figure 3-1 shows the
gamma ray response across two coal intervals in the Black Warrior
Basin. The gamma ray resolution is greater across the slightly
thicker Blue Creek seam (1051-1057 ft) than across the Mary Lee
seam (1045-1048 ft).

The presence of thin partings, consisting of various clay minerals,


will increase the measured natural radioactivity. Under certain
localized conditions (e.g., the absence of high and widely varying
kaolinite concentrations), ash content may be determined empiri-
cally from the gamma ray log.

Because this log can also be recorded in cased hole, it is used as a


correlation log for other cased hole wireline operations such as
perforating and production logs.

3-11
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

Dual Induction/Shallow Induction Log


The dual induction log is a tool that measures the resistivity (or
conductivity) of a formation to an electrical current which is
induced into the formation. Coal, limestones, and most low-
porosity sandstones in coalbed methane regions are highly resis-
tive. Shales, in contrast, are nearly always low in resistivity, and
they therefore show up distinctly on resistivity logs.

You can use the deep induction curve primarily for correlating
coalbeds. The deep induction shows a very gradual increase in
resistivity at coalbed boundaries because of its large vertical resolu-
tion (approximately 6 feet). Because most coals in the Black
Warrior Basin are less than 2 feet thick (the Blue Creek seam is
approximately 5 feet thick), the dual induction log is not widely
used on wells in this basin. Dual induction logs are limited by thin
bed effects, borehole washouts, and mud resistivity.

The shallow induction log, which is usually run with the dual
induction log, is a resistivity device that normally shows sharp
increases in resistivity at coalbed boundaries. Because this tool has
a resolution of approximately 18 inches, you can use it for measur-
ing the thickness of coalbeds.

When using the dual induction log, you should follow these guide-
lines:

Use the shallow curve to measure coal thickness.


Sometimes you will be able to identify partings, or shale string-
ers, of one foot or greater in the coalbed to help you measure
the thickness of the coal.

Use the shallow resistivity curve to read resistivity in the


coalbed.
Because of bed thickness effects on deep induction measure-
ment, the shallow resistivity curve of the tool usually gives a
more accurate measure of resistivity in the coalbed.

Figure 3-3 shows a dual induction/shallow induction log run on a


well at the Rock Creek project.

3-12
Open Hole Logging Tools for Identifying Coal Seams

Figure 3-3
Dual Induction/Shallow Log

High Resolution Induction Logs


Because of the increased need for methods to identify thin,
interbedded hydrocarbon reservoirs in conventional wells, wireline
companies have been working to develop logging tools with im-
proved vertical resolution. Until recently, only nuclear logging
tools had the capability of defining thin beds. However, several
new resistivity tools have been developed recently that have proven
particularly effective for defining thin coalbeds.

One of these tools is called the High Resolution Induction (HRI)


log. It was developed by Halliburton Logging Services and was
introduced to the industry in 1987. This log incorporates a new
coil-array design that optimizes both vertical and horizontal re-
sponses. With this log, both the deep and medium resistivity mea-
surements have a vertical resolution of two feet. The HRI tool also
provides a depth of investigation 40% greater than the conventional
induction tool. In addition, this tool significantly reduces shoulder-
bed effects and provides a better indication of bed thickness.

3-13
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

Other wireline logging companies have developed similar high


resolution resistivity tools. Schlumberger offers the Phasor Induc-
tion Log, which has also been used successfully to define thin
coalbeds in the Black Warrior Basin. Figure 3-4 shows a Phasor
Induction Log with a coalseam at 2444-2448 ft.

Figure 3-4
Phasor Induction Log

The Phasor Induction Log is an improved version of the dual


induction log. It collects eight measurements and can generate
three induction curves. The tool detects signals returning from the

3-14
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal

formation that previously were unused by the dual induction log


(i.e., signals that are out of phase, or that do not return perpendicu-
larly). The tool uses these out-of-phase signals to display a much
sharper bed boundary. The Phasor Induction Log has a normal
resolution of three feet. Like the dual induction log, this tool
displays deep, medium, and shallow curves. The resolution of the
tool may be enhanced to two feet by computer processing the
shallow and medium curves.

The most recent advance in the induction log is the Array Induction
Tool (AIT). This Schlumberger log, which is an improvement
over the Phasor Induction Log, collects 28 measurements and can
display five induction curves. This tool can investigate as deep as
90 inches and as shallow as 10 inches. The AIT provides even
better definition of shoulder beds than the Phasor Induction Log.

The AIT has only been available to the industry for a few months,
and it has not yet been used in coalbed methane wells in the Black
Warrior Basin.

Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and


Properties of Coal
Because each type of formation has a characteristic (but not neces-
sarily unique) log response, it is possible not only to identify
specific formations, but also to assess their quality. Logs have
been used to estimate reservoir quality in conventional wells for
many years. Based on these same principles, logs are now being
used to evaluate the quality and mechanical properties of coal
seams. Table 3-6 shows typical log responses in sandstone, shale,
and coal for the logs most commonly used to evaluate coals:
Density, Gamma Ray, Neutron, and Sonic.

3-15
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

Table 3-6
Responses for Logs
Commonly Used to Evaluate Coals

Density Logs
Bulk Photo- Sonic
Density electric Gamma Ray Neutron TravelTime
Formation (g/cc) Index (API units) Porosity (%) ( sec/ft)

Sandstone 2.65-2.70 1.810 10-30 -2 47-56

Shale 2.20-2.65 3.420 80-140 25-75 70-150

Coal 1.20-1.80 0.180 <70 >50 95-135

You can run several logs to evaluate the quality and mechanical
properties of coal and non-coal formations encountered in the
wellbore. This section provides a brief discussion of the logging
tools listed below:

Microlog
Dual Laterolog/Microspherically Focussed Log
Spontaneous Potential (SP) Log
Compensated Neutron Log
Epithermal Neutron Log
Formation Microscanner
Sonic Log
Full Waveform Sonic Log

3-16
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal

Geochemical Logs
Carbon/Oxygen Log
Spectral Gamma Ray Log
Borehole Televiewer
Temperature Log
Computer-Processed Log Presentations
Geophysical Well Log Models

Microlog
The microlog is a tool that measures resistivities at two different
depths in the formation immediately adjacent to the borehole. One
of the resistivities is the mudcake resistivity and the other is the
formation (or coal) resistivity. The resistivity of the mudcake is
significantly less than that of coal. Consequently, if mudcake has
formed in the borehole across an interval, the two resistivity curves
will separate because they are reading different levels of resistivity.

For mudcake to form, mud filtrate (liquid) must pass into the
formation. Thus, the presence of mudcake across a formation is an
indication of permeability in that formation. Therefore, positive
separation of the resistivity curves on a microlog could indicate
coal cleat development in coalbed wells drilled with mud.

Because most wells in the Black Warrior Basin are drilled with air
or water instead of mud, the microlog is not usually run in this
basin. In areas where coalbed methane wells are drilled with mud,
there are several factors that can affect the microlog:

Resistivity of the mud


Mudcake thickness
Depth of invasion
Borehole rugosity
Formation porosity

3-17
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

The resistivity of the mud compresses or expands the microlog


resistivity values. In low-resistivity muds, the microlog resistivities
are compressed to a narrow range, which reduces the accuracy of the
microlog ratio. In high-resistivity muds, the microlog resistivities
are expanded, which enhances the accuracy of the microlog ratio
interpretation. An optimum mud resistivity at bottomhole tempera-
ture is normally from 1 to 3 ohm-meters.

Mudcake thickness controls the amount of separation between the


normal and lateral curves. In general, the positive separation you
see on the log increases as the thickness of the mudcake increases.
This separation may indicate fluid filtration into the formation. You
can qualitatively assess the permeability (and hence cleat develop-
ment) of the coal by comparing the microlog separation across the
coals to that across adjacent formations.

Important Some drilling mud additives used as flocculants can cause


erroneous microlog interpretations. These flocculants, which
plate boreholes with mudcake, may cause the microlog to show
positive separation in low permeability coalbeds.

Very heavy or viscous muds may also cause erroneously high


estimates of coal cleating. You should closely monitor and
control fluid loss while drilling the hole. Fluid loss of the mud
system controls mudcake thickness.

Important The microlog is a pad device and is sensitive to rapid changes in


the borehole wall. In washed out boreholes, the microlog often
measures the resistivity of the mud. Therefore, you should run
the log down the hole, with the tool closed, over the bottom
1,000 feet of hole to record a log of the mud resistivity. The log
of mud resistivity will highlight any changes in mud resistivity
over the zone of interest and help ensure that you use the
correct value of Rm when interpreting the log.

Dual Laterolog/Microspherically Focussed Log


The dual laterolog/microspherically-focused log (DLL/MSFL) is a
resistivity tool run primarily in coalbed wells drilled with a salty
mud system. Most DLL/MSFL tools are run in wells drilled with a
mud salinity of 50,000 ppm NaCl. Typically, the DLL/MSFL is
used in these mud-drilled wells to calculate porosity.

3-18
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal

The DLL/MSFL is well suited to coalbed wells because it yields


more accurate resistivity measurement in formations with high
resistivity values such as coalbeds. In general, using the DLL/
MSFL to determine the thickness of coalbeds is more accurate than
using the deep induction curve.

Because most wells in the Black Warrior Basin are air-drilled, the
DLL/MSFL log is not usually run in this basin.

Spontaneous Potential (SP) Log


The spontaneous potential (SP) log measures the differences be-
tween the electrical potential in the borehole and the fixed potential
of a surface electrode. Because SP responses are not consistent in
coalbeds, the SP log is not often used to evaluate wells in the Black
Warrior Basin. However, the SP log may sometimes be useful in
some areas as a qualitative indicator of coal permeability. Quantita-
tive estimates of permeability from the SP log are not possible.

SP response is highly sensitive to the resistivity of connate water


and resistivity of drilling mud. When analyzing an SP log, make
sure to consider the salinity of the formation water. The SP log
cannot be recorded in holes that contain only air. However, if you
drill a hole with air, you can fill the hole with water and then run
the SP log.

Figure 3-5 shows an example of an SP log run in the Black Warrior


Basin. Because the coals in this section are relatively thin, the SP
log shows poor resolution across both coal intervals.

Compensated Neutron Log


In conventional oil fields, the compensated neutron log (CNL) is
used principally for identifying porous formations and quantifying
their porosity. However, in coalbeds, the neutron log shows erro-
neously high porosities (often 40-70%). For coalbed applications,
the compensated neutron log is usually run to help determine
proximate analysis and to estimate gas content.

Neutron logs measure the formations ability to slow the movement


of neutrons through the formation. The neutron log emits neutrons

3-19
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

Figure 3-5
SP Log

into the formation. These neutrons collide with hydrogen atoms and
are slowed down. The receivers on the neutron tool measure the
speed, or energy, of the neutrons that have collided. This measure-
ment reflects the concentration of hydrogen in the formation. Be-
cause the only hydrogen in clean reservoir rock is associated with
water or oil, the neutron measurement indicates the porosity of the
formation. In coalbeds, however, the high concentration of hydro-
gen (even when water is not present) causes the neutron log to
measure erroneously high porosity values.

3-20
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal

Important The CNL can be run in liquid-filled holes, either open hole or
cased hole. However, the CNL cannot be run in air or
gas-filled holes. When using the compensated neutron log, you
should question the validity of compensated neutron log mea-
surements across washed out intervals.

Figure 3-6 shows a compensated neutron log run on a well in the


Black Warrior Basin. The log shows a neutron porosity of about
55% across both the Mary Lee seam (1045-1048 ft) and the Blue
Creek seam (1051-1057 ft).

Figure 3-6
Compensated Neutron Log

3-21
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

Epithermal Neutron Log


Neutron logs emit high energy neutrons into the formation. As
these neutrons collide with the formation they are slowed to a lower
energy level, or thermal state. The neutrons that remain at a high
energy level are called epithermal neutrons.

The compensated neutron log (CNL) can detect only thermal neu-
trons. However, the epithermal neutron log contains detectors
which can distinguish between thermal and epithermal neutrons.
Both the CNL and epithermal logs are useful for identifying
coalbeds. However, the epithermal log can provide more accurate
porosity measurements in non-coal formations. In addition, the
epithermal log can be run in both open and cased holes.

Formation MicroScanner
The Formation Microscanner (a registered trademark of
Schlumberger) is a pad device that records microresistivity varia-
tions around the borehole wall. The tool can be used to determine
coal cleat orientation.

Formation MicroScanner data from the Rock Creek Project in the


Black Warrior Basin were successfully analyzed to determine the
orientation of coal cleat. Measurements from the Formation
MicroScanner agreed favorably with cleat orientations determined
from whole core data recovered from several wells. Figure 3-7
compares the Rose Diagrams determined from a Formation
MicroScanner log and from cores for a well in the Black Warrior
Basin. Rose Diagrams show the orientation of coal cleat.

3-22
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal

Figure 3-7
Comparison of Cleat Orientation Determined from
a Formation MicroScanner Log and from Cores

Cleats were identified as small conductive breaks on opposing


resistivity pad images that were enhanced. Cleat orientation was
determined by selecting points on the resistivity images at the
conductive breaks. An equidistant midpoint was also selected so
that a plane defining cleat azimuth could be defined by the com-
puter. Then, the cleat strike was determined by adding or subtract-
ing ninety degrees to or from the computed azimuth.

3-23
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

The Formation MicroScanner can also be used to determine the


strike, dip, and azimuth of coalbeds, and to identify fractures in coal
seams and adjacent formations.

Sonic Log
In conventional applications, empirical correlations are used to
relate sonic travel time to porosity if the lithology is known. In
coalbed methane wells, sonic logs may be used to determine coal
rank. They also may be used to identify coalbeds; however, they
are not as accurate as the density and gamma ray logs.

Sonic tools measure the shortest time required for a compressional


wave to travel vertically through one foot of formation adjacent to
the wellbore. In coalbeds, sonic travel times range from 95 - 135
microseconds per foot. Sonic travel times in non-coal formations
typically range from 60 - 90 microseconds per foot. Shales usually
have a sonic travel time less than 100 microseconds per foot.
However, it is often difficult to distinguish shale from anthracite
coal.

Important You should evaluate all log information available when using
the sonic tool to identify coal. You can easily confuse carbon-
aceous shales for coal if you rely only on analysis of transit
time.

Figure 3-8 shows a sonic log run at the Rock Creek project. The
sonic travel time in the Blue Creek coal (1050-1056 ft) and the
Mary Lee coal (1044-1047 ft) show travel times greater than 125
microseconds and 115 microseconds, respectively. The travel time
in the Mary Lee coal is shorter because it is a thinner bed.

3-24
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal

Figure 3-8
Sonic Log

Full Waveform Sonic Log


For many years, the only information used from the sonic log was
the first wave arrival (the compressional wave). However, each
pulse from the transmitter of a sonic log creates several types of
waves in the formation. Because it has long been recognized that
these waves would change forms at bed boundaries, much work has
been done to understand and correlate the waveforms to formation
characteristics. This work first led to the development of methods to

3-25
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

measure the shear wave (which follows the compressional wave),


and more recently to full waveform logging. Because of its com-
plexity, full waveform logging technology is still in a
developmental stage.

Most waveform sonic logs are run in coalbed wells to evaluate


mechanical rock properties, such as compressive strength and
elastic moduli, for use in designing fracture treatments. Sonic logs
may also be used to tie-in seismic data.

For conventional formations, you may be able to infer formation


permeability from full waveform sonic data. In this method, you
first compare the shear or compressional arrivals in a permeable
zone and a non-permeable zone. Then, you compare the energy
levels of the sonic arrivals in the zone of interest to the other two
values to estimate permeability. Experience has shown, however,
that this correlation does not work well for coals because coals
naturally attenuate the sonic signal.

Figure 3-9 shows the shear, compressional, and Stonely travel


times obtained from a full waveform sonic log run at the Rock
Creek project. The coal seam is shown at 973-979 ft. Using
empirical equations, Poisson's ratio and Young's modulus can be
calculated from these travel times for both the coal and non-coal
formations in the well. These rock properties can then be used to
estimate the maximum fracture height that might occur during a
fracture treatment.

3-26
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal

Figure 3-9
Full Waveform Sonic Log

Geochemical Logs
Geochemical logs are useful in measuring elemental components of
the formation. These logs can be used in creating depositional
models for coalbeds and in correlating ash beds from well-to-well,
similar to the use of the spectral gamma ray tools. Currently, GRI
is sponsoring research on developing depositional models for
coalbeds based on geochemical logging.

3-27
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

A typical geochemical string includes a natural gamma ray tool, an


aluminum activation clay tool, and a gamma ray spectroscopy tool.
The combination of these tools can measure up to 10 elemental
concentrations in the formation. You can use these elemental
concentrations together with data from the density, neutron, and
spectral density tools to detect the presence of up to 10 minerals.
Geochemical logs are most accurate when run in open hole, but you
can also run them in cased holes.

Two methods are currently used to convert the elemental data to


mineral data. You can calibrate the logging tool by using a data
base containing core measurements from around the world. Or
alternatively, you can calibrate the tool with local core data mea-
surements.

The geochemical log and the carbon/oxygen log are often run
together and displayed on a computer-processed presentation such
as the one shown in Figure 3-10 from the Rock Creek project. The
right hand track of this presentation shows the formation composi-
tion derived by a computer model from the base logs (gamma ray
spectroscopy, natural gamma ray, neutron, density, and dual induc-
tion). Because early lithology models could not adequately account
for coal intervals, this log erroneously shows a quartz (sandstone)
formation with high porosity across the Mary Lee/Blue Creek coal
seam at 1044-1056 ft.

Most logging companies now have computer-processed lithology


models that can accurately identify coal seams. For example,
Figure 3-11 shows a Schlumberger VOLAN geochemical log run
in the same Rock Creek well. The VOLAN log, which is derived
from the base logs (gamma ray spectroscopy, natural gamma ray,
neutron, density, and dual induction), accurately identifies the Mary
Lee/Blue Creek coal seam at 1045-1058 ft.

Carbon/Oxygen Log
The carbon/oxygen log provides a measure of the carbon content of
the formation. In conventional oil and gas applications, the carbon/
oxygen (C/O) log is used to help determine oil saturation behind
pipe. In coalbed methane wells, the carbon/oxygen log may be used
to determine the BTU content of coal. Bituminous coal yields a large
contrast between the carbon/oxygen ratio at the sand-shale baseline
and in the coal. This contrast can help you identify coals behind pipe.

3-28
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal

Figure 3-10
Geochemical and Carbon/Oxygen Log

In most formations, the carbon/oxygen log responds primarily to the


fluids that fill the rock's pore spaces (carbonate formations are an
exception). In conventional oil fields, the carbon/oxygen maximum
curve shows what the carbon content of the formation would be if
the pore spaces were 100% oil-filled. The minimum curve shows
what the carbon content would be if the pore spaces were 100%
water-filled. The middle curve on the log indicates the actual
carbon content of the formation. In conventional oil fields, these
three curves would be used to calculate water saturation.

3-29
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

Because coals have very low porosity (2-6%) and very high carbon
content, the carbon/oxygen log responds primarily to the carbon
content of the coal rather than to fluid-filled porosity. In fact, the
carbon/oxygen log response is much more pronounced across a coal
seam than across an oil-bearing sandstone. Figure 3-10 shows a
carbon/oxygen log run across the Blue Creek/Mary Lee coal seam at
1044-1056 ft.

Important The C/O log is most accurate in a uniform gauge, open hole. In
cased holes, washouts behind the pipe will degrade the C/O ratio.

Figure 3-11
VOLAN Geochemical Log

3-30
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal

Spectral Gamma Ray Log


The natural gamma ray spectrometry log, or spectral gamma ray log,
measures the total radioactivity of formations and the concentrations
of thorium, uranium, and potassium that produce the radioactivity.
This log, which can be run in either open hole or cased hole wells,
provides useful data for identifying formations adjacent to coalbeds,
and for correlating ash beds from well-to-well.

You can also use the spectral gamma ray log for modeling deposi-
tional environments. For example, many coals, especially low rank
coals, can be identified by their high concentrations of Uranium.
You may also enhance depositional models by estimating clay
mineral content from the spectral gamma ray log.

Some spectral gamma ray tools can be modified to record a natural


lithology curve which is similar to the photoelectric measurement on
the modern bulk density tools. The low lithology ratio values
correlate to the low Pe (photoelectric effect) values in the coalbeds.
The lithology ratio works only in open holes.

On the left-hand track of the spectral gamma ray log, total radioac-
tivity counts are recorded in either counts per minute or API units.
On the right-hand track of the log, the potassium (K) curve is re-
corded in percent, and the uranium (U) and Thorium (Th) curves are
recorded in parts per million (ppm).

Figure 3-12 shows a spectral gamma ray log run at the Rock Creek
project. The Mary Lee and Blue Creek coal seams are shown at
1045-1057 ft.

Borehole Televiewer
The borehole televiewer is an acoustic device that scans the bore-
hole horizontally with a rotating, focused receiver. The televiewer
has been used with only limited success in detecting coalbed
thickness and in identifying coal cleats. Borehole televiewers are
very sensitive to borehole geometry. Because it provides poor
measurements in elongated, rugose, or collapsing boreholes, the
borehole televiewer has been used little in coalbed wells.

Temperature Log
Because temperature changes across coalbeds are usually very
subtle, temperature logs are not useful for delineating coalbeds.

3-31
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

However, you can use a temperature log to locate water-producing


zones, points of gas entry into the wellbore encountered during
drilling, which may have to be cased off before completing the well.

Figure 3-12
Spectral Gamma Ray Log

Computer-Processed Log Presentations


Many of the logging service companies offer customized log presen-
tations that may help you identify coals and evaluate their quality
and producibility. These logs contain computer-processed data
based on the responses of the basic logs, such as the density, gamma

3-32
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal

ray, resistivity, sonic, and neutron logs. Some of the computer-


processed logs also incorporate core data provided by the operator.

Because the basic logs have better resolution in thicker formations,


the accuracy of computer-processed logs is likewise greater in
thick formations, such as those in the San Juan Basin, than it is in
thin formations, such as those in the Black Warrior Basin.

Though computer-processed logs may prove useful, if you decide


to use them, make sure you fully understand what log data is used
to generate the presentation and how that data is processed. The
value of the computer-processed presentation will be no greater
than the quality of the data used to create it.

The computer-processed geochemical log shown earlier in Figure


3-10 is based on the gamma ray spectroscopy, natural gamma ray,
neutron, bulk density, and dual induction logs. This geochemical
log shows the formation composition of all intervals.

Figure 3-13 shows a computer-processed coal quality log based on


the sonic and bulk density logs. This log graphically shows the
percentage composition of carbon, ash, volatiles, and moisture in
the Upper Pratt "A" and Upper Pratt "B" coal seams.

Geophysical Well Log Models


Estimating coal quality, gas content, and coal permeability from
open hole logs certainly is not a proven technique. However,
research is underway to develop methods for accurately correlating
open hole logs to core data so that the coals in a development well
can be evaluated with open hole logs alone.

When a correlation between the core and log data has been estab-
lished for one well, a model based on that correlation can be devel-
oped for the entire field. The model can then be used to estimate
coal quality, gas content, and coal permeability for development
wells in that field based solely on well log information. This
technique, when perfected, could eliminate the need to obtain cores
from each well. For more information on this GRI research, refer
to The Development of Formation Evaluation Technology for
Coalbed Methane - Annual Technical Report (December 1990 -
December 1991), ResTech, Inc. for GRI, March, 1992.

3-33
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

Figure 3-13
Computer-Processed Coal Quality Log

If you use geophysical modelling for a field, you should model each
coal seam separately. Don't assume correlations for one coal seam
will apply to another seam. In addition, you should understand the
geology of the field well enough to recognize what factors might
cause a variation in coal quality, gas content, or coal permeability.
The reservoir and rock properties of the coal and overlying rock can
vary considerably over short distances. Some of the variables that
may contribute to this heterogeneity are the presence or absence of
fractures in the overlying rock, stress regimes in the rock, cleat
development within the coal, and the presence of mineral filling in
the cleat system.

3-34
Selecting an Open Hole Logging Suite

Selecting an Open Hole Logging Suite


Selecting a proper suite of logs will help you to obtain the informa-
tion you need to accurately evaluate coalbed reservoirs. Tables 3-7
and 3-8 show logging tools that have proven effective in the Black
Warrior Basin for obtaining various reservoir information in open
hole exploration and development wells. The extensive suite of
logs suggested for exploration wells might help provide informa-
tion about both coal seams and non-coal formations in the well.

Table 3-7
Logging Tools for
Open Hole Exploration Wells

Logging Tool Information Obtained

High Resolution Density, Coal identification


Spectral Density, and thickness
Gamma Ray

Caliper Hole size and wellbore


condition

Dual Laterolog, Microlog, Permeability


Resistivity, SP

Neutron Gas content

Formation Microscanner Cleat orientation

Density,
Full Waveform Sonic Mechanical properties

3-35
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

Table 3-8
Logging Tools for
Open Hole Development Wells

Logging Tool Information Obtained

High Resolution Density or Coal identification


Spectral Density, Gamma Ray and thickness

Caliper Hole size and wellbore


condition

Guidelines for Open Hole Logging


Before logging an open hole coalbed methane well, carefully con-
sider the type of reservoir properties you want to obtain from
wireline logs and select the appropriate logging suite. Then review
the guidelines below to help ensure the quality of the data you
obtain.

Important When possible, you should log the open (uncased) hole as
soon as practical after drilling and conditioning it. This
practice helps to reduce the chance of damaging the forma-
tion before measuring its properties.

If the well has sufficient rathole and the logging truck is


properly equipped, stack all of the logging tools and run
them on a single trip in the hole.
This procedure saves rig time for logging and eliminates pos-
sible depth discrepancies that could occur if you run the tools
separately.

3-36
Cased Hole Logging Tools

If you are logging in a new area, you can refer to well logs
from offset wells (if they are available) to approximate coal
seam depths.

Make one or two repeat runs over the coal beds before
making the main logging run.
Repeat runs help you to validate the logging measurement.

When running nuclear logging tools, use a logging speed of


30 feet/minute.

Make one logging pass at 18 feet/minute using high resolu-


tion processing to record maximum detail in the coalbeds.
Shale stringers in coalbeds may be masked because they are
thinner than the standard vertical resolution. High resolution
processing of the density log can reduce the vertical resolution
to six inches. You may be able to accurately identify shale
stringers six inches thick, but you still may not be able to
identify thinner stringers.

Important High-resolution processing must be done when you origi-


nally log the well. It is not possible to re-process a log
recorded with a two-foot resolution to change its resolution
to one foot.

To obtain greater detail from logs, you can present them on


an expanded scale, (e.g., 20 inches equal to 100 feet).

Cased Hole Logging Tools


To obtain the most accurate measurements of formation properties,
you should log the open (uncased) hole. However, if hole condi-
tions or other constraints prevent you from running an open hole
log, you may still obtain some formation data by running a cased
hole log. You may also run cased hole logs during the producing
life of a well to monitor reservoir properties, to evaluate additional
coal seams, or to diagnose mechanical wellbore problems. This
section describes tools you can use to log cased hole coalbed meth-
ane wells.

3-37
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

Compensated Neutron Log


The dual detector-compensated neutron log is the tool most fre-
quently run in cased holes to identify coalbeds and to measure net
coal thickness. The measurements from a cased hole compensated
neutron log should be as reliable as those obtained from an open
hole compensated neutron log.

Important Washouts behind pipe can be difficult to interpret with a


compensated neutron tool.

Pulsed Neutron Log


The pulsed neutron log is often run in cased holes to identify coalbeds
and to measure net coal thickness. The pulsed neutron log is inter-
preted in much the same way as the compensated neutron log, except
that pulsed neutron log displays a neutron ratio instead of a neutron
porosity. Increasing neutron ratio corresponds to increasing porosity,
which is indicative of coal. The neutron ratio curve is not as sensitive
as the compensated neutron porosity. However, the pulsed neutron
log may have a slightly better depth of investigation than the compen-
sated neutron log. Therefore, the pulsed neutron log may give better
resolution in cased hole than the compensated neutron log.

These general guidelines apply to the pulsed neutron log:

The pulsed neutron log is ineffective when it encounters


hole washouts behind pipe.

You should establish the pulsed neutron ratio cutoff for coal
on a well-by-well basis.
Differences in hole size, cement quality, casing size, and tubing
size affect the accuracy of the ratio curve.

Gamma Ray Log


The gamma ray log records the natural radioactivity of formations.
Because coal usually exhibits low total natural radioactivity (usu-
ally less than 70 API units), you can identify coal seams by the
deflection of the gamma ray curve to the left. The presence of thin
partings, consisting of various clay minerals, will increase the
measured natural radioactivity.

3-38
Cased Hole Logging Tools

Because the gamma ray log can be recorded in cased holes, it is


very useful for:
Correlating coalbeds

Providing accurate depth control when it is run with a


casing collar locator

Locating radioactive tracers used in fracturing treatments


(If more than one isotope is used, you should use the spec-
tral gamma ray log)

Cement Bond/Variable Density Log


Cement evaluation tools that employ acoustic measurements, if
correctly interpreted, can provide useful information for evaluating
the success of primary cementing on initial well completions.
They can also be used to assess the need for remedial cement jobs.

The cement bond log (CBL) provides a continuous measurement of


the amplitudes of sound pulses after they have traveled a length of
casing. This amplitude is maximum in unsupported pipe, and
minimum in well-cemented casing.

The variable density log (VDL) is usually included with the CBL.
The VDL provides information about the quality of the formation
bonding. You can run a gamma ray log simultaneously with the
CBL/VDL.

The primary uses for the CBL/VDL are:


To determine the effectiveness of the cement sheath in the
casing-formation annulus

To check the effectiveness of squeeze cementing

To locate the cement top

An improved version of the standard cement bond log is now


available. This log can help you evaluate the distribution and
quality of cement around the entire wellbore radius. The tool is
useful for identifying channels that cannot be detected by standard

3-39
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

CBL tools. This log also is unaffected by microannulus as is the


standard CBL.

Figure 3-14 shows a Cement Bond/Variable Density Log (CBL/


VDL) run in a well at the Rock Creek project. The log shows a
transition from "free pipe" (poor cement bond) to good cement bond
at 651 ft.

Figure 3-14
Cement Bond/Variable Density Log

3-40
Selecting a Cased Hole Logging Suite

Often the decision whether to run cement evaluation logs is based


primarily on economic considerations. When deciding whether to
run cement evaluation logs, you should consider the following
guidelines:

When well conditions allow you to apply sound primary


cementing practices, the cement evaluation logs may not be
necessary.

When conditions make primary cementing difficult, and


where experience has demonstrated that success of primary
cement jobs is low, the cement evaluation logs can help you
identify potential problem areas and possibly improve
cementing practices.

When fluid movement behind the casing is suspected, the


cement evaluation logs may confirm the problem and may
show where remedial cementing can be effectively applied.

When oil and gas regulatory agencies may require a CBL


prior to completing and producing a well, check with the oil
and gas regulatory agency in your area.

Selecting a Cased Hole Logging Suite


Selecting a proper suite of logs will help you to obtain the informa-
tion you need to accurately evaluate coalbed reservoirs. Table 3-9
shows logging tools that have been found effective in the Black
Warrior Basin for obtaining various reservoir information in cased
hole wells.

3-41
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

Table 3-9
Logging Tools for Cased Hole Wells

Logging Tool Information Obtained

Mineral logging density* Coalbed identification


and seam thickness

Gamma ray/CCL Coalbed correlation

Cement bond log/VDL/CCL Integrity of cement


job

* Not necessary if an adequate open hole density log was obtained.

Guidelines for Cased Hole Logging


Before logging a cased hole coalbed methane well, carefully consider
the type of reservoir properties you want to obtain from wireline logs
and select the appropriate logging suite. Then review the guidelines
below to help ensure the quality of the data you obtain.

Before beginning any wireline completions or workover


operations, always compare the depths on the cased hole
gamma ray log to the depths on the open hole gamma ray log.
For example, when preparing to perforate an interval, never
assume the cased hole gamma ray log has been properly corre-
lated to the open hole gamma ray log. The perforations for new
wells or recompletions are often selected from the open hole
log. If you assume the cased hole log is on depth, and it is not,
you could perforate the wrong interval. Always verify which
log the perforations were selected from, and then correlate that
log with the cased hole log.

3-42
Guidelines for Cased HoleLogging

When running a cased hole log on a workover, always


identify the static fluid level in the wellbore.
Knowing the static fluid level can help with later log interpreta-
tion.

When running a cement bond log, make sure you include


the logs or displays listed below.
You can use the amplitude curve and variable density curve to
evaluate the cement job.

Amplitude curve for cement


Variable density display
Casing collar locator
Gamma ray log

Avoid circulating cold fluids in the casing before running


the initial cement bond log.
Cold fluids could adversely affect the amplitude and VDL
measurements on the cement bond log.

Correlate the cement bond log with the open hole log to
make sure they are recorded at the same depth. The
gamma ray log is the primary source for this correlation.

When running a cement bond log, make sure you tag and
record the plugged back total depth (PBTD) of the well and
log from PBTD to the top of the cement.

If the cement bond log shows poor cement bond throughout


the hole or through a large section, pressure up on the
casing and rerun the log under pressure.
A microannulus between the casing and cement can cause the
cement bond log to show poor bonding. Pressuring up on the
casing expands the casing, which can reduce the microannulus
and improve the cement bond.

3-43
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

Production Logging Tools


Production (or cased hole) logging refers to running logs after the
production casing string has been cemented and the well has been
placed on production. Production logging tools are designed to
operate downhole under static or producing conditions to provide
the data you need to determine the physical condition of the well, to
evaluate the performance of the well completion, to diagnose well
problems, or to evaluate the results of well workover operations.

Most coalbed methane wells require artificial lift to produce. To


evaluate a well under dynamic producing conditions, you must run
production logs while the artificial lift equipment is operating.
Therefore, instead of running logs down the production tubing, you
must run them down the tubing/casing annulus. This can be ac-
complished by using the dual completion wellhead illustrated in
Figure 3-15. Using this wellhead, you can pump the well while the
production logs are run through the second opening. Installing this
wellhead requires a workover rig to lift the tubing.

Figure 3-15
Wellhead Configuration for Annular Logging

3-44
Production Logging Tools

The most common production logging tools used in coalbed methane


wells are:
Continuous Flowmeter

Gradiomanometer

Temperature Log

Downhole Camera

Continuous Flowmeter
The continuous flowmeter is used to determine which coal inter-
vals are contributing flow to the wellbore and the percentage flow
contribution from each interval. The tool is a spinner type veloci-
meter which records a continuous flow profile versus depth. Al-
though the continuous flowmeter has no practical upper limit on
flow rate which can be measured, there is a minimum flow rate
below which the tool will not operate.

The flowmeters used for most conventional applications required


minimum flow rates that were higher than many coalbed methane
wells could produce. To reduce the required minimum flow rate,
Computalog Wireline Services developed a flowmeter with a
lighter (titanium) impeller and improved bearings. This flowmeter
tool, illustrated in Figure 3-16, is being used successfully on
coalbed methane wells in the Black Warrior Basin.

Fluid viscosity has a marked effect on spinner speed; decreased


viscosity increases spinner speed. Therefore, the downhole re-
sponse curve of spinner speed versus fluid velocity must be estab-
lished for specific well conditions.

A method of interpretation called the Two-Pass Technique is


effective for multi-phase flow. In its simplest form, this technique
involves making one pass down and one pass up through the zone.
The response curves are then matched in the zone of zero flow
below the bottom perforations. The Two-Pass Technique should
reduce interpretation time and permit recognition of relatively
small fluid entries.

3-45
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

Figure 3-16
Flowmeter Developed for Coalbed Methane Wells

Important
To properly calibrate a continuous flowmeter, you must first
establish the baseline of no flow below the perforations and then
make multiple runs at different speeds.

Figure 3-17 shows a continuous flowmeter log which was run in


the Black Warrior Basin .

Gradiomanometer
The gradiomanometer is an effective tool for identifying gas entry
and for locating standing water levels in wellbores.

The gradiomanometer records a continuous profile of pressure


gradient by measuring the difference in pressure between two
pressure sensors. This pressure difference is principally due to
changes in the average density of the wellbore fluid. Therefore, the
greater the density difference between wellbore fluids, the more
accurate is the resulting interpretation.

3-46
Production Logging Tools

Figure 3-17
Flowmeter Log

Important
Repeat runs with the well shut-in are useful in calibrating the
gradiomanometer.

Temperature Log
The temperature log responds to temperature anomalies produced
by fluid flow either within the production tubing, the casing or in
the casing annulus. Therefore, the temperature log is useful for
detecting tubing leaks or water flow behind casing. Temperature

3-47
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

log interpretations can also be used to determine flow rates and


points of fluid entry into the wellbore.

Downhole Camera
The downhole camera is a specially designed video camera that
allows viewing of actual conditions in the wellbore. Because the
resolution of downhole cameras has improved greatly in recent
years, the camera has become an effective tool in diagnosing
downhole production problems in coalbed methane wells. It has
also helped in evaluating the location and orientation of fractures in
open holes.

Specifically, you can use downhole camera surveys in:

Determining whether perforations are open or plugged with


fines or scale

Determining qualitatively which zones are contributing flow


and the amount of flow

Determining the type of influx along vertical coal cleats or


in bedding planes

Evaluating the condition of casing (e.g., looking for corro-


sion or splits)

Inspecting the location and position of a fish left while


drilling or working over the well

Limitations of the Camera Survey


Though the camera is a useful tool, it does have limitations. For
example, the hole must contain clear fluid for the camera to provide
detailed pictures. If the fluid is not clear, you may try to displace it
with clear fluid. However, the fluid you pump may flow into
shallow perforations or permeable zones. You may find it difficult
to displace fluid from deeper intervals without running the tubing
back into the well.

Another possible limitation is the pressure rating of the camera.


This rating not only limits the maximum depth at which the camera
can be used, but may also limit the operations that can be per-
formed with the camera in the hole. Because the camera used at

3-48
Production Logging Tools

the Rock Creek Project was rated for 1000 psi, it worked effectively
for the shallow zones of the Black Warrior Basin.

Running the Camera Survey


To get the best information from the camera survey, you should
discuss your objectives for the survey with the camera crew before
they rig up. Tell them specifically what information you would like
for them to obtain from the survey.

The usual procedure for running a downhole camera survey at the


Rock Creek Project is listed below:

At least one day before the survey


1. Prepare a list of features you wish to view in the well and
their depths (if you know them).

2. Schedule the camera unit to be at the well site and ready to


run in the hole as soon as the workover rig finishes pulling
the tubing.

3. Schedule a truckload of fresh clear water to remain on


standby at the well site while running the camera survey.

4. Make sure to have a casing collar log on location so you can


correlate the depth of the camera as you would with any
production log.

The day of the survey


1. Mobilize the workover rig.

2. Pull sucker rod string, downhole pump, and tubing string


out of the hole.

3. Rig down the workover rig (unless it is more practical or


economical to leave it rigged up during the survey).

3-49
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging

4. Run in the hole with the camera.

5. Proceed downhole as quickly as practical so you can view


the zone before encroaching water covers it.

6. Correlate the depth of the camera using a previous casing


collar log.
The camera survey is not run with a casing collar locator log,
but you will be able to identify casing connections with the
camera.

7. Run the camera through the zone of interest and make


notes of any pertinent observations.

8. If the well fluid is too dark to see through, pump the


standby water into the wellbore while the camera is
downhole. Do not exceed a pressure of 1000 psi on the
camera.

9. When finished viewing the wellbore, pull the camera out of


the hole.

10. Rig up the workover rig and run the tubing string, pump,
and rod string back into the well.

3-50
Additional Resources

Additional Resources

The Development of Formation Evaluation Technology for


Coalbed Methane - Annual Technical Report (December 1990 -
December 1991), ResTech, Inc. (for GRI), March, 1992.

Hilche, D.W., Advanced Well Log Interpretation, Douglas W.


Hilche, Inc., Golden, Colorado, 1982.

Mullen, M.J., Log Evaluation In Wells Drilled For Coal-Bed


Methane, Geology and Coal-Bed Methane Resources of the
Northern San Juan Basin, Colorado and New Mexico, Rocky
Mountain Association of Geologists, Denver, 1988.

Rieke, H.H. III, C.T. Rightmire, and W.H Fertl, Evaluation of


Gas-Bearing Coal Seams, Journal of Petroleum Technology,
January, 1981.

3-51
4 Completing the Well

T echniques for completing coalbed methane wells have evolved


from completion experience with conventional oil and gas wells.
Though some conventional techniques can be applied directly, others
have been modified to accommodate the unique characteristics of coal
reservoirs.

The primary goal in completing a coalbed methane well is to establish


communication between the wellbore and the target formation. Effec-
tive formation access is essential to successfully stimulate and produce
the well.

This chapter will guide you through:

Reservoir Considerations in Completing the Well

Objectives of Completing the Well

Completing in Open Hole

Completing in Cased Hole

Accessing the Formation

Selecting Production Tubing

Working Over Wells


Chapter 4 Completing the Well

Reservoir Considerations in Completing the Well


Completing a coalbed methane well is often similar to completing a
conventional oil or gas well. Though the type of formation is different,
many of the same reservoir engineering principles apply. When
planning a completion for a coalbed methane well, consider these
general guidelines for coal reservoirs:

In many cases, the cleat system of coal is 100% water saturated.


Therefore, you must recover water to lower the formation
pressure to initiate gas desorption and flow. The volume of
water to be produced will affect the selection of tubulars and
artificial lift method.

Coalbed methane wells are often drilled through a group of


coal seams separated by non-coal formations. Your decision to
complete individual seams or groups of seams will determine
what completion method you select.

Because coal seams have relatively low permeability, you will


likely need to hydraulically fracture the well to stimulate
production.
For more information on fracturing, refer to Chapter 5.

Production of coal fines is similar to sand production in


unconsolidated sand reservoirs. The flow of fines into the
wellbore may cause severe damage and plugging problems to
the wellbore and to surface equipment. Hydraulic fracturing
may help control coal fines. When you fracture a coalbed well,
you redistribute the near-wellbore pressure profile so that the
coalface is not exposed to a high pressure drop within a small
area.

Objectives of Completing the Well


When completing a coalbed methane well, you should attempt to:

Provide effective communication between the wellbore and the


natural fractures and cleat system of the coal.
This communication is usually achieved by open hole completion
and/or perforated/slotted cased hole completion.

4-2
Objectives of Completing the Well

Experience at the Rock Creek project and in other parts of the


Black Warrior Basin has shown that effective communication with
the coals natural fractures cannot always be established by
perforating or slotting. Additional stimulation is sometimes
needed to establish communication.

Provide for control over stimulation operations.


When you plan to complete multiple coal seams, you must select
a completion method that will allow you to effectively control
stimulation operations on individual coal seams. These comple-
tion methods are explained later in this chapter.

Minimize completion cost.


To ensure the economical development of low rate coalbed meth-
ane wells, you must carefully control the completion cost. A
completion method must be relatively inexpensive to be economi-
cally viable. However, when designing completions, you must
select casing sizes that will not restrict production from multiple
zones. For more information on selecting casing size, refer to
Chapter 2.

Minimize wellbore damage and maximize well productivity.


Wellbore damage from drilling operations may cause flow restric-
tion near the wellbore. To connect the wellbore to the virgin
reservoir, you must eliminate this flow restriction. You can
overcome wellbore damage by either removing the damage or
bypassing it.
Even if no wellbore damage exists, stimulation is required to
establish commercial production because the permeability and
productivity of coal is so low. The methods below are effective in
minimizing wellbore damage and maximizing productivity.

Hole Enlargement
In this method, you remove near-wellbore damage simply by
underreaming the hole, but not by applying any other stimulation.
(The underreamer tool is described in Equipment for Workovers
and Completions, later in this chapter.) This method may help
establish economical production if reservoir permeability is high
enough to drain a reasonable area of the reservoir. If permeability

4-3
Chapter 4 Completing the Well

is low, then you must use a stimulation treatment that reaches


beyond the near-wellbore area.

Hydraulic Fracturing
In fracturing the formation, you bypass wellbore damage rather
than treating it directly. If the coal seam is not damaged, fracturing
can provide a highly conductive flow path between the natural
fractures in the coal and the wellbore. This technique creates a
long fracture that connects the wellbore to the virgin reservoir.
The length of fracture needed depends on many variables includ-
ing the permeability and gas content of the coal.
A fracture stimulation designed only to overcome near wellbore
damage will not sufficiently stimulate the well. Experience at the
Rock Creek project has shown that an optimum fracture length
exists for a coal seam with a given permeability and gas content.
In general, the longer the fracture length, the greater will be the gas
producing potential of the reservoir. However, beyond a certain
size fracture treatment, the incremental gas production may not
justify the cost of the larger treatment.
For more information on hydraulic fracturing, see Chapter 5.

Completing in Open Hole


This section explains the applications and limitations of open hole
completions in:
Single Coal Seams
Multiple Coal Seams

Single Coal Seams in Open Hole


Mining companies have used the single-zone, open hole completion
extensively to degasify coalbeds before mining operations. Though
some coalbed methane producers in the Black Warrior Basin have
tried using open hole completions, most now use cased hole comple-
tions.

A properly performed open hole completion can eliminate the risk of


fracturing the coal with cement. However, rubble from a large open
hole section can interfere with production. Experience in the Black
Warrior Basin has shown that open hole completions usually are not

4-4
Completing in Open Hole

as successful as cased hole completions. Formations in the open portion


of the hole must be competent enough to prevent sloughing of formation
into the wellbore. Sloughing can cause excessive well fill-up, which
may eventually restrict production and require costly cleanout opera-
tions.

In addition, open hole completions reduce your ability to control access


to zones during stimulation. In some areas, open hole completions could
also limit the control of water influx from non-coalbed aquifers adjacent
to the coalbed.

Figure 4-1 shows a typical single-zone, open hole coalbed completion.

Figure 4-1
Single-Zone Open Hole Completion

In the Black Warrior Basin, the three most common methods for
performing a single-zone, open hole completion are:
Drilling to Total Depth and Setting Casing
Drilling to the Top of the Coalbed and Setting Casing
Drilling to Total Depth, Backfilling, and Setting Casing

4-5
Chapter 4 Completing the Well

The general procedures for each of these three methods are explained
below:

Drilling to Total Depth and Setting Casing


1. Drill the entire projected depth of the well.

2. Locate the target coalbed.

3. Set casing using a formation packer shoe.

4. Position the casing shoe from 2 to 10 feet above the highest


coalbed you plan to produce.

5. Cement the casing string.

6. Drill out the packer/shoe (preferably with water or air mist),


leaving the underlying coalbed open.

Drilling to the Top of the Coalbed and Setting Casing


1. Stop drilling from 2 to 10 feet above the target coal seam.

2. Set the casing and float shoe.

3. Cement the casing string.

4. Drill out the float shoe and hole to total depth, leaving the
coalbed exposed.

Drilling to Total Depth, Backfilling, and Setting Casing


1. Drill the well to total depth.

4-6
Completing in Open Hole

2. Backfill the hole to the casing point (2 to 10 feet above the


coalbed) using sand or other such fill material.

3. Lower the casing to the top of the fill material.

4. Cement the casing string.

5. Wash the fill material from the well, leaving the coalbed open.

In each of these methods, you can also underream or enlarge the open hole
portion to remove near-wellbore damage. Underreaming may help
establish economical production from the reservoir if the wellbore
intersects the natural fractures in the coal and if the permeability of the
coal is high enough to drain a large area of the reservoir.

Multiple Coal Seams in Open Hole


Completing multiple coal seams in open hole is similar to the method
for completing a single zone in open hole. However, to complete
multiple seams, you use open hole inflatable packers to separate zones.

Open hole completions were used with limited success in the Deerlick
Creek Field in the Black Warrior Basin. However, this method was
abandoned because of operational problems and resulting low gas
production rates. In general, open hole completions have not proven
effective for multiple-zone wells.
The main disadvantages of the multiple-zone open-hole completion

method are:
Separating zones is impractical if pay stringers are thin.

Inflatable packers must be removed after each treatment.

Packers may leak and cause communication between zones.

Fluids may leak past the packer because of hairline stress


fractures in the formation caused by the packer.
Some open holes are too irregularly shaped for a packer to
seal effectively.

4-7
Chapter 4 Completing the Well

The packer could become stuck in the open hole.

Figure 4-2 shows a multiple-zone, open hole completion.

Figure 4-2
Multiple-Zone Open Hole Completion

Completing in Cased Hole


To maximize production from shallow, thin coalseams, most opera-
tors today complete multiple coal horizons through casing. Using
cased hole completion methods will help avoid the problems of open
hole completions and will help:
Maintain hole stability

4-8
Completing in Cased Hole

Allow selective completion of multiple coal seams

Maintain control over the well during stimulation operations

Reduce coal fines production

Allow the use of resettable packers rather than inflatable packers

The cased hole completion method is especially effective for complet-


ing multiple zones in a single well. Figure 4-3 shows such a
completion.
Though cased hole completions provide several important benefits,
they also can have some drawbacks that may reduce their effectiveness:
Figure 4-3
Multiple-Zone Cased Hole Completion

4-9
Chapter 4 Completing the Well

Cement invasion caused by fracturing the coal during cement-


ing operations can cause formation damage.

Blockage of access points (perforations or slots) because of coal


abrasion during stimulation or because of coal movement
behind the casing during production.

At the Rock Creek project, a stage cementing technique was once used
successfully to prevent cement invasion into coal seams. For more
information on this technique, refer to Cementing the Casing String in
Chapter 2.

The Rock Creek project also tested a fracturing technique used by some
operators in the Black Warrior Basin that can reduce blockage of access
points during fracture stimulation. In this technique, called interseam
completion, coal seams are fractured by initiating the fracture in non-
coal formations adjacent to the coal layers. For more information on
interseam completions, refer to Special Formation Access Techniques,
later in this chapter.

Accessing the Formation


Accessing the formation means providing a physical pathway of
communication between the wellbore and the target formation. Ac-
cess controls the effectiveness of well testing, stimulation treatments,
and production operations. Without effective communication to the
formation, it is not possible to accurately measure formation proper-
ties such as permeability. During stimulation, the type of access
affects the amount and type of coal abrasion. Conversely, during
production the access points control the quantity of fluid that can move
from the formation into the wellbore.
Methods of Formation Access
This section first explains the formation access methods that operators
in the Black Warrior Basin use most often and then it explains criteria
for selecting an access method.

Operators in the Black Warrior Basin have used a variety of methods


to access coal seams. Some of the methods have proven more
successful than others. Each of these methods is explained below:

4-10
Accessing the Formation

Perforating Through Casing

Jetting Slots Through Casing

Special Formation Access Techniques

Perforating Through Casing

Perforations provide the most efficient and cost-effective method for


accessing coalbeds, especially when you are targeting multiple zones.
Using conventional wireline-conveyed perforating guns, you can
access the formation rapidly and with pinpoint accuracy.

You can perforate the casing using either bullets or jet charges. Jet
charges have largely replaced bullets in the oil industry because they
penetrate deeper in hard rock formations. However, bullets may
provide better penetration and hole uniformity in low density coal
formations.

Perforations are available in a variety of sizes. A perforation diameter


of 0.41 inches can provide sufficient formation access to reduce
pressure losses during fracturing and decrease pressure drawdown into
the wellbore during production. Smaller diameter shots provide
greater penetration for channels through cement-invaded zones.

Operators in the Black Warrior Basin use a variety of perforating


charges. Some operators prefer to perforate shallow coal seams using
charges that create a large hole size to maximize gas flow into the
wellbore. However, for deeper coal zones, operators often sacrifice
hole size in favor of charges that penetrate deeper into the formation
and through any cement invasion. Most operators use a perforation
charge that provides a hole size of 0.37 to 0.41 inches and a penetration
of 8 to 13 inches.

Typically, you can effectively access a coalbed interval with shot


densities of 4-12 shots per foot, depending on fracture treatment
design and expected production rates. For more information on
specifications and operating procedures for perforating equipment,
consult with wireline service companies that have experience perfo-
rating coalbed wells in your area.

4-11
Chapter 4 Completing the Well

Caution Using an excessively large perforation charge may pulverize the


coal and severely damage permeability.

To perforate a zone, correlate the ports on the perforating gun with


the formation depths using a gamma-ray log and a casing collar
locator attached to a retrievable casing gun. (Expendable guns are
also available for use in holes with restricted diameters.) Then
detonate the guns via wireline.

Figure 4-4 shows a typical perforated cased hole completion.

Figure 4-4
Perforated Cased Hole Completion

Jetting Slots through Casing


Using the jetting technique, you cut slots in the casing and cement
sheath by discharging a water/sand mixture (occasionally nitrogen-

4-12
Accessing the Formation

charged) at high pressure through 1/8 to 1/4 inch jet nozzles on a


tubing string.

Operators have used various forms of jet cutting to complete


coalbed methane wells. Some operators jet open-hole completions
to expand the wellbore and to remove skin damage on the coal face
caused by invasion of drilling fluids or cement and to possibly
induce fracture propagation.

Operators most often use jetting in cased hole completions to cut


two, three, or four vertical slots in the casing and to remove forma-
tion damage. Because of the relatively higher cost of jetting slots,
many operators prefer to use perforations instead of slots.

Figure 4-5 shows a typical jet-slotted cased hole completion.

Figure 4-5
Slotted Cased Hole Completion

4-13
Chapter 4 Completing the Well

To cut slots, coalbed methane operators normally use one of these


jet slotting procedures:

The Position-Move-Position Procedure

The Reciprocating Procedure

Using the Position-Move-Position Procedure


This method provides a series of individual holes in the casing. To
use this method, follow the steps below:

1. Rig up the workover rig and wireline truck.

2 . Install a jetting nozzle on the end of the


tubing.
The jetting tool has a seat on which a ball can be
used to plug the end of the tubing.

3 . Trip the tubing into the well to a depth


where the end of the tubing is below the
target zone.

4 . Run a gamma ray log down through the tub-


ing and locate the target coal seam(s) by
correlating this through-tubing gamma ray
log with the openhole gamma ray log.

5 . Lower the gamma ray tool to the jetting


nozzle and record the depth. Then raise the
gamma ray tool up to the target zone and
record this depth. Calculate the distance
between these two depths and use this
value in step 7.

6 . Pull the gamma ray tool out of the tubing.

4-14
Accessing the Formation

7. Place a mark on the outside of the tubing at the top of the


slips or at the top of the wellhead. Raise the tubing string
the distance calculated in step 5 and place another mark on
the tubing above the slips or wellhead. This mark indicates
the position that the tubing must be in to begin jetting.

8. Connect the injection lines from the pump truck to the


tubing.

9 . Circulate water down the tubing, out the


bottom opening of the jetting nozzle, and
up the annulus to remove any debris that
may plug the nozzles.

10. Drop a ball to shut off the bottom opening of the tool.
Before running the jetting tool, make sure the ball is the
proper size for the seat in the tool. On some tools, the tung-
sten carbide nozzles may protrude into the throat of the tool,
which reduces the I.D. above the ball seat.

1 1 . Circulate with water after the ball is


dropped to make sure the ball has seated.
When the ball is seated properly, you will notice a
pressure increase in the tubing.

1 2 . Begin jetting with water* containing a sand


concentration from 1 to 1-1/2 lb/gal. Jet
in one place until you observe coal cuttings
at the surface.
To better monitor returns, set up a screen which
will trap the cuttings.
You should first observe metal cuttings from the
casing at the surface. These cuttings may be so
small that you have to use a magnet in the return
stream to identify them.
When you have cut through the casing, you should

4-15
Chapter 4 Completing the Well

observe return water that is black or dark. This color is from


the coal fines.
After the color of the water changes, you should begin seeing
coal cuttings at the surface.

13. After you see coal cuttings at the surface, move the tubing
one or two inches to reposition the nozzle.
14. Begin jetting again, and monitor returns for metal cut-
tings and coal cuttings.
After the first slot is cut, the water may remain dark for the
rest of the slotting operation.

15. Repeat steps 14 through 16 until you have slotted the


entire target interval.

16. After the interval has been slotted, stop pumping sand
and circulate clean water until the returns are free of coal
cuttings.
The water may remain dark if you are cycling the water, but
the coal cuttings should stop when the well is cleaned up.

17. When the returns are clean, shut down the pump and
reverse the circulation by pumping down the annulus and
up the tubing string to remove the ball in the nozzle.

18. After the ball is at the surface, lower the tubing string
slowly while reverse circulating to clean out the casing to
bottom.
Monitor pump pressure closely. Large pieces of coal can
plug the small opening at the bottom of the tool and cause a
rapid increase in pump pressure.

* You may circulate nitrogen instead of water for slotting. Nitro-


gen can enhance cutting because it removes cuttings more
quicklythan water. It also ensures returns to the surface.
Though most coal seams can support the hydrostatic pressure of
a column of water, some seams may not. If a seam cannot
support a water column, you would not be able to observe the

4-16
Accessing the Formation

returns at the surface. In such cases, using nitrogen will lower


the hydrostatic pressure on the seam and allow you to get returns
to the surface. Though nitrogen is more expensive than water,
the additional cost may be offset by reduced slotting time.
Caution
This method may partially fill the coalbed near the
wellbore with sand and coal fines, which can make later frac-
turing and production operations difficult. This problem
occurs because the slots created directly above or below the jet
prevent the jet stream from circulating properly back into the
wellbore.

Using the Reciprocating Procedure


A more effective jetting method is called reciprocating. This
method involves moving the jet up and down continuously until
you observe coal returns at the surface of the well.

This procedure cuts a continuous vertical slot through the casing by


a sand-fluid mixture discharged at high pressure through jet
nozzles. Constant washing of the slotted area minimizes buildup of
debris. Continuous slots are more likely to be clear and open for
later fracturing and production operations.

To use this method, follow the steps below:

1. Rig up the workover rig and wireline truck.

2. Install a jetting nozzle on the end of the tubing.


The jetting tool has a seat on which a ball can be used to plug
the end of the tubing.

3. Trip the tubing into the well so the end of the tubing is
below the target zone.

4. Run a gamma ray log down through the tubing and locate
the target coal seam(s) by correlating this through-tubing
gamma ray log with the openhole gamma ray log.

4-17
Chapter 4 Completing the Well

5. Lower the gamma ray tool in the tubing to the jetting nozzle
and record the depth. Then raise the gamma ray tool up to the
target zone and record this depth. Calculate the distance
between these two depths and use this value in step 7.

6. Pull the gamma ray tool out of the tubing.

7. Place a mark on the outside of the tubing at the top of the slips
or the top of the wellhead. Raise the tubing string the distance
calculated in step 5 and place another mark on the tubing at the
top of the slips or wellhead. This mark indicates the position
that the tubing must be in to begin jetting.

8. Draw a vertical line on the tubing in a place that can be


referenced to a stationary point on the rig floor or the wellhead.
This line will be observed when reciprocating the pipe to make sure
the pipe does not rotate. Preventing the pipe from rotating will
ensure the jetting nozzle is properly oriented inside the casing.

9. Connect the injection lines from the pump truck to the tubing.

10. Circulate water down the tubing, out the bottom opening of
the jetting nozzle, and up the annulus to remove any debris
that may plug the nozzles.

11. Drop a ball to shut off the bottom opening of the tool.
Before running the jetting tool, make sure the ball is the proper
size for the seat in the tool. On some tools, the tungsten carbide
nozzles may protrude into the throat of the tool, which reduces the
I.D. above the ball seat.

12. Circulate with water after the ball is dropped to make sure the
ball has seated.
When the ball is seated properly, you will notice a pressure
increase in the tubing.

13. Begin jetting with water* containing a sand concentration

4-18
Accessing the Formation

from 1 to 1-1/2 lb/gal while reciprocating the pipe up and


down across the interval to be slotted. Watch the vertical line
marked on the tubing to make sure the pipe does not rotate.
Continue jetting and reciprocating until you observe a con-
tinuous stream of coal cuttings at the surface.
To better monitor returns, set up a screen which will trap the
cuttings.
You should first observe metal cuttings from the casing at the
surface. These cuttings may be so small that you have to use a
magnet in the return stream to identify them.
When you have cut through the casing, you should observe return
water that is black or dark. This color is from the coal fines.
After the color of the water changes, you should begin seeing
coal cuttings at the surface.

14. Repeat step 13 until you have slotted the entire target
interval.

15. After the interval has been slotted, stop pumping sand and
clean up the well by circulating clean water until the returns
are free of coal cuttings.
The water may remain dark if you are cycling the water, but the
coal cuttings should stop when the well is cleaned up.

16. When the returns are clean, shut down the pump and reverse
the circulation by pumping down the annulus and up the
tubing string to remove the ball in the nozzle.

17. After the ball is at the surface, lower the tubing string slowly
while reverse circulating to clean out the casing to bottom.
Monitor pump pressure closely. Large pieces of coal can plug the
small opening at the bottom of the tool and cause a rapid increase
in pump pressure.

* You may circulate nitrogen instead of water for slotting. Nitro-


gen can enhance cutting because it removes cuttings more
quickly than water. It also ensures returns to the surface.

4-19
Chapter 4 Completing the Well

Though most coal seams can support the hydrostatic pressure of


a column of water, some seams may not. If a seam cannot
support a water column, you would not be able to observe the
returns at the surface. In such cases, using nitrogen will lower
the hydrostatic pressure on the seam and allow you to get returns
to the surface. Though nitrogen is more expensive than water,
the additional cost may be offset by reduced slotting time.

Special Formation Access Techniques


In the Black Warrior Basin, three specialized formation access
techniques have been used to complete multiseam wells. These
techniques are:
Restricted Access Completion
Limited Entry Completion
Interseam Completion

Restricted Access Completion


A special formation access technique called restricted access
completion was developed at the Rock Creek project to propagate
more effective fractures. Restricted access refers to the technique
of perforating only one seam in a group of thin, closely-spaced
seams. The primary objective of restricting access to a single seam
is to stimulate multiple seams (via the single seam) without the
expense
of perforating and treating each thin seam individually. The tech-
nique also offers the following potential benefits:

Helps prevent high pressures during stimulation

Helps prevent propagation of multiple parallel fractures

Reduces excessive fracture height growth

Reduces migration of sand and coal fines

Tests conducted at the Rock Creek project demonstrated the effective-


ness of the restricted access technique. Monitor well data, interference
testing, dye tracing, and reservoir modelling all confirmed that frac-
ture treatments initiated at the bottom of the multi-layer Black Creek
interval are at least as effective as fracturing stimulations conducted
each individual layer of the interval. Figure 4-6 illustrates the fracture
communication created in the Black Creek Coal Group by the re-
stricted access completion technique.

4-20
Accessing the Formation

Figure 4-6
Fracture Communication Created by the
Restricted Access Completion Technique

The research from the Rock Creek project showed that restricted
access completions are effective in a closely-spaced group of coal
seams if:

There are no barriers to fracture height growth between the


coal seams (i.e., the in-situ stresses of the formations be-
tween the seams are not significantly higher than the stress
in the coal.)

Stress profiles yield vertical rather than horizontal fractures

Barriers to fracture height growth exist above and below the


bottom coal seam

4-21
Chapter 4 Completing the Well

Limited Entry Completion


The limited entry completion method allows you to simultaneously
stimulate a group of coal seams in a well instead of stimulating
them separately, which requires downhole equipment and sand
plugs for isolation. You can use the limited entry method only in
perforated cased hole completions.

Figure 4-7 shows a typical limited entry multiple-zone completion.

Figure 4-7
Limited Entry Multiple-Zone Completion

You can use the limited entry technique to hydraulically fracture


several zones with different rock properties and in-situ stresses.
You control stimulation treatments that require different initiation
and propagation pressures by the number and size of perforations

4-22
Accessing the Formation

you place across each zone. Adjusting the number and size of
perforations at each zone controls the friction pressure through the
perforations, which gives you some control over the treating pres-
sure at each zone.

The main benefit of a properly designed limited entry completion is


the ability to fracture multiple seams with one treatment. To be
successful, a limited entry completion must be designed to provide
sufficient rate into each seam to adequately widen and extend the
fracture.

The ability to widen and extend the fracture is a function of the


mechanical properties (Youngs Modulus and Poissons Ratio) of
the formations. To properly design a limited entry completion, you
must analyze the mechanical properties of each coal seam and its
adjacent formations and account for the differing properties of each
zone in the design. A design with perforations based solely on the
thickness of the coal seam will likely not be an optimum design.

An improperly designed limited entry completion could


cause the problems listed below:

Propagation of a fracture at each set of perfora-


tions may result in a shorter fracture length and a
greater fracture height than desired

Inadequate injection rates into each set of perfo-


rations which could cause poor proppant trans-
port, excessive fluid leakoff, and potential bridg-
ing in the fracture because of insufficient fracture
width

The limited entry completion will likely be most successful when


used to fracture multiple coal seams in the same coal group where
there are confining barriers between the seams to be fractured. (A
confining barrier is a zone that has a higher stress than the zone to
be fractured and is thick enough to restrict the height growth of the
induced fracture.) If the seams do not have confining barriers
between them, a restricted access completion may work more
effectively than a limited access completion. The restricted access
completion is discussed in the next section.

The limited entry completion has not been as successful for fracturing
multiple coal groups as it has for fracturing multiple seams within one

4-23
Chapter 4 Completing the Well

coal group. This variation in performance might be due in part to the


degree of difference in the mechanical properties of the formations
between the coal groups.

Interseam Completions
This completion technique involves perforating through casing into
rock partings above, below, or between coal seams rather than directly
into the seams.

Interseam completions have been attempted in the Black Warrior


Basin to complete coal zones for which conventional fracture stimu-
lation pressures were excessive. In the basin, unusually high treating
pressures are sometimes encountered while attempting to fracture coal
seams. In some cases, treating pressures may reach the safe limit for
the casing before the operator has established any substantial injection
rate.

At the Rock Creek project, two separate coal groups in Well P5 were
completed using the interseam technique. Though high treating
pressures have not presented problems at Rock Creek, the interseam
technique was used to assess its effectiveness. Despite having no coal
directly connected to the wellbore, Well P5 became one of the highest
sustained gas producers in the field following its interseam comple-
tion. In addition, Well P5 required no pump repairs for 2 1/2 years.
(On average, wells in the Black Warrior Basin require pump work 2-
4 times a year). The results of this one test certainly cannot be
considered conclusive; however, they do indicate that interseam
completion may be effective for some wells.

Figure 4-8 shows the lithology and location of perforations for the
Well P5 interseam completion.

The decision to complete wells with the interseam technique should be


based on a thorough understanding of the in-situ stresses of the coal
seams and surrounding strata.

Though the usefulness of the interseam completion technique requires


further investigation, the technique may offer the advantages listed
below:

High treatment pressures may be avoided

Several target seams may be connected with a single treatment

4-24
Accessing the Formation

A propped fracture initiated in interseam strata may inhibit


plugging by migrating coal fines and proppant during produc-
tion

Figure 4-8
Lithology of the Well P5 Interseam Completion

4-25
Chapter 4 Completing the Well

Selecting a Formation Access Method


To determine the most effective formation access technique to use,
you must consider how the technique will affect your efforts to
characterize the reservoir, fracture the coal seams, and produce the
well. This section explains these considerations.

Access for Reservoir Characterization


In wells where it is important to determine permeability, reservoir
pressure, or stimulation pressure, you should use the slotting
technique. Because slotting yields a larger access area, it can
provide more accurate reservoir pressure measurements. To
provide for accurate measurement of reservoir pressures, it is
recommended to perform slotting in all pilot wells and in 10-20%
of all development wells.

In the Black Warrior Basin, permeabilities derived from pressure


transient tests have been very erratic and often cannot be correlated
with production rates. The inconsistency of the permeability
values could have been caused by insufficient access to the forma-
tion during these tests.

Access for Hydraulic Fracturing


During fracturing stimulation, you must try to minimize the
amount of destruction to the coalbed. Because of the friable nature
of coal, the fracture slurry can severely abrade the coal. This
abrasion may cause the fracture fluid to prematurely load with
solids, which can lead to tip plugging or premature bank fill-
ing. (For more information on these problems, refer to Chapter
5.) By selecting the correct type of access and location of access,
you can reduce coal destruction and its associated problems.

In the Black Warrior Basin, experience has shown that the most
effective access for fracturing is obtained by perforating the casing
with a casing gun having a charge size between 16 and 23 grams.
This charge will create a hole size of approximately 0.37 to 0.41
inch and a depth of penetration from 11 to 20 inches.

Access for Production of the Well


During production of a well, formation access must provide a mini-
mal pressure drop between the wellbore and the target formation.

4-26
Selecting Production Tubing

The access also must be able to maintain this low pressure differen-
tial for the life of the well (often 10 to 20 years.)

Important You should not perforate or slot the casing until just before you
fracture the well or place it on production. In some areas, leav-
ing a coal seam exposed for an extended time without producing
it may result in higher than expected treating pressures.

Selecting Production Tubing


Selecting the proper tubing string helps ensure the well is capable
of producing the water rates necessary to effectively de-water the
reservoir and maximize gas production. When selecting a tubing
string, consider the guidelines below:

Select tubing size based on the estimated maximum water


rate to be produced, the type and size of pump you will use,
and the formation pressures expected.
Most operators in the Black Warrior Basin use 2-3/8 inch
tubing for shallow wells (2000 ft or less) and 2-7/8 inch tubing
for deeper wells and/or wells expected to produce high rates of
water.

When ordering the tubing string, order enough tubing so


you can set the pump below the lowermost coal seam.
Consider also having tubing on location to wash out the well
to bottom if necessary.
Pup joints usually are not necessary unless you need to set the
pump at a precise depth. For example, if there is less than 30 ft
between the lowermost coal seam and the bottom of the hole,
you may use pup joints to place the pump below the perfora-
tions without setting the tubing on bottom.

Working Over Wells


Any work on a well (after drilling) that requires a rig can be gener-
ally classified as one of the three operations listed below:

Completion - the operations necessary to prepare a well for


production. Completions are usually performed after casing has

4-27
Chapter 4 Completing the Well

been set. Completion operations can include running cement bond


evaluation tools, perforating or slotting, stimulating the reservoir,
and installing artificial lift equipment.

Workover - remedial operations on a well which has produced


previously. These operations may include repairing primary
cement jobs, changing or adding perforated intervals, cleaning out
the wellbore, repairing casing failures, etc.

Pulling Job - the operations necessary to retrieve a downhole


pump and/or sucker rod string for replacement or repair. If a
tubing-retrievable pump is used, you must pull the tubing string.
However, if an insert pump is used, you may retrieve the pump by
pulling the rods. You can retrieve the rotor from a progressing
cavity (PC) pump by pulling the rods, but to retrieve the stator
from a PC pump, you must pull the tubing string.

Because of the marginal economics of most coalbed


methane wells, you must perform workovers prudently. For
example, some operators work over a well only after its production
has declined significantly. They find it more economical to defer
workovers as long as possible and to continue producing gas at a
lower rate. Of course, this practice will vary from well to well
depending on the difference between the cost of the workover and
the revenue from lost gas sales.

To minimize workover costs, you should plan the workover care-


fully. The guidelines below will help ensure an economical
workover:

Learn as much as you can about your well and offset wells
so you can determine the type of equipment needed to do
the job safely and effectively.

Make sure you perform only operations that are essential.

Evaluate several different options for performing a job.


The most expensive option is not necessarily the most effective.

4-28
Working Over Wells

Bid out as much of the work as practical to get the best


price.
Investigate the reputation and quality of previous work per-
formed by unknown contractors. The lowest price bid may not
be a bargain if the work is unsatisfactory.

Schedule all equipment to be on location when needed to


avoid downtime waiting on equipment and to avoid standby
costs if equipment arrives too early.

Important Though economics requires prudent spending on workover


operations, you should not jeopardize the safety of workers by
eliminating or reducing necessary safety equipment.

Equipment for Workovers and Completions


The equipment most commonly used for coalbed methane
workovers and completions is described below:

Packers
Operators normally use compression or tension packers for stimula-
tion treatments, for testing zones and for squeeze cementing.
Compression packers are used for deeper applications because they
require sufficient tubing weight above them to set. Usually, the
minimum required setting weight is 4,000 - 5,000 lbs. When using
2-3/8 inch, 4.7 lb/ft production tubing, the minimum depth for
setting a compression packer is approximately 850 feet. For shal-
lower depths, you should use a tension packer.

Retrievable Bridge Plugs


Retrievable bridge plugs are normally used to isolate zones for
testing or for production. Retrievable bridge plugs can be tubing
set/tubing retrievable or wireline set/tubing retrievable. The tubing
set/tubing retrievable bridge plugs are set and retrieved in much the
same way as retrievable packers. If you use a retrievable bridge
plug in combination with a retrievable packer, make sure the
direction of rotation required to set the bridge plug and packer are
not the same. If the rotations are the same, the packer and bridge
plug will both set.

4-29
Chapter 4 Completing the Well

Gamma Ray Log


Before perforating a zone, you must run a cased hole gamma ray
log to correlate depths with the open hole gamma ray log. Because
perforation intervals are usually selected from the open hole
gamma ray, you should correlate the cased hole log as precisely as
possible.

Perforating Guns
Conventional casing perforating guns are normally used to perfo-
rate coalbed methane wells. Before running a perforating gun in
the wellbore, make sure the correct number of charges is loaded.
Also, make sure length of the charges from one end to the other is
equal the desired perforated interval. You should also note the
distance from the collar locator tool to the top shot so you position
the gun at the correct depth before firing. Keep in mind that you
(not the wireline operator) are responsible for ensuring that the
perforations are shot in the right location. After firing the gun and
pulling it out of the hole, check to see that all shots fired.

Underreamer
An underreamer is a tool which may be run through casing to
enlarge an openhole section below the casing. The tool is equipped
with cutter arms which are normally held within the tool body by a
coil spring. When the tool is in the openhole below the casing, the
cutter arms may be extended by applying pump pressure through
the tubing string. In medium or soft formations, most
underreamers can enlarge a hole up to twice the diameter of the
tool. The typical tool size for 5-1/2 inch casing is 4-1/2 inches.
This size tool can enlarge a hole up to 9 inches.

Zone Isolation Packer


The zone isolation packer (ZIP) is a modified surface inflatable
packer developed by Gas Research Institute (GRI) at the Rock
Creek project. By installing the ZIP tool in the tubing string
between an upper and lower coal seam, the ZIP can be inflated to
effectively isolate the upper zones gas production from the lower
zone. Gas production from the upper seam can then be measured
until the water level rises above the perforations. Because the ZIP
tool has a full opening bore, it will not restrict flow rates.

4-30
Working Over Wells

The ZIP tool is inflated by nitrogen through a 1/4 inch stainless


steel line strapped to the outside of the tubing string. A ZIP tool is
also available with a pass-through, which enables you to run an
inflation line through the tool to another ZIP installed below it.
For more information on using the ZIP tool to measure production
in multiple-seam wells, refer to Chapter 9.

4-31
Chapter 4 Completing the Well

Additional Resources

Lambert, S.W.,Comparison of Open Hole, Slotting, and Perfora-


tion Completion Methods for Multiseam Coalbed Gas Wells,
Proceedings of the 1989 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The Uni-
versity of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (April 17-20).

Lambert, S.W. et al, Multiple Coal Seam Well Completion


Experience in the Deerlick Creek Field, Black Warrior Basin,
Alabama, Proceedings of the 1987 Coalbed Methane Sympo-
sium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama
(November 16-19).

Lambert, S.W., M.A. Trevits, and P.F. Steidl, Vertical Borehole


Design and Completion Practices to Remove Methane Gas from
Mineable Coalbeds, U.S. Department of Energy, Carbondale
Mining Technology Center, Carbondale, Illinois (1980).

Schraufnagel, R.A., J.L. Saulsberry, and S.W. Lambert, Gas


Production from Multiple Completion Wells at Rock Creek,
Proceedings of the 1989 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The Uni-
versity of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (April 17-20).

Schraufnagel, R.A., S.D. Spafford, and J.L. Saulsberry, Multiple


Seam Completion and Production Experience at Rock Creek,
Proceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The Uni-
versity of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-17).

Spafford, S. D., Stimulating Multiple Coal Seams at Rock Creek


With Access Restricted to a Single Seam, Proceedings of the
1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama,
Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-17).

4-32
5 Fracturing Coal Seams

T hough most coals are naturally fractured, you normally need to


hydraulically fracture coal seams to produce economic gas flow rates.

In the reservoir, methane gas is adsorbed onto the surface of the coal.
After the reservoir pressure is lowered and the gas desorbs from the coal,
it flows through the natural fractures in the coal. For gas to flow to the
wellbore at economical rates, effective communication must be estab-
lished between the natural coal fractures or cleats and the wellbore. The
most effective way to create this communication is by hydraulically
fracturing the coal seam.

In fracturing, large volumes of fluid and sand are pumped at high


pressure down the wellbore. The fluid opens a crack in the coal, and after
the fluid is removed, the sand remains in place to keep the new channel
open. The resulting proppant-filled fracture provides a flow path into
the wellbore for water and gas. When successful, hydraulic fracturing
can greatly increase methane production from coal seams.

Though much conventional fracturing technology can be applied to


coalbed fracturing, many techniques have been developed specifically
for coalbed methane wells. This chapter will explain these techniques
and help you in:

Performing a Minifracture Test


Planning a Fracture Treatment Design
Preparing for a Fracture Treatment
Performing a Fracture Treatment
Evaluating a Fracture Treatment
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Performing a Minifracture Test


A minifracture, or injection-leakoff test, is a series of pump-in tests
you can perform before designing a fracture treatment. These tests can
help you obtain important data for planning a fracture stimulation.
The minifracture test can improve the design and implementation of
a hydraulic fracturing treatment by helping you to:

Estimate fracture gradient

Estimate fluid leakoff

Estimate fracture closure pressure

Recognize high fracture pressures

Table 5-1 shows three types of minifracture tests and the data you can
obtain from them.

Table 5-1
Minifracture Tests

Type of Minifracture Data Obtained

Step Rate Test Fracture Pressure*

Pump-In/Flowback or Fracture Closure


Pump-In/Shut-In Test Pressure**

Minifracture Pressure Fluid Loss Efficiency


Decline Test

Pump-In/Shut-In Test Fluid Loss Coefficient,


(Longer Duration) Fracture Width, Length,
Closure Time

5-2
Performing a Minifracture Test

* The fracture pressure for a coal is the pressure required to


create a fracture. It equals the fracture gradient multiplied by
the depth of the coal.

** The fracture closure pressure is the pressure at which the


stresses in the coal cause the induced fracture to close onto the
proppant. The fracture closure pressure is less than the frac-
ture pressure.

Guidelines for Performing a Minifracture Test


This guide does not cover design or analysis of minifracture tests;
however, you can find information on these topics in Additional
Resources at the end of this chapter.

Based on experience in the Black Warrior Basin, the general guide-


lines below will help you in performing a minifracture test:

Use pump-in/shut-in tests instead of pump-in/flowback tests.


Traditionally, operators have used pump-in/flowback tests to
determine the fracture closure pressure in low-permeability (very
low fluid loss) reservoirs. However, pump-in/shut-in tests are
more effective for coalbed reservoirs, because they have a high
fluid loss. Pump-in/shut-in tests provide useful pressure data,
called the estimated closure pressure (ECP). This data occurs
very early in the pressure decline following a pump-in/shut-in test
and, therefore, would be lost in a pump-in/flowback test.

Instruct the service company pumping the minifracture to use


digital pressure recording equipment to record pressure val-
ues every few seconds.
This step is necessary to obtain sufficient data for estimating the
effective closure pressure (ECP) that best relates to the fluid loss
rate which occurred during the injection period. The ECP, if
applicable, will likely occur within the first few minutes of the test.
Therefore, you will need sufficient data points for accurate analy-
sis.

5-3
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Use the same fracture fluid and injection rate that you plan to
use for the stimulation treatment.
Because fluid loss in coal seams is essentially limited to the cleat
and fracture system, the fluid loss rate is not controlled by a filter
cake on the fracture face. Fluid viscosity plays an important role in
fluid loss: higher viscosity fluids tend to exhibit lower fluid loss.

In conventional (porous rock) reservoirs, small changes in


bottomhole treating pressure (BHTP) do not significantly alter
fluid loss rate. However, the cleat system in coals may tend to
open more and allow higher fluid loss when the BHTP increases
by even a small percentage.

Planning a Fracture Treatment Design

Designing an effective fracture treatment is a complex process that


requires thoughtful consideration of formation properties, wellbore
design, and fracturing methods and materials. Because the require-
ments of each fracture job are different, the combination of methods
and materials you select can determine the success of the job.

This guide does not provide specific procedures for designing a


fracture treatment. For assistance in designing a treatment, you may
consult a variety of resources. You can contact a service company or
a consulting firm with experience in fracturing coalbed methane wells.
You might also talk with other operators in the area to learn what types
of fracture designs have proven successful for them.

In addition, you can utilize one of the many commercially available


fracture simulation models to test various treatment designs. Though
you can design a fracture treatment using hand calculations and
graphical methods, using fracture design software will enable you to
quickly evaluate the effects of more design variables and conditions.

The primary information you will need to consider in designing a


fracture treatment are shown in Table 5-2 and are discussed below:

5-4
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design

Table 5-2
Information Needed for
Designing a Fracture Treatment

Information Source

Thickness of the Coal Wireline Logs, Core


Analysis

Permeability of the Coal Well Tests, Core Tests

Temperature of the Coal Wireline Logs

Mechanical Properties of the Minifracture Tests,


Coal and Adjacent Formations Core Tests

Fracturing Fluid Leakoff Minifracture Tests

Fracture Gradient of the Coal Minifracture Tests

Fracture Length and Height Length: Fracture


Design Software
Height: Minifracture
Tests, Wireline Logs

Location, Number, and Size Operators Completion


of Perforations Design

Mechanical Configuration Operators Completion


of the Wellbore Design

Fracturing Fluids Service Companies

Fracturing Fluid Additives Service Companies

Fracturing Proppants Service Companies

Pumping Schedule Fracture Design


Software

5-5
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Thickness of the Coal


Coal thickness will affect the number and type of perforations you
use across a coal group. For example, if a coal group is relatively
thick and composed of many thin stringers, limited entry perforation
may be the most effective method for accessing the formation.
However, if the interval is a thin coal group, then single zone entry
may be more successful. For information on various perforating
techniques, refer to Accessing the Formation in Chapter 4.

The thickness of the coal also will affect the economics of the
fracture design. Because coal thickness affects gas recovery, it is a
factor in determining the fracture length needed to make make a
coalbed methane well economical. In general, the greater the frac-
ture length needed, the more costly will be the fracture treatment.
To select a fracture length, you can run sensitivity evaluations to
compare the incremental cost of greater fracture length against the
value of expected incremental gas recovery from the fracture.

For information on determining coal thickness from wireline logs,


refer to Chapter 3.

Permeability of the Coal


For conventional wells, you can use the formation permeability to
estimate increased production from a fracture treatment. However,
for coalbed methane wells, permeability is only useful for estimat-
ing the volume of fluid leakoff into the formation during the
fracture treatment. For information on determining the permeabil-
ity of coal, refer to Chapter 9.

Temperature of the Coal


Because most coal seams are relatively shallow, the formation
temperature does not cause premature degradation of the fracturing
fluid. However, you must consider the relatively low temperature
when designing the schedule for gel breakers because the tempera-
ture does not provide much help in breaking the gel. The circulat-
ing bottomhole temperature is usually recorded on openhole logs.
Make sure you adjust the recorded temperature to account for the
shut-in time between circulating and conditioning the hole and
logging it. The bottomhole temperature from log correlations is
often underestimated.

5-6
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design

Mechanical Properties of the Coal and Adjacent


Formations
The rock properties, Youngs Modulus and Poissons Ratio, are
needed for fracture propagation calculations in fracture simulators.
The fracture gradient of the formation is a function of these two
properties. For information on estimating mechanical rock proper-
ties, refer to Chapter 3.

The vertical height of the fracture in a coalbed methane well often


will be much greater than the thickness of the coal. The height to
which a fracture will grow depends directly on the stresses in the
zones above and below the coal seam. Thick, more highly stressed
zones will tend to confine the fracture; thinner, less stressed zones
will promote fracture growth.

When designing a fracture treatment, it is helpful to estimate


fracture height. You can estimate fracture height by performing a
minifracture test on zones adjacent to the coal seam. For an expla-
nation of minifracture tests, refer to Performing a Minifracture
Test at the beginning of this chapter.

Fracturing Fluid Leakoff


In many coalbed methane fracturing treatments, the fracturing fluid
leaks off into the coal seam simply because the adjacent formations
are too impermeable to accept fluid. The rate of fracturing fluid
leakoff during a fracture treatment is a critical factor in fracture
design. The rate of leakoff determines the fracturing fluid effi-
ciency, which is the ratio of the volume of the induced fracture to
the volume treatment pumped. If the fluid efficiency of a fractur-
ing treatment is underestimated, the treatment may screenout
prematurely. In addition, because fluid leakoff affects fracture
closure time, it may also affect distribution of proppant within the
fracture.

The volume of fluid leakoff depends on the viscosity and wall


building ability of the fracturing fluid, the viscosity and compress-
ibility of the formation fluid, and the relative permeability of the
fluids. Though the properties of the fracturing fluids and formation
fluids usually can be estimated fairly accurately, the relative perme-
ability effects are more difficult to determine. Coal permeability is
a function of the natural fractures in the coal, and estimating fluid

5-7
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

loss for a naturally fractured formation is more difficult than for a


non-fractured reservoir.

To better define fluid loss characteristics for coals, Amoco con-


ducted a field study in the Oak Grove Field (Black Warrior Basin).
The study concluded that fluid efficiencies obtained from
minifracture tests are not always accurate. This inaccuracy stems
not only from the natural fractures in coal, but also from the pres-
sure dependent nature of coal permeability, and from the tendency
of proppants to bridge because of width constrictions in the frac-
ture. For more information on the Amoco field study, see the
paper in Additional Resources at the end of this chapter.

Fracture Gradient of the Coal


The fracture gradient of a coal seam or other formation can be
determined from minifracture tests, discussed at the beginning of
this chapter. You can estimate the fracture gradient by first measur-
ing an instantaneous shut in pressure (ISIP). An ISIP is simply the
pumping pressure required to fracture the formation minus the
friction pressure that must be overcome during pumping. Figure 5-1
shows an ISIP.

Figure 5-1
Instantaneous Shut In Pressure (ISIP)

5-8
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design

To obtain an ISIP, follow these simple steps:

1 . Inject fluids at a rate sufficient to fracture


the formation .

2. After establishing this rate, shut the pumps down quickly.

3. Record the surface pumping pressure the instant the pumps


are shut down. Figure 5-1 shows an example of an ISIP
recorded during a fracture treatment.

After obtaining an ISIP, you can easily calculate the fracture gradi-
ent for the formation using the equation below:

Fracture Gradient = ISIP + Ph , psi/ft


Dc

where:
ISIP = Instantaneous shut in pressure, psi

Ph = Hydrostatic pressure of fracturing fluid in the wellbore, psi

Dc = Depth of the coal, ft

After you have determined the fracture gradient, you can estimate
the bottomhole treating pressure and the surface treating pressure
using the equations below:

BHTP = FG x Dc, psi

SIP = BHTP - (Ph + Pp + Pt) , psi

where:
BHTP = Bottomhole treating pressure, psi
FG = Fracture gradient, psi/ft

5-9
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Dc = Depth of the coal, ft


SIP = Surface injection pressure, psi
Ph = Hydrostatic pressure of fracturing fluid in the tubing, psi
Pp = Pressure drop across the perforations, psi
Pt = Pressure drop in the tubulars, psi

Fracture Length and Height


Two of the most important factors in designing a fracture treatment
are the desired fracture length and the expected maximum fracture
height. The optimum fracture length depends on the permeability
and gas content of the coal. To determine optimum fracture length,
you can run a fracture model that simulates gas recovery over a
time period for various fracture lengths at a given permeability and
gas content. The optimum fracture length is the one that beyond
which little incremental gas recovery is obtained.

The height to which a fracture will grow depends on the mechani-


cal properties of the formations adjacent to the coal, as discussed
above in Mechanical Properties of the Coal and Adjacent Forma-
tions. If fracture height is estimated incorrectly, then the fracture
length will be different than calculated in the design.

Because the mechanical properties of the coal and adjacent forma-


tions are not always available or are not estimated accurately,
fracture height is often estimated incorrectly. If the actual fracture
height is less than estimated in the design, the fracture may be
longer than expected. However, if the actual fracture height is
greater than estimated in the design, the fracture will be shorter
than expected. Unfortunately, the latter case occurs much more
frequently than the former.

Location, Number, and Size of Perforations


It is important to know the location of perforations so you can
accurately determine fluid displacement volumes and be able to
divert fracture fluids if ball sealers are used in the treatment.

The number of perforations used will affect the injection rate. If you
use a very large number of perforations, the injection rate may be so
low that a moderate to low viscosity fluid may be incapable of carrying
proppant into the perforation tunnels. Conversely, using too few
perforations may restrict overall injectivity.

5-10
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design

If you are designing a limited entry fracture treatment, you should use
enough perforations so that each perforation has a pressure drop of
only a few hundred psi. A common rule of thumb for a limited entry
treatment is to design for an injection rate of 1/4 to 1 BPM/perforation.
For an explanation of the limited entry technique, refer to Accessing
the Formation in Chapter 4.

The size of the perforation could affect the selection of the proppant
size. Each perforation must be large enough relative to the maximum
proppant diameter to prevent bridging across the perforation tunnel.
Proppant bridging usually is not a problem in coalbed methane wells
because most wells are perforated with casing guns that provide a
perforation diameter of 0.37 - 0.41 inches. A perforation diameter of
0.41 inch would not limit the concentration of 20/40 or 16/30 proppant
to below the maximum concentrations (4-6 lb/gal) that are normally
pumped in coalbed methane wells.
Important
The discharge coefficient is a factor used to calculate frictional
pressure drop of fluid passing through the perforations. Perfora-
tions have an initial discharge coefficient of about 0.6. After you
begin pumping proppant, the sand erodes the perforations and
the discharge coefficient usually increases to around 0.95. The
higher the discharge coefficient, the lower the pressure differen-
tial through the perforations. You should keep this guideline in
mind both when designing the treatment and while pumping it.

Mechanical Configuration of the Wellbore


An important element in a fracture design is the
configuration of the casing and/or tubing strings in the wellbore. Your
selection of tubing and casing configuration will control the maximum
pumping rate during the job as well as the flexibility to fracture single
or multiple coal zones.

Operators in the Black Warrior Basin use two general types of


wellbore configurations for fracturing: through-casing fracturing and
through-tubing fracturing. In almost all cases, through-casing fractur-
ing is the preferred method.

5-11
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Through-Casing Fracturing
Most operators in the Black Warrior Basin fracture wells by pumping
the treatment directly down the production casing string into the
formation. To fracture through-casing, the low pressure casing head
is removed and a high pressure frac valve is installed in its place.

If the wellbore contains open perforations shallower than the coal to


be fractured, you should not fracture through-casing unless you are
certain the shallower perforated intervals have a much higher fracture
pressure than will be used during the treatment. (Shallower intervals
normally have a lower fracture pressure than deeper intervals.) To
help prevent fracturing shallow perforated intervals, you can isolate
the perforations with a tubing and packer assembly.

Through-casing fracturing offers several advantages over the through-


tubing method:

Allows pumping higher injection rates

Provides flexibility for fracturing multiple coal seams in a well

Requires less equipment downhole and at the wellhead and is


thus operationally simpler

The through-casing method can be used to fracture single or multiple


coal zones. Four different through-casing wellbore configurations
have been used in the Black Warrior Basin:
Single Zone

Multiple Zones Using Limited Entry Technique

Multiple Zones Using Plugback Techniques

Multiple Zones Using the Ball and Baffle Technique

Each of these applications are illustrated in Figure 5-2 and are


explained below.

5-12
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design

Figure 5-2
Wellbore Configurations for Fracturing

Single Zone
The simplest through-casing method involves perforat-
ing or slotting a single coal seam and then pumping the fracture
treatment down the casing into the seam. The primary wellhead
equipment needed for this method is a frac valve. No downhole
equipment is required. Figure 5-2 (a) shows a single-zone,
through-casing fracture treatment.

Multiple Zone Using Limited Entry Technique


The limited entry technique involves simultaneously fracturing
several coal seams (with differing rock properties and in-situ
stresses) instead of fracturing individual seams (or groups of

5-13
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

seams) separately. Ideally, the propagation pressures and treating


rates for each zone are controlled by the number and size of perfo-
rations placed across each zone. By adjusting the number and size
of perforations, you may be able to control the friction pressure
through the perforations, which results in some control over treat-
ing pressure into each interval. The limited entry technique has
generally proven ineffective in fracturing two or more coal groups
(such as the Mary Lee and Pratt or Mary Lee and Black Creek
seams). However, the limited entry technique for fracturing seams
within the same coal group (such as the Black Creek) is commonly
used. Figure 5-2 (b) shows a limited entry fracture treatment.

Recent studies at the Rock Creek project have shown


that you can successfully stimulate all seams within the
same coal group through a single set of perforations in
one seam of the group. This technique, called re-
stricted access, was used successfully in the Black
Creek coal group at Rock Creek. For more information
on the restricted access completion method, refer to Accessing the
Formation in Chapter 4.

Multiple Zones Using Plugback Techniques


The most common method used to fracture multiple zones in a well
is to perforate and stimulate the lowermost zone first and then
successively plug back, perforate and stimulate the shallower
zones. Because plugging back allows you to isolate and treat each
zone individually, you can control the treatments more effectively
than with the limited entry technique.

Several methods are used to plug back zones. Most operators in


the Black Warrior Basin use sand plugs and/or retrievable bridge
plugs to isolate zones for fracturing. Figure 5-2 (c) shows how the
middle, or Mary Lee, coal group was isolated from the lower, or
Black Creek, coal group using a sand plug, and the upper, or Pratt,
coal group was isolated using a retrievable bridge plug.

The decision to use a sand plug or a retrievable bridge plug will


depend primarily on the distance between the prospective coal
zones. A sand plug may be less expensive than a bridge plug.
However, if the coal zones are separated by several hundred or
more feet, using a retrievable bridge plug may be more practical
than placing a large volume of sand and then washing it out of the
wellbore.

5-14
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design

Multiple Zones Using the Ball and Baffle Technique


The ball and baffle technique is used to isolate coal seams by
installing cast-aluminum baffle plates at pre-selected depths in the
casing string when the string is run in the hole. Figure 5-2 (d)
shows a baffle frac job performed on Well P3 at the Rock Creek
project.

To isolate a perforated interval for fracturing, a rubber ball is


dropped down the casing. The ball seats in the baffle and thus
isolates the interval from treated deeper intervals. By installing
baffles with successively larger inside diameters (from the bottom
upward), you can effectively isolate single seams or groups of
seams so they can be treated individually during the fracture job.

The ball and baffle technique offers two significant advantages.


First, it saves time because you can fracture the zones in succession
without having to trip tools in and out of the hole. Second, it
allows you to flow back each fractured interval immediately after
the fracture job. Though this technique was used successfully at
the Rock Creek project, it is not widely used for coalbed fracturing
stimulations in the Black Warrior Basin.

Using a Tubing "Dead String" to Measure Bottomhole Pressure

To accurately determine bottomhole pressure during a fracture job,


some operators run a tubing dead string in the well. This technique
can be used with any of the four through-casing techniques described
above. However, if you use bridge plugs or the ball and baffle
technique, you must pull the tubing between treatments.

Figure 5-3 illustrates a tubing dead string assembly run in a well at the
Rock Creek project to determine bottomhole pressure during fractur-
ing of the Blue Creek seam.

Treatment fluids and proppant are pumped down the casing/tubing


annulus. A pressure gauge or recorder installed on top of the tubing at
the surface provides accurate surface pressure data free from frictional
pressure losses. You can then convert the surface pressure reading to
bottomhole treating pressure by using the equation below:

5-15
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

BHTP = Pt + Ph

where:

BHTP = Bottomhole treating pressure

Pt = Tubing pressure at surface gauge, psi

Ph = Hydrostatic pressure in tubing, psi

Figure 5-3
Tubing "Dead String for Measuring Bottomhole Pres-
sure

5-16
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design

When using a tubing dead string, you should place the tubing as close
to the coal interval as practical. You must also select a pressure gauge
or recorder that has a pressure rating greater than the maximum
anticipated injection pressure.

To protect the tubing from the abrasion of the sand-laden fluid, a tubing
dead string assembly requires several pieces of equipment. This
equipment is described below:

Blast Joint A blast joint should be installed in the tubing string through
the injection spool to prevent the abrasion of the proppant-laden fluid
from cutting a hole in the tubing. At the Rock Creek project, a 2-3/8
inch tubing string was used for the dead string. To eliminate the cost
for a 2-3/8 inch blast joint, a 2-7/8 inch pup joint was placed over the
2-3/8 inch non-upset tubing. The pup joint was supported on the bottom
by a collar on the 2-3/8 inch string and on the top by the BOP rams, as
shown in Figure 5-3.

Casing Spool A wellhead fixture similar to a casing spool with side


outlets allows injection of fracture fluids into the tubing/casing annu-
lus. The treatment is pumped through the side ports in the spool. The
spool is installed on the casing or casing head. (You may need a
threaded companion flange if the casing is fitted with a threaded nipple
and the spool is flanged.)

Blowout Preventer (BOP) A pipe ram BOP is installed on top of the


casing spool to contain the pressure in the tubing/casing annulus during
the fracture job. To provide another pressure seal for additional safety,
you may also install a stripper rubber head directly on top of the BOP.

Mechanical Tubing Slips Tubing slips are placed above the BOP
to support the weight of the tubing.

Through-Tubing Fracturing
Coal seams may be fractured with low injection rates. However, to
adequately open and widen fractures, fracturing fluids must be
pumped at relatively high rates to overcome high fluid leak-off
rates. Therefore, fracturing coalbed methane wells through tubing
is generally impractical because sufficient injection rates cannot be
established.

5-17
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Many through-casing fracture jobs are performed at rates of 25-40


BPM. The same fracturing treatment injected through-tubing
would have to be pumped at a lower rate. The actual maximum
injection rate will depend on the viscosity of the fluid used. You
may be able to slightly increase through-tubing injection rates by
adding friction reducers to the fluid.

You may justify a through-tubing stimulation in cases where


through casing treatments are not possible. For example, if the
wellbore contains open perforations above the coal seam to be
fractured. Similarly, through-tubing fracturing may be used if pre-
fracture testing indicates that fracturing pressure will exceed the
differential burst pressure of the casing at shallow depths.

Caution If you attempt to isolate perforations close to the seam you


intend to fracture, you risk fracturing into the isolated perfora-
tions. If the isolated perforations break down, proppant could
flow through these perforations into the wellbore and stick the
packer and pipe.

Fracturing Fluids
Selecting proper fracturing fluids is critical to a successful fracturing
treatment. These fluids help initiate the fracture in the formation,
extend the fracture once it opens, and transport the proppant into the
fracture.

To select the best fracturing fluid for a well, you should consider
these factors:

Fluid Viscosity
Formation Properties
Frictional Pressure
Fluid Loss Properties
Economics

5-18
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design

Fluid Viscosity
Viscosity may be the most critical factor in selecting a fluid. An
effective fluid must not only initiate and extend a fracture, but also
carry the proppant deep into the fracture. High viscosity fluids are
necessary to develop fracture width and to effectively transport the
proppant. A fluid with insufficient viscosity will limit the fracture
width and prevent the transport of proppants deep into the fracture.

It is also important to select the appropriate breaker and breaker


concentration. No matter how good the proppant transport charac-
teristics of the frac fluid, they can be completely negated by using
excessive breaker concentrations.

When selecting fluids, make sure you obtain viscosity information


from the service company for the fluids you are considering using.
You will need this information not only when designing the fracture
job, but also when monitoring the fluids during the fracture job.

Formation Properties
To optimize the fracture treatment and prevent coal damage, the
fracturing fluid must be compatible with the formation. In the
Black Warrior Basin, guar gum and hydroxypropyl guar (HPG) gel
fluids have been used extensively for fracturing. However, recent
GRI-sponsored research has indicated that HPG gels and guar could
adversely affect the permeability to both water and gas. Experience
at Rock Creek has shown that guar and HPG gels can be used
successfully, but they may also cause failure. For example, Wells
P2 and P7 were both fractured in the Mary Lee formation with HPG
gel, but Well P2s post fracture production rate (190 MCFD) was
significantly higher than that of Well P7 (40 MCFD). The poor
performance of the P7 treatment was attributed to the failure of the
gel to break properly, which reduced permeability.

GRI research indicates that the ability of guar-based fluids to break


properly is extremely important in determining the success or failure
of stimulation treatments. Conversely, research also indicates that a
break schedule that is too aggressive may result in a fluid that fails
to form a filter cake. A high volume of fluid could then leakoff to
the cleat system and significantly impair production potential.

Field studies conducted by Amoco also indicate that HPG gel is


damaging to coal. Further, Amoco laboratory studies suggest that
all polymers (including HEC gels and other chemical additives) can
irreversibly damage coals.

5-19
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

The GRI and Amoco data suggest that you may reduce the possibility
of damaging coal by using a fluid with low damage potential (such as
KCl or a KCl substitute) or a fluid that contains a minimal amount of
gel and that has a high fluid efficiency (such as foam).

Amoco has successfully fractured wells in the Oak Grove Field (Black
Warrior Basin) using water as the fracturing fluid. Similarly, GRI has
successfully fractured wells at the Rock Creek project using 75 quality
foam as the fracturing fluid. The greater fracture lengths that can be
achieved with the foam fluid may offset any formation damage that
might be caused by the HEC gel used with the foam treatment.
Frictional Pressure
Because nearly all coalbed methane wells are fractured through
casing, frictional pressure does not usually affect fluid selection.
However, if you must fracture a well through tubing, the frictional
pressure may be the limiting factor in selecting a fluid.
Fluid Loss Properties

Because of the natural cleat system in coals, fluid


losses during fracturing could be high. High fluid loss increases
the probability of excessive deep damage to the cleat system.
Economics

When selecting a fracturing fluid, you must consider the cost of the
treatment relative to the results expected from it. For example, if your
objective is to create a short fracture that will simply ensure commu-
nication between the wellbore and the natural fracture system of the
coal, you may not need to use a high viscosity fluid. However, if you
have determined that a very long fracture length is needed to generate
economical production rates from the well, you should probably use
a high viscosity fluid.
Types of Fracturing Fluids
In the Black Warrior Basin, operators use only water-based fractur-
ing fluids. There are four types of water-based fluids:

Nongelled Water
Linear Gel
Crosslinked Gel
Foam

5-20
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design

Nongelled Water
You can pump fresh water, or treated water at high rates to place
low concentrations of sand (e.g., less than 1 lb/gal) into fractures.
However, if you use a water-based fluid, you will likely place the
proppant a relatively short distance from the wellbore. The
propped fractures from a water-based stimulation will be short
because of the poor transport capacity of water and because the
created fractures are close to wellbore.

Caution
Make sure that any water used is compatible with the fractur-
ing fluids you plan to pump. Do not use water flowed back
from a previous fracture treatment unless it has been properly
treated.

Recent research sponsored by GRI has shown that using 2% KCl


(potassium chloride) water may help prevent formation damage.
You may also consider adding a natural or synthetic friction re-
ducer to the water, allowing you to pump at a higher rate to carry
the proppant further out from the wellbore. Friction reducers may
also allow you to use lower horsepower pumps. Before using a
friction reducer, make sure it is compatible with the fracturing
fluids you plan to use.

Important
Sand-water fracture treatments are relatively inexpensive, but
they also require recovering large volumes of water after the
treatment.

Linear Gel Fluids


You can pump hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) gel fluids to place
sand concentrations of 1 to 3 lb/gal a moderate distance from the
wellbore. Because these gelling agents gel quickly, you can use
them in continuous, semi-continuous, or batch processes.

Linear gels cannot hold proppants in perfect suspension. As the


shear rate decreases in the fracture, the sand will settle. However,

5-21
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

you can obtain greater propped fracture length with a linear gel
fluid than with a water-based system. Linear gels also help reduce
friction and control fluid loss.

To facilitate recovery of the gel fluid after the treatment, the gel is
designed to revert or break to the viscosity of water. This break-
down allows the stimulation fluid to drain from the fracture into
the wellbore.

Each service company uses different chemical systems to break gel


fluids at various formation temperatures. Because the chemistry of
these gel systems is complex, a carefully designed gel system is
critical to the success of the fracture job.

Linear gels clean up with breakers and produced load water and
can leave a highly conductive propped bed. The cost of a linear gel
fracture is higher than for a water-based fracture treatment. How-
ever, the longer propped length usually created by a linear gel
should provide greater production than a water fracture treatment
of the same size. Typically, the higher cost of a gel fracture is
offset by higher production rates.

Important For several years, operators in the Black Warrior Basin com-
monly used hydroxypropyl guar (HPG) fluids for fracturing.
However, recent research sponsored by GRI indicates that
hydroxypropyl guar (HPG) fluids may adversely affect the
permeability to both gas and water.

Crosslinked Gel Fluids


Crosslinked gels were developed to provide a water-based fractur-
ing fluid with a higher viscosity than linear gels. This higher
viscosity can create wider, better propped, and more conductive
fractures than linear gels. The viscosity of these fluids is increased
by adding special crosslinking systems and stabilizers.

Crosslinked gels can carry proppants in excess of 10 lbs/gal in


suspension. As with linear gels, you can tailor crosslinked gels to
break to a low viscosity fluid after fracture closure. However,
crosslinked gels are more difficult to break than linear gels. To
ensure recovery of the fracturing fluid and to reduce the potential
for formation damage after the treatment, you should add sufficient
breaker to the gel.

5-22
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design

Foam Fluids
Foam fluids are created by dispersing gas, usually nitrogen, in a
liquid. To initiate the dispersion, a surfactant is normally used as a
foaming agent.

Because foams have high viscosity and low fluid leakoff properties,
they can carry proppant further out into the formation than gel
fracturing fluids.

Foam quality is the volumetric ratio of the gas to the total volume of
foam at downhole conditions. A 75 quality foam contains 75% gas
by volume at downhole temperature and pressure.

Foams used for fracturing typically range from 65-85 quality. Foam
fracturing treatments at the Rock Creek project have used 75 quality
foam. Higher quality foam provides greater viscosity, but also may
increase pump pressure and limit maximum sand concentration.
Foams with a quality less than 52 have a much lower viscosity than
higher quality foams and thus do not function as effectively as high
viscosity fluids. Foams with a quality less than 52 are usually
unstable.

Foams have several advantages over non-foam treatments:

Low liquid content of foam results in a lower hydrostatic


head, which enhances well cleanup.

Excellent fluid loss control eliminates the need for fluid loss
additives, which reduces impairment of fracture conductiv-
ity.

Excellent capability to support proppants, which results in


more uniform distribution of proppant throughout the frac-
ture.

Energy from the gas in the foam helps to recover treating


fluids from the reservoir.

Formations that have been de-watered can be treated without


fear of re-saturating the formation.

5-23
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Important Though foams offer the highest potential for minimizing dam-
age to the coal, you still should carefully consider the polymer
used for the aqueous phase as well as the foaming surfactant.
Select a polymer and foamer that is least damaging to the coal.
Many foamers will not work with coal because they adsorb
onto the coal. Such foamers may reduce formation permeabil-
ity. Select a foamer that will ensure 100% gas entrainment
and maximum viscosity and proppant transport characteris-
tics.

Fracturing Fluid Additives


In addition to selecting the proper fracturing fluid, you should also
carefully consider the numerous fluid additives available to maintain
and enhance the properties of the fracturing fluid. Before using an
additive, make sure you fully understand its purpose and limitations
as well as its compatibility with other fracturing fluids and with
formation fluids. Check with service company representatives for
complete information on any additives you use.

Fluid additives are available to perform a wide range of functions.


Some of the additives commonly used in fracturing coalbed methane
wells are described below:

Biocides
Biocides eliminate surface degradation of the polymers in the fluid
tanks and stop the growth of anaerobic bacteria in the formation.

Breakers
Breakers enable viscous fracturing fluids to be controllably de-
graded to a thin, low viscosity fluid. The two types of breaker
systems currently used are enzymes and catalyzed oxidizers. It is
very important to select the appropriate breaker and breaker con-
centration. No matter how good the proppant transport characteris-
tics of the fracturing fluid, they can be completely negated by using
excessive breaker concentrations.

Buffers
Buffers control the pH of the fracturing fluid for the crosslinker
and breaker systems and also accelerate or slow down the hydration
of certain polymers.

Surfactants
Surfactants lower the surface tension of water in the fracturing

5-24
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design

fluid and reduce capillary pressure. They may also act as a


demulsifier.
Clay Stabilizers
Clay stabilizers prevent excessive swelling of clays and reduce the
migration of fines. Commonly used clay stabilizers include potas-
sium chloride, calcium chloride, ammonium chloride, and salt
substitutes.
Because of the problems associated with disposing high chloride
waters, a number of surface active quaternary amine compounds are
now available from the service companies. However, not all of
these materials are compatible with coal. They may interact ad-
versely with the breakers used in low temperature coalbed treat-
ments. Therefore, before using these types of additives, you should
confirm their compatibility with the fracturing fluid and with the
formation.
Foam Stabilizers
Foam stabilizers help maintain the properties of foam fluids. Most
foam stabilizers are polymers. Foams without stabilizers generally
have a half-life of 3-4 minutes. By adding stabilizers, you can
increase the half-life of a foam to 20-30 minutes.
Friction Reducers
Friction reducers suppress fluid turbulence and thus reduce the
frictional pressure associated with high injection rates. Friction
reducers may prove especially useful for improving injectivity in
through-tubing fracture treatments, should they be necessary.

Diverting Agents
Diverting agents divert the flow of fracturing fluids to zones above
or below the zone that was initially treated by plugging off perfora-
tions or the formation. Diverting agents are usually soluble in the
formation fluid.

Fracturing Proppants
When fracturing a coalbed, the primary purpose of including
proppant (sand) in the fluid is to provide mechanical support to
hold open the hydraulically created fracture in the reservoir rock.
Essentially all major producers agree that commercially successful
coalbed completions depend on long, well-propped fractures. Long
term success from fracturing without using proppant has been
minimal. In many cases, wells without propped fractures demon-

5-25
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

strate good early production rates, but decline dramatically as they


begin to produce.

A few coalbed methane producers believe that the primary function


of the proppant is merely to fill the fracture and prevent or mini-
mize the production of coal chips and fines that would otherwise
plug any empty fracture voids caused by incomplete closure of the
fractures. Some believe that coal seams will self prop because of
spalling and erosion of the coal during the fracturing treatment.

Other producers believe that larger size sands, such as a 12/20 size,
serve mainly as a scouring agent, removing sufficient coal from the
fracture faces so that the fracture will not close completely.

The most common proppant used in coalbed methane wells is sand.


Consider the following guidelines when choosing a proppant for a
fracture treatment:

Select a proppant for a fracturing treatment based on the


anticipated closure stress in the coal seam, the cost of the
proppant, and its availability in your area.
Because many of the coal seams currently being completed are
very shallow, the anticipated closure stress on the proppant is
usually lower than for a typical sandstone gas well. Because of
these lower values of closure stress, you may be able to use
fracture sands often considered unacceptable for conventional
completions because of their poor crush resistance.

Sieve a sample of the fracture sand to make sure the service


company has provided the correct size. After sands are
processed, they may contain a large amount of fines.

Preventing Proppant Flowback


When you hydraulically fracture a coalbed well, you may encoun-
ter problems with flowback of proppant into the wellbore after the
treatment. Proppant flowback can cause three problems:

Fill-up of the wellbore

Damage to the pump

Production of coal

5-26
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design

Proppant flowback usually occurs during the early cleanup and


dewatering stages. You can usually reduce flowback of proppant
by using an effective method of flowing the well back after the
fracture treatment. For more information on methods to prevent
flowback of proppant, refer to Pumping and Flowback Procedures
later in this chapter.

If you observe a history of proppant flowback in a field, you may


incorporate a curable resin-coated proppant in the final stage of the
fracturing treatment.. If you use a resin-coated proppant, make sure
the resin will set under formation temperature and stress conditions
and will not interfere with fluid clean-up properties.

Pumping Schedule
After all of the design considerations previously discussed have
been incorporated into the fracture design, the pumping schedule
can be prepared. The pumping schedule is a table showing the
volumes, concentrations, and rates for pumping the fracturing
fluids. Because optimizing the pumping schedule is usually an
iterative process, it is best accomplished by using fracture design
software.

A detailed explanation of how to design a pumping schedule is


beyond the scope of this guide. For assistance in designing a
schedule, you may consult a variety of resources. For example,
you can contact a service company or a consulting firm with expe-
rience in fracturing coalbed methane wells. All major fracturing
service companies use computer models to design fracture treat-
ments. You may also talk with other operators in the area to learn
what types of fracture designs have proven successful for them. In
addition, you can utilize one of the many commercially available
fracture simulation models to test various treatment designs.

The type and size of fracture treatment you use will depend on the
properties of the coal reservoir and your particular objectives for
the treatment. To give you a sense of the type of fracture treat-
ments typically used in the Black Warrior Basin, a gel fracture
design and a foamed fracture design used successfully at the Rock
Creek project are shown in Tables 5-3 and 5-4. The input data and
the selected pumping schedule are shown for each of the treatment
designs.

5-27
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Table 5-3
Pumping Schedule for a Gel Fracture Treatment
on Well P2 at the Rock Creek Project

Coal seam: Mary Lee/Blue Creek


Net thickness: 8.7 ft
Perforated interval: 2 vertical slots at 1028 - 1036
Selected fracturing fluid: Cross-linked HPG gel
Selected proppant: 12/20 sand
Injection tubular I.D.: 4.892
Pumping rate: 20 BPM
Total Fluid Volume: 3,000 gal fresh water
90,000 gal cross-linked gel
Total Proppant Volume: 11,000 lbs 20/40 mesh sand
126,000 lbs 12/20 mesh sand
Additives: Biocide and breaker

Pumping Schedule

Fluid Proppant
Volume Concentration
Stage Fluid Type (gals) (lb/gal)

1 (PrePad) Fresh water 3,000 ----

2 (Pad) Cross-linked gel 27,000 ----

3 Cross-linked gel 11,000 1.0

4 Cross-linked gel 2,000 1.0

5 Cross-linked gel 20,000 2.0

6 Cross-linked gel 28,000 3.0

7 (Flush) Cross-linked gel 2,000 ----

5-28
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design

Table 5-4
Pumping Schedule for a Foam Fracture Treatment
on Well P3 at the Rock Creek Project

Coal seam: Mary Lee/Blue Creek


Net thickness: 8.6 ft
Perforated interval: 1012 - 1020 (8 spf)
Perforation size: 0.41
Selected fracturing fluid: HEC gel (nitrogen foamed)
Selected proppant: 16/30 Brady sand
Injection tubular I.D.: 4.892
Pumping rate: 35 BPM
Total Fluid Volume: 2,456 gal gel
100,00 gal foam
Total Proppant Volume: 180,000 lbs 16/30 mesh Brady sand
Additives: Biocide, breaker, and foam stabilizer

Pumping Schedule

Fluid Proppant
Volume Concentration
Stage Fluid Type (gals) (lb/gal)

(PrePad) Gel 2,456 ----

(Pad) 75 Quality Foam 40,000 ----

1 75 Quality Foam 12,000 1.0

2 75 Quality Foam 12,000 2.0

3 75 Quality Foam 12,000 3.0

4 75 Quality Foam 12,000 4.0

5 75 Quality Foam 12,000 5.0

5-29
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Preparing for a Fracture Treatment


The success of a fracture treatment depends greatly on the suitabil-
ity and quality of the materials and equipment used on the job.
Maintaining strict quality control is the responsibility of the
operators representative at the well site. Because quality is largely
a function of attitude, service companies usually provide the level
of quality that the operator demands. Therefore, before beginning
a fracture treatment, you should follow several important opera-
tional and quality control guidelines.
This section provides the most important guidelines to use:

When Drilling and Completing the Well

The Week Before the Fracturing Job

The Day of the Fracturing Job

In addition to the quality control guidelines presented in this


section, there are many other practices that may improve your
fracture treatment. For a step-by-step quality control and job
supervision checklist that you can use on the job, refer to Appendix
B.

When Drilling and Completing the Well


You can take several steps when drilling and completing the well
that will increase the possibility of an effective fracture stimulation.
Success in fracturing a single coal seam generally depends on avoid-
ing horizontal fractures and multiple fractures.

In shallow coalbeds, you cannot avoid creating horizontal fractures.


Below the shallow coalbeds, you may encounter coalbeds that will
fracture both horizontally and vertically. In this transition zone, you
may be able to control fracture geometry with treatment pressure.
High pressure treatments in the transition zone may create complex
or T-shaped fractures. Lower pressure treatments tend to propagate
vertical fractures. In the deepest coalbeds, fractures will normally be
vertical. The depths at which horizontal, vertical, and a combination
of horizontal and vertical fractures propagate depend on the me-
chanical characteristics of the particular coal.

5-30
Preparing for a FractureTreatment

Horizontal fractures are less effective than vertical fractures because


the drainage area affected with a horizontal fracture is considerably
less per gallon of fluid injected than with a vertical fracture. In
addition, the probability of a screenout, or unsuccessful fracture job,
is much greater with horizontal fractures. Mineback observations
have shown that a well with horizontal fractures may produce at an
acceptable rate early in its life, but its production rate will decline
dramatically as the area penetrated by the fracture depletes.

Multiple fractures in a well can cause high treating pressures and


screenouts. These problems make it difficult to achieve the fracture
length needed to yield adequate production rates and an effective
radius of drainage in the reservoir.

Caution In open hole completions, fractures tend to initiate at the bottom


of the casing.

Avoiding Horizontal Fractures, Multiple Fractures, and Screenouts


To minimize the possibility of multiple fractures, excessive treating
pressures, and screenouts, GRI-sponsored research has shown that
the guidelines below should be followed when drilling and com-
pleting the well.

Avoid excessive wellbore diameter, whether resulting from


drilled hole size, borehole washout, or wellbore caving.
Minimize production tests prior to fracturing because they can
cause sloughing and caving. If you are required to prove that
fracturing is necessary by performing high pressure drawdown
production testing, you may create borehole conditions that
jeopardize your opportunity to successfully fracture the well.

When completing the well, consider creating vertical


notches adjacent from the coal seam using a jetting tool.
For open hole completions, create notches with a short
jetting operation.

Caution When creating jetted notches, avoid creating an excessive


wellbore diameter. Improperly using a jetting tool can
eliminate the benefits of notching.

5-31
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Drill at least 100 to 200 feet below the deepest target coalbed
to provide an adequate sump for fracturing and production
operations.
An adequate sump could help prevent a screenout when pumping
the fracture treatment. An adequate sump can also allow the
pump to be placed below the perforations, which is beneficial for
production. For more information on the sump, refer to
Pumping Equipment in Chapter 6.

Important The guidelines below are based on a GRI-sponsored statistical


analysis of data from commercial fields in the Black Warrior Basin.
Though these guidelines may apply to coalbed methane wells in
some areas, data from the Rock Creek project (which is a controlled
research site) indicates that minimizing the time between exposing
the coal (by perforating or slotting) and stimulation may not be
necessary.

Perform the fracturing treatment soon after the coal is


exposed.
In many coal seams, the mechanical condition of the coal
exposed in the wellbore will degenerate with time.

If significant time (several weeks or months) will pass


before the well is fractured, run casing soon after the well is
drilled but do not perforate or slot the casing until ready to
fracture the well.
Casing will minimize degeneration of the coal.

If significant time has passed since a well was drilled (and


casing was not set), you may attempt to use a jetting tool to
remove the degenerated coal and expose fresh coal surfaces
just before fracturing.
When performing this procedure, avoid creating an excessive
wellbore diameter. Carefully monitor surface returns while
jetting to maximize cleanup of the coal face and minimize
enlargement of the borehole.

The Week Before the Fracturing Job


Follow these guidelines at least a week before the fracturing treatment:
Finalize the fracture treatment design with the service
company.
Discuss any specific equipment needed to connect the wellhead

5-32
Preparing for a FractureTreatment

to the fracturing equipment. Make sure the service company


representatives know what type of wellhead connections they
must tie into.

Review your objectives for the treatment, including cost limita-


tions and the use of standby equipment. Clarify what equip-
ment and materials you (the operator) will provide and what
things the service company will provide.

Review the quality control procedures for the treatment, and


determine who will be responsible for performing and docu-
menting them.

Designate a company representative who is responsible for


supervising the treatment in the field. Make sure sure this
person is informed of all objectives, decisions, and conditions
regarding the job. Confirm that the service company represen-
tative is informed of these items, as well.

Estimate the total cost of the fracture treatment.


In addition to the cost to pump the treatment, be sure to include
any associated costs such as workover rig, frac tanks, water
hauling, logging, etc.

Make sure you know what type of fluid, crosslinker and


breaker (oxidizer or enzyme) you will use with the gel
system.
Service companies may keep some information about their fluid
additives proprietary. However, to ensure the proper additives
are used, you should at least know the answers to the questions
below:

What type of crosslinker will be used (i.e., titanium, zirco-


nium, borate, etc.)?

How does the crosslinker work (delayed, adjustable de-


layed, or instantaneous)?

How does the pH of the fluid affects its performance char-


acteristics?

5-33
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

What type of breaker will be used (i.e., enzyme or


oxydizing)?

What is the breaker schedule?

What tests will be performed on site to ensure the correct


amount of breaker is used?

Make sure you know any potential adverse effects of the


fracturing fluid you plan to use.
You can check published data on the compatibility of fracturing
fluids with coal.

Coordinate the logistics of moving equipment to the well site.

Make sure the service company brings backup pumping


units.

Make sure the service company thoroughly cleans the frac


tanks before filling them with fluids.

Consider using a computerized fracture van at the well


location to monitor the treatment and to record data.
A van properly equipped with monitoring equipment provides an
effective environment for making informed decisions during the
fracture job.

The Day Before the Fracturing Job


Several hours to one day before the fracturing treatment, follow these
guidelines:

Sieve the fracturing sand to make sure it is properly sorted


(correctly sized). If the sand is not properly sorted, the
conductivity of the proppant pack will be reduced.
Collect samples of the sand when the sand storage bins on location
are being loaded (usually the day before the job). Obtain the
samples according to API recommended procedures for collecting
sand samples.

5-34
Performing a FractureTreatment

If you are using a crosslinked gel fracture fluid:

Test the gel fluid to make sure it will mix, crosslink, and break
at reservoir temperature.

Measure the pH of the gel fluid.


The pH must be correct for the fluid crosslinkers and breakers to
work properly. If the pH is not correctly matched, the gel fluid may
break too quickly or not at all.

Measure the viscosity of the gel fluid.


The viscosity must be correct for the fluid to carry the proppant
effectively into the fractures.

Several hours to one day before the fracturing job, meet with all
operating personnel and service company personnel and discuss:

The specific objectives of the fracturing stimulation

The pumping schedule for the stimulation

The type of data wanted from the service company and the
form in which you want it

Contingency plans in case of operational problems or emer-


gency situations

Safety and environmental precautions and procedures

Any questions or concerns that the personnel may have

Performing a Fracture Treatment


If you have not read the previous section, Preparing for a Fracture
Treatment, you should do so before beginning the fracturing job.
Once the job begins, you will not have sufficient time to stop the job
and decide how to solve a pumping problem.

After the service company has placed and connected the fracturing
equipment and you have reviewed the fracture treatment plan with
all personnel at the well site, you are ready to begin pumping the
fracture treatment.

5-35
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Pumping the Treatment


Based on experience at the Rock Creek project, the procedures
below have proven effective for pumping fracture treatments:

1. Establish an initial pump-in rate by pumping into the well


at the lowest possible rate the equipment will allow (e.g., 1/
4 BPM).

2. While carefully monitoring the surface pressure, slowly


increase the pump rate until the pressure drops sharply,
indicating the formation has broken down.

3. Record the formation breakdown pressure.


Breakdown pressure can give an indication whether perfora-
tions are open.

If the breakdown pressure is excessive (i.e., approaching


horsepower limits of the pumps or the burst strength of the
surface equipment or casing), the perforations or slots may
be plugged. To correct this problem, you may try one of
these options:
A. If you can achieve a sustained, but low injection rate,
mix 1/2 lb/gal sand slurry and pump in at a slightly
increased pump-in rate to attempt to erode away any
material that may be plugging perforations or slots.

B. Spot 15% HCl acid across the perforations with the


tubing and try again to break down the formation. If
you dont have a rig on the well and cannot spot the
acid with tubing, you might use a wireline dump bailer
to spot the acid.

C. Re-perforate or re-slot the casing. You may consider


keeping a wireline truck and crew on standby for this
purpose.

Caution Pumping an acid treatment to open perforations or slots


may permanently damage the permeability of the coal if
the appropriate acid is not used. Recent GRI-sponsored
research suggests that some acids may react with coal to
cause changes in the surface tension of the coal, resulting

5-36
Performing a Fracture Treatment

in the coal retaining water. Some acids may be more


damaging than others. 15% HCl has been found effective
for fracture treatments. If acid is needed to clean perfora-
tions, use it sparingly.

4. Start pumping the pad (fracturing fluid without proppant)


slowly, then gradually increase the pump rate to the treat-
ing rate (e.g., 15-40 Bbl/min.)
This step propagates and/or widens fractures and prepares them
to accept the proppant-laden slurry. A typical pad is sized at
20-40% of the total fracture fluid volume. Most operators
pump a large pad to ensure they can place all of the sand slurry
they have mixed. However, pumping a large pad may not
always be necessary and it could actually limit the amount of
sand placed before screenout.

Some operators believe that if you pump the sand slurry with-
out first pumping a pad (i.e., before the fracture is opened
sufficiently), the sand may bridge off at the entrance or tip of
the fracture (referred to as tip plugging) and cause a
screenout or cause the treating pressure to increase beyond the
safe limits of the surface equipment or casing. Other operators
feel that if the quality of the fluids pumped meets the design
standards, little or no pad is needed.

5. To record an instantaneous shut-in pressure (ISIP) for use


in verifying formation fracture gradient, shut-in the well
after establishing a stabilized injection rate.
For more information about formation fracture gradient, refer
to Planning a Fracture Treatment Design earlier in this chapter.

Important For foam fracture treatments, shutting in to record an


ISIP may be impractical because it will likely make it
difficult to maintain the quality of the foam at design
specifications.

6. Slowly begin adding sand to the fracturing fluid. Start at a


low concentration of about 1 lb/gal.

7. Gradually increase proppant concentration until you reach


the designed slurry concentration.

5-37
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

By slowly increasing proppant concentration, you can determine


if the fractures are conditioned enough to receive the proppant.
For example, if the treating pressure increases dramatically
while pumping a 1 lb/gal slurry, you will likely be unable to
pump a 2 lb/gal slurry. If you observe a sharp pressure in-
crease, slightly reducing sand concentration may allow you to
continue the job.

Caution Because fluid constantly leaks off to the formation during


the job, fluid viscosity tends to continuously increase. If
you increase the proppant concentration too rapidly, fluid
viscosity can rise quickly, causing treating pressure to
increase sharply.

8. Carefully monitor the treating pressure while pumping the


treatment.
A useful diagnostic tool for evaluating treatment pressure
response is the Nolte Plot. Figure 5-4 shows a Nolte Plot.

Figure 5-4
Nolte Plot for Evaluating
Treatment Pressure Responses

5-38
Performing a Fracture Treatment

Each of the modes in the Nolte Plot is explained below:

Mode I: Small Positive Slope


A small positive pressure increase indicates increasing fracture
length with confined height growth. This response is desirable.

Mode II: Constant Pressure


A constant pressure mode is potentially the most significant portion
of the curve. The constant pressure mode is almost always fol-
lowed by a sharp increase or decrease in pressure and never a return
to the preferable Mode I (increasing fracture length with confined
height).

The cause of the constant pressure region (Mode II) can usually be
inferred by interpreting the pressure behavior following the con-
stant pressure region in Modes III and IV.

Mode III: Steep Positive Slope


When Mode II is followed by a steep pressure increase, the cause
could be one of the following:

Tip plugging (plugging of the entrance or tip of the fracture


near the wellbore)

Bridging off of sand inside the fracture

Leakoff of fluid to the formation

Settling or duning of sand in the wellbore

The pressure trends indicated in the Nolte Plot are formation


treating pressures (downhole pressures). If you are measuring and
analyzing surface pressures only (not downhole pressures), several
factors could affect the surface pressures without necessarily
affecting the formation treating pressures:

Changing hydrostatic pressure of the fracturing fluid as the


sand concentration increases

Decreasing perforation friction pressure as the sand erodes


the perforations during the treatment

5-39
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Because both of these situations decrease the surface treating


pressure, they could offset and mask increases in formation treat-
ing pressures during Mode III. These conditions might also easily
be confused with decreasing formation treating pressure associated
with Mode IV.

To assess the effects of hydrostatic pressure, you can run downhole


pressure gauges with a surface readout or a tubing dead string.
Refer to Using a Tubing Dead String" to Measure Bottomhole
Pressure, earlier in this chapter.

Mode IV: Negative Slope


When Mode II is followed by a decrease in pressure, the most likely
cause is fracture height growth. Because the goal of fracturing is to
propagate a fracture out laterally from the wellbore, this response is
undesirable.

If you observe a negative slope, you may try to reduce injection


rate to minimize fracture height growth.

9. If the estimated formation treating pressure increases as you


increase the proppant concentration, you have three options:

A. Increase the pump rate by about 20% and continue


pumping the slurry at the same sand concentration until
screenout.
Increasing the pump rate may widen the fractures enough to
accept the fracture fluid. Some operators believe that you
have only a certain amount of time, or window of opportu-
nity, within which to pump the slurry before screenout
occurs. They prefer to continue pumping to place all the
proppant they can before screenout.

B. Cut sand concentration, then pump a pad (fluid without


sand). If the treating pressure decreases, gradually
increase sand concentration and continue the job.
Some operators believe that during the fracture job, sand can
settle and accumulate or dune near the wellbore. They
prefer to pump a pad to attempt to clear the dune away and
thereby lower the treating pressure.

5-40
Performing a Fracture Treatment

C. If the end of the job is near, increase the pump rate and
continue pumping the fluid at a higher sand concentra-
tion until the entire treatment is pumped or screenout
occurs.
Some operators increase sand concentration while continu-
ing to pump at increased rate to try to maximize the amount
of proppant they place before screenout occurs.

Caution 10. A sharp, sudden increase in treating pressure before the


end of the job evidences a wellbore screenout or severe
bridging and plugging of sand in the wellbore. If you
encounter a wellbore screenout, you should never try to
continue pumping the sand slurry away. Continuing to
pump will result in excessive pump pressure and may crush
the sand in the near-wellbore fracture.
If you encounter a wellbore screenout while pumping a gel
or foamed gel treatment, shut down the pumps and stop the
treatment. You will likely have to wash the sand out of the
wellbore using tubing. However, you may first try to flow
back the well using one of the flowback methods described
later in this chapter.

If you encounter a wellbore screenout while pumping a water


fracture treatment, you may try the procedure below to re-
establish the treating rate:

1. Shut down pumps and free flow the well back to the
surface pit until you get bottoms-up.
2. Monitor the blooey (return) line for dirty fluid and/or
fluid with a high concentration of sand.

3. Pump clean fluid (without proppant) while gradually


increasing the pump rate.

4. If you can re-establish the treating rate, start pumping


sand again.

5. If you cannot re-establish the treating rate, repeat this


procedure.

6. If you have pumped two-thirds or more of the treatment,


and you cannot re-establish a treating rate, you may want
to consider the job completed.

5-41
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

The procedure above may not be useful for gel fracture


treatments. Because water has a lower viscosity and proppant
transport capability than gels, it is possible that dunes of
sand may develop in the fracture during a water fracture
treatment. These dunes may become immobile, which can
cause increased treating pressures and wellbore screenout.
Backflowing the well, as described above, may help to move
the dune enough to allow pumping the treatment again.
Because gels have greater viscosity and better proppant
transport capabilities than water, sand duning is not as likely
during a gel treatment. Therefore the procedure above
probably would not be as effective for a gel frac treatment.

11. Do not over-flush the wellbore after pumping the fracture


treatment.
Over-flushing means pumping clean fluid (without proppant)
in an attempt to displace into the fractures any sand-laden
fluid remaining in the wellbore once pumping is completed.
Some operators over-flush to try to eliminate production of
sand after the fracture treatment. However, over-flushing has
not been demonstrated to control sand production.

Caution Over-flushing may wash away some of the near-wellbore


sand pack. When treating pressure is released, the
unpropped fractures near the wellbore may close and
thus severely restrict production.

12. Near the end of the job, observe and record these pres-
sures at the surface to help in the design of future fracture
treatments:
Final treating pressure before shutting down pumps.

Initial Shut-in Pressure (ISIP) at surface as soon as the


pumps shut down.

Pressure fall-off after shut-in.


Look for an inflection point, or sharp change, in the rate of
pressure decline. This inflection indicates the closure
pressure, or pressure at which the fracture closes on the
proppant.

5-42
Performing a FractureTreatment

As fracture fluid leaks off into the formation, pressure in


the fracture decreases. Eventually, the pressure declines
enough to allow the fracture to close on the proppant.

When the fracture closes, the fluid can only flow through
the proppant pack, which creates increased frictional
pressure loss. Therefore, the decreased rate of pressure
decline you observe at the surface reflects the closure of
the propped fracture.

Flowing Back the Well After the Treatment


As with most aspects of fracturing coalbed methane wells, the
selection of a method for flowing the well back is generally contro-
versial. There are many divergent opinions about the most effec-
tive flowback technique. Three of the most common opinions are
listed below:

Fractured wells should be flowed back at a slow rate imme-


diately after the treatment to force the formation to close on
the proppant before the gel breaks. This method is called
forced closure. If the fracture does not close on the
proppant before the gel breaks, the sand may settle to the
bottom of the fracture. If the fracture extended below the
coal seam, such sand settling could result in an unpropped
fracture in the coal.
New Techniques and Quality Control Find Success in
Enhancing Productivity and Minimizing Proppant
Flowback, J.W. Ely et al, SPE Paper 20708, SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, 1990.

Flowing back wells immediately after the fracture treatment


will not prevent sand from settling in the fracture. Because
flowing back the well only affects a small region near the
wellbore, it will not prevent sand from settling in a fracture
away from the wellbore. Moreover, as the treating pressure
of the shut-in well leaks off to the formation naturally, the
fluid flows through the proppant pack at a rate greater than
could be achieved by flowing back the well.

5-43
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Fractured wells should not be flowed back before the


fracture closes on the proppant (fracture closure) so that
pressures can be monitored. Monitoring pressures after the
well is shut-in will help you to determine how quickly the
fracture closes on the proppant and the pressure at which
closure occurs. (Closure pressure is the fluid pressure
required to initiate the opening of an existing fracture. This
pressure is equal to and counteracts the stress in the rock
perpendicular to the fracture plane. This stress, often
called closure stress, is the minimum principal in-situ
stress. Closure pressure is indicated by an inflection point,
or sharp change, in the rate of pressure decline after the
well is shut-in.)
Experimental and Modeling Evidence for Major
Changes in Hydraulic Fracturing Design and Field
Procedures, M.P. Cleary et al, SPE Paper 21494, SPE
Gas Technology Symposium, 1991.

Fractured wells should not be flowed back until the fractur-


ing gel breaks. Prematurely flowing back unbroken gel
may flush proppant out of the fracture at the wellbore and
result in poor conductivity near the wellbore, where it is
most needed.
Recent Advances in Hydraulic Fracturing, SPE Mono-
graph Vol. 12, J.L. Gidley et al, 1989.

A theoretical discussion of these varying opinions is beyond the


scope of this guide. However, you may want to investigate each of
them further to help you determine the best flowback method for
your particular application.

Most operators in the Black Warrior Basin generally use one of


three methods (or a variation of these methods) to flow back wells
after a fracture stimulation. These methods are:

Shut-In with Slow Flowback

Forced Closure Through Flowback

High Rate Flowback

Foam Treatment Flowback

5-44
Performing a FractureTreatment

Shut-In with Slow Flowback


In this method, you shut in the well for a period of time following
the treatment and then flow back the well at a slow rate. Some
operators believe this method is effective because it allows greater
recovery of the gel fracturing fluid. The shut-in period gives the gel
sufficient time to break. As the gel degrades with time, it flows
more easily through the sand pack and into the wellbore. Other
operators like this method because they believe it allows time for the
fracture to close on the proppant, thus providing a well propped
fracture.

Some operators dislike the slow flowback method because they


believe it allows time for the proppant to settle in the fracture and
thus allows the top portion of fracture to close without proppant in
it.

The length of the shut-in period depends on your purpose for shut-
ting in the well. If you use the shut-in period to allow the gel time
to break, you can estimate the time for gel breakdown by consulting
with the service company pumping the treatment. You should also
watch the gel samples that were collected throughout the job and
make sure at least the gel pumped during the later stages of the job
did break. If there is a significant temperature difference between
the surface and bottomhole (i.e., the coal seam is deep), the gel in
the formation may break before the gel sample on the surface. In
some cases, the gel sample may not break at all. If the gel samples
do not break, you can accept the service companys estimated break
time and then monitor the fluid that is flowed back to see if it ap-
pears to be gel or broken gel.

If you use this flowback method to allow time for the fracture to
close on the proppant, you should closely monitor well pressures
after the fracture treatment and try to identify fracture closure as it
occurs. It is not possible to accurately predict closure pressure in
advance of the treatment. Moreover, the closure pressure for
coalbed methane wells cannot be estimated accurately from closure
pressure data from offset wells.

At the Rock Creek project, the shut-in with slow flowback method
has been used successfully for gel fracture treatments. Experience
has demonstrated that this method produces the most effective
fracture treatment with the fewest production problems. Because
slow flowback effectively reduces the amount of coal fines and

5-45
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

fracture proppant that enters the wellbore and surface production


equipment, it reduces costly wellbore cleanouts and downhole
pump replacements.

The procedures used to flow back a well and place it on production


at Rock Creek are listed below:

1. After pumping the fracture treatment, shut-in the well


until the gel breaks (usually 1/2 day to 1 day).

2. If there is still pressure on the wellhead at the end of the


shut-in period, flow the well back at a slow rate.

3. Continually monitor the fluid for proppant or coal fines.


If you observe proppant or fines, decrease the flow rate as
needed to stop the flowback of proppant or fines.

4. After the well has been flowed back long enough to bleed
off wellhead pressure, remove the frac valve and re-install
the wellhead.

5. Run a string of production tubing to the bottom of the well


to wash out the wellbore.
You must wash any sand and debris out of the sump so you
can place the production pump at or below the perforations to
minimize bottomhole pressure and maximize flowrate.

6. Pump clean fluid down the tubing-casing annulus and take


returns up the tubing string.

7. Lower the tubing string and wash the wellbore down to the
bottom of the sump.

Caution Pumping down the tubing and taking returns up the tubing-
casing annulus may cause any debris in the well to flow into
perforations or slots and plug them. You may avoid this
problem by washing the wellbore with air instead of water.

5-46
Performing a FractureTreatment

8. Install the production pump and begin pumping the well


down.
For information on pumping the well down, refer to Chapter 7.
Important

The decision to use the Shut-In with Slow Flowback method may
depend on the type of fracture fluid used. If using a fluid with poor
proppant-carrying capacity (i.e., water), sand in the fracture
could quickly settle below the pay zone causing the fracture
through the pay zone to close. Thus, when using a fluid with poor
proppant carrying capacity, you may consider using the Forced
Closure method.

Forced Closure Through Flowback


Flow the well back at a restricted rate within seconds or minutes
after you finish pumping the treatment. Procedures and an equip-
ment schematic for this method are shown in Appendix C.
Some operators believe this method allows the fracture to close
more quickly, thereby preventing proppant from settling to the
bottom of the fracture and leaving the top portion unpropped.
However, because of the generally poor elastic properties of most
shallow coals (as compared to sandstones), fracture closure will
likely be slow and/or incomplete. Evidence suggests this method
may work best in deep, low-permeability coalbeds, which exhibit
greater elastic properties.

Caution
The forced closure method may cause sand to flow into the
wellbore if you flow the well back at an excessive rate. This
proppant flowback may leave near-wellbore fractures
unpropped and thus restrict production.

High Rate Flowback


Flow the well back at a very high rate (i.e., little or no flow restric-
tion) a few minutes after you finish pumping the treatment.
A few operators believe this method flows back sand that would
otherwise flow into the wellbore when the well is produced. They
believe any near-wellbore voids in the proppant pack caused by
flowback are filled by other sand from deeper in the fracture.

5-47
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Caution
The high rate flowback method may damage the fracture
treatment by pulling sand out of the fracture. This proppant
flowback may leave near-wellbore fractures unpropped and
thus restrict production. This method is not recommended.

Foam Treatment Flowback


One of the advantages of using a foamed fluid is quick clean-up.
Because foamed fracturing fluids contain 65-85% gas (usually
nitrogen), less liquid must be flowed back after a foam fracturing
treatment. Therefore, most operators start flowing back the foam
treatment as soon as possible after the end of the treatment.

At the Rock Creek project, as soon as the service company equip-


ment is rigged down from the wellhead, a flowline to the produc-
tion pit or frac tank is rigged up and flowback begins. As with gel
fracture treatments, the flowback rate is restricted to prevent
proppant flowback into the wellbore.

Evaluating a Fracture Treatment


Fracturing is usually required to create a productive coalbed meth-
ane well, and it can represent the single greatest cost on the well.
Therefore, it is prudent to evaluate the effectiveness of each fracture
treatment so the design and implementation of future treatments can
be improved.

The evaluation of a fracture treatment is usually performed by a


reservoir engineer. For information on the reservoir engineering
aspects of fracture evaluation, refer to Additional Resources at the
end of this chapter.

This section provides an overview of the field aspects of fracture


evaluation. The techniques that have been used at the Rock Creek
project to evaluate the success of hydraulic fracture treatments are

Production Comparison

Pressure Transient Well Tests

5-48
Evaluating a FractureTreatment

Response in Offset Wells

Radioactive Tracers/Gamma Ray Log

Tiltmeters

Production Comparison
In some conventional gas fields, the simplest and most conclusive
way to evaluate a fracture treatment is to test the well before frac-
turing and then compare the pre-frac production rate to the rate
after treatment. However, such production comparisons can be
misleading for coalbed methane wells.

In newly completed coalbed methane wells, pre-fracture production


tests are often unreliable indicators of the true reservoir properties
of the coal because of poor communication with the natural fracture
system of the coal. Even though perforating or slotting may pen-
etrate through the casing and cement, it is possible the penetration
into the coal might be insufficient to penetrate the coals natural
fractures.

Comparisons with post-fracture production tests in offset wells can


also be misleading because of heterogeneities in the coals and the
overlying rock. The reservoir and rock properties of the coal and
the overlying rock can vary considerably over short distances.
Some of the variables that may contribute to this heterogeneity are
the presence or absence of fractures in the overlying rock, stress
regimes in the rock, cleat development within the coal, and the
presence of mineral filling in the cleat system.

Production comparisons may be helpful in evaluating fracture


treatments, but you should not rely greatly on them and you should
never use them as the only evaluation tool. If you do compare
production from individual wells in a field, you should probably
exclude the upper and lower 5-10% of the wells (based on produc-
tion rate) in order to make realistic comparisons.

At the Rock Creek project, production data is generally used as


support information in evaluating fracture treatments. Fracture
treatment evaluations are based primarily on well tests and data
from monitor wells.

5-49
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Pressure Transient Well Tests


Post-fracture pressure transient well tests can help you to evaluate
the success of fracture treatments by helping you determine the
effective length and conductivity of the created fracture. To esti-
mate the effective fracture length, you usually must know the aver-
age permeability of the formation before the fracture job. To deter-
mine the permeability, you must conduct a pre-fracture pressure
transient well test.

The procedures used to conduct post-fracture pressure transient tests


are the same as those used on non-fractured wells. For information
on performing pressure transient well tests, refer to Chapter 9.

The techniques for analyzing well tests of fractured wells is different


than those used for non-fractured wells. Analysis of pressure tran-
sient tests is beyond the scope of this guide; however, you can find
information on this topic in Additional Resources at the end of
Chapter 9.

Response in Offset Wells


By monitoring the production and pressure responses in nearby
offset wells, you may gain information useful in determining the
direction of the induced fracture. Responses in offset wells may
also be incorporated into a reservoir simulation to estimate fracture
height and length.

In some coalbed methane fields, the distance between wells may be


too great to detect pressure responses to a fracture treatment in
offset wells. However, you may be able to gain useful information
by monitoring the closest offset wells for changes in reservoir
pressures and produced fluid characteristics. Such changes may
help you determine communication with fractured coal intervals
and the orientation of the induced fracture.

The least expensive way to measure pressure responses in offset


wells is by shooting acoustic fluid levels. However, the accuracy
of measuring the fluid level is only approximately the length of a
joint of tubing, or about 30 feet. Thus, you can not detect small
pressure responses with this method.

5-50
Evaluating a FractureTreatment

To detect pressure changes with greater accuracy, you can run


downhole pressure sensors in offset wells. Pressure sensors may
provide accurate and useful data, but their rental cost may be
difficult to justify. If you do use pressure sensors, try to take full
advantage of them. For example, you can schedule a well test
while the sensor is installed in the well to gain additional use from
the pressure data.

Radioactive Tracers/Gamma Ray Log


Radioactive tracers can be used with the gamma ray log to help
determine the height of the induced fracture and the placement of
the fracture treatment. However, some service companies no
longer provide the radioactive tracer service because of the poten-
tial health risks to their workers. Because you might have diffi-
culty in locating a company to provide the service, you should
check with service companies well in advance of the fracture job.

In this technique, radioactive tracers are placed in the fracturing


sand and/or fluid while it is pumped. Then after the stimulated
well has been flowed back, a gamma ray log is run in the well. By
comparing the post-fracture gamma ray log to a base log (a gamma
ray log run before the fracture treatment), the effects of the injected
fracturing fluids may be determined.

The gamma ray log usually run in combination with the cased hole
cement evaluation log is often used as the base gamma ray log. If a
cased hole gamma ray log was not run before the treatment, you
need not run make a special logging run. You can use the open
hole gamma ray log as the base log.

To help you correctly distinguish fracture height from fluid leakoff,


you can place different radioactive isotopes in the different stages
of the fracture treatment. For example, you can run different
isotopes in the pad, the first proppant stage, and the last proppant
stage. A special gamma ray detector can be run that will differenti-
ate between the different isotopes. This technique will allow you to
distinguish between propped fracture height and fluid channeling
behind pipe. It may also help you determine whether the near
wellbore fracture is propped with the first stage sand, the last stage
sand, or a mixture of the two.

You should wait until the well has been flowed back and produced
for a while before running the gamma ray log. This period of time

5-51
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

will help to eliminate traces of the radioactive isotopes in the


wellbore and thus reduce the possibility of making erroneous log
interpretations. However, each isotope has a specific half-life. You
must run the log before the shortest half-life of any of the isotopes
expires so the gamma ray log will still detect the radioactivity.

Important Using radioactive tracers may not always help you determine
actual fracture height because tracers have a limited detection
depth and because the fracture may not be in line with the
wellbore.

When planning to use radioactive tracers to evaluate a fracture


treatment, consider the guidelines below:

Determine the types of information you want to obtain by


using tracers. Discuss the evaluation with the reservoir
engineer for the project.
For example, will it be helpful to know where the fluids went
or which proppant stage propped the near wellbore fracture?

Consult with a service company that will perform the


fracture treatment to determine its capabilities and to
obtain its recommendation for using radioactive tracers.

Make sure that either a cased hole or open hole gamma ray
log has been run on the well before the fracture treatment.

Check with local regulatory agencies to learn about their


policies for using radioactive tracers.
More than one agency may regulate radioactive substances.
Agencies in some states will not allow the use of radioactive
tracers in shallow seams.

Tiltmeters
Tiltmeters are sensitive geophysical instruments that are used to
measure slight displacements in the earths surface from horizontal.

A tiltmeter is essentially a bubble level. The primary component in


the tiltmeter is the tilt sensor, shown in Figure 5-5. The tilt sensor
contains a receptacle filled with two fluids. Each fluid has a

5-52
Evaluating a FractureTreatment

different electrical resistivity. As the sensor is tilted, the bubble


moves, and the resistance between the electrical contacts at AC and
BD changes. These resistance changes are electronically converted
into a voltage which is proportional to the tilt of the instrument. The
voltage is then converted to a digital number and stored for analysis.

Figure 5-5
Tiltmeter Sensor

If you are developing a new field, knowing the expected azimuth, or


orientation, of the created fracture can help you to determine the
optimum well spacing.

In fracture stimulations of shallow coalbeds, several tiltmeters can be


placed around the well to help determine fracture azimuth and shape.
After a fracture treatment, all of the data recorded and stored in the
tiltmeter is collected. This data is then analyzed using computer
models to help determine the shape and orientation of the fracture.

5-53
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

To work properly, tiltmeters must be isolated from the large fluc-


tuations of the earths surface. To achieve this isolation, tiltmeters
should be placed in holes 15-20 feet deep. These holes are drilled
and then cased with PVC pipe. The tiltmeters are lowered into
these holes, sand is placed around the instruments, and a rod is used
to pack the sand around the tiltmeters to hold them in place. Figure
5-6 shows a typical tiltmeter installation.

Figure 5-6
Tiltmeter Installation

Tiltmeters should be installed at a distance of 0.4 times the depth of


the seam to be fractured. This distance is estimated to be the
location where maximum tilt will occur. For example, if the seam
to be fractured is 1000 feet deep, the the tiltmeters should be
installed 400 feet (1000 X 0.4) away from the well.

5-54
Evaluating a FractureTreatment

Tiltmeters should be installed at least a couple of days to a week


before the fracture treatment to record and model the background tilt
which is caused by the combined effects of the earths tides, thermal
stresses and other environmental factors. These environmental
factors are then removed from the data recorded during the fracture
treatment so that only the tilt caused by the treatment can be mod-
elled. After the fracture treatment, the tilt vectors can be displayed
on a map showing the direction of the tilt from the tiltmeter site.

Figure 5-7 shows a typical tilt vector display for a vertical fracture
and for a horizontal fracture. Most actual displays may appear as
some combination of the vertical and horizontal displays because of
other effects such as fluid leakoff during the fracture treatment.

Figure 5-7
Tiltmeter Displays for Vertical and Horizontal Fractures

At the Rock Creek project, tiltmeters have been used successfully


to determine fracture orientation and shape. Tiltmeters were used

5-55
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

to record data when Wells P1A, P1B, P1C, and P4 were fractured.
Analysis of the data for Well P1A indicated the Pratt coalseam (at
478 feet) was fractured horizontally. Analysis of data for Wells
P1B and P1A indicated the Mary Lee/Blue Creek coalseams (1039
feet) and the Black Creek coalseam (1418 feet), respectively, were
fractured vertically. The fracture of the Mary Lee in Well P4 also
was found to be vertical.

Running tiltmeters is a sensitive and expensive operation. To


obtain useful data you must carefully coordinate the fracture
treatment with the service company providing the tiltmeters. To
help ensure a successful job, consider the guidelines below:

Discuss the fracture stimulation plan and the tiltmeter


installation requirements with the tiltmeter service repre-
sentative in advance of the job.

Drill holes for tiltmeters at least one week before the frac-
ture treatment.

Make sure the tiltmeters are calibrated and installed at


least two days before the fracture treatment to record
background trends, which are needed for the analysis.

Inform the tiltmeter service representative of the starting


time for the fracture treatment.

Avoid scheduling the fracture treatment during stormy


weather. Such weather conditions can adversely affect the
data.

Drill the tiltmeter holes as straight as possible.

Make sure to include the cost of drilling tiltmeter holes in


the cost estimate for running tiltmeters.

5-56
Evaluating a FractureTreatment

For more information on tiltmeters, you may consult with compa-


nies that provide specialized geophysical services.

5-57
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Additional Resources

Cleary, M.P., C.A. Wright, and T.B. Wright, Experimental and


Modeling Evidence for Major Changes in Hydraulic Fracturing
Design and Field Procedures, SPE Paper 21494, presented at the
1991 SPE Gas Technology Symposium, Houston (January 22-24).

Ely, J.W., W.T. Arnold, and S.A. Holditch, New Techniques and
Quality Control Find Success in Enhancing Productivity and
Minimizing Proppant Flowback, SPE Paper 20708 presented at
the 1990 Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New
Orleans (September 23-25).

Gazonas, G.A., C.A. Wright, and M.D. Wood, Tiltmeter Map-


ping and Monitoring of Hydraulic Fracture Propagation in Coal:
A Case Study in the Warrior Basin, Alabama, Geology and
Coalbed Methane Resources of the Northern San Juan Basin,
Colorado, New Mexico, Rocky Mountain Association of Geolo-
gists, Denver, 1988.

Gidley, J.L., S.A. Holditch, D.E. Nierode, and R.W. Veatch Jr.,
Recent Advances in Hydraulic Fracturing, SPE
Monograph 12, 1989.

Holditch, S.A. et al, Enhanced Recovery of Coalbed Methane


Through Hydraulic Fracturing, SPE Paper 18250 presented at
the 1988 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Hous-
ton (October 2-5).

Holditch, S.A. and Associates, Inc., Hydraulic Fracturing of


Coal Seams, a short course presented at the 1991 Coalbed Meth-
ane Symposium, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-16).
Khodaverdian M., J.D. McLennan, A.H. Jones et al, Examination
of Near-Wellbore Effects of Hydraulic Fracturing of Coal, in
Rock Mechanics as a Multidisciplinary Science, Norman, Okla-
homa, 1992.

5-58
Additional Resources

Lee, W.S., New Method of Minifrac Analysis Offers Greater


Accuracy and Enhanced Applicability, SPE Paper 15041 pre-
sented at the 1986 Eastern Regional Meeting, Columbus, Ohio
(November 12-14).

McDaniel, B.W., Benefits and Problems of Minifrac Applica-


tions in Coalbed Methane Wells, CIM/SPE Paper 90-103 pre-
sented a the the 1990 CIM/SPE International Technical Meeting,
Calgary (June 10-13).

Nierode, D.E., Comparison of Hydraulic Fracture Design Meth-


ods to Observed Field Results, SPE Paper 12059 presented at the
1983 Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Francisco
(October 5-8).

Nolte, K.G., Determination of Fracture Parameters from Frac-


turing Pressure Decline, SPE Paper 8341 presented at the 1979
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Las Vegas (Septem-
ber 23-26).

Nolte, K.G., A General Analysis of Fracturing Pressure Decline


Analysis with Application to Three Models, SPE Formation
Evaluation, December 1986.

Nolte, K.G. and Smith, M.G., Interpretation of Fracturing


Pressures, Journal of Petroleum Technology, 1981.

Palmer, I.D., R.T. Fryar, K.A. Tumino, and R. Puri, Comparison


Between Gel-Fracture and Water-Fracture Stimulations in the
Black Warrior Basin, Proceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane
Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama,
(May 13-16).

Puri, R., G.E. King, and I.D. Palmer, Damage to Coal Permeabil-
ity During Hydraulic Fracturing, Proceedings of the 1991
Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama,
Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-16).

5-59
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams

Shelley, R.F. and McGowen, J.M., Pump-in Test Correlation


Predicts Proppant Placement, SPE Paper 15151 presented at the
1986 Rocky Mountain Regional Meeting, Billings (May 19-21).

Soliman, M.Y., R.D. Kuhlman, and D.K. Poulsen, Minifrac


Analysis for a Heterogeneous Formation, CIM/SPE Paper
90-5 presented at the 1990 CIM/SPE International Technical
Meeting, Calgary (June 10-13).

5-60
6 Selecting Production Equipment and
Facilities

M uch of the well equipment and production facilities for produc-


ing a coalbed methane field is the same as that used in a conventional
oil or gas field. However, operating experience in the Black Warrior
Basin has provided many useful adaptations and improvements you
may find particularly effective for operating a coalbed methane
project.

This chapter provides practical guidelines to help you select proper


equipment and facilities for your coalbed methane field. The chapter
will guide you through:

Estimating the Volume of Water to be Produced

Pumping Equipment

Power Supply for Pumping Equipment

Surface Production Facilities

Gas Compressors

Gas Dehydration Equipment


Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

Estimating the Volume of Water to be Produced


To initiate and maintain gas flow from low-pressure coal formations,
you must continuously remove water from the well. This co-produced
water is one of the biggest differences between producing conven-
tional natural gas and producing coalbed methane. Operators often
have to pump water from wells for six months or longer before
methane is produced. When multiple coal seams are produced, water
production can be high.

The volume of produced water will depend on the properties of the


coal seam, which can vary greatly from one area to another. Before
you can begin planning the equipment and facilities for a field, you
must estimate the volume of water you will need to produce, treat and
dispose. The volume of produced water is often one of the most
important factors in determining equipment and facility requirements
and overall project economics.

Though you may find it difficult to estimate produced water volume


in a undeveloped area, you should use the best information you can
obtain. Keep in mind that water production rates observed before
fracturing a well may be substantially less than water rates after the
well is fractured. The guidelines below may help you in estimating
water production data.

When drilling exploratory wells or development wells, you can


estimate water flow from formations by closely monitoring
the drilling pits.

When a well has been drilled to total depth (TD), trip to TD


with drillstring (or coiled tubing), inject compressed air, air
mist, or nitrogen for several hours to clean out the wellbore,
and observe water production rates at the surface.

Obtain data from other producers in the area if it is available.


Seek data about formation permeability, initial and peak water
rates,and cumulative water volumes to-date for specific coal
formations in the area. If producers are reluctant to share produc-
tion data, you may find this data available as public information at
your state or regional oil and gas agencies or environmental
agencies.

6-2
Pumping Equipment

Perform hydrologic (slug) tests in exploratory wells or core


holes to estimate the permeability of the coal seam.
You can make a general approximation of the water influx rate
based on this permeability estimate. For information on perform-
ing slug tests, refer to Chapter 9.

Pumping Equipment
To maximize gas production from a coalbed methane well, you must
keep the water level in the wellbore below the lowest producing
coalbed. Because coalbeds are usually relatively shallow, low-
pressure formations, you must pump water from coalbed wells con-
tinuously (or intermittently) to minimize bottomhole pressure and
allow gas to flow into the wellbore.

This section will explain the benefits and limitations of the most
common methods used to pump water from coalbed wells. These
methods are:
Beam Pumps
Progressing Cavity Pumps
Gas Lift
Electric Submersible Pumps

Table 6-1 shows a summary of the benefits and limitations of using


these artifical lift methods for coalbed methane wells.

6-3
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

Table 6-1
Artificial Lift Methods for Coalbed Methane Production

Artificial Lift Method Benefits Limitations

Beam Pumps Operate over a wide Rod string can fail


(Sucker Rod Pumps) range of depths & volumes
Can become stuck if
Do not have to be well produces large
submerged to operate amounts of coal fines
or sand, especially with
Require only minor bottom hold-down
routine maintenance installation

Can be rebuilt completely Increased wear in


if worn or damaged crooked holes

Progressing Cavity Can lift high rates Can burn up if water


Pumps of water level falls below the
pump
Contain only one
moving internal part, Stator & rotor can be
the rotor rebuilt when worn out

Require little space Setting depths are


at surface because limited
wellhead-mounted
Rods may part if exces-
Surface equipment is sive torque is applied
unobtrusive visually

Gas Lift Handles solids well Requires gas source for


initial production
Can accommodate a
wide range of fluid rates May require training of
field personnel

Electric Submersible Can lift large volumes High initial cost and
Pumps of water maintenance cost

Operate quietly and Can easily burn up


efficiently if they run dry

6-4
Pumping Equipment

Beam Pumps
Beam pumps, also called sucker rod pumps, have served as an
effective, reliable, and relatively inexpensive method for removing
liquids from wells since the early days of the oil industry.

The beam pumping system consists of a downhole plunger pump, a


sucker rod string, a surface pumping unit (pump jack), a gearbox/
speed reducer and a prime mover (motor). Figure 6-1 shows a
typical beam pumping system.

Figure 6-1
Beam Pump

6-5
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

For a beam pumping to operate effectively and with minimal main-


tenance, all components of the pumping system must be designed
and sized properly. The system must accommodate the well depth,
and the volume, viscosity, and abrasiveness of fluids to be produced
(water and gas).

Beam pumps are relatively simple and durable. They require only
minor routine maintenance. Special subsurface designs may be
required in extremely gassy wells or wells with large amounts of
sand and fines. Properly sized units can pump up to 2,500 BWPD;
however, pumping units pumping less than 600 BWPD are more
common.

Because of the relatively shallow producing depths in the Black


Warrior Basin, operators in this area use beam pumping units with
peak torque ratings ranging from 40,000 inch-pounds to 228,000
inch-pounds and stroke lengths ranging from 36 inches to 120
inches.

Selecting a Sucker Rod Pump and Equipment


Most operators in the Black Warrior Basin use a thin-wall (low
pressure) insert type of sucker rod pump, or plunger pump. This pump
sits in a seating nipple at the bottom of the tubing string, and the entire
pump can be retrieved by simply pulling the sucker rod string.
Because solids production requires frequent pump repairs in coalbed
methane wells, this easy retrievability is a significant advantage.

Some operators use a tubing pump to pump large volumes of water,


especially during initial production. The tubing pump has a barrel that
is installed in the tubing string. The plunger is lowered on the sucker
rod string and is latched into the barrel. You can retrieve the plunger
by pulling the rods; however, you must pull the tubing string to
retrieve the barrel.

To select the best type of pump system for your operation, consult a
trained, experienced pump specialist. A competent pump specialist
will discuss the particular requirements of your field, simulate various
producing scenarios, and provide detailed computer analyses for a
variety of possible pump designs. For example, pump specialists can
explain the benefits and limitations of combining various types and
sizes of plungers, tubing, rod strings, pump jacks, and motors. For
more information on beam pumping systems, refer to Additional
Resources the end of this chapter.

6-6
Pumping Equipment

Operating experience in the Black Warrior Basin has produced these


general guidelines, which should help you in selecting downhole
equipment for beam pumping units:

Install a tubing anchor at the bottom of the tubing string to


eliminate tubing stretch.
If the tubing is not anchored, the pump can pick up the weight of the
tubing string on the upstroke. This weight can greatly reduce the
efficiency of the pump. Tubing stretch is more pronounced
in deep wells.

In new wells, install a ring-type plunger pump initially. After


the well cleans up and stops producing appreciable amounts of
sand or coal fines, replace the ring-type pump with a metal
plunger pump.
Ring-type pumps contain non-metal parts which will not cut out as
easily as metal pump parts.

Install double standing valves and double travelling valves in


each pump.
Installing two valves provides a backup in case the primary valve
fails. This step can reduce the cost of pulling pumps by extending
the time between pulling jobs.

In shallow, low-pressure wells, install the pump with a top-


seating hold-down assembly. Figure 6-2 shows a pump installed
with a top-seating hold-down assembly.

The top-seating hold-down assembly provides these distinct advan-


tages:

Prevents the pump from becoming stuck because it does not


allow sand and coal fines to settle between the pump barrel and
the inside of tubing.

The pump barrel cannot wear by rubbing against the tubing


because the body of the pump pivots from its top and aligns
in crooked holes more readily than other types of pumps.

6-7
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

Figure 6-2
Top-Seating Pump Hold-Down

In deep, higher pressure wells, install the pump with a bottom-seating


hold-down assembly. Figure 6-3 shows a pump installed with a
bottom-seating hold-down assembly.

The bottom-seating hold-down assembly has these advantages and


disadvantages:

Using the bottom hold-down assembly reduces the possibility


of the pump barrel swelling. Both the inside and the outside
of the barrel are exposed to the hydrostatic tubing pressure,
which eliminates pressure differential across the wall of the
barrel.

Using the bottom hold-down assembly increases the danger of


the pump sticking in the well because solid particles can settle
between the pump barrel and the inside of the tubing.

6-8
Pumping Equipment

Figure 6-3
Bottom-Seating Pump Hold-Down

Install a mud anchor and a strainer nipple or stainless steel


screen at the pump inlet (bottom end of the pump) to pre-
vent large solids from entering the pump.

Caution If a well produces scale, a mud anchor, strainer nipple, or


screen may quickly plug with scale and cause the pump to fail.
You may need to chemically treat the well to reduce severe
scaling problems.

In wells that produce a significant amount of gas, install a gas


anchor at the pump inlet (bottom end of the pump) to mini-
mize gas from entering the pump.
The gas anchor is a device that acts as a separation chamber to
direct gas up the casing/tubing annulus instead of into the pump
inlet. Figure 6-4 shows a typical gas anchor.

6-9
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

Figure 6-4
Gas Anchor

Order at least one set of pony rods (sucker rods in 2, 4, 6, and


8 ft lengths) to allow you to properly fit the length of the rod
string to the tubing string.

Select a pumping tee and stuffing box assembly based on the


operating pressure of the separator. For most low-pressure
coalbed methane applications, a simple type stuffing box
works well. For higher pressure applications, you may need
to use a grease-packed type of stuffing box.
The stuffing box provides a seal around the polished rod to contain
water and gas in the tubing. The stuffing box also wipes the
polished rod with water to keep it lubricated.

Installing the Sucker Rod Pump and Rods


These general guidelines will help you install the pump and rods in the
wellbore:

Install a latching assembly, or on/off tool, between the top


of the pump and the first sucker rod.

6-10
Pumping Equipment

This tool allows you to release the sucker rod string from the pump
and pull the rods if the pump becomes stuck in the tubing. You can
then retrieve the pump by pulling the tubing.

Install a spray metal rod guide in the sucker rod string just
above the top of the pump.
This guide centers the valve rod in the pump and centers the pump
in the tubing. Centering these components helps eliminate sucker
rod whip, which can cause the pump plunger and barrel to wear
excessively.

Install one or more joints of weight bar in the sucker rod string
directly above the pump.
Weight bar will help prevent the rods from whipping and allow the
pump to operate more smoothly.

Install rod guides (nylon or plastic) at regular intervals in the


sucker rod string to prevent rod whipping and excessive rod and
tubing wear. Spacing of guides depends on the deviation of the
well.
More exotic rod guides are available for crooked wells.

Set the pump below the deepest producing coal seam to draw the
fluid level below the lowermost perforations (or slots).
Because shallow coal seams have very low reservoir pressures, you
must decrease the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid column in the
wellbore as much as possible to maximize the gas flow rate into the
wellbore.

Submerge the pump as deeply as possible in the fluid to reduce


the amount of gas that enters the pump.

Some operators in the Black Warrior Basin set the polished rod
clamp so that the plunger bumps the bottom of the pump on the
downstroke.
Bumping bottom can help ensure the travelling valve and standing
valve operate properly by keeping valve seats free of debris.
However, bumping bottom can also subject the rod string to
additional stress, which can cause premature rod failure.

6-11
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

Some operators in the Black Warrior Basin run no lock


sucker rod pumps to prevent gas locking.

Progressing Cavity Pumps


Progressing cavity pumps are relatively new to the oil and gas
industry. They have been used extensively for coalbed methane wells
in a a number of areas of the Black Warrior Basin. In contrast to the
beam pump, which is driven by a reciprocating rod, the progressing
cavity pump is driven by a rotating rod. Figure 6-5 shows a progress-
ing cavity pump installed in a well.

The progressing cavity pump system consists of a surface drive unit,


a sucker rod string, and a subsurface pump. The surface drive unit has
an electric motor and sheaves which rotate the rod string and the pump.
The key components of the subsurface pump are the rotor and the
stator. The rotor is a single external helix with a circular cross-section,
precision machined from high-strength steel. The stator is a double
internal helix molded of an abrasion-resistant elastomer bonded
within an alloy steel tube. As the rotor turns within the stator, cavities
progress from the bottom suction end of the pump to the top discharge
end, conveying the formation fluid up through the pump and into the
tubing. A continuous seal between the rotor and the stator helices
keeps the fluid moving at a fixed rate directly proportional to the
rotational speed of the pump and the volume of the cavity.

Progressing cavity pumps can operate at a wide range of speeds and


lift varying amounts of fluids. In addition, progressing cavity pumps
usually cost less to install, occupy less space on the surface, and are less
visually prominent (a consideration in urban areas) than beam pumps.

Both progressing cavity pumps and beam pumps offer distinct advan-
tages and disadvantages. In many cases, the decision to use one system
over the other is based on the specific application and the preference
of the operator.

Selecting a Progressing Cavity Pump System

To select the best type of progressing cavity pump system for your
operation, consult a pump specialist who is trained and experienced
with progressing cavity pumps. A competent pump specialist will
discuss the particular requirements of your field, simulate various
producing scenarios, and provide detailed computer analyses of a
variety of possible pump designs.

6-12
Pumping Equipment

Figure 6-5
Progressing Cavity Pump

In general, selecting a progressing cavity pump system involves:

Determining the pumping depth, flowline pressure and the


desired well production rate

Evaluating the API gravity and pumping characteristics of the


formation fluid

Checking pump speed guidelines against formation fluid


abrasiveness

6-13
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

Evaluating pump compatibility with any chemical additives


to be used

Determining the appropriate pump size and operating speed

Determining the proper sucker rod size

Selecting the proper surface drive head

Selecting the appropriate prime mover and drive system

Important

Operating experience in the Black Warrior Basin has shown that


you should size the pump to run continuously instead of intermit-
tently. Intermittent operation may allow sand or coal fines to
settle and plug the pump when you shut in the well. Continuous
operation keeps the sand moving up the wellbore.

For more information on progressing cavity pumping systems, refer


to Additional Resources at the end of this chapter.

Installing a Progressing Cavity Pump


These general guidelines will help you to install a progressing cavity
pump in the wellbore:

1. Attach the pumps stator to the first joint of production


tubing and insert the tubing string into the well.

2. Run and set the production tubing.

3. Attach the pumps rotor to the first sucker rod and insert the
sucker rod string into the production tubing.

4. Install rod guides at regular intervals in the sucker rod string


to prevent excessive rod and tubing wear.

6-14
Pumping Equipment

5. Run the sucker rods and gently tag the pin at the bottom of the
stator.

6. Calculate the rod stretch in the rod string.

7. Position the rotor above the bottom of the stator pin a


distance equal to the calculated rod stretch.

8. Attach the surface drive head to the rod string and the
pumping tee.

9. Attach the prime mover drive system.

10. Connect the power supply.

Important Some operators in the Black Warrior Basin initially install


progressing cavity pumps above the perforations to reduce the
potential for plugging with coal fines or sand during early
production. This method also helps maintains a hydrostatic
head on the formation to help prevent surging when pumping
the well down after the fracture treatment.

As the well gradually cleans up, the pump is lowered closer to


the perforations. When the well has completely cleaned up, the
pump is lowered below the perforations to minimize the
bottomhole pressure and maximize gas flow.

Gas Lift
Gas lift is a method of artificial lift that uses an external source of
gas to lift formation water from the wellbore. Gas is injected into
the wellbore either continuously or intermittently. The injection
gas mixes with the water and decreases the flowing pressure gradi-
ent of the mixture from the point of injection to the surface. The
lower flowing pressure gradient reduces the flowing bottomhole
pressure to establish the drawdown required to initiate and maintain
gas production.

6-15
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

The gas lift system consists of a series of gas lift valves housed in
mandrels which are spaced at intervals in the tubing string. Two gas
lift injection methods have been used to produce coalbed methane
wells. The least common method is to inject gas down the tubing string
and produce water and gas up the annulus. The method used more
often is to inject gas down the casing and produce water and gas up the
tubing string. In either case, aerating the water reduces its density and
allows it to flow to the surface where the gas and water are separated.
The produced water is then sent to the water disposal system and the
methane gas is either recycled to continue gas lifting or sent to the
gathering system. Figure 6-6 shows a typical gas lift installation.

Figure 6-6
Gas Lift Installation

6-16
Pumping Equipment

Though not as popular as beam pumps or progressing cavity pumps,


gas lift has been used in the Black Warrior Basin with some success.
Gas lift can be a particularly attractive method of artificial lift in areas
where electric power is unavailable or its cost makes it uneconomical.

The main advantages of gas lift are the ability to handle production of
solids with little or no mechanical problems and the ability to accom-
modate a wide range of initial production rates.

A major limitation of a gas lift system is the need for a source of


compressed gas for initial operation. An additional disadvantage is the
need to train field people to operate the system properly.

If you install a gas lift system, you can run wireline-retrievable gas lift
valves to optimize performance and eliminate the cost of pulling
tubing when valve replacement is needed.

In 1985, GRI conducted a study to determine the applicability of gas


lift to coalbed methane production in the Black Warrior Basin. The
study concluded that initiating production of coalbed methane fields
using gas lift is more cost effective than using conventional pumping
units. The study also showed that as water production declines with
time, smaller conventional pumping units may be more economical.
For more information on this study, refer to
A Field Evaluation of Gas Lift and Progressive Cavity Pumps as
Effective Dewatering Methods for Coalbed Methane Wells. See
Additional Resources at the end of this chapter.

Electric Submersible Pumps


Operators in the Black Warrior Basin have successfully used electric
submersible pumps to produce coalbed methane wells. However,
these pumps have not gained widespread use in this basin because of
problems with coal fines and scales.

In the Deerlick Creek Field in the Black Warrior Basin, electric


submersible pumps have been used successfully in bounding wells to
de-water the field. These wells pumped high rates of water but little
gas. When these dewatering wells were temporarily shut-in, overall
production from the field declined significantly. Continued pumping
with electric submersible pumps has increased dewatering of the
reservoir and increased gas production from the field.

6-17
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

An electric submersible pumping system consists of a downhole


electric-powered motor and centrifugal pump assembly. Electricity
is supplied to the motor via a cable clamped to the production
tubing as it is run in the well. The pump and motor are run on the
end of the tubing string. If desired, the speed of the downhole
motor and pump assembly can be regulated with a surface control
unit. Figure 6-7 shows an electric submersible pumping system.

Figure 6-7
Electric Submersible Pump

6-18
Power Supply for Pumping Equipment

Important Because the motor is cooled by fluid passing down the annulus
to the intake of the pump, the pump is normally placed above
the producing zone. Alternatively, a shroud can be installed
with the pump to direct fluid past the motor if the pump is
placed below the producing zone. In any case, the well should
never be pumped dry.

The main advantages of electric submersible pumps are their ability


to lift large volumes of water and their quiet, efficient operation.
Two significant limitations of electric submersible pumps are their
high cost (both purchase cost and installation/maintenance costs)
and their susceptibility to burnout if they run dry.

Because electric submersible pumps can effectively lift large


volumes of water, they may be especially attractive in wells with
high water production. For example, the water level may be high
in a wellbore because of additional water influx from a non-coal
zone. Similarly, a coal zone with a large permeability may produce
water rates that preclude dewatering an extended area with conven-
tional pumping units.

Important The heat generated by electric submersible pumps can cause


severe deposition of scale on the downhole pump. This scale
can eventually plug the pump and cause it to burn up. Because
scale deposition presents serious problems in some parts of the
Black Warrior Basin, electric submersible pumps may not be
practical in these areas.

If an electric submersible pump becomes stuck in a well be-


cause of sand or coal fines, it is usually difficult to retrieve
because the O.D. of the housing on the pump is larger than the
O.D. of the production tubing above it.

Power Supply for Pumping Equipment


Regardless of the type of pumps you select to produce your coalbed
wells, you will need to decide how to power the pumps. You have two
basic choices of power supply:

Natural Gas Power

Electric Power

6-19
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

You should base your decision of power supply on both the eco-
nomic and the operational benefits and limitations of each method.

Natural Gas Power


Natural gas may provide the most efficient and cost-effective
power source if your field is in a remote area without nearby
electric power.

Natural gas power can provide these benefits:

May have lower initial cost

Can use low-cost natural gas produced on location

Eliminates lengthy and costly negotiations with power


companies

When compared to electric-powered pumps, natural gas-powered


pumps also have several disadvantages:

Require higher maintenance

Require a backup gas supply

More susceptible to vandalism and theft

Cold weather may interrupt gas supply

Electric Power
Electric power may provide the most efficient and cost-effective
power source if your field has ready access to existing power lines.

In the Black Warrior Basin, most operators use electric power


because it requires relatively little maintenance and its cost can be
amortized over several years with the power company.
In most cases, electric power can provide these benefits:

Requires low initial capital cost

Provides a more reliable power supply

6-20
Power Supply for Pumping Equipment

Requires lower maintenance

Produces no air pollution

Provides quieter operation

Contains few parts that can be stolen

When compared to natural gas power, electric power also has


several disadvantages:

May require a higher initial cost if you install your own


distribution system

May require access rights-of-way for power lines

Methods for Installing Electric Power


In general, you can supply electric power to your field by either:

Installing Your Own Power Lines

Utility Company Installation

Installing Your Own Power Lines


If electric power is available nearby, you may choose to install your
own power distribution network in the field and then connect it to
the local utility system. The operator of the Rock Creek project in
the Black Warrior Basin elected to install such a field network.
The operator estimates the total cost to clear right-of-ways and
install the network at approximately $35,000 per mile of power
line.

If the field contains several wells grouped fairly closely together,


you may consider taking delivery of the electricity from the power
company at a single point and then installing your own secondary
lines to the individual wells. This may be the most economical
method because you have only one meter and therefore incur only
one demand charge from the power company.

The primary factors you should consider in installing your own


lines are:

6-21
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

Initial cost for equipment and installation

Cost to obtain and clear rights-of-way

Ongoing cost to maintain the network

Requirements for inspection by local government agencies


and the utility company

Taking delivery of electricity at a single point (i.e., one


meter) to lower the demand charge

Utility Company Installation


The alternative to installing your own field power network is to to
have a local utility company supply service to the field. The utility
company could either provide individual power lines to each well
site based on a wells estimated power needs or it could provide
service connect/disconnect boxes on poles placed at selected points
throughout the field.

The primary factors you should consider when having a utility


company install a power network are:

Total cost for equipment and installation, and how payment


will be structured

Rates for usage of electricity, including any minimum


charge

Responsibility for maintenance of lines

Scheduling of installation to meet production needs

Inspection requirements of the utility company before


beginning or expanding service

Union requirements of the utility company for connecting


or disconnecting equipment (e.g., Are electrical specialists
required?)

6-22
Surface Production Facilities

Surface Production Facilities


Most of the surface facilities and equipment used to produce coalbed
methane wells is the same as that used in conventional oil and gas
wells. However, coalbed methane fields present some unique
problems such as very low reservoir pressures and gas saturated
with water.

Operating experience in the Black Warrior Basin has provided many


practical guidelines to help you select equipment that can eliminate
problems inherent in producing a coalbed methane field. This
section explains common production operations problems and how
to select the proper equipment to overcome these problems. The
section discusses the equipment you will need for:

Collecting and Measuring Water

Collecting and Measuring Gas

Collecting and Measuring Water


To produce coalbed methane wells, you must continuously lift water
from them and collect, measure, and dispose the water at the surface.
The success of a coalbed methane project depends largely on the
effectiveness of the water treating and disposal system. For informa-
tion on treating and disposing produced water, refer to Chapter 8.

The flow path of water in a coalbed methane field is similar to that in


most conventional oil fields. Figure 6-8 shows a typical water flow
path for coalbed methane fields in the Black Warrior Basin.

The Water Flow Path


Water drains from exposed formations into the wellbore and col-
lects in the sump at the bottom of the well. Then the water enters a
downhole pump (usually a plunger pump or a progressing cavity
pump) and is lifted through production tubing to the surface. Next,
the water passes through a flowline to a two-phase separator, which
removes entrained gas in the water. The gas vapors vent at the top
of the separator and the water exits at the bottom and flows through
polyethylene or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) underground lines to
water treatment pits.

6-23
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

Figure 6-8
Typical Water Flow Path for Fields in the Black Warrior
Basin

Equipment for Solving Water Production Problems


You will likely encounter several problems when producing water.
Solids in water lines can cause significant inaccuracies in meters
and malfunctions in pumps. Freezing temperatures can prevent
you from obtaining water production data and cause permanent
damage to wellhead equipment, pipes, and meters. Gas or air in
the water line can impede water flow and cause inaccurate meter
readings. Such water-related problems can greatly increase the
costs for meter and pump repair, rig time, and maintenance labor.
You can avoid many of these problems by selecting the proper
equipment.

Solids in Water Lines

Water produced from coalbed wells, especially during early pro-


duction, usually contains some coal, sand, or other rock fines. The
water may also contain scale from oxidation of casing and tubing.

6-24
Surface Production Facilities

In addition, if formation water contains a large amount of salts,


precipitates may form in surface flow lines and further increase the
total solids in the water.

Except for very large particles, most solids pass through the water
production and metering system without difficulty. The solids
remaining in the system usually accumulate in the housing chamber
of the water meter, which can eventually impair and finally stop the
measuring mechanism. Some meters may, however, repeatedly
malfunction within several days after installation. Rock material
can lodge in valve openings in the downhole pumping mechanism.
Usually this material is coal or shale that has sloughed off forma-
tions exposed in the wellbore. This material is most likely to plug
and stop the downhole pump during the first few days of produc-
tion, especially after the well has been stimulated.

Solution To prevent large solids from plugging and damaging


the surface equipment and meters, install a wire-wrapped screen
(the type used in water wells) on the bottom of the pump.

Most large pieces of solid debris carried through the tubing settle in
the separator. You can remove the remaining solids suspended in
the flow system by installing a strainer downstream of the separator
and upstream of the water meter.

Freezing of Water Lines

Produced water sometimes freezes inside surface lines, restricting


flow and causing leaks. Extended freezing weather conditions can
permanently damage wellhead equipment, pipes, and meters.

Gas-producing coals are normally several hundred feet deep, and


the water produced is usually warmer than winter surface tempera-
tures. However, if you control pumping with a timer, there are
times when no water is moving through surface lines. Water
remaining in the lines during these periods cools rapidly and may
freeze.

Solution To prevent freezing, wrap surface lines with electric


heat tape and then cover them with waterproof insulation. In areas
where severe and prolonged freezing temperatures are common,
bury water lines below the frostline. In addition, place meters,
water filters, and separators inside small, insulated houses. Further,
you can install heat lamps inside the buildings as a simple, effec

6-25
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

tive, and inexpensive prevention against freezing. Ventilate all


houses, especially those using heat lamps.

Caution Use only fixtures and wiring approved and appropriate for
such equipment enclosures.

Gas in Water Lines


Gas passing through positive-displacement water meters or turbine
meters is measured as water and may account for significant errors
in production records. Gas enters water flow lines either dissolved
in the water or as free gas drawn directly into the tubing by the
downhole pump.

Improper pump cycle settings or continuous pump operations


which lower water level in the wellbore to the bottom of the pump
cause gas to be drawn directly into the tubing and pumped to the
surface. This gas in the water can cause large errors in metered
water measurements. Tests conducted at wells where fluid levels
were known to be at or near the base of the downhole pump show
meter readings from 20 to 75 percent greater than the actual vol-
ume of water produced.

Solution You can remove gas from the water line and improve
water meter accuracy by installing a separator in the surface water
flow system. Alternatively, you can install a simple 30 to 50 gallon
vented separation tank.

Air Trapped in Water Collection Lines


Air can enter water collection lines at high points in the line. This
problem may be more severe when wells are pumped intermittently
because of long periods of no water movement through the lines.
When pockets of air or entrained gas are trapped in the water line,
they compress much like a spring, preventing the water from
moving through the line.

Solution Install a vacuum breaker device at high points in the


water line. A vacuum breaker prevents a vacuum lock from stop-
ping water flow in the line and releases air trapped at high points in
the line.

6-26
Surface Production Facilities

Measuring Water Flow Rates


You can use several different methods to measure the flow rate of
produced water. Operators in the Black Warrior Basin commonly
use these methods:

Bucket Test The simplest test involves measuring the amount of


time a well takes to fill a five-gallon bucket. You then convert the
5-gallon rate to a barrels per day rate by using this formula:

24
Barrels Per Day = 0.119 x
( Minutes to
fill 6 0
)
By recording bucket tests over a period of time, you can determine
the efficiency of the downhole pump and tell whether or not a well
is being pumped off effectively.

At the Rock Creek project, an automatic bucket test system was


installed at each well site. In this system, the bucket consists of
half a standard 55-gallon drum. The drum collects water from the
outlet of the water dump on the separator. A liquid level controller
is connected to a small pump, which pumps the water from the
drum into the water gathering system. A counter is connected to
the liquid level controller to record the number of times the drum is
drained each day. The equation below can be used to determine the
daily water production based on the number of times the drum is
drained each day.

Barrels Per Day = h x D2 x N


7.15

Where: h = height between the dump line on the bucket and the float, ft

D = diameter of the bucket, ft

N = number of dumps per day

Positive-Displacement Meter A positive-displacement type


meter can be installed in the flow line. This type of meter is inex-
pensive and can be used when no power is available in the field.
However, water meters are generally ineffective in coalbed meth-

6-27
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

ane fields because small amounts of coal fines, sand grains, or


fracturing gel can easily plug the meter.

Turbine Meter This meter is essentially a water meter with


turbine blades that is installed in line. Turbine meters can be sized
for the rate and volume of flow expected. Like the positive-
displacement meter, the accuracy of the turbine meter is severely
impaired by debris and flow rates outside the operating range of the
meter.

Selecting Other Equipment for Water Production


These guidelines will help you to properly select other equipment
for producing water in a coalbed methane field:

When practical, install separators at each well site instead


of piping all produced water directly to a central separation
facility.
Water carries fines and sludge that can cause plugging. The
more water you can remove at the well site, the less plugging
problems you will have downstream.

Select water pipelines with a large enough diameter to


carry the estimated volume of produced water and to
minimize frictional pressure losses, which increase
backpressure at the wellhead.

Caution
Flow lines that are too large in diameter can cause solids to
drop out of the water and create plugging problems. A
pipe partially full of water will tend to plug more easily
than a pipe full of moving water. To prevent solids from
settling in the flow lines, the flow velocity should be a
minimum of 3 ft/second.

If the frictional pressure losses from flow lines creates


excessive backpressure on the surface water facilities, you
can install booster pumps at the well sites to move the water
through the lines and reduce wellhead pressure.

6-28
Surface Production Facilities

Collecting and Measuring Gas


Collecting and measuring gas in a coalbed methane field is much
the same as in a low-pressure oil field. You will find many simi-
larities in the flow path of the fluids, the production equipment, and
the operational problems.

The Gas Flow Path


Coalbed methane wells usually produce gas through the casing/
production tubing annulus. The wells normally produce under
minimum back-pressure to optimize gas desorption from the coal
and drainage of the water. Once gas reaches the surface, it is
normally piped to a two-phase separator, which removes remove
water from the gas. (Alternatively, the gas can be piped directly
into the gas gathering system to reduce backpressure on the casing-
head.) Then the gas flows through an orifice meter with a
3-pen chart recorder where it is measured. Next, the gas is piped
through a field collection line to a gas scrubber, which removes any
remaining water before the gas enters the compressor. Finally, the
gas exits the compressor, flows through a dehydrator and sales gas
meter, and finally, into the sales gas pipeline. Figure 6-9 shows a
typical gas flow path for fields in the Black Warrior Basin.

Equipment For Solving Gas Production Problems


You will likely experience several problems when producing
coalbed methane gas. Gas produced from coalbeds contains water
vapor that condenses and collects along various points in the gas
line, including the meter. Water build-up decreases meter accuracy
and can damage working components. The effects of even small
amounts of water in gas lines are most pronounced during periods of
freezing weather. In addition, rock fines accumulate within the gas
meter over time, causing measurement inaccuracy and possibly
damage to the meter.

Water in Gas Lines


The moisture content of coalbed gas has to be sufficiently low to
assure accurate measurement of gas flow. In addition, coalbed gas
sold commercially must meet requirements of purchase agreements,
which usually limit the water content to approximately 7 pounds of
water per million cubic feet of gas measured at standard temperature
and pressure.

As warm coalbed gas cools at the surface, it loses some of its ability
to carry water and the water therefore condenses. The water con-

6-29
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

Figure 6-9
Typical Gas Flow Path for Fields in the Black Warrior
Basin

densate accumulates at low points along the pipeline and in gas


meters. You will encounter this problem most frequently during
winter months when differences between gas temperature and
surface temperature are greatest.

Water also separates from gas when the gas passes from a smaller to
a larger diameter pipe, which reduces gas flow velocity. Therefore,
water often accumulates in areas where pipe diameter changes.

Finally, water condenses from the gas stream at angled sections


along flow lines and at meter locations where there is turbulent flow.

Solution Install a separator at the well site to remove entrained


liquid from the gas stream. The closer you place the separator to the
well, the less is the potential for water and solids to disturb gas flow
and measurement further downstream.

6-30
Surface Production Facilities

Also, install drips at low points in the gas lines to remove liquid
from the gas stream or liquid that has accumulated in the pipeline.
A drip is simply a 10-15 foot length of pipe tied into the line. The
drip collects water in the line and allows drainage of the water
through a valve in the pipe.

Drips are available in two styles: manual or automatic. You must


periodically open a valve and drain a manual drip. Automatic drips
operate with a float system that automatically dumps the collected
water when it reaches a pre-set level.

Freezing of Gas Lines and Meters


Problems with water in gas lines increase during periods of low
temperature because conditions for condensation are intensified.
The problem becomes severe when temperatures drop below
freezing. Even small amounts of ice in gas flow lines increase
backpressure and reduce gas production. Ice can also form in gas
meters and severely damage the instruments.

Solution To prevent ice formation in gas lines near the wellhead,


wrap the lines with electric heat tape and then cover them with
waterproof fiberglass insulation. In addition, equip well sites with
small insulated meters houses that contain heat lamps. Be sure to
adequately ventilate the meter houses. Finally, increase the number
of routine field inspections during especially cold weather to assure
minimum condensate build up.

Solids in Gas Lines


Under normal flowing conditions, particles of rock or other solid
material accumulate in most gas meters over time. If you do not
correct this problem, solids will eventually cause any type of meter
to malfunction. Rotary meters are the most susceptible to malfunc-
tion because of close tolerance between components of the rotating
cartridge. Diaphragm meters usually continue to operate with small
amounts of solids build-up, but meter accuracy diminishes as
portions of the meters measuring reservoir fill with solids. Tur-
bine meters normally allow very small material (less than one
millimeter in diameter) to pass through its inner mechanisms.

Solution To prevent solids from plugging meters, install a car-


tridge-type filter with a fiberglass filtering element or a line-
strainer (a steel cartridge containing numerous 3/64-inch holes).

6-31
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

These commercially available filters are designed to remove fine


solid particles with very little pressure drop (0.5 psig or less).
Install the filter as close to the wellhead as possible using a Y
connection. Put a small ball valve on one leg of the Y so you can
periodically blow the filter to atmosphere to clean it.

Pressure Fluctuation in Gas Lines


Because coalbed methane wells usually produce at low pressures,
the flowline pressure can fluctuate considerably when downstream
pipeline conditions change (e.g., compressor shut-down, or slugs of
water in the collection line). These pressure fluctuations can cause
severe inaccuracies in gas meter readings.

Solution To maintain a steady line pressure at the gas meter,


install a backpressure regulator just downstream of the meter. Set
the regulator at a pressure just slightly higher than the line pressure.

Selecting a Gas Flow Meter


Most coalbed methane operators use orifice meters or turbine
meters to measure gas flow rates. Table 6-2 lists the benefits and
limitations of these meters.

Table 6-2
Comparison of Gas Flow Meters

Type of Meter Benefits Limitations

Orifice Meter Continuous chart Requires


provides record person to
of well events change chart

Requires less
maintenance

AGPA standard
for gas sales

Turbine Meter Provides quick, Does not provide


easy readout record of well events

Provides highly Highly sensitive to


accurate instan- liquids, fines, and
taneous readings sludge

6-32
Surface Production Facilities

Measuring Sales Gas


After gas exits the compressor discharge scrubber, it flows through a
dehydrator and a sales gas meter, and then enters the gas purchasers
pipeline. Typically, the gas sales contract bases measurement of gas
volume and temperature on the primary sales meter at the point of
sale into the pipeline. Gas contracts sometimes require the producer
to maintain a duplicate meter downstream of the compressor. The
duplicate meter is used as a check against the primary meter and in
case the primary meter fails. To ensure consistent measurements,
both meters are usually maintained and calibrated regularly by one
independent gas measurement company.

The gas purchaser pays the producer based on the BTU content of the
sales gas, which the purchaser calculates from measured properties of
the gas. The gas sales contract specifies precise ranges for the gas
properties and measurement conditions. Table 6-3 shows specifica-
tions for a typical gas sales contract in the Black Warrior Basin.

Table 6-3
Typical Sales Gas Specifications

Specification Value

Pressure Basis 14.73 psia

Temperature Basis 40 - 120F

Maximum CO2 Concentration 3.0%

Maximum O2 Concentration 1.0%

Maximum Sulphur Concentration 200 grams/MMSCF

Maximum H2S Concentration 10 grams/MMSCF

Maximum Water Content 7 lbs/MMSCF

Minimum BTU Content (Dry Basis) 950 BTU

Solids Content Free of dirt,


sludge, etc.
= Extremely Important specification

6-33
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

Selecting Other Equipment for Gas Production

The guidelines below will help you to properly select other impor-
tant equipment for producing gas from a coalbed methane field:

If the compressor discharge scrubber cannot dry the gas to


the required sales gas specifications, you can install a glycol
dehydrator to further dry the gas.
A glycol dehydrator circulates gas up through liquid glycol,
which has an affinity for water. The water in the gas adheres to
the glycol, which is then heated to evaporate the water. The
de-watered glycol then recirculates back through a tower to
remove more water.

Install a manual globe-type valve on the wellhead to regu-


late gas flow rate and to control well surging.

Important Do not install a plate-type valve on the wellhead. Production


of any solids can quickly erode the seat on a plate valve.

When practical, avoid installing gas flow lines across low


areas. Attempt to place lines on level or only slightly sloping
ground to prevent water from accumulating in the lines.

Install a gas flare stack on the well site to vent gas during a
pilot test program or during an emergency in a producing
field.

Caution Never vent gas without the approval of the oil and gas
agencies and environmental agencies in your area.

Install a gas scrubber (small separator) upstream of the


inlet to the gas compressor to prevent water from entering
and damaging the compressor.

If the gas scrubber will not drain quickly enough by grav-


ity, you can install a small pneumatic pump and water level

6-34
Gas Compressors

controller on the scrubber to prevent water from filling it


and then entering the compressor.
This type of pump is especially effective in handling slugs of
water, which are common in coalbed methane production.

When installing the separator, install a bypass line around


the separator.
This bypass will allow you to re-route gas when you need to
work on the separator. More importantly, it will enable you to
bypass the separator later in a wells life when the water con-
tains little entrained gas. By bypassing the separator, you can
lower wellhead pressure and reduce leaking on the stuffing box.

Gas Compressors
Because methane gas produced from coal seams has little natural
pressure, you must compress it to a higher pressure before it can be
delivered to a pipeline for transportation and sale. Compression
equipment used for conventional natural gas production can be
easily adapted to the requirements of coalbed methane production.
Selecting an efficient, reliable compressor package requires a basic
understanding of the various types of compressors and the unique
characteristics of coalbed methane production.

This section explains the design, benefits, and limitations of the


types of compressors and drivers (compressor engines) commonly
used to compress coalbed methane gas. It also presents important
guidelines for selecting auxiliary compressor equipment.

Types of Compressors
The two basic types of compressors commonly used for coalbed
methane production are rotary compressors and reciprocating
compressors. Both types are positive displacement compressors
that increase the pressure of gas by reducing its volume. Each type
has its own advantages and disadvantages .

Rotary Compressors
The rotary design uses either vanes, lobes, or screws which rotate
within a casing to compress and displace gas. The principal advan-
tage of this design is its ability to compress large quantities of low
pressure gas. The rotary compressor is particularly suitable for

6-35
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

coalbed methane production as the first stage compressor in a


gathering system. These units are compact, have a lower initial
cost than a reciprocating unit, and are simple to maintain.

The rotary compressor is at a disadvantage, however, when you


need a higher discharge pressure or when you encounter large
pressure differentials or pressure fluctuations in the gas line. Be-
cause of its valve-less design, the rotary compressor always com-
presses gas to its designed discharge pressure, regardless of the line
pressure. Therefore, the rotary compressor is less efficient than a
reciprocating unit when you operate at pressure conditions other
than those for which it was designed.

Reciprocating Compressors
The reciprocating compressor consists of a piston moving back and
forth within a cylinder. Each stroke displaces a positive volume.
Spring-loaded valves open whenever a pressure differential exists
across the valve. When the valve opens, suction gas automatically
enters the cylinder and discharge gas exits.

The reciprocating compressor is the most widely used of all com-


pression equipment. Although it is more complex than a rotary
unit, the reciprocating compressor operates more efficiently and
can accommodate higher discharge pressures, greater pressure
differentials, and fluctuations in pressure and capacity.

You can use a multi-stage reciprocating compressor on coalbed


methane projects to meet the entire compression need -- gathering
the wellhead gas at low pressure and increasing its pressure up to
the pipeline pressure. You can also use it as a first-stage compres-
sor in a gathering system and as a booster to the sales line.

Each compressor is designed to handle a specific range of volume,


pressure and pressure differential. The cylinders piston displace-
ment and and clearance volume determine the compressors capac-
ity. By adding clearance volume to the cylinder, you will reduce
the compressors volumetric efficiency and its capacity. When you
need to change the compressors capacity or operating pressure,
you can adjust the cylinder clearance by setting the variable vol-
ume pocket. Because of this adjustment, you can operate a recipro-
cating compressor more efficiently than a rotary compressor at
other than design conditions.

6-36
Gas Compressors

Types of Drivers
In addition to selecting a compressor, you must also select the
driver, or engine, to power the compressor. For field applications,
you have two alternatives for drivers: electric motors or natural gas
engines. Although electric motors are simple, reliable, and easy to
operate and maintain, the cost of electric power usually dictates
using natural gas engines for the savings in fuel cost. Natural gas
engines also allow you to adjust capacity by varying engine speed,
but regular A.C. motors do not.

You can choose from two basic types of engines: high-speed


engines and integral engines. High speed engines operate at speeds
from 900 to 1800 rpm. You can connect them directly to the
compressor with a coupling or by using V-belts (depending on
compressor operating speed).

Integral engines operate at speeds of 400 rpm and less. The power
and compressor cylinders share a common frame and crankshaft.
Although they cost more initially than high-speed engines, integral
engines are more efficient, more reliable, and cost less to maintain.
Some integral engines can be built as a skid-mounted package, but
the high-speed design provides more horsepower in less space with
less weight than does an integral engine.

Selecting Gas Compressors


When selecting a gas compressor, consult a compressor specialist
who has experience with low pressure coalbed methane fields.
Sizing a compressor for a particular application requires precise
calculation of several factors. Compression equipment suppliers
can perform computer analyses to determine the best equipment to
use for your application.

When you meet with a compressor specialist, be prepared to discuss


the volumes of gas you expect to produce and compress. Preparing
a forecast of gas production for the life of the field will help the
specialist assess compression requirements and suggest a variety of
options.

Selecting Auxiliary Compressor Equipment


In addition to the two primary components -compressor and driver
- you may need other accessories to complete the compressor
package. These items may include:

6-37
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

Gas scrubbers and pumps

High level shut-down controls

Fuel filters

Solids filters

Pilot devices

Catalytic converters

The design of the auxiliary equipment should accommodate your


particular operating environment and the characteristics of methane
produced from coalbeds. The guidelines below have proven
effective in the Black Warrior Basin:

To prevent water from entering and damaging the com-


pressor, you should install a gas scrubber (small water
separation unit) on the compressor skid.
Because coalbed methane is saturated with water vapor, a
production separator may not remove all the water.

If the gas scrubber will not drain quickly enough by grav-


ity, install a small pneumatic pump and water level control-
ler on the scrubber to prevent water from filling it and
then entering the compressor.
This type of pump is especially effective in handling slugs of
water, which are common in coalbed methane production.

To protect the compressor from damaging slugs of water


that might get through the scrubber, install an accurate
high level shut-down control on the compressor control
panel.

If you operate the compressor with a vacuum at the inlet,


install a pneumatic pump on the scrubber.
If the scrubber has a vacuum on the inside, opening a dump
valve will not dump the water, but it could suck air into the
system, causing further problems.

6-38
Gas Compressors

Make sure fuel gas is taken downstream of the compressor


discharge, after the gas has been dehydrated.
Water can cause significant problems if it enters the engines
fuel gas system.

Install a fuel filtering unit to further protect the fuel from


water.

To prevent solids from entering the compressor, install a


filter screen in front of the gas scrubber.
Sometimes particles of coal or sand are carried in the gas stream.
If these contaminants enter the compressor, they will wear its
internal parts.

To prevent excessive loading of the compressor, install a


pilot device that can control the suction pressure.
A pilot device is a flow regulator that is controlled by pressure.
As the pressure in the line to the compressor increases above the
suction pressure limit, the regulator restricts gas flow and thus
the inlet pressure as well.
The loading or required hydraulic horsepower of a given com-
pressor is a function of the volume of gas compressed and the
suction and discharge pressures. Because coalbed methane
fields produce at such low pressures, a small change in suction
pressure can greatly affect the operating performance of the
compressor. An increase in the suction pressure can increase the
hydraulic horsepower requirements, which can overload the
compressor and result in engine failure. Though every compres-
sor is equipped with emergency shut-down devices to prevent
high suction pressures, installing a pilot device to regulate
suction pressures to the compressor may help eliminate com-
pressor shut-downs due to high suction pressures.

If temporary changes in field operating conditions require


additional compression, you may consider leasing or pur-
chasing satellite compressors instead of making costly modi-
fications to the main compressor.
You can easily move a small, skid-mounted compressor around
the field to effectively meet temporary compression demands.

6-39
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

Check with the state and federal environmental agencies for


requirements on gas compressors.
Environmental agencies may require that you include catalytic
converters on compressors to meet emissions standards for air
quality. You may be able to avoid installing catalytic converters
by spacing compressors so that their combined emissions do not
exceed the regulation limit for a given area. Depending on the size
of the compressor, you may also have to obtain a permit from the
state environmental regulatory agency before the compressor is
installed.

Selecting the proper gas compression equipment for your field is


critical to successful coalbed methane production. Once the equip-
ment is installed, you must practice effective maintenance to help
ensure consistent compressor operation. For information on main-
taining gas compressors and equipment, refer to Chapter 7.

Gas Dehydration Equipment


Because coalbed methane gas is produced at relatively low pressures,
the gas can contain large amounts of water. This water must be
removed to prevent formation of hydrates in the transmission lines and
to meet gas contract specifications. The most common method of
removing water from gas is by adsorption using liquid dessicants such
as glycols. You can use triethylene glycol (TEG), diethylene glycol
(DEG), monoethylene glycol (MEG), or ethylene glycol (EG). TEG
is used most often because it can withstand higher temperatures
without degradation than DEG, MEG, or EG.

A glycol dehydrator system is composed of the equipment below:

Inlet gas scrubber

Glycol-gas contact tower

Glycol heat exchanger

Glycol regenerator

Filter

Glycol pump

6-40
Gas Dehydration Equipment

In coalbed methane applications, gas dehydrators are usually installed


downstream of the compressor and upstream of the tie-in to the gas
purchaser's metering point and transmission line.

The gas from the compressor usually flows into an inlet gas scrubber
that is installed with the glycol dehydrator system. The purpose of the
inlet gas scrubber is to prevent slugs of free water from entering the
glycol-gas contact tower.

After flowing through the inlet gas scrubber, the gas stream enters the
bottom of the glycol-gas contact tower. The inside of the contact tower
contains trays or packing which facilitate contact between the glycol
and the gas. When the gas contacts the glycol, the glycol absorbs the
water in the gas. The dry gas then exits through the top of the contact
tower and the water-rich glycol exits through the bottom of the tower.

Before the glycol can be re-circulated, the water must be removed


from it. Therefore, the water-rich glycol flows from the contact tower
into the regenerator, where the glycol is heated (at atmospheric
pressure) to evaporate the water. The de-watered glycol is then cooled
by flowing it through the heat exchanger. The cooled glycol then flows
back into the top of the contact tower to repeat the dehydration process.

Glycol circulation rates vary from about 2 to 5 gallons of glycol per


pound of water to be removed. You can determine the amount of water
that must be removed by subtracting the contract water limit (usually
about 7 lbs/MMSCF) from the amount of water present in the gas. The
amount of water in the gas can be measured in the field using either a
hand-held moisture analyzer or an electronic moisture analyzer.
Alternatively, you can estimate water content from dew point corre-
lations for natural gas.

The maximum amount of water that may be present in the gas is a


function of the temperature and pressure. At a constant temperature,
the water content of gas is higher at lower pressures and is lower at
higher pressures. Consequently, dehydrating gas at low pressures is
both difficult and expensive. To alleviate this problem, you should
install dehydrators downstream of the compressor.

Glycol dehydrators are relatively easy to operate and maintain. To


ensure efficient operation of the dehydrator, you should periodi-
cally check the water content of the outlet gas to verify that it is at
or below the maximum allowable value.

6-41
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities

If gas flow through the dehydrator increases as production from the


field increases, you may need to adjust the glycol circulation rate.

You should also check the volume of glycol in the system to ensure that
excessive amounts of glycol are not being lost. Glycol absorbs a trace
amount of gas at relatively low pressures. This gas is burned off in the
regenerator. A small amount of glycol may be lost when the gas is
burned.

In addition, you should periodically check the pH of the glycol. You


should maintain the pH of the glycol between 6.0 and 7.5. At lower
pH levels, the glycol may decompose.

For more information on dehydrating gas, refer to Engineering Data


Book, listed in Additional Resources at the end of this chapter.

6-42
Additional Resources

Additional Resources

API Recommended Practice for Design Calculations for Sucker


Rod Pumping Systems (Conventional Units), API RP 11L, Third
Edition, Dallas (February 1977).

API Specification for Subsurface Pumps and Fittings, " API Spec
11AX, Seventh Edition, Dallas (June 1979).

Engineering Data Book, Natural Gas Processers Suppliers Asso-


ciation (NGPSA), Tulsa, Oklahoma.

Graves, S.L., A Field Evaluation of Gas Lift and Progressive Cavity


Pumps as Effective Dewatering Methods for Coalbed Methane
Wells, Quarterly Review of Methane from Coal Seams Technology,
Vol. 3 no. 2 (September 1985).

Klein, S.T., The Progressing Cavity Pump in Coalbed Methane


Extraction, 1991 SPE Eastern Regional Meeting, Lexington, Ken-
tucky (October 22-25).

Lambert, S.W., M.A. Trevits, and P.F. Steidl, Vertical Borehole


Design and Completion Practices to Remove Methane Gas from
Mineable Coalbeds, U.S. Department of Energy, Carbondale Min-
ing Technology Center, Carbondale, Illinois (1980).

Petroleum Engineering Handbook, Society of Petroleum Engi-


neers, Richardson, Texas (1987).

Sykes, W.W., Gathering Systems Concepts-Planning, Design, and


Construction, Proceedings of the 1989 Coalbed Methane Sympo-
sium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (April 17-20).

6-43
7 Operating Wells and Production
Equipment

O perating coalbed methane wells and production equipment


requires some specialized production techniques. These techniques
have been learned primarily through trial and error and observation in
the field. For example, field experience at the Rock Creek project has
shown that the manner in which you flow back a well after stimulation
may significantly affect its recovery. Similarly, the procedure you use
to pump a well down may influence the productivity of the well.
Experience has also shown that you can greatly reduce production
downtime by learning to diagnose and correct common production
problems.

As you gain operating experience in a particular coalbed methane


field, you will undoubtedly develop techniques that work effectively
in your area. This chapter will help you begin developing effective
production strategies. It will guide you through:

Preparing Surface Facilities for Production

Unloading the Well

Bringing the Well on Line

Troubleshooting Well and Equipment Problems


Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment

Preparing Surface Facilities for Production


After the well has been fractured and flowed back, and the pumping
unit has been installed, you should check the surface facilities and
gathering system to make sure they are ready to receive production
from the well. Performing this check before you bring the well on line
will help prevent unsafe operating conditions, environmental inci-
dents, and unnecessary downtime to correct facilities problems.

The various equipment you need to check may vary slightly from field
to field. Regardless of the type of equipment used, this pre-production
check should include not only equipment at the wellhead, but also all
downstream lines and facilities such as separators, meter runs, gath-
ering lines, drips, water treatment facilities and compressors.
Before bringing wells on line, check the guidelines below:

Important
Make sure you have complied with all applicable federal,
state, and local safety and environmental regulations. You
also may be required to notify certain regulatory agencies in
your area of your intent to begin production from the field.

Notify the gas purchaser of the date you will begin delivery of
gas so they have time to make any necessary preparations or
adjustments. In addition, you should make sure the gas
composition will meet the contract specifications with the gas
purchaser.

Make sure flowlines and pipelines have been completed and


are properly tied into the appropriate equipment.

If separation vessels are used, make sure that the drain valve
is closed and that the liquid dump valve has been installed and
is working properly.

If gas from the separator is to be vented, make sure you install


the proper equipment for venting according to regulatory

7-2
Unloading the Well

requirements.
The type of gas venting equipment needed may depend on where
you are operating. Some state oil and gas regulatory agencies
require you to vent gas through a flare stack. Contact your local
regulatory agencies to find out about equipment requirements such
as height and minimum distance from the wellhead.

Open all flow valves between the wellhead and separation


equipment.

Check all gas metering equipment to make sure it is ready to


measure gas flow.
Though gas flow will likely be small initially, you should pressure
test the meter run or metering assembly to make sure no connections
are leaking.

Check orifice meters to make sure they are fitted with the
proper size orifice plate for the volume of gas expected.

Check chart recorders or turbine flow meters to make sure they


are properly calibrated.

Before significant gas flow begins, check the gas compressor to


ensure that it has sufficient capacity for the gas.
Since the compressor was first installed, loading conditions may
have changed because of additional gas production from other wells
or variations in suction and discharge pressures.

Unloading the Well


After verifying that the surface facilities are prepared for production,
you are ready to unload the well fluid to a pit or holding tank and
initiate gas production. Operators in the Black Warrior Basin gener-
ally use one of two methods to unload coalbed methane wells:

Injecting Compressed Air or Nitrogen

Pumping the Well Down

7-3
Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment

Injecting Compressed Air or Nitrogen


To unload wells and place them on production as quickly as possible
after flowing back the fracture treatment, some coalbed methane
operators inject compressed air or nitrogen into the wellbore. By
injecting air or nitrogen for a day or more, operators can lift all the
water out of a well, clean out any solid debris, and initiate gas flow
rapidly.

Though this method is quicker than pumping a well down, it could


possibly damage the coal formation. To prevent damage, you should
unload the well slowly. Lifting the fluids with air or nitrogen can
subject the formation to a large pressure drawdown. This drawdown
could cause migration of coal fines into the created fractures and
significantly reduce the permeability of the fractures.

Pumping the Well Down


After flowing the well back following a fracture treatment and
cleaning out the well to bottom, you can install the production tubing
and downhole pump and begin pumping the well down. (For
information on downhole pumps, see Chapter 6.) As you pump water
out of the well, the reservoir pressure drops and methane starts to
desorb, or detach itself, from the surfaces of the coal and flow into the
wellbore.

Unlike most conventional gas wells, when you shut in a coalbed


methane well, you may lose significant gas producing potential.
When the well is shut in, water could encroach into the reservoir and
raise the reservoir pressure. Before gas production will resume, this
pressure must be reduced by once again pumping the well down.

When you pump a well down, you create a pressure drop near the
wellbore which causes water and gas to flow to the wellbore. The gas
saturation near the wellbore may be high initially. Thus, if you bleed
off gas from the annulus (thus drawing down the gas pressure) too
rapidly, gas and water will surge into the wellbore. The surging water
usually carries damaging coal fines through the perforations and into
the wellbore.

Caution
Bringing a well on production at an excessive flow rate can cause
surging in the wellbore, which can plug perforations, pumps and
surface equipment. Surging the well may also damage formation

7-4
Unloading the Well

permeability and reduce gas production by plugging fractures


with coal fines.

Experience at the Rock Creek project has shown that wells can plug
with coal fines and sand in as little as 15 to 20 minutes when they are
brought on stream too rapidly.

Because each coalbed methane well has unique flow characteristics,


you should base the rate at which you pump a well down on experience
in the field or nearby offset fields. Operating experience at the Rock
Creek project and at other fields in the Black Warrior Basin has
produced a technique for pumping down wells that minimizes the
potential for producing coal fines and sand. You may find this
technique useful in your area as well.

Technique for Pumping Wells Down


Production experience at the Rock Creek project suggests that bringing
new coalbed methane wells on stream slowly offers several benefits:

Fewer well cleanouts

Fewer problems with downhole and surface equipment

Increased gas production over the life of the well

The procedures used at the Rock Creek project to pump wells down are
described below:

1. Keep the annular valve at the surface closed.


Make sure the valve on the casing-tubing annulus is a globe valve.
You will use this valve to control gas flow while
pumping the well.

2. Begin pumping the well at a rate that begins to reduce the water
level in the well.

3. Closely monitor the water production rate while pumping at a


rate near the design capacity of the pump.

7-5
Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment

If you observe a sharp decrease in the water rate, check the


pump to make sure it is operating properly. For information
on troubleshooting pumps, refer to Chapter 7.

If the pump is operating properly, run an echometer survey


to determine the fluid level in the well.

Caution If you are using a progressing cavity pump, maintain a fluid


level above the pump at all times. Allowing the fluid level to
drop below the pump could possibly burn up the motor.

4. Carefully monitor the fluid level by running echometer


surveys in the well.

5. When the water level is at or near the pump intake, crack the
globe valve and begin flowing gas at a rate that maintains a
fairly constant or only slightly decreasing wellhead pressure.
Your goal is to maintain sufficient backpressure on the casing to
prevent surging of gas and water into the wellbore.

If the annular pressure decreases sharply when you crack the


annular valve, shut the valve and continue pumping the well.
After several hours or a day, repeat step 4.

6. Continue pumping the well at a rate near the design capacity


of the pump. Continue to monitor casinghead pressure and
adjust the gas flow with the globe valve to maintain a rela-
tively constant (or slowly decreasing) annular pressure.

Caution

Do not open the annular valve rapidly. Releasing the gas


too rapidly can cause surging of gas and water into the
wellbore and plugging with coal fines and sand.

7. Continue to pump the well to decrease the fluid level in the


well.
As annular gas pressure decreases, you may observe an in-
creasing fluid level in the well if water influx from the coal
seam is greater than the pump rate.

7-6
Unloading the Well

The flow characteristics of each coalbed methane well are different.


However, as you gain experience with a particular field or producing
area, you will be better able to determine the most effective pumping
rates for your wells.

Pumping a Well Down after a Foam Fracturing Treatment


If you have fractured a well using a foam fracturing fluid, you may
experience problems with foam in separation equipment and flowlines.
Most formations can support a column of foam in the annulus. As the
pressure in the annulus decreases, the foam bubbles burst, allowing
water and any entrained solids to drop out of the foam. As long as the
foam degrades in the wellbore, it causes no problem. However, if foam
moves up the annulus at a high enough velocity, it can flow from the
wellbore into surface production facilities and cause water to accumu-
late in gas flowlines. If you flow an excessive amount of foam, the
foam can fill the water separation equipment and overflow into the gas
flowline.

Experience at the Rock Creek project has shown that reducing the
velocity of the foam by maintaining backpressure on the annulus may
help prevent foam from flowing into surface equipment. To pump a
well down after treating it with a foam fracturing fluid, follow the same
steps explained in Technique for Pumping Wells Down, earlier in this
chapter.

Important

Foam usually causes greater problems in cold weather because


water condenses more readily at lower temperatures. When
pumping the well down in cold weather, bleed off annular pressure
very slowly to prevent foam from entering the flowline. During
warm weather, foam tends to vaporize in surface flow lines, but it
still can condense in the field collection lines.

Monitoring Gas Specifications After a Foam Fracturing


Treatment
If you fracture a well using nitrogen-based foam, you should analyze
the produced gas for nitrogen concentration before flowing gas into
the sales pipeline. If the nitrogen concentration is greater than the sales
gas contract specifications, you will likely need to vent the early gas
production at the well site until the nitrogen concentration drops to an
acceptable level. If the produced gas is commingled with other gas

7-7
Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment

from the field, the nitrogen concentration may be diluted sufficiently


to avoid venting gas.

Important Before venting any gas, you should obtain authorization from
the local oil and gas agency and environmental agencies.

If the gas contains a high concentration of nitrogen, the BTU


content of the gas may not be sufficient to run gas compressors or
natural gas-powered pumping units. Therefore, if the nitrogen-
contaminated gas is the only gas available, you should order a tank
of propane gas to power the compressor or pumping units until the
nitrogen concentration declines sufficiently.

Bringing the Well On Line


After you begin pumping the well and fluids reach the surface, you are
ready to flow the well into the production facilities. The procedures
below will help bring the well on line:

1. Adjust the rod linkage between the separators float arm and
float valve to ensure the outlet valve closes at the bottom of
float travel.

2. Open the valve on the dump line.

3. Flow the produced water and gas into the separator.

4. Monitor the liquid level in the separator to ensure that the size
of the dump valve is sufficient to discharge flow at maximum
expected water flow rate.

5. Continue to monitor the separator and well frequently during


the early production time.

Troubleshooting Well and Equipment Problems


Because of the tight economic constraints of coalbed methane
production, your ability to quickly diagnose and correct operational
problems is essential to success. Though some of the problems may

7-8
Troubleshooting Well and Equipment Problems

be unique to coalbed methane, others are common to most oilfield


operations. This section will show you how to recognize and
correct common problems with:
Artificial Lift

Production Tubing

Separation Equipment

Surface Piping

Gas Compressors

Troubleshooting Artificial Lift Problems


Producing gas from coal seams requires continuously removing
water from the reservoir. Therefore, the artificial lift equipment
used to remove water must operate effectively and reliably.

This section explains how to diagnose and correct the most common
operational problems with the artificial lift methods listed below:

Beam Pumps

Progressing Cavity Pumps

Electric Submersible Pumps

Gas Lift

For a description of each of these methods and their use in coalbed


methane wells, refer to Chapter 6.

Troubleshooting Beam Pumps


The beam pump, or sucker rod, is the artificial lift method most
widely used to dewater coalbed methane wells. The beam pumping
system consists of a downhole plunger pump, a sucker rod string, a
surface pumping unit (pump jack), and a prime mover (motor).
Figure 7-1 shows a typical beam pumping unit.

7-9
Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment

Figure 7-1
Beam Pumping System

You can usually detect most well problems by a significant de-


crease in gas and/or liquid production. Figures 7-2 and 7-3 will
help you to troubleshoot potential problems with beam pumps
when production has decreased.

7-10
Troubleshooting Well and Equipment Problems

The guidelines below will help you further diagnose and correct
problems with the pump jack, prime mover, and rod string:

Make sure the pumping unit is balanced. You can check


the balance two ways:
Observe the difference in tension on the drive belt. If the
tension on the upstroke is significantly different than the
tension on the downstroke, then the unit is probably unbal-
anced.
Check the amperage on one leg of the pump motor using
amperage gauge. If the amperage on the upstroke is signifi-
cantly different than the amperage on the downstroke, the unit
is probably unbalanced.

If the pumping unit is out of balance:


Make sure the pumping unit is properly aligned with
the wellhead.
Make sure the rod guide is aligned vertically and
laterally with the tubing head.
Adjust the counterbalance weights on the pumping
unit until the unit operates smoothly.
During early production, the water level in the annulus is
usually high. Thus, the counter weights should be fairly close
to the pivot of the beam. As the water in the annulus falls,
you may need to periodically adjust the counter weights away
from the pivot to compensate for the increased weight of
water on the upstroke of the pump.

Reduce wear on the sucker rod string by:


Periodically rotating the string 1/4 turn using a wrench or by
installing an automatic rotator. This procedure will allow the
rods to wear more evenly.
Running a short sucker rod, or pony rod, in the string.
Then, whenever the string is pulled, re-run the string placing
the pony rod in a different location in the string. This proce-
dure will prevent the string from continuing to wear in the
same places.

7-13
Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment

Running nylon rod guides on the rod string. You may run the
guides on every rod joint or on every other joint, depending
on the amount of rod wear expected. Because the bottom
portion of the hole is usually the most crooked, rods in this
area usually wear the most.

To determine if the sucker rod string has parted, check the


needle valve on the pumping tee (wellhead assembly). If
there is no fluid production and the needle valve alternates
blowing and sucking air, then the rod string is likely parted.

Reverse the rotation of the motor every year by reversing


the electrical leads to the motor.
This procedure will help the gears to wear more evenly.

Lubricate the pumping unit every 30-60 days or as specified


by the manufacturer.

Change oil in the gearbox once a year. When you change


the oil, check for water in the bottom of the gearbox, and
remove any water.

Troubleshooting Progressing Cavity Pumps


The progressing cavity pump is probably the second most widely
used method of artificial lift for coalbed methane wells. The
progressing cavity pump is used extensively in a number of areas
in the Black Warrior Basin.

The progressing cavity pump system consists of a surface drive


unit, a sucker rod string, and a subsurface pump. The surface drive
unit has an electric motor and sheaves which rotate the rod string
and the pump. The key components of the subsurface pump are the
rotor and the stator. The rotor is a single external helix with a
circular cross-section, precision machined from high-strength steel.
The stator is a double internal helix molded of an abrasion-resistant
elastomer bonded within an alloy steel tube. As the rotor turns
within the stator, cavities are formed which progress from the
bottom, suction end of the pump to the top, discharge end, convey-
ing the formation fluid up through the pump and into the tubing. A

7-14
Troubleshooting Well and Equipment Problems

continuous seal between the rotor and the stator helices keeps the
fluid moving steadily, at a fixed rate directly proportional to the
rotational speed of the pump.

Important
Progressing cavity pumps will burn up if they are not sub-
merged in fluid. Therefore, you must periodically check the
fluid level in the well using an echometer device. You can then
adjust the speed of the pump or change the size of the pump to
ensure that the pump remains submerged in fluid.

Figure 7-4 will help you to troubleshoot potential problems with


progressing cavity pumps when you notice production has declined
below expected levels.

For more information on progressing cavity pumps, see Additional


Resources at the end of this chapter.

Troubleshooting Electric Submersible Pumps


Many specialized techniques have been developed for troubleshoot-
ing electric submersible pumps. For information on these tech-
niques, refer to Petroleum Engineering Handbook and
The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods, Vol. 2a . See Addi-
tional Resources at the end of this chapter.

Important
The heat generated by electric submersible pumps can cause
severe deposition of scale on the downhole pump. This scale
can eventually plug the pump and cause it to burn up. Because
scale deposition presents serious problems in some parts of the
Black Warrior Basin, electric submersible pumps may not be
practical in these areas.

Troubleshooting Gas Lift Installations


Many specialized techniques have been developed for troubleshoot-
ing gas lift installations. For information on these techniques, refer
to Petroleum Engineering Handbook andThe Technology of
Artificial Lift Methods, Vol. 2a . See Additional Resources at the
end of this chapter.

7-15
Troubleshooting Well and Equipment Problems

Planning for Pump Repairs


Regardless of the type of pump you select, the pump will eventu-
ally require repairs. The guidelines below will help you minimize
production downtime when a pump does go down.

Keep spare pumps on hand to avoid produc-


tion downtime and workover rig time.
Rebuilding pumps in the field is not as effective as
installing a pump rebuilt in the shop.

When selecting people to service your


pumps, call only on those with experience in
repairing your particular type of pump.

For a plunger pump that is relatively new,


you may be able to clean the check valves, replace rings or
cups, and re-run the pump. However, you should send
older pumps to the shop to make sure internal parts are not
excessively worn. The shop will check the tolerances of
internal parts with a micrometer to make sure seals are
good and the pump is operating efficiently.

Be prepared to repair pumps more frequently during the


early production period of new wells. As production of
solids decreases with time, pump repairs will likely become
fewer.

Production Tubing
Leaks in the production tubing string can reduce pumping effi-
ciency and decrease gas flow up the tubing/casing annulus. One of
the most common problems is connections that leak while under
external or internal pressure. You can alleviate this problem by
avoiding the following actions:

Failing to sufficiently inspect each length of tubing and its


connections

Applying improper torque to the connections

7-17
Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment

Failing to clean the threads properly before making up a con-


nection

Galling the threads by carelessly stabbing, making up too


rapidly, using a damaged connection, over-torquing, or wob-
bling pipe during makeup

Dropping a string, even a very short distance

Excessively making up and breaking out connections

Mishandling tubing during transportation or at the well site

To extend the life of tubing strings at the Rock Creek project, when-
ever a string is pulled, it is run back in the well in the reverse order.
Thus, joints that were located near the top of the string end up near
the bottom. This procedure prevents the sucker rod string from
wearing excessively in the same locations.

You can achieve the same goal by running a pup joint of tubing in
the string, and changing the location of the pup joint whenever you
pull the tubing string.

Detecting Tubing Leaks


If you suspect a leak in the tubing string, you can use the simple
procedure below to detect with reasonable certainty whether the tubing
has a major leak.

1. Check the pressure on the annulus.

2. Check the pressure on the needle valve on the pumping T.

3. If the pressure on the annulus and on the pumping T are the


same, or if both are on vacuum, the tubing likely has a leak.

To distinguish a tubing leak from other possible well problems, refer


to Figures 7-2 and 7-3.

To detect tubing leaks when you pull the tubing string, check for
obvious cuts or holes, but also look for telltale water stains on the

7-18
Troubleshooting Well and Equipment Problems

outside of the tubing. Such stains often evidence small leaks that are
otherwise difficult to detect.

At the Rock Creek project most tubing leaks have been observed in
the lower portion of the tubing string because the wellbore is usually
more deviated near the bottom. Wellbore deviation problems, and
thus the number of tubing leaks, generally increase with depth.

Separation Equipment
Most problems with separation equipment are caused by deposition
of solids in vessels or their components. The guidelines below may
help you prevent many of the plugging problems caused by solids:

Periodically clean out the separator.


If you observe sludge in the bottom of the separator, clean out
the vessel immediately.

Make sure check valves on separators are


working properly.
When a check valve is working properly, you should hear a
clicking sound as fluid passes through the valve.

Periodically flush out dump valves and check the valve seats
to make sure they seal properly. Also check the float
mechanism to make sure it operates properly.
If the float is not cleaned regularly, it can stick and cause the
separator to overflow liquid into the gas line.

Surface Piping
To ensure trouble-free operation of instruments and meters used to
measure flow, you should prevent fines from entering the gathering
system. If gas carries even a small amount of fines, the velocity of the
gas will quickly abrade or plug turbine meters and orifice plates.

Operating experience at the Rock Creek project has shown that you can
significantly reduce maintenance costs by removing fines at the
wellhead before they can move into the collection system. You can
effectively control fines by installing a very fine mesh in-line filter at
the wellhead. A screen will protect downstream equipment, such as
orifice meters, turbine meters, etc.

7-19
Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment

These additional guidelines below will help you to maintain the


surface piping system:

Periodically flush out surface flowlines and collection lines


with water to prevent buildup of sludge in the lines. You
can often detect buildup of sludge by a pressure increase at
the wellsite pump used to move water through the collec-
tion line.

Caution Be prepared to flush flowlines and collection lines with


water if you flow back a well that has been acidized. The
acid can loosen accumulated sludge in lines and cause
plugging of downstream equipment.

Periodically check vacuum breakers in water lines to make


sure the seat is clean so it will operate properly.
If the seat is not clean, you may see water flowing out of the
orifice in the vacuum breaker.

Periodically check drips to make sure they are not plugged.


Check the float mechanism in automatic drips to make sure
it is not stuck.
During colder weather or after well stimulations, you may need
to check drips more frequently because of the greater amount
of water in the gas stream.

Gas Compressors
The gas compressor is perhaps the single most important equip-
ment in a coalbed methane field. Because coalbed methane is
produced at such low pressures (1/2 - 30 psi in the Black War-
rior Basin), it will not flow naturally into the pipeline. Thus,
without an effectively operating compressor, you simply are
unable to sell coalbed methane gas.

Compared to gas compression in conventional gas fields,


coalbed methane gas compression is simpler in some ways.
Because coalbed gas is approximately 98% methane, it contains
no heavy hydrocarbons, which can damage compressor valves.

7-20
Gas Compressors

The greatest challenge in compressing coalbed methane is effec-


tively removing water from the gas before compressing it. You can
solve this problem by selecting proper gas dehydration equipment.
For information on selecting compressors and compressor equip-
ment, refer to Chapter 6.

To ensure your compressor operates efficiently and continuously,


you must practice a consistent maintenance program. The best
maintenance program is probably the one recommended by the
compressor manufacturer. However, as you gain experience with
your field, you will likely learn additional maintenance practices
that prove useful as well.

Compressor operators in the Black Warrior Basin generally follow


two separate maintenance schedules - an engine maintenance
schedule and a compressor maintenance schedule. They have
found the maintenance guidelines below especially effective in
preventing compressor problems:

Maintaining the Compressor Engine


Change the engine oil and filter every 1000 hours of opera-
tion (approximately every 42 days).

Check the tolerance of engine valves to detect wear.


By monitoring valve wear, you can estimate when downtime will
be required for engine repair. This forecasting will help you to
coordinate other necessary field repairs.

Torque the bolts which anchor the engine to its pad to main-
tain proper alignment of the engine and the compressor.

Plan maintenance work so that all necessary work can be


performed at the same time to reduce downtime and well
shut-ins.

Maintaining the Compressor


Change the compressor oil about every 6 months. Change
oil filter every 1000 hours of operation.

7-21
Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment

Send a sample of the used compressor oil to a testing labora-


tory to have it analyzed for contaminants.
Contaminants in the oil, such as metal particles, may indicate the
wearing and potential failure of internal components or leaking
seals or gaskets.

Check the tightness of all external bolts on the compressor


every 1000 hours of operation. Tighten any loose bolts to their
proper torque.
The constant vibration of the unit during operation can cause bolts
to loosen.

Check the tolerance of compressor valves to detect wear about


every 3 months. At the same time, check the tolerance of the
rider bands on the pistons to detect wear.

Inspect the operation of relief valves monthly for safety.

The first step in preventing compressor failure is to install proper


equipment. For information on selecting compressors and compres-
sor equipment for coalbed methane production, refer to
Chapter 6.

7-22
Additional Resources

Additional Resources

Brown, K.E., "The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods, Volume


2a, Penwell Publishing Company, Tulsa (1977).

American Petroleum Institute, Recommended Practice for Care and


Use of Subsurface Pumps, API RP 11AR, Third Edition, Wash-
ington, DC (June 1989).

American Petroleum Institute, API Specification for Subsurface


Pumps and Fittings, API Spec 11AX, Seventh Edition, Dallas
(June 1979).

Klein, S.T., Robbins & Myers, Inc. The Progressing Cavity Pump in
Coalbed Methane Extraction, SPE Paper 23454, presented at the
1991 SPE Eastern Regional Meeting, Lexington, Kentucky
(October 22-25).

Society of Petroleum Engineers, Petroleum Engineering Hand-


book, Richardson, Texas (1987).

7-23
8 Treating and Disposing Produced
Water

M anaging produced water is critical to the successful develop-


ment of a coalbed methane project. Some operators have initiated
projects and invested great time and money in drilling and completing
wells, but initially failed to sell any gas because of problems in
disposing produced water. Because water treatment and disposal can
represent a large portion of daily operating costs, improper planning
of this operation may result in unexpected costs which can impair the
economics of an otherwise profitable project.

Water disposal problems often stem from not carefully investigating


the character of the produced water, treatment and disposal options
available, the costs of the various options, and the regulatory require-
ments that govern those options. A geological and engineering
evaluation at the outset of the project can help prevent many water-
related problems.

This chapter provides an overview of the main issues you should


consider in developing a plan to manage produced water.

Characteristics of Coalbed Methane Produced Water

Regulations and Permitting for Water Disposal

Considerations for Designing a Water Disposal System

Methods for Treating and Disposing Produced Water


Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water

Characteristics of Coalbed Methane Produced Water


In the Black Warrior Basin, gas usually begins to flow from a well
1-30 days after dewatering has begun. Some wells, though, may
require pumping for several weeks or months to initiate methane
flow. Within the first month of a wells life, water production
usually decreases by as much as 70%-90% of initial rate before
stabilizing to a slow decline. At some point, this decline normally
reaches a plateau for the rest of the wells life. The time required
to reach a steady water rate depends on the size of the reservoir and
the well spacing. The larger the reservoir and the greater the well
spacing, the longer will be the dewatering period .

The rate of water removal from a coalbed methane well usually


depends on geologic features, formation permeability, completion
methods, and the size of the pumps used. Water production from a
typical degasification well is usually greater at the start of pumping
and decreases gradually as the seam is dewatered. This water
production scenario appears to apply to wells that produce both
initial high and low volumes of water (Kuuskraa and Brandenburg,
1989; Simpson, 1989).

Varying qualities and quantities of water are co-pro-


duced with methane gas. Many factors affect the
quality of produced waters; however, the type and
depth of coal seams have the greatest influence. In
general, waters produced from deeper coals appear to
be more mineralized than waters from shallow coals,
which are more likely to have hydraulic connections

with less mineralized shallow groundwaters (Burkett, Hall, and


McDaniel, 1991).

The quality of water produced from coalbed reservoirs varies


widely from region to region. In some areas, the quality of the
produced water is comparable to that of drinking water. The
principal constituent influencing the quality of coalbed methane
waters is the concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS), which
includes the concentration of chlorides. Total dissolved solids
concentrations range from 500 to 27,000 mg/l in waters generated
in the eastern United States, and from 200 to 4,000 mg/l in the
western United States (Lee-Ryan et al., 1991).

8-2
Characteristics of Coalbed Methane Produced Water

Scale from Coalbed Methane Water


Scale is the product of precipitation and crystallization of minerals
from produced water. The formation of scale in the wellbore and in
production facilities can restrict flow and damage equipment.

The factors that affect deposition of scale are:

Mingling of incompatible waters


Contact time
Temperature change
Pressure drop
Evaporation
Agitation
pH

One or more of these factors can cause scale deposition in the


formation matrix, fractures, perforations, wellbore, downhole pumps,
tubing, casing, flowlines, and water disposal systems.

In the Black Warrior Basin, scale is frequently found in downhole


pumps and it has been observed on perforations by downhole camera.
In most cases, this scale is caused by pressure drop and agitation.
Scaling can cause serious production declines; however, the calcium
carbonate scaling in the Black Warrior Basin has been removed by
pumping an HCL acid treatment with an iron sequestering agent.

In some cases, scale may also form outside casing and in the induced
fractures. Scale inside fractures can severely restrict gas flow, and is
difficult to remove.

The composition of scale depends on the composition of the waters


that produce them. The most common scale deposits found in
conventional oil fields are calcium carbonate, gypsum, barium sulfate,
and sodium chloride. In the Black Warrior Basin, you are most likely
to encounter calcium carbonate scale.

Calcium Carbonate Scale


Calcium carbonate scale is usually caused by a change in pressure
which releases CO2 from bicarbonate ions(HCO3-1). When the CO2
is released from solution, the pH increases, the solubility of dissolved

8-3
Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water

carbonates decreases, and the more soluble bicarbonates are converted


to less soluble carbonates. Calcium carbonate scale exhibits these
characteristics:

Scaling increases with increased temperature

Scaling increases with increased pH

Scaling increases with increased contact time

Scaling increases with increased turbulence

Scaling increases with water agitation

Calcium carbonate scaling will decrease as the total salt content of


water (excluding Ca+ ions) increases to a concentration of 120 g of
NaCl per 1000 g of water. Further increases in NaCl concentration
will decrease CaCO3 solubility and thus cause scaling to increase.

Gypsum Scale
Gypsum scale is composed of calcium sulfate. Gypsum scale
exhibits these characteristics:

Scaling increases with a pressure decrease

Scaling increases with water agitation

Scaling is not affected by a pH of 6-8

Barium Sulfate Scale


Barium sulfate scaling is usually caused by the mingling of two
unlike waters, one containing soluble salts of barium and the other
containing sulfate ions. Barium sulfate scale exhibits these charac-
teristics:

Scaling increases with a temperature decrease

Scaling increases with a pressure decrease

Scaling increases as hydrates evaporate

Iron Scales
Iron scales are often caused by corrosion products such as various
iron oxides and iron sulfide. Sulfate-reducing bacteria can produce

8-4
Characteristics of Coalbed Methane Produced Water

hydrogen sulfide, which reacts with iron in solution or with steel


surfaces to form iron sulfide. If oxygen is introduced to a system,
it can react with iron to form a precipitate or with steel surfaces to
form an oxide coating.

Predicting the Scaling Tendency of Water


The tendency of coalbed methane produced water to cause scale is
usually discovered through experience in an area. Though downhole
water samples (recovered at reservoir conditions) can be analyzed to
predict downhole scaling characteristics, this type of analysis is rarely
performed in coalbed methane operations because of the cost involved
in obtaining samples at reservoir pressure and temperature.

The analysis of water samples taken at the surface does not allow
accurate prediction of downhole scaling. However, you may have a
surface sample analyzed to approximate the tendency of a produced
water to create calcium carbonate scale. In general, produced water
will have a tendency to create scale if the calcium carbonate supersatu-
ration of the water is greater than 10 percent of the bicarbonate
alkalinity content.

Identifying Scale

You can identify the various types of scale by using these methods:

X-Ray Diffraction
The most common method for identifying scale, X-ray diffraction,
involves directing a beam of X-rays onto a powdered sample of scale
crystals. Because each crystalline chemical compound in the scale
diffracts X-rays in a characteristic manner, the scale can be identified.
This method requires the least amount of sample.

Chemical Analysis
In this method, samples of scale are crushed and then dissolved in
chemical solution. The elements are then analyzed by standard
titration and precipitation techniques.

Effervescence
This method is used to identify calcium carbonate (CaCO3) scale. If
a sample is CaCO3, it will bubble when you drop hydrochloric acid
(HCl) on it. However, this test may not work if the sample contains
iron sulfide or iron carbonate. The odor of sulphur indicates the
presence of sulfide scale.

8-5
Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water

Removing Scale
Operators in the Black Warrior Basin have used both mechanical
and chemical methods to remove scale. The most common me-
chanical method is reperforating and/or running a bit and scraper
through the perforations. The most successful chemical treatment
method is pumping HCL acid with an iron sequestering agent.

Preventing Scale
In the Black Warrior Basin, an effective method for
preventing scale is to pump scale inhibitors in fracturing
treatments. Fracturing service companies can recommend an
inhibitor for your application. If you encounter a serious scale
problem, you may consider continuously treating for scale down
the annulus.

Caution
Before pumping any chemical into a well, make sure the chemi-
cal is tested to ensure it is compatible with the formation water
and that it is non-damaging to the coal. Make sure also that
the chemical can be handled under the projects regulatory
discharge permit (i.e., NPDES, etc.)

For more information on the chemistry of coalbed methane waters,


refer to Additional Resources at the end of this chapter.

Regulations and Permitting for Water Disposal


In the Black Warrior Basin of Alabama, the operation of coalbed
methane fields is regulated by the State of Alabama Oil and Gas Board
(OGB). The OGB issues permits for drilling of all coalbed methane
wells, and regulates site maintenance, wellbore configuration and
production procedures.

Production waters are generally regulated and managed according to


the specific disposal method used. For example, disposal of waters
into wells, often practiced in the conventional gas industry, is regu-
lated under the Safe Drinking Water Act via the Underground Injec-
tion Control Program. In contrast, waters produced in the coalbed
methane industry, which usually are discharged to surface waters
because of the shallow coal horizons and the relatively fresh waters,
require a NPDES (National Pollution Discharge Elimination System)
permit under the Clean Water Act. This permit is issued by the

8-6
Regulations and Permitting for Water Disposal

environmental agency for the state in which the surface water is located.
Because almost all coalbed methane production water in the Warrior
Basin is discharged to surface water, the Alabama Department of
Environmental Management (ADEM) has the responsibility for permit-
ting and monitoring the discharge of water produced by most coalbed
methane wells.

Table 8-1 shows the current surface discharge limitations and monitor-
ing requirements for a NPDES permit for the Black Warrior Basin.

Table 8-1
NPDES Discharge Limitations
for the Black Warrior Basin

Discharge Limitations
Daily Daily Monthly
Water Characteristics Minimum Maximum Average

Flow (MGD) N/A Monitor N/A

pH 6.0 s.u. 9.0 s.u. N/A

Iron (total) N/A 6.0 mg/l 3.0 mg/l

Manganese (total) N/A 4.0 mg/l 2.0 mg/l

Chlorides (effluent) N/A Monitor Monitor

Conductivity (instream) N/A Continuous Continuous


Monitoring Monitoring

Chlorides (instream) N/A 230 mg/l N/A


Well shut-in limit:
Black Warrior River 210 mg/l 210 mg/l N/A
Tributaries 190 mg/l 190 mg/l N/A

Dissolved Oxygen 5.0 mg/l N/A N/A

BOD-5 N/A 45 mg/l 30 mg/l

Effluent Toxicity Testing Quarterly


acute or
chronic

8-7
Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water

For information on discharge regulations and permitting require-


ments in your area, contact the state oil and gas agency and envi-
ronmental agency in the area.

Considerations for Designing a Water Disposal


System To design an effective and economical water disposal system, you
first must consider the environmental regulations and permitting
requirements for water disposal in your area. Once you understand
these restrictions, you can begin evaluating the field criteria that
will influence your selection of a treatment and disposal system.

To design the system, you will need to know or estimate these five
parameters:

Production start-up schedule

Water flow rates from each well

Variations in flow rates over the life of the project

Water quality

Assimilative capacity of the discharge stream or river

Production Start-Up Schedule


The first step in determining field disposal requirements is to
prepare a schedule of estimated production start-up dates for each
of the planned wells. This schedule, which is based on drilling and
completion schedules, will help you in estimating the total water
rate over the life of the field. The timing of initial well production
can significantly influence the amount of water that must be treated
and disposed at any given time.

Water Flow Rates From Each Well


Coalbed methane wells can produce large amounts of water as the
initial reservoir pressure is reduced. They then typically show
fairly rapid decline in water rates and produce for an extended
period at a constant low water rate.

8-8
Considerations for Designing a Water Disposal System

You can estimate water flow rates using a variety of techniques.


You can incorporate permeability values from wells into a hydro-
logic model. You can also predict rates using a reservoir model
designed for coalbed methane reservoirs.

Some operators in the Black Warrior Basin use a more field-ori-


ented approach to estimate water flow rates from wells that have
been drilled but not yet produced. While drilling the well, they
closely monitor the drilling pits to gauge the rate of water influx
from each water zone penetrated. After drilling to total depth (TD),
they clean out the wellbore by injecting compressed air at TD for
several hours while monitoring water returns at the surface.
Though this technique is used primarily to determine the size of
pump needed for the well, you may also use it to approximate water
disposal requirements for individual wells. You cannot use this
method if there are any water bearing sands open to the wellbore.

Variations in Flow Rates Over the Life of the Project


Just as important as initial flow rates and the timing of new wells is
the variation in water flow rates over the life of the project. You can
use reservoir simulations or flow rate histories from nearby offset
wells to estimate water production profiles for individual wells.

Water Quality
The principal constituent influencing the quality of coalbed meth-
ane waters is the concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS),
which includes the concentration of chlorides. Total dissolved
solids concentrations range from 500 to 27,000 mg/l in waters
generated in the eastern United States, and from 200 to 4,000 mg/l
in the western United States (Lee-Ryan et al., 1991).

Other constituents in coalbed methane waters likely to require


treatment include biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and total
iron. Typically, the concentration of dissolved oxygen must be
increased before disposal.

The quality of the total produced water stream will determine the
type of discharge method you can use (these methods are explained
later in this chapter). For example, in Alabama, water produced
from coalbed methane wells can be treated like any other industrial
or municipal waste stream. Thus, if the water meets permit stan-
dards, surface discharge of the water is allowed. To discharge into
a surface water, you must apply for and receive an NPDES permit.

8-9
Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water

This permit will allow discharge into streams as long as the dis-
charge is monitored and remains within permit requirements.

Assimilative Capacity of the Discharge Stream or River


Assimilative capacity is the maximum concentration of chlorides
that the state regulatory agency allows an operator to discharge into
a stream. Assimilative capacity is determined based on historical
stream flow during drought conditions. Currently, the state of
Alabama defines the maximum assimilative capacity for chlorides
as 230 mg/l. However, when the in-stream chlorides concentration
reaches 190 mg/l, the wells must be shut in.

For a detailed discussion of how these five parameters can be


incorporated into a comprehensive water management model, refer
to the paper by Burkett, McDaniel, and Hall (See Additional
Resources at the end of this chapter).

Methods for Treating and Disposing Produced Water


Developing a plan to manage produced waters requires an understand-
ing of the character of the produced water, the working range of
available processes, the cost of the various options, and a knowledge
of treatment constraints for existing environmental regulations. You
should also contact the appropriate regulatory agency in your area
before finalizing plans for water treatment to ensure the plans satisfy
the current regulations.

Economic development of coalbed methane requires an effective


production water management strategy. To ensure that field develop-
ment proceeds in an environmentally sound manner and on schedule,
you should develop a comprehensive plan to manage the treatment and
disposal of produced water. Such a plan for a field in the Black
Warrior Basin is described by Burkett, Hall, and McDaniel (See
Additional Resources at the end of this chapter).

Treatment and disposal options for coalbed methane produced waters


in the Black Warrior Basin can generally be divided into three
categories:

Treating Water and Disposing on the Surface


Disposing Water in Disposal Wells
Disposing Water after Well Stimulations

8-10
Methods for Treating and Disposing Produced Water

Treating Water and Disposing on the Surface


In areas where regulations allow its use, treatment of produced
waters and surface disposal is the lowest cost water disposal option.
This method requires an NPDES permit, which can be obtained from
the state or federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Sur-
face disposal has become the method most widely used for disposing
coalbed methane produced waters in the Black Warrior Basin of
Alabama because of the water chemistry, sustained seasonal stream
flow, and porous soil. Though regulations on surface disposal may
be tightened in the future, this method currently provides an environ-
mentally acceptable and cost-effective option where applicable.

Currently, NPDES permitting approves two types of surface dis-


posal: direct land application and controlled discharge into streams.

Direct Land Application


Applying produced water directly to the land typically involves
moving water from the well to a nearby area of vegetation via a
buried flowline, and dispersing the water on the ground with a
common lawn sprinkler head.

Though direct land application is probably the least costly disposal


method, the requirements for this option are relatively strict. For
example, the State of Alabama requires that the total dissolved
solids (TDS) concentration does not exceed 2000 mg/l, and the
water must be applied in such a way that there is no soil erosion
runoff into nearby streams.

Land application was used initially in the Brookwood and Oak


Grove coalbed methane fields in Alabama. As deeper coal seams
were drilled and produced, waters with higher concentrations of
TDS were encountered. Because the higher TDS levels precluded
continuing land application, the operators switched to controlled
stream disposal.

Recent environmental regulations in Alabama require that a two-part


technical evaluation be performed before any new water discharge
permit will be issued. Phase one of this evaluation covers current
soil and hydrology conditions in the area of operation. Phase two
covers engineering aspects of the field operation, including field
equipment and production facilities.

8-11
Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water

Other states may or may not have similar permitting requirements.


For current regulations in your area of operation, contact the state
environmental agency.

Controlled Discharge into Streams

Currently, surface stream dilution for water disposal requires that


the instream chloride concentration remains below 230 mg/l and
that the iron concentration in the discharge water has a monthly
average no greater than 3 mg/l. The operator is required to monitor
the water upstream and downstream of the discharge point and to
comply with daily limits for various effluent characteristics.

Most operators in the Black Warrior Basin treat coalbed methane


produced water by pooling the water into a treatment pond, aerat-
ing the water to remove iron, allowing solids to settle out, and then
discharging the water into a stream through an EPA-approved
diffuser nozzle. These water systems also contain a storage pond
to hold water during periods of low stream flow when discharge
volumes must be reduced. Figure 8-1 shows the flow of water in a
typical water disposal system in the Black Warrior Basin.

Because the aeration treatment oxidizes the water and separates


suspended solids, it increases dissolved oxygen levels and reduces
dissolved iron (and other trace metals, if present), biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD), volatile organic compounds, if present,
and total suspended solids (TSS).

8-12
Methods for Treating and Disposing Produced Water

Figure 8-1
Typical Water Disposal System in the Black Warrior Basin

Important In cases where stream flows are much greater than the flow of
discharged fluids, relatively high amounts of chlorides can be
discharged with little increase in the chloride concentration in the
stream. In streams with low flow or with seasonal flow variations,
produced water discharge may be limited.

Unlike TDS concentration and other permit parameters that are


determined by instream concentrations, the limit of iron or manga-
nese in the water is based on its discharge (effluent) concentration.
At the Rock Creek Project, two lined ponds with capacities of
34,000 gal and 400,000 gal provide treatment and holding capacity
in case the produced water exceeds regulatory limits. These ponds
also allow aeration of the water to precipitate iron. This technique

8-13
Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water

has successfully reduced iron concentrations to meet the disposal


permit requirements. This type of system may require some extra
storage capacity in case of occasional upsets in the system.

Some of the highest iron measurements in treatment ponds may be


caused by algae growth. Algae accumulations on the bottom of the
pond can collect settling iron precipitates. Often this algae floats to
the surface, bringing the precipitated iron with it. When water
samples are collected, this algae may be collected inadvertently,
skewing iron measurements far above true levels. Experience has
also shown that agitating the water by aeration can inhibit growth
of floating algae accumulations.

Algae growth is a function of the pH of the water. During hot


summer weather, accelerated growth of algae in smaller settling
ponds may elevate the pH level of water in the pond. You can
usually reduce the pH to permit levels by shading the pond from
the sun.

When stream disposal is used, provisions must be made to allow


year-round operation of the field even during periods of low stream
flow. For example, many streams in the Black Warrior Basin
approach near-zero flow during the summer and fall months. In
most cases, storage of produced water is the only alternative to
shutting-in wells. Storage, however, can be impractical for fields
with high water rates unless the technical and economic constraints
of large-scale temporary storage can be overcome. Toward this
objective, Luckianow and Hall present an informative review of
selected storage alternatives, design requirements, construction
constraints, regulatory requirements, and cost data (see Additional
Resources at the end of this chapter).

Safety of In-Stream Disposal


Because many producers in the Black Warrior Basin have obtained
permits to discharge into streams, several studies have been per-
formed to assure environmental safety. A key conclusion of these
studies was that stream discharges could safely occur at levels
specified by permits without adversely affecting biota (O'Neill et
al, 1989; Drottar et al, 1989; O'Neill et al, 1991a; O'Neill et al,
1991b). In these studies, in-stream chlorides levels were increased
until significant changes in biota were observed. These changes
did not occur until chlorides exceeded 593 mg/l, a value more than
200% greater than the current maximum permitted concentration
(O'Neill et al, 1989).

8-14
Methods for Treating and Disposing Produced Water

Disposing Water in Disposal Wells


Few injection wells are currently in use in the Black Warrior Basin
because most formations in this area are of low permeability and are
not suitable for injection. Most attempts to complete water disposal
wells in the Black Warrior Basin have been unsuccessful and sig-
nificantly more expensive than surface disposal methods.

Injection wells are more commonly used for water disposal in states
where coalbed methane produced water is treated like a conven-
tional oil and gas waste stream, where surface stream flow is not
sufficient year round to assimilate produced waters, and where there
are formations that will accept the necessary disposal volumes.

Disposing Water After Well Stimulations


After fracturing a well, you will need to dispose the water produced
back. The method you use to treat and dispose the water will depend
primarily on the regulations in the state where you operate.

For example, in the Black Warrior Basin of Alabama, if the quality of


the frac water meets state specifications for land application, you may
dispose it by spraying it directly on vegetated land. To facilitate
treatment of frac water, you should keep drilling pits open to receive
the initial production from fractured wells. You can use the lined pit
at the well site for aeration and/or mixing water treatment chemicals.
You should check with the state regulatory agencies to obtain approval
to keep the pits open for initial production.

If you cannot treat the water to meet permit discharge criteria, you may
need to transport the water via a permitted truck to commercial
injection wells for disposal.

The primary constituents you should check in produced fracture water


are listed below:

Chlorides concentration

pH

Dissolved oxygen concentration

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

8-15
Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water

Occasionally, after a well is stimulated the concentration of total


organic carbon, or BOD, can be higher than specifications allow. If
the well was shut-in for an extended period of time before produc-
tion, any bacteriacide included with the fracture treatment may have
lost its effectiveness. Such fracture waters are often most effec-
tively treated separately, rather than mixing them with the entire
water process stream.

Important As environmental issues continue to gain prominence, the


treatment and disposal of produced water will become an
increasingly sensitive operation. To ensure that your water
treatment and disposal practices satisfy state regulations, make
sure you review and understand all relevant regulations .

8-16
Additional Resources

Additional Resources

Burkett, W.C., R. McDaniel, and W.L. Hall, The Evaluation and


Implementation of a Comprehensive Production Water Manage-
ment Plan, Proceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium,
Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-17).

Drottar, K.R., D.R. Mount, and S.J. Patti, 1989, Biomonitoring of


Coalbed Methane Produced Water from the Cedar Cove, Alabama
Degasification Field, Proceedings of the 1989 Coalbed Methane
Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (April
17-20).

Kuuskraa, V.A. and C.F. Brandenburg, Coalbed Methane Sparks a


New Energy Industry, Oil & Gas Journal, October 9, 1989.

Lee-Ryan, P.B., J.P. Fillo, J.T.Tallon, and J.M. Evans, Evaluation of


Management Options for Coalbed Methane Produced Water, Pro-
ceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, Tuscaloosa,
Alabama (May 13-17).

Luckianow, B.J., Economics of Production Water Storage, Pro-


ceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of
Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-17).

Luckianow, B.J., and W.L. Hall, Water Storage Key Factor in


Coalbed Methane Production, Oil & Gas Journal, Mar 11, 1991.

ONeill, P.E., S.C. Harris, and M.F. Mattee, 1989, "Stream Monitor-
ing of Coalbed Methane Produced Water from the Cedar Cove
Degasification Field, Alabama, Proceedings of the 1989 Coalbed
Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Ala-
bama (April 17-20).

8-17
Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water

ONeill, P.E. et al, 1991a, Long Term Biomonitoring of a Produced


Water Discharge from the Cedar Cove Degasification Field, Ala-
bama, GRI Topical Report, GRI-90/0233, (January).

ONeill, P.E. et al, 1991b, Long Term Biomonitoring of a Produced


Water Discharge from the Cedar Cove Degasification Field, Ala-
bama, Proceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The
University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-17).

Schraufnagel, R.A., Coalbed Methane Production, in Hydrocar-


bons from Coal, American Association of Petroleum Geologists
(AAPG), Tulsa, Oklahoma, not yet published.

Schraufnagel, R.A., and S.D. Spafford, Multiple Coal Seams


Project Progress Report, Quarterly Review of Methane From
Multiple Coal Seam Technology, V 7 N 3 (March).

Simpson, T.E., Environmental Overview, Coalbed Methane Gas


Development in Alabama, 1984-1989, Dames & Moore, 1989.

8-18
9 Testing the Well

T o determine the economic feasibility of a coalbed methane well,


you must evaluate the production potential of the coal seams before
fracturing and producing the well. You can obtain the reservoir data
for this evaluation from open hole logs, cores, and pressure transient
tests. (For a list of information you can obtain from log and core
analysis, refer to Chapter 3.) If the evaluation indicates the coal seam
has potential for economical production, the well should be fractured
and placed on production. After placing the well on production, you
should check the gas and water rates periodically using well tests to
ensure the well is producing at an optimum level.

This chapter explains methods for obtaining the reservoir data needed
to assess the productive potential of coalbed methane wells. You will
find information to help you in:

Performing Pressure Transient Tests

Evaluating Production from Multiple-Seam Wells


Chapter 9 Testing the Well

Performing Pressure Transient Tests


Pressure transient well tests can provide important information for
assessing the production potential and economic feasibility of coalbed
methane wells. This information includes estimates of reservoir
pressure, permeability, wellbore damage, wellbore storage, porosity-
compressibility product, as well as fracture length and conductivity in
hydraulically fractured wells. Pressure transient tests can also be used
to estimate the distance to a reservoir discontinuity.

The two most important properties for predicting the performance of


a coalbed methane reservoir are permeability and reservoir pressure
with respect to desorption pressure. You can obtain both of these
parameters from well tests. To be productive, coal seams must have
sufficient permeability to allow withdrawal of enough water to lower
the reservoir pressure below the desorption pressure of the coal. When
reservoir pressure drops below the desorption pressure, gas will begin
to flow from the coal to the wellbore.

Well tests may be performed on either single wells or multiple wells.


Single-well tests are more commonly used and are usually less
expensive than multiple-well tests. Multiple-well tests are used to
determine communication between wells, porosity-compressibility
products, and the orientation of permeability.

The slug test is particularly suited to coalbed methane wells because


no surface flow-control or downhole pumping is required. Most other
single well and multiple-well test methods require pumping from or
injecting into the well at a constant rate.

This section explains the most commonly used well tests for obtaining
coal reservoir properties and the procedures used at the Rock Creek
project to perform them. These tests are:

Slug Tests

Injection/Fall-off Tests

Interference Tests

Pressure Buildup Tests

9-2
Performing Pressure Transient Tests

Slug Tests
Slug tests are the simplest and least expensive tests. They are
commonly used on coalbed methane wells because they can be
performed with a minimal amount of manpower and equipment.

A slug test involves the instantaneous injection or withdrawal of a


specific slug, or volume of water into or from the wellbore. The
increase or decrease in wellbore pressure is then measured versus time
until the pressure approaches the pressure measured before the slug
was initiated. The results of the slug test can be matched with type-
curves developed by Ramey and others (1975) to determine perme-
ability with respect to both wellbore storage and skin effects.

Most slug tests used on coalbed methane wells are run by injecting a
slug of fresh water into the wellbore rather than withdrawing a slug of
fluid from the wellbore.

The main advantages of the slug test are:

Low cost

Simple to design and perform

Simple to analyze using type curve analysis

The main disadvantages of the slug test are:

Not valid for two-phase flow

Reservoir must be under-pressured

Limited radius of investigation

Duration of test is long

Difficult to interpret reservoir heterogeneities

The only equipment needed to run a slug test is listed below:

Workover rig to prepare the well for test (if required)

Equipment to slug water into the wellbore (buckets of


water, a small pump, or a vacuum truck)

9-3
Chapter 9 Testing the Well

A pressure transducer to install in the wellbore

A pressure data recorder at the surface

Tools to analyze data (software, such as STEP Match)

The equipment used at the Rock Creek project consists of a strain


gauge pressure transducer connected by cable to a Hermit data
logger at the surface. A typical slug test equipment configuration
is shown in Figure 9-1.

Figure 9-1
Slug Test Equipment Configuration

9-4
Performing Pressure Transient Tests

Designing a Slug Test


The three main considerations in designing a slug test are:

Tubular Size

Tubular Configuration

Method of Slugging

Tubular Size
The most important consideration is the diameter of the tubing or
casing through which the well will be slugged. The duration of the test
is directly proportional to the square of the radius of the tubing or
casing used. The duration of the test increases with increasing
diameters because as the tubing size increases, the volume of water that
must flow into the coal seam increases. Consequently, the permeabil-
ity of the coal seam directly affects the duration of the test. To
minimize the time required to test the well, you can use the smallest
tubing size that is economically and operationally feasible. However,
decreasing the test time also decreases the radius of investigation for
the test.

You can estimate the minimum test duration for a unique type curve
match by using the equation below:

t = 43,700 re2 , hrs


kh

where:

t = minimum duration of the test, hrs

k = permeability of the formation, md

h = thickness of the zone, ft

= viscosity of the slugged fluid, cp

re = internal radius of the tubing or casing through which


the well is slugged, ft

9-5
Chapter 9 Testing the Well

Tubular Configuration
If you conduct the slug test down the casing, you will not need any
additional equipment. However, if you conduct the test down the
tubing string, you must run a packer on the tubing to isolate the annulus.
If you do not seal off the annulus, the benefit of using a small tubing
string (shorter test duration) will be negated.

Method of Slugging
To perform a slug test, you must load a volume of water into the tubing
or casing. The methods most commonly used to load the slug of water
into the tubing or casing are:

Dumping pails of water into the tubing

Pumping the water with a chemical pump

Pumping the water with the small pump on a vacuum truck

The method you use to load the well depends on the permeability of the
coal and on the volume of water needed for the slug. The higher the
coal permeability, the more rapidly you can load the water slug.

You can estimate the volume of water needed for the slug if you know
the static fluid level for the coal seam you are testing. The maximum
volume of water required for the slug is the volume needed to fill the
tubing or casing from the static fluid level to the surface.

Performing a Slug Test


The procedures used at the Rock Creek project to perform a slug test
are explained below:

1. Isolate the zone of interest.


If more than one zone is open to the wellbore during a slug test,
you may not obtain any useful data about either zone. The zone
of interest should be isolated using bridge plugs and packers if
necessary.

2. If the well is slugged through a tubing/packer assembly, test


the tubing/casing annulus to make sure the packer is not
leaking.

9-6
Performing Pressure Transient Tests

Fluid leaking into the well from the annulus would require using
multiple storage coefficients, which would make the test difficult
to analyze. If perforated intervals are above the zone of interest,
you may not be able to test the packer unless those zones will
support a minimal amount of pressure.
An alternative method of determining that the packer is providing
isolation is by pumping water into the annulus and monitoring the
downhole data recorder for a pressure response.

3. After installing the tubing/packer assembly, lower the pres-


sure transducer into the wellbore.
Place the transducer deep enough in the wellbore so that it remains
below the fluid level throughout the test, but not so deep that the
hydrostatic pressure of the fluid above the transducer exceeds the
tools maximum pressure rating at any time during the test.

4. Allow the well time to equilibrate before beginning the slug


test.
At the Rock Creek Project, Saulsberry et al have developed a
spreadsheet program which can help you estimate the time re-
quired for the well to equilibrate and the equilibration pressure. If
you cannot wait the required time before beginning the slug test,
you can begin the test and use the estimated equilibration pressure
as the initial pressure before the slugged volume.

5. Inject a slug of water into the formation.


At the Rock Creek project, it was learned that the best way to inject
water depends on the permeability and/or skin of the zone being
tested. For wells that do not take fluid rapidly, you can inject the
slug by pouring buckets of water into the tubing. If a well is fairly
permeable, you may need to use a pump or a vacuum truck to load
the tubing with the slug of water.

6. Start the data recording equipment at the instant the slug of


water is injected into the wellbore.
The early time data of a slug test is important to the interpreta-
tion of the pressure responses. To ensure that the early time
data is recorded, you may need two people to initiate the test.

9-7
Chapter 9 Testing the Well

You should set the data recorder to record data at the frequen-
cies shown in Table 9-1.

Table 9-1
Data Recording Frequency
for Slug Tests

Time Interval (Minutes) Recording Frequency

0-1 Tenths of a minute


1 - 10 One minute
10 - 100 Five minutes
100 - 1,000 Ten minutes
1,000 - 10,000 One hundred minutes

When you use a data recorder at the surface, you can analyze data
as the test progresses and determine when you have collected a
sufficient amount of data and when to conclude the test.

As mentioned earlier, the minimum length of a slug test depends on


the permeability of the coal seam being tested. Lower permeability
seams require longer test periods.

Injection/Fall-Off Tests
An injection/fall-off test is a single-well pressure transient test
which you can also use to estimate permeability. To conduct an
injection/fall-off test, you inject water into the well at a constant rate
for a period of time and then you shut in the well. During both
injection and the shut-in periods, the bottomhole pressure is mea-
sured using a downhole pressure gauge. You can analyze pressure
data from both the injection period and the fall-off period indepen-
dently to estimate permeability.

The most critical consideration in performing an injection/fall-off


test is the fracture pressure of the formation. If the fracture pressure

9-8
Performing Pressure Transient Tests

is exceeded during the injection period, the injection pressure data


is meaningless. The late-time data from the shut-in period could
possibly be useful if the induced fracture closes soon enough for
some of the pressure fall-off to measure the natural coal seam
response. However, a permeability estimate derived from the late
time data should be considered the upper bound for permeability.

The main advantages of the injection/fall-off test are:

Can provide a larger radius of investigation

Relatively quick to perform

May be used for post-fracture analysis

The disadvantages of this type of test are:

Relatively expensive

Difficult to perform in low permeability coal seams because


very low injection rates must be maintained (sometimes as
low as 0.04 GPM).

The equipment needed to perform a slug test are:

Workover rig to install the tubular equipment downhole

Low rate pump

Low rate water meter

Supply of water

Slickline (wireline) unit to install pressure gauges and


downhole shut-in tool

Pressure gauges

Downhole shut-in tool

9-9
Chapter 9 Testing the Well

Designing an Injection/Fall-Off Test


Based on experience at the Rock Creek project, the most critical
factors in designing an injection/fall-off test are injection pressure and
rate. To reduce the effects of stress-dependent permeability, you
should keep the injection pressure as low as practical. The maximum
injection pressure should be much less than the fracture pressure. If
the fracture pressure is not known, you should estimate it based on
offset data from stress tests or stimulation treatments.

If you do not know the permeability of the zone, you can design the
test based on an estimated minimum permeability. Alternatively, you
can run a slug test first to get an estimate of the permeability. You can
then use that permeability value to calculate the maximum injection
rate for the test using the equation below:

Pinj - Pr
q
= 162.6 Bw [ log k t c t
rw2
]
- 3.23 + 0.869 S
k h

Where: q = Maximum injection rate, BPD

Pinj = Maximum injection pressure, psi

Pr = Formation pressure, psi

Bw = Water formation volume factor, Bbl/STB (Use 1.0)

k = Estimated minimum permeability, md

t = time period for injection, hrs

= porosity, %

= viscosity of the water, cp

ct = Total compressibility of the formation, psi-1

rw2 = Radius of the wellbore, ft2

h = Thickness of the coal, ft

S = Skin factor (Use S = 0 if perforations are broken down.)

Notes: (1) The maximum injection pressure should be less than 75%
of the fracture pressure.

9-10
Performing Pressure Transient Tests

(2) The time period should be based on the injection period


(e.g., 24 hours for a 24-hour injection period).

The fall-off portion of the test normally yields the most useful infor-
mation. To increase the amount and quality of information obtained
during this period, you can install a downhole shut-in plug after
injection to reduce the wellbore storage effects.

Preparing for an Injection/Fall-Off Test


Before beginning an injection/fall-off test, you should make the
following preparations:

1. Contact the service company who will perform the test and
find out what equipment they will provide and what equip-
ment you need to provide.
The service company will usually supply water, pumps, and all
metering equipment for the job.

2. Prepare the well for the test.


This step includes installing the appropriate bottomhole assembly
that will hold the pressure gauges and the downhole shut-in plug
(if one is to be used).

A typical bottomhole assembly would include:

Joint of tubing with bull plug on bottom

Perforated sub

Packer

Seating nipple for the downhole shut-in plug

Tubing to the surface

As an alternative to the joint of tubing on bottom, you can install


the perforated sub with a bull plug on bottom and the joint of pipe
in between the perforated sub and the packer. This configuration
is a matter of preference.

9-11
Chapter 9 Testing the Well

Caution To install the pressure gauges, there must be sufficient


distance between the end of the tubing (bull-plugged joint)
and the seat nipple. To ensure you have sufficient clearance
to set the shut-in plug after the injection period, find out the
length of the tandem pressure gauges from the service
company representative .

3. Make sure the surface connections include:


Full opening ball valve large enough to allow the downhole
shut-in plug to pass through. This valve will allow the well
to be shut-in after the injection is concluded. This valve
may be needed because the plug might need pressure above
it to hold it in place (depending on the pressure below the
plug). The plug is designed to withstand a certain differen-
tial pressure.
Tapped nipple with pressure gauge. This gauge will be used
to monitor pressure on the tubing during the shut-in period.

4. Check and record the volume and quality of water on


location.
You must keep an accurate record of volume of water pumped
into the well during the test.
Important Water containing debris can prevent the plug from properly
seating in the nipple.

5. Pressure test the injection lines to the maximum allowable


surface pressure.
If no valve is installed between the injection line and the
connection to the tubing, you should observe the injection
lines for leaks during the job.

If you observe a leak during the job, attempt to fix the leak
while continuing to inject, if possible.
Important Once you begin injection, you should not discontinue
injecting unless safety or environmental regulations are
threatened. Water that is not fresh should never be allowed
to drain onto the ground.

If you continue injecting with a leaking line, collect and

9-12
Performing Pressure Transient Tests

measure the volume of leaked water so you can determine


the actual injection volume.

Performing an Injection/Fall-Off Test


The procedures used at the Rock Creek project to perform a slug
test are explained below:

1. Run the tools in the hole.


If the tubing is not new, you should make a dummy run into
the hole with sinker bars (sized as close to the O.D. of the
tools as necessary) on slickline.

2. Allow the gauges to sit in the well for a least one hour to
measure the current pressure trend (if any) in the reser-
voir.

3. Fill the tubing with water as quickly as possible, unless you


are testing the well at a pressure below the hydrostatic
pressure.
Make sure the needle valve on the lubricator is open to allow
air and/or gas to escape as the tubing is filled.

4. After the tubing is filled, fill the lubricator with water.


Loosen the top nut on the lubricator so pressure will bleed off
the lubricator while it fills with water.
As the lubricator is filled with water, the injection pressure will
increase due to the increasing hydrostatic column in the lubri-
cator. The maximum pressure increase due to the height of the
lubricator depends on the height of the lubricator above the
injection point. This pressure can be calculated using the
equation below.

P = h x x 0.052 , psi

where:
h = height of the lubricator above the tubing, ft

= density of the water, lb/gal

9-13
Chapter 9 Testing the Well

5. Measure and record the volume of water left on location


when injection is completed.

6. Calculate the average injection rate during the test using


the equations below:

Injection Volume = Initial Volume - Final Volume - Tubing


Volume - Lubricator Volume

Average Injection Rate = Injection Volume


Injection Time

Remember to take into account the volume of water used to


fill the tubing and the lubricator.
The calculated average injection volume should be close to the
value measured by the water meters on location.

7. After concluding the injection period, set a tubing plug in


the seating nipple.

8. Pressure up the tubing above the plug to make sure the


plug is set.
Because most plugs will withstand a limited amount of differ-
ential pressure, the pressure that is left on the tubing while the
well is shut-in should exceed the final injection pressure before
the plug was set.

9. Wait for the well pressure to fall off.

10. After the pressure has fallen off completely, retrieve the
downhole shut-in tool with a wireline retrieving tool and
retrieve the downhole pressure gauges.

9-14
Performing Pressure Transient Tests

11. Analyze the pressure data.


The bottomhole pressure data recorded during the injection
portion of the test is often erratic (even though injection rates
may have been stable) and is therefore difficult to analyze.
The data obtained during the fall-off portion of the test usually
provides the most useful information.

Interference Tests
An interference test is a multiple-well test with
an active well and one or more observation wells. In an interference
test, a pressure transient is applied to the formation to be tested by
either injecting fluid into or withdrawing fluid from the active well.
The pressure response to the applied stress is then monitored continu-
ously in the active well and all of the observation wells. In designing
an interference test, it is important to select an injection rate low
enough not to fracture the formation.

Multiple-well tests generally yield more information about a coalbed


methane reservoir than single-well tests. In addition to static reservoir
pressure and intrinsic permeability, multiple-well tests can also pro-
vide directional permeability, porosity-compressibility product, leak-
age from an adjacent aquifer through a semi-permeable barrier, or the
location of a no-flow or constant-head boundary within the coal seam.
Multiple-well tests are most useful for determining directional perme-
ability. Interference tests can be analyzed using either type curves or
the straight-line method.

The main advantages of interference tests over other tests methods are:

Generally tests a larger portion of the coalbed reservoir

Provides more information about the reservoir

The main disadvantages of interference tests over other tests methods


are:

Expensive
Lengthy test period
Sometimes difficult to analyze

9-15
Chapter 9 Testing the Well

The equipment needed to run an interference test are listed below:

Workover rig to prepare the well for the test

Low rate pump (as low as 0.04 GPM)

Low rate water meter

Supply of water

Slick-line (wireline) unit to install pressure gauges in the


test well and observation well(s), if necessary

Downhole pressure gauges

Designing an Interference Test


Based on experience at the Rock Creek project,
the most critical factors in designing an interference test are injec-
tion pressure and rate. The maximum injection pressure should be
less than the fracture pressure. If the fracture pressure is not
known, you should estimate it based on offset data from stress tests
or stimulation treatments. If offset fracture data is not available,
determine a reasonable range of fracture pressure values and use
the lower end of the range.

If the permeability of the zone is not known, you can run a slug test
first to estimate the permeability of the active well. You can then
use that permeability value to calculate the maximum injection rate
for the test using the equation below:

Pinj - Pr
q
= 162.6 B w

[ log k t c t
]
- 3.23 + 0.869 S
rw2
k h

9-16
Performing Pressure Transient Tests

Where: q = Maximum injection rate, BPD

Pinj = Maximum injection pressure, psi

Pr = Formation pressure, psi

Bw = Water formation volume factor, Bbl/STB (Use 1.0)

k = Estimated minimum permeability, md

t = time period for injection, hrs

= porosity, %

= viscosity of the water, cp

c t = Total compressibility of the formation, psi -1

r w 2 = Radius of the wellbore, ft 2

h = Thickness of the coal, ft

S = Skin factor (Use S = 0 if perforations are broken down.)

Notes: (1) The maximum injection pressure should be less than 75%
of the fracture pressure.

(2) The time period should be based on the injection period


(e.g., 24 hours for a 24-hour injection period).

Preparing for an Interference Test


Before beginning an interference test, you should make the following
preparations:

1. Contact the service company who will perform the test and
find out what equipment they will provide and what you need
to provide.
The service company will usually supply water, pumps, and all
metering equipment for the job.

2. Prepare the well for the test.


This step includes installing the appropriate bottomhole assembly
that will hold the pressure gauges and the downhole shut-in plug
(if one is to be used).

9-17
Chapter 9 Testing the Well

A typical bottomhole assembly would include:

Joint of tubing with bull plug on bottom

Perforated sub

Packer

Seating nipple for the downhole shut-in plug

Tubing to the surface

The surface connections should include:


A ball valve on the injection tubing so that the well can
shut-in after the injection is concluded

A tapped nipple with a pressure gauge so that pressure on


the tubing can be monitored during the shut-in period

Performing an Interference Test


The procedures used at the Rock Creek project to perform an interfer-
ence test are explained below:

1. Run the tools in the hole.


If the tubing is not new, you should make a dummy run into the
hole with sinker bars (sized as close to the O.D. of the tools as
necessary) on slickline.

2. Fill the tubing with water as quickly as possible.


Make sure the needle valve on the lubricator is open to allow air
and/or gas to escape as the tubing is filled.

3. Measure and record the volume of water left on location when


injection is completed.

4. Calculate the average injection rate during the test using the
equations below:
Remember to take into account the volume of water used to fill
the tubing and the lubricator.

9-18
Performing Pressure Transient Tests

The calculated average injection volume should be close to the


value measured by the water meters on location.

Injection Volume = Initial Volume - Final Volume - Tubing


Volume - Lubricator Volume

Average Injection Rate = Injection Volume


Injection Time

5. Continue injecting until you observe a pressure response in


offsets wells.

6. After concluding the injection period, continue to monitor


the pressures in the test well and in each observation well
until all pressures have stabilized.

7. After all pressures have stabilized, run in the hole and


retrieve the pressure gauges.

8. Analyze the pressure data.

Pressure Buildup Tests


Pressure buildup testing of coalbed methane wells is difficult to
perform because almost all coalbed methane wells are on artificial
lift. Artificial lift equipment prevents installation of downhole
pressure gauges while the well is flowing. To install gauges on a
lift well, you would first have to shut-in the well and remove the
lift equipment from the wellbore. This procedure would cause the
loss of valuable early time data. To perform a successful buildup
test, two alternative methods have been tried.

9-19
Chapter 9 Testing the Well

Using a Well Sounder

The first method is the use of an automatic well sounder (AWS).


This method has been used on pumping oil wells for many years.
It simply involves connecting an AWS machine to the annulus of
the well to be tested. After the sounder is installed, it is set to
record some data points under stabilized pumping conditions.
Then the well is shut in. The sounder continues to record the fluid
levels and converts them to pressures until the pre-programmed
time ends or the sounder is stopped manually.

The advantages to this method are:

Easy to operate

Relatively inexpensive (no rig work required)

The disadvantages to this method are:

The accuracy of pressure measurement is no greater than


the fluid column weight across the length of one joint of
tubing

Two-phase flow may complicate the analysis

Wellbore storage effects are usually significant

Pressure readings may be inaccurate if the fluid level is


below a set of perforations

Using the Rock Creek Technique


The other technique for performing a buildup test was developed at the
Rock Creek project. This method involves measuring the pressure at
the surface rather than downhole. You can use this method only on
wells that have a working fluid level below the perforations of the
interval to be tested.

This technique is based on the premise that surface pressure can be


accurately extrapolated to the bottomhole pressure as long as the fluid
level remains below the perforations. Thus, the bottomhole pressure
can be estimated during the shut-in period until the fluid level rises
above the perforations.

9-20
Evaluating Production from Multiple-Seam Wells

The only equipment required for this technique is an In-Situ pressure


transducer, Bowen wiper and a Hermit data recorder. The pressure
transducer is installed in the piping from the side outlet of the casing
head. The cable for the pressure transducer is run through a Bowen
wiper rubber that can hold the low pressures observed during this type
of test. The cable is then connected to the Hermit recorder. The
Hermit pressure recorder should be programmed to record frequent
early time data. After all the equipment is connected, the Hermit is
started and within 10 seconds, the pumping unit is stopped, the flowline
valve on the annulus is closed, and the pressure buildup test begins.

The main advantages to this method are:

Inexpensive

Easy to run (no outside services required)

Can be performed frequently

The limitations of this method are:

Can only be used on wells with a working fluid level below the
perforations

Two-phase flow may occur in the formation, which compli-


cates the analysis

Evaluating Production from Multiple-Seam Wells


To optimize production from any well, you should have procedures
in place for predicting and identifying production trends. When
production deviates from these trends, you must then determine if
your expectations of well performance were valid. If they are
valid, then you must determine if the well has any mechanical
problems. For information on identifying and correcting mechani-
cal problems with wells, refer to Chapter 6.

This section explains ways to evaluate the production from multiple


seams. It will introduce you to:

Typical Coalbed Methane Production Decline Curves

9-21
Chapter 9 Testing the Well

Determining Production from Individual Seams in a Mul-


tiple-Seam Well

Recognizing Reservoir Problems

Typical Coalbed Methane Production Decline Curves


The production decline curves of coalbed methane wells are quite
different than those from conventional wells. This difference is
related to the unique characteristics of coalbed methane reservoirs.
Coal seams contain natural fractures, or cleats, that are usually
saturated with water. The methane gas in the seams is adsorbed
onto the coal. To produce the gas, it must first be desorbed from
the coal. This desorption occurs after enough water has been
produced from the seam to reduce the pressure in the seam to the
desorption pressure of the coal. When the pressure in the seam is
at or below the desorption pressure, the gas will desorb from the
coal and flow through the cleats to the induced fracture and
through the fracture to the wellbore. You can determine the des-
orption pressure from core tests.

Because water must be removed from the coal seam to


lower the pressure, the initial production from a coalbed methane
well is water. After enough water has been produced to lower the
pressure, gas production will begin. At this point water, production
will often begin to decline. Figure 9-2 shows a typical production
decline for coalbed methane wells in the Black Warrior Basin.
During the production of a well, you should monitor fluid levels
and production rates to make sure the well is producing at an
optimum level. You should also attempt to keep the fluid level
below the coal seam and minimize backpressure on the wellhead.

Determining Production from Individual Seams in a


Multiple-Seam Well
Monitoring the production performance of a single-seam coalbed
methane well is much easier than monitoring a multiple-seam well.
When production is commingled from several zones, it is difficult
to accurately determine production rates and pressures for indi-
vidual seams. Many of the coalbed methane wells in the Black
Warrior Basin produce from three or more seams.

9-22
Evaluating Production from Multiple-Seam Wells

Figure 9-2
Typical Coalbed Methane Production Decline Curve

The GRI Zone Isolation Packer (ZIP)


To provide an accurate way to test production from individual seams in
a multiple-seam well, GRI developed a special tool for isolating coal
seams. GRIs Zone Isolation Packer (ZIP) is a modified surface
inflatable packer that enables you to effectively isolate an upper coal
seam from lower coal seams. After isolating the lower seams, you can
accurately measure production and pressures in the upper seam.

To use the specially-built ZIP tool, you install it between two joints of
tubing and then position it in the well below the uppermost coal seams
you wish to test. You inflate the packer with nitrogen from the surface
through a stainless steel control line attached to the tubing string.
Inflating the ZIP seals the annulus between the production tubing and
the casing, preventing production of gas from the seams below the tool.
This zone isolation enables you to accurately measure the gas rate from
the upper coal group. You can then determine the production rate of the
lower coal seams by subtracting the gas rate of the upper group from the
wells total gas production rate before the ZIP tool was installed.

9-23
Chapter 9 Testing the Well

If you are testing more than one coal seam, you can equip the ZIP
tool with a pass-through, which enables you to run a control line
through the ZIP to another packer installed deeper in the well.
This configuration allows you to determine the gas rate of three
separate zones. Figures 9-3 and 9-4 illustrate the ZIP tool used for
a two-seam test and a three-seam test, respectively.

Figure 9-3
Two-Seam Well Test Using the ZIP Tool

At the Rock Creek project, the ZIP tool is installed in several wells
which are tested frequently to determine production rates from the
Mary Lee and Black Creek coal seams. One such test provided
information which led to the successful re-stimulation of the Mary
Lee interval in Well P3. For more information on the ZIP tool,
refer to Determining Production from Individual Coal Groups in
Multi-Zone Wells with a Zone Isolation Packer. See Additional
Resources at the end of this chapter.

9-24
Evaluating Production from Multiple-Seam Wells

Figure 9-4
Three-Seam Well Test Using the ZIP Tool

The advantages of using the ZIP tool to test coal seams are:

Individual seams may be tested without the expense of


using a workover rig and retrievable bridge plugs

The tool can remain installed in the tubing string for use in
frequent tests

The test can be completed quickly because the well does not
have to be shut down to install test equipment

Other Methods for Measuring Production Rates


Several other methods have been used with varying degrees of
success to measure production rates from individual seams. These
methods are:

Isolating Seams with Bridge Plugs

Analyzing Gas Composition

9-25
Chapter 9 Testing the Well

Analyzing Water Composition

Production Logging and Camera Surveys

Isolating Seams with Bridge Plugs


This method is expensive and time consuming. To use this
method, a workover rig is needed to install the retrievable bridge
plugs and to retrieve them later. Before beginning the test, the well
must be shut in to install the plugs, and the well must be pumped
down to stabilize production rates.

Analyzing Gas Composition


This method involves analyzing the composition of the total gas
stream and then comparing it with the composition of gas produced
from individual coal seams. A study was conducted to determine if
gas production rates could be estimated accurately using gas com-
position analysis. This method was not successful because of the
relatively small variations in the compositions of the coal seams.

Analyzing Water Composition


This method involves analyzing the composition of the total pro-
duced water stream and then comparing it with the composition of
water produced from individual coal seams. This method has been
used with some success to estimate the water production from
individual coal seams.

As with comparing gas compositions, this method can be success-


ful only if there are distinct differences in water chemistry between
the coal seams. Even if the differences are great, you can only
estimate the water production from the individual seams. You
would have to infer the gas production based on the premise that
there is a reliable and consistent correlation between gas and water
production in each coal group.

Production Logging and Camera Surveys


You can use flowmeters, gradiomanometers, and temperature
surveys to approximate the flow rates of individual perforated
intervals in the wellbore. Though this method has been improved

9-26
Evaluating Production from Multiple-Seam Wells

over the years, you may still find it difficult to estimate production
rates from individual seams because many seams produce at ex-
tremely low rates.

Camera surveys cannot be used to obtain quantitative production


estimates. However, you can use camera surveys to see whether
fluid is flowing into the wellbore, and if so, which intervals are
producing that fluid. For more information on production logging
tools and camera surveys, refer to Chapter 3.

Recognizing Reservoir Problems


The key to evaluating production performance is understanding
why some wells in your coalbed methane field are good producers
and why others are poor producers. Is it because of geological or
reservoir conditions? Is it because of completion or stimulation
technique? Or is it because of operational procedures? Most
likely, some combination of these factors influences overall pro-
duction performance.

Production tests may help you determine that each seam in the well
is not producing at optimum rates. If you have eliminated the
possibility of mechanical problems with the artificial lift equipment
or surface equipment, then you must conclude the problem is
associated with the reservoir. Some of the most common coalbed
methane reservoir problems are:

Scale Deposition in the Formation

Insufficient Fracture Stimulation

Depletion of the Coal Seam

Some of the coal seams in the Black Warrior Basin contain waters
with a high tendency for scaling. Scaling can occur in surface
equipment and downhole equipment as well as in perforations and
in the formation. Though you can easily observe scaling in equip-
ment and in perforations (with a camera survey), you cannot ob-
serve scaling in the formation. To determine if scaling has oc-
curred in the formation, you must use pressure transient tests to
assess formation damage. If formation damage exists, it could have
been caused by scale. For information on the scaling tendency of
coalbed methane produced water, refer to Chapter 8.

9-27
Chapter 9 Testing the Well

Poor production performance could also be caused by insufficient


fracture stimulation of the coal seams or by depletion of the seams.
You can diagnose these reservoir problems by analyzing pressure
transient tests and by simulating reservoir performance using one
of the commercially available computer models for coalbed meth-
ane reservoirs.

To make well-informed production management decisions, you


should attempt to gather and analyze quality data from a variety of
independent sources. This practice will help ensure the operational
as well as economic success of your coalbed methane project.

9-28
Additional Resources

Additional Resources

Koenig, R.A., and R.A. Schraufnagel, Application of the Slug Test


in Coalbed Methane Testing, Proceedings of the 1987 Coalbed
Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Ala-
bama (November 16-19).

Koenig, R.A. and P.B. Stubbs, Interference Testing of a Coalbed


Methane Reservoir, Proceedings of the 1986 Unconventional Gas
Technology Symposium, Louisville, Kentucky (May 18-21).

McKee, C.R., Well Testing, GRI Coalbed Methane Workshop,


Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (February 6-7, 1989).

Rushing, J.A. et al, Analysis of Slug Test Data From Hydraulically


Fractured Coalbed Methane Wells, SPE Paper 21492, Texas A&M
University/Society of Petroleum Engineers, SPE Gas Technology
Symposium, Houston (January 23-25, 1991).

Rushing, J.A. et al, Slug Testing in Multiple Coal Seams Intersected


by a Single, Vertical Fracture, SPE Paper 22945, Texas A&M
University/Society of Petroleum Engineers, 1991 SPE Annual Tech-
nical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas (October 6-9).

Saulsberry, J.L., S.W. Lambert, and Dobscha, F.X., Determining


Production from Individual Coal Groups in Multi-Zone Wells with
a Zone Isolation Packer, Proceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane
Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May
13-16).

9-29
Appendix A
Summary of Permitting Requirements
for
Drilling a Coalbed Methane Well in Alabama
(State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama)
Summary of Permitting Requirements for Drilling a
Coalbed Methane Well in Alabama

A summary of the permitting requirements of the State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama
are listed below:

Permit to Drill
Before you can spud a well in the State of Alabama, you must submit a Form OGB
I (Application for Permit to Drill, Deepen, Convert, or Amend). This form must be accompa-
nied by the following:

Permit Fee

Certified Survey Plat (Triplicate)

Affadavit of Ownership or Control, Form OGB- 11.

Bond, Form OGB-3 or OGB-4.

Organization Report, Form OGB-5

This permit may not be approved until all other applicable environmental regulations have
been approved by other agencies.

Drilling Operations
During drilling operations, an agent of the State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama
(Board) must be notified and approval obtained prior to performing any of the follow-
ing operations:

Construction of any pit


Spudding
Setting surface casing
Slotting casing
Running intermediate or production pipe
Cleaning
Perforating
Chemical treatment or fracturing
Logging
Attempting to recover a radioactive logging
Testing of wells
Disposing of pit fluids
Plugging
Recompletion or reworking
Restoration of location
Any other operation the Supervisor of the Board may designate. Some of these opera-
tions may be witnessed by an agent of the Board.

Casing Requirements
The minimum amount of surface or first string intermediate casing to be set below ground
level and the test pressure requirements are as follows:

Coalbed methane gas wells may be completed open hole or cased hole. If completed open
hole, the production casing must be set not more than 100' above the uppermost coalbed
which the operator intends to complete and the casing must be cemented to a point 200'
above the base of the casing.

For cased hole completions, the production casing must be cemented in place with sufficient
cement to allow for 200' of cement over the uppermost coalbed that the operator intends to
complete.

After cementing the casing and before completing the well, the production casing must be
tested to 600 psi for 30 minutes without a drop of more than 10 percent. The cement shall be
allowed to stand a total of 12 hours before drilling the plug or initiating tests.

Drilling Pits
Reserve pits which are used during the drilling of the wells must be inspected by a qualified
engineer and determined to be constructed in a manner that will prevent the pollution of the
ground water. Ile level in the pits must be kept at least 2' below the top of the pit. After the
well is completed or is plugged and abandoned, all fluids and recoverable slurry from pits
must be disposed in a manner that is acceptable to the Board and the pit must be backfilled
within 90 days.

Miscellaneous
A detailed and accurate record of the well must be kept during the drilling and
completion of the well and must be accessible to the Board at any time. Pertinent
information from these records must be submitted to the Board within 30 days of the
completion of the well.
Copies of logs, drillstem test results, and cuttings must be submitted to the Board
within 30 days of the completion of the well.
If cores are taken, either whole or at least quarter slabs must be submitted to the
Board within 6 months unless otherwise approved by the Board.
Adequate blow-out preventers are required and must be tested regularly. Test results
should be recorded in the drillers log and available to an agent of the Board upon
request.
Inclination surveys are required beginning with a depth not greater than the surface
casing and succeeding shot points not more than 1000' apart or as required by the
Board. The results should be reported to the Board on Form OGB-7.

The summary above is only a partial listing of the regulations which affect the drilling of a
coalbed methane well in Alabama. For further detail regarding these regulations and a full
listing of the regulations regarding production operations in Alabama, you should consult the
State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama Administrative Code.

v v v
Appendix B
Summary of Permitting Requirements
for
Drilling a Coalbed Methane Well in Alabama
(State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama)
QUALITY CONTROL GUIDELINES
Page 1
QUALITY CONTROL AND JOB SUPERVISION GUIDELINES
FOR STIMULATION TREATMENTS

INTRODUTION
Quality control is a key element in the successful implementation of any stimulation treat-
ment. Simply stated, attention to quality control is needed to ensure that the stimulation treat-
ment is pumped as designed. Often times, quality control is considered the responsibility of
the service company alone, but frankly, ensuring a successful job is the responsibility of both
the operator and the service company. Attention to detail by both the operator and the service
company and close cooperation between the two before, during, and after the job is certain to
increase the quality of service in any stimulation treatment.

The guidelines which follow this discussion should assist the engineer in the quality con-
trol and job supervision of stimulation treatments. The guidelines include a comprehensive
supervision checklist to remind the engineer of equipment needed for the job, safety concerns,
and questions to ask before, during, and after the job. The tables that follow the checklist
permit the engineer to prepare a complete summary of the job (injection rates, injection pres-
sures, fluid and proppant volumes, etc.), as well as an inventory of all products on location
before and after the treatment. An important responsibility of the stimulation engineer is to
obtain a reliable record of what actually occurred during the treatment; these guidelines and
tables should help meet this responsibility.

While these guidelines can be used for quality control and supervision of any stimulation
treatment, we have attempted to tailor them for use in Appalachian Basin reservoirs where
possible. While quality control problems are not unique to this area, proper job execution in
Appalachian Basin reservoirs is especially important due primarily to the smaller treatments
pumped routinely. Quality control on smaller, shorter treatments is often more troublesome
than for the much larger stimulation treatments typically pumped in the western and south-
western United States. On larger volume treatments involving high pressure, high temperature

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wells, there is often more time to correct mistakes. In addition, the reservoir pressure and
temperature themselves may help reduce cleanup problems created by gel lumping or lack of
sufficient breaker.

The combination of low pressures and low temperatures frequently encountered in many
Appalachian Basin reservoirs provides for an environment that is not as tolerant of procedural
mistakes. Unbroken gel or gel lumping, which may be only inconveniences in well cleanup for
most wells, can result in the failure of a stimulation treatment in the Appalachian Basin. Pre-
and post-fracture inventory of materials, fluid quality assurance, real-time monitoring of chemi-
cal additives, and attention to details such as flush volume and proper flowback can often make
the difference between success and failure in low-pressure, low-temperature reservoirs.

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Fracture Stimulation Supervision Checklist

Fracture Stimulation Company:


Supervisor:
Company: Date:
Well: Location:
I. Equipment needed on job site

1. Company workover procedure with data sheet containing reservoir properties to


include fracture gradient, bottomhole pressure, porosity, permeability, and
temperature. Also, a complete surface and wellbore sketch and equipment
inventory should be available from the operator.
2. Stimulation design
3. Logs with perforations and collars premarked
4. Tank strap (from service company)
5. Sand sieves (from service company)
6. Service company reference tables
7. Containers for samples, beakers
8. Calculator, pencils, and Quality Control Forms
9. Hardhat and steel-toed boots
10. Fann 35 or equivalent viscometer or availability of same from service company
11. Water and Acid test equipment (from service company)
a. pH meter or paper i. TDS probe
b. Thermometer j. B-2 bob and heat cup
C. Iron test kit k. Syringes
d. Phosphate test kit 1. Portable scale
e. Reducing agent tester m. Blender and jar
f. Chloride test kit n. Hydrometer
g. Graduated cylinders o. Acid titration kit
h. Bacteria vials
II. The day before the job
Tanks
1. Are there enough tanks on the location to store all fluids? Assume 10% of the tank
volume will be umpumpable. Recommend at least 10% extra fluid on the location.
2. Have the tanks been cleaned prior to the job? How were they cleaned?
3. Was bactericide added prior to filling the tanks?
4. Does the water have the proper amounts of potassium chloride, sodium chloride, and
other compounds? Check source water with water test kit. Is the source water compat-
ible with proposed additives? Check with the chemist.
5. Are all of the tanks full? Get on the tanks yourself - do not take anyones word!
6. Where did the water come from? Does it appear to be clean? Check each tank yourself
Do not pump dirty fluid down a well. River water may contain fines.

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7. Check the valves on the tanks to ensure that they are not leaking. If a valve has a
trickle leak, replace it before the next job. If the tank has a large leak, consider having
the tanks switched out prior to any pumping.
8. Conduct pre-gel quality control on fluid by completing quality control Tables 1, 2, 3,
4 or 5, and 7. Parts of Tables 1 and 2 will be done either again or only on the day of the
job.
Sand Storage
1. Get on top of the sand storage unit yourself and see if they contain enough proppant
to do the job. Sieve proppant from each compartment.
2. Is the proppant in each compartment the correct size? Check for contamination. Add
sand or other proppant to water and check pH. Also check while sieving for foreign
material.
Discussions with the Service-company Treatment Supervisor
1. Review the sand and fluid schedules in detail.
2. Are the proper additives and amounts going to be on the location?
3. Ask for confirmation that the chemicals are fresh and not shelf degraded or contami-
nated.
4. Is a standby blender going to be on location and in position to be usable? A standby
is needed on treatments with pump time exceeding 1 hour.
5. Insist that a sand densiometer be available on the job. Check for the last time the
densiometer was calibrated.
6. When pumping energized fluids, insist that a flowmeter is installed to measure the
gas injection rates.
7. If the pumping time is going to take more than 4 hours, request that a service company
mechanic be on the location to repair any equipment that malfunctions. Also, request
an electronics technician to repair electrical problems on jobs with long pump times.
8. Make sure the required hydraulic horsepower is on location. Plan for contingencies.
Are you willing to treat the well at a lower rate if a pump fails?
9. Go over rig up checklist (Table 15) with service company representative.
10. Arrange for testing of all gelled fluids and test crosslink time if applicable. (Table3).
11. Establish rapport with the treater and give the treater instructions on what you expect
before, during, and after the treatment.
12. Have Tables 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 completed (to the extent possible) at least 2
hours before pump time.
III. Just Before Beginning the Treatment
Discussions with the Service-company Treatment Supervisor
1. Review the sand and fluid schedules. Discuss quality control Tables 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12.

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2. Specify whether clean or dirty volumes will be recorded. Clean volumes are fluid
volumes with no sand. Dirty volumes are the slurry volumes. Also check to see if
the volumes will be displayed in barrels or gallons.
Dirty volume, bbl = Clean volume, bbl + (lb/gal sand x 0.00109)
= bbl + ( lb/gal x 0.00109)
= bbl
or
Dirty volume, gal = Clean volume, gal + (lb sand x 0.0456)
= gal + ( lb x 0.0456)
= gal
3. Calculate the foam quality that will be pumped (if applicable).
Quality - Nitrogen Rate, scf/min x Volume Factor, bbl/scf
Liquid Rate, bbl/min + Nitrogen Rate x Volume Factor

Calculate required sand addition at the blender, PPA

PPA, lb/gal - Desired Bottomhole Sand Concentration, lb/gal


(1-Quality)
Check with the treater to ensure the blender can handle the required PPA additional
rate!
PPA Addition Rate, lb/min PPA x Clean Rate, gal/min
Calculate Foam Volumes
Clean Volume, gal or bbl
Foam Volume, gal or bbl = (1-Quality)
4. Finalize the pumping schedule on Table 4 or 5.
5. Get on top of the tanks YOURSELF and gauge ALL frac tanks using a tank strap.
HAVE THE TREATER PRESENT. Having the treater gauge the tanks with you
will prevent any disagreements about fluid volumes after the job is finished. This
step should be completed only after all tanks have been rolled and viscosified.
6. Set up a system with the treater for numbering the tanks in the order that they
will be drained. This helps keep track of the fluid volumes during the job.
7. Fill in the Frac Tank Tracking Chart (Table 8). This will help you keep track of
how much fluid is left at any point during the job.
8. Arrange with the treater to have someone knowledgeable and dependable on top of
the frac tanks. He or she should be there all the time that the job is being pumped to
ensure a smooth uninterrupted flow of the proposed pumping schedule.
9. Impress upon the treater the adverse consequences if the pumps lose prime during
the job because the tanks were sucked too low. When the fluid level in the frac tank
drops below the suction valve, air is sucked into the pumps, causing the blender
pumps to lose prime. The sand concentration becomes extremely high, and the rate
has to be reduced. The sand concentration then tends to drop very low while the
pumps regain prime. This chaos normally takes 5 to 10 min to correct -- 10 min is
a lot of fluid at 50 bbl/min!
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10. Get on top of the sand storage unit with the treater and gauge the volume of
proppant in each compartment. Remember to check any 100-mesh sand that is
being pumped in the pad as a fluid-loss agent. Keep hatches on the sand stor-
age unit closed to protect proppant from inclement weather. Wet proppant will
tend to clump in the storage unit and may not come out at the required delivery
rates.
11. Set up a system with the treater on numbering the sand storage unit compart
ments in the order that they will be pumped.
12. Have service company weigh sand trucks before leaving yard and upon return
ing to yard. Complete the Proppant Tracking Chart (Table 9). This will help
you keep track of how much proppant is left at any point during the job.
13. Complete the Crosslinker Tracking Chart (Table 10), if applicable. This will
help you keep track of how much crosslinker is left at any point during the
job.
14. Complete the Breaker Tracking Chart (Table 11). This will help you keep
track of how much breaker is left at any point during the job.
15. Complete the Fluid Loss Additive Tracking Chart (Table 12). This will help
you keep track of how much fluid loss additive is left at any point during the
job.
16. If pumping energized fluid, fill out the nitrogen product tracking chart (Table
13).
Discussions with the Service-company Field Chemist or District Engineer
1. Have the chemist complete Table 1 for each tank of gel and acid. This is in
addition to your own quality control work. Always have the service company
confirm your tests to be surthe values are correct.
2. Check with the chemist to find which additives (such as crosslinkers,
fluid-loss additives, and breakers) will be added on the fly during the job.
3. Check with the chemist to see that all tanks have been premixed with the
necessary additives.
4. If running a crosslinked gel, catch a sample of gel from each tank and add
the appropriate amount of crosslinker to evaluate the crosslinker.
5. Test the crosslinker and breaker systems at bottomhole temperature using a
Fann 35 and a heated cup.
Equipment
1. Is all equipment fueled up, and is there enough fuel on the location to complete
the job?
2. Were all pumps and lines flushed with clean water before the job started?
3. Are all injection lines staked down? Ibis is very important when pump
energized fluids.
4. Is a standby blender rigged up or in an immediately usable position?
5. Is the blender located close enough to each tank so that sucking the fluid at a high
rate will not be a problem?
6. To be assured of sufficient suction between the blender and the tanks you should
have 1 suction hose per 10 BPM for thin fluids; for thick fluids use 1 suction hose
per 5 BPM. For example, a 40 BPM rate would require 8 suction hoses for
60-pound viscous gel.

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Safety Equipment Checklist


1. Locate pumping trucks and tanks crosswind and a reasonable feet from well. Head
all vehicles away from the well and keep access roads clear.
2. Each discharge line should have a full swing at the well and at the truck manifold and
be staked at each end. Additional staking may be needed based on certain conditions.
3. Install check valves in each discharge line as near the wellhead as possible.
4. No one should stand on or near discharge lines under pressure and never pass lines
under trucks or other equipment.
5. Pressure test discharge lines from pump to well at 500 psi greater than maximum
treating pressure.
6. Inspect wellhead for any low pressure connections that may have inadvertently been
added during well servicing.
7. Bleed off lines should be staked and in a safe direction (downwind, downhill, and/or
to a pit).
8. Ensure that adequate fire fighting equipment is in good working condition and
strategically located.
9. Conduct pumping operation in daylight. Do not pump during electrical or severe dust
storms.
10. All personnel and equipment not necessary to the operation should move to a point at
least 150 feet from well.
11. If flammable materials (crude oil, diesel, xylene, methanol, etc.) are pumped, all per
sons within at least 150 feet from well should remove matches, lighters, and cigarettes
from their pockets.
12. Prior to pumping, all company and contract supervisors and crew should meet to dis
cuss job procedures, work signals, hazards, and safety precautions. At this time, an
emergency assembly area should be designated in an upwind direction from the well.
Also, a head count and a buddy system should be established so that all personnel can
be accounted for, if necessary.
13. If pumping flammable material, have the service company wrap all discharge hoses
from the blender to the pump trucks with canvas or other material. This will negate
spraying of flammable material should the hoses leak or burst.
Pumping Energized Fluids
14. Ensure that pressure release valves on pumping equipment are in working order and
will pop off at the proper pressure.
15. Make sure nitrogen or C02 lines are laid in a straight line to the manifold and are
staked down across their entire length.
16. Pressure test nitrogen lines to 500 psi above the maximum treating pressure.
17. Make sure treating van is strategically located so that the treater can see both the
liquid and nitrogen injection lines.
18. Ensure check valves are installed in the nitrogen injection lines.

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TABLE 1

FLUID COMPOSITION AND JOB RECAP

I. PRE-TREATMENT INFORMATION
Water Sample Analyzed by: Date:
Water Analysis Results:
Bacteria Culture Results: Aerobic:
Anaerobic:
Bactericide Recommendation:
Gel Pilot Test Results
Frac Tanks Delivered: No. Date:
Frac Tanks Inspected: Date:
Remarks:
Bactericide Added: Date. Amount:
Water Added: Date: Amount:
II. TREATMENT INFORMATION
Type of Fracturing Fluid:
Amount of Fracturing Fluid on Location
Beginning of Job:
End of Job:
Amount of Nitrogen on Location (if applicable):
Beginning of Job: Pumpable(minuscooldown):
End of Job: Total Pumped:
Type of Proppant:
Amount of Proppant on Location
Beginning of Job:
End of Job:
Type of Prepad and Flush:
Amount of Prepaid and Flush on Location
Beginning of Job:
End of Job:
Pre-Job Safety and Information Meeting: Time:
Remarks:

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TABLE 1
(Continued)

Products Batch Mixed:


Products Added on the Fly:
Job Started: Time:
Job Completed: Time:
Job Recap: Acid Frac
Average Clean Rate, BPM
Average Nitrogen Rate
(if applicable), scf/min
Average Dirty Rate, BPM
Average Total Rate
(if applicable), BPM
Average Pressure, psi
Maximum Rate, BPM
Maximum Pressure, psi
ISIP, psi
Frac Gradient, psi/ft
15 Minute Shut-In, psi
Total Proppant Pumped, lbs
Total Fluid to Recover, bbls

Remarks:

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TABLE 2
BASE FLUID ANALYSIS*

Vicosity
Cross Volume Volume
Tank Type Fluid Tank Tank Link Start End Reducing

QUALITY CONTROL GUIDELINES


No. Fluid Temp. pH Chlorides rpm rpm rpm Length Diameter Time of Job of Job Iron Phosphate TDS Agent
(F) (ppm) (cp) (cp) (cp) (ft) (ft) () () () (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (+or-)

* Base fluid prior to adding gel.

TABLE 3
BASE GEL FLUID ANALYSIS*

Vicosity
GAS RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Cross Volume Volume


Tank Type Fluid Tank Tank Link Start End Reducing
No. Fluid Temp. pH Chlorides rpm rpm rpm Length Diameter Time of Job of Job Iron Phosphate TDS Agent
(F) (ppm) (cp) (cp) (cp) (ft) (ft) () () () (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (+or-)

* Base fluid following addition to gel.

Page 10
TABLE 4
PROPOSED GELLED FLUID PUMPING SCHEDULE*

During Treatment Checks


Clean Dirty Proppant

QUALITY CONTROL GUIDELINES


Type Stage Stage Proppant Stage Proppant Cross Fluid Sand
Stage Fluid Volume Volume Concentration Weight Remaining Linked Volumes Volumes
() () (ppg) (lbs) (lbs) () ()
GAS RESEARCH INSTITUTE

*Use this schedule for gelled fluid fracture treatments

Page 11
TABLE 5
PROPOSED FOAM PUMPING SCHEDULE*

During Treatment Checks


Clean Dirty Proppant

QUALITY CONTROL GUIDELINES


Type Stage Stage Proppant Stage Proppant Cross Fluid Sand
Stage Fluid Volume Volume Concentration Weight Remaining Linked Volumes Volumes
() () (ppg) (lbs) (lbs) () ()
GAS RESEARCH INSTITUTE

*Use this schedule for foam fracture treatments

Page 12
TABLE 12

QUALITY CONTROL GUIDELINES


TABLE 12
DESCRIPTION OF FRACTURE PROPPANTS

Compartment No.
Proppant Type
Sieve Sizes Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On
8
10
12
16
20
25
30
35
40
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60
80
100
120
140
Pan

*If this data not available on location, have service company supply recent sieve analysis on sand in yard.

Page 13
QUALITY CONTROL GUIDELINES
Page 14

TABLE 7
DESCRIPTION OF FRACTURE FLUIDS

Fluid Type:
Base Fluid:
Salts Added: Type Amount /1000 gal
Base Gel: Type Amount /1000 gal
Crosslinker: Type Amount /1000 gal
Bactericide: Type Amount /1000 gal
Surfactant: Type Amount /1000 gal
Buffer: Type Amount /1000 gal
Breaker: Type Amount /1000 gal
Fluid Loss: Type Amount /1000 gal
Type Amount /1000 gal
Type Amount /1000 gal

Fluid Type:
Base Fluid:
Salts Added: Type Amount /1000 gal
Base Gel: Type Amount /1000 gal
Crosslinker: Type Amount /1000 gal
Bactericide: Type Amount /1000 gal
Surfactant: Type Amount /1000 gal
Buffer: Type Amount /1000 gal
Breaker: Type Amount /1000 gal
Fluid Loss: Type Amount /1000 gal
Type Amount /1000 gal
Type Amount /1000 gal

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TABLE 8
FRAC TANK TRACKING CHART

GaugedVolume PumpableVolume* Volume on


Tank No. in Tank in Tank LocationAfter Treatment
() () ()

Total

*Pumpable volume = gauged volume - 10% of tank volume. (Some tank configu rations may allow
more or less fluid removal. Consult with the treater as to pumpable tank volume.)

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TABLE 9
PROPPANT TRACKING CHART

Type Gauged Quanity Proppant Remaining


Compartment No. Proppant in Compartment After Treatment
(lbs) (lbs)

Total

Have service companies weigh sand trucks before leaving yard and upon return to yard.

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Page 17

TABLE 10
CROSSLINKER/FOAMER TRACKING CHART

Total Volume Crosslinker/Foamer on site:


Crosslinker/Foamer Addition Rate:
Stage Cumulative Crosslinker/Foamer
Stage Volume Usage Volume Remaining
(gal) (gal) (gal)

Total

*Usage for crosslinker or foamer as appropriate.

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Page 18

TABLE 11
BREAKER TRACKING CHART

Total Volume on site:


Breaker Addition Rate:
Stage Cumulative Breaker
Stage Volume Usage Volume Remaining
(gals) (gals) (gals)

Total Breaker Used:

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TABLE 12

QUALITY CONTROL GUIDELINES


TABLE 12
DESCRIPTION OF FRACTURE PROPPANTS

Compartment No.
Proppant Type
Sieve Sizes Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On
8
10
12
16
20
25
30
35
40
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60
80
100
120
140
Pan

*If this data not available on location, have service company supply recent sieve analysis on sand in yard.

Page 19
TABLE 13
NITROGEN PRODUCTION TRACKING CHART

QUALITY CONTROL GUIDELINES


Truck 1 Truck 2 Truck 3 Truck 4 Truck 5 Total
Planned % Remaining % Remaining % Remaining % Remaining % Remaining Volume
Stage Usage Remaining1 Volume2 Remaining Volume Remaining Volume Remaining Volume Remaining Volume Used
(scf) (scf) (scf) (scf) (scf) (scf) (scf)
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1
Read from guage on service company nitrogen truck.
2
Obtain volimes from service company charts for the nitrogen truck.

Page 20
QUALITY CONTROL GUIDELINES
Page 21

TABLE 14
ACID AND FRACTURE TREATMENT SUMMARY SHEET

Frac via Tubing Tubing Volume:


Casing
Annulus
Tubing Size & Weight: Casing Volume
to Perfs:
Packer Depth: Total Flush Volume:
Packer Type:
Casing Size & Weight: Perforations:
SITP: SICP: ISIP:
Tested Frac Lines to: Pressured Tubing-Casing
Annulus to:

Fluid Clean Dirty Tubing Annulus


Time Type Volume Volume Rate Pres. Pres. Remarks
() () (BPM) (psi) (psi)

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Page 22
TABLE 14
(Continued)

Fluid Clean Dirty Tubing Annulus


Time Type Volume Volume Rate Pres. Pres. Remarks
() () (BPM) (psi) (psi)

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Page 23
TABLE 15
RIG UP CHECKLIST

1. Compact rig-up - minimum iron used


This is a judgment call that will come with experience. What we are looking for here is utilization of
the smallest amount of flexible iron possible. We have seen many times, simply because of personnel
lacking expertise or insome occasions ignorance or laziness, a large amount of iron is placed on the
location. In addition to being dangerous and just more material which may leak or fail, excessive iron
can cause high treating pressures and inefficient use of hydraulic horsepower. A compact location
where very little iron is used from the trucks to a manifold and then a single large line to the wellhead
at a relatively safe distance is your goal. Trucks parked helter skelter around location and little care
taken in positioning the trucks for maximum efficiency should be discussed with the service com-
pany.
2. Safe practical distance from the wellhead.
Some years ago, major oil companies specified 100 or 200 ft from the wellhead for all their treat
ments. We are all aware that in many cases, particularly mountainous terrain, this simply is not pos
sible. We believe that efforts should be made to remove fuel tanks, engines and other devices as far as
possible from the wellhead should a fire or leak occur. You need to use common sense protecting the
wellhead and equipment in the event of a disaster. There are some locations where you must be very
close to the wellhead to get the equipment on location. In this case, we recommend having the pumps
and fluid ends located in the proximity of the wellhead, and the drive engines, blenders, and other
assorted equipment as far away as possible.
3. Treating iron large enough to accommodate anticipated treating rate.
Typical sizes of treating iron available from service companies are 2-inch, 3-inch, and 4-inch. A good
working rule of thumb for a 2-inch iron is 8 bbls/min maximum rate; 3-inch, 20 bbls/min; and 4-inch,
37 bbls/min. A major consideration is that above these rates excessive friction pressures may occur.
Also, when using proppants, you would expect a much shorter life on the iron in relation to pumping
abrasive fluids, i.e., proppants. It should be noted that this rate or the total rate that we are talking
about is from the final manifold that comes together from all of the trucks going to the wellhead.
Obviously, each of the individual trucks does not have to have 4-inch iron if you are going to be
pumping at 30 bbls/min. Typically, you may have 2- or 3-inch iron coming from the individual trucks
whose rate may not exceed 8 to 10 bbls/min.
4. A check valve properly installed near the wellhead.
The most common mistake in the use of check valves is placing them at great distances from the
wellhead. The check valve is the last resort should your iron part between the check valve and the
treating equipment. This no flow/return flow valve should be as close as possible to the injection point
going into the well. Many times the vibration that typically occurs on a fracture treatments occurs at
or near the wellhead. If one parts the pipe downstream of the check valve, then it has no functionality.
You need to question the personnel to be sure they are using a flapper type check valve if ball sealers
or large materials are going to be used compared to a dart type check valve which can be plugged off
with ball sealers or diverting agents. Flapper type check valves need to be positioned so that the
flapper will close in event of no positive flow through the pipe.

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Page 24

TABLE 15
(Continued)

5. Pressure transducer at or near wellhead.


It is not uncommon to have pressure transducers actually being placed back at the pump
trucks. This is not a disastrous situation, but it can be costly. You need to have the pressure
transducer as close to the wellhead, because that is the hydraulic horsepower that you are
paying for. If you put the transducer at greater distances from the wellhead, you have to pay
for the friction between the pump trucks and the wellhead. This pressure can be much higher
if the service company is using small iron to get to a manifold or small iron to go to the
wellhead.
6. Tree saver, if required, properly installed.
A major consideration is to be sure that the tree saver is, in fact, pumped down and in place
and seated in the tubing. You need to make sure that the annulus valve or the wing valve is left
open during the treatment assuring that the tree saver is in fact installed and sealing off in the
tubing. Never shut in a wing valve and trust the tree saver to work. If the tree saver or the
packer on the tree saver fails, you will be aware of failure with fluid coming out the wing
valve. Do not exceed the maximum allowable rate for each size tree saver. Excess rate can
cause the tubing to be cut below the isolation tool. Refer to service company guidelines.
7. Lines properly staked.
Staking of pumping lines is particularly important when using energized fluids. If a line parts
on a location, it is not uncommon for that line to blow up into the air and flail around the
location causing potential loss of life and great injury. Staking of lines requires physical labor,
but should be a requirement for safety.
8. All irons should be flexible.
One of the major reasons for catastrophic failure of treating iron on fracture treatments, ce-
menting treatments, etc. is that at some point in the installation of the treating iron, improper
use of chicksans left a treating line virtually rigid.
9. Check valve and plug valve on each pump pretested before a job.
This is a controversial item and may not be an absolute necessity depending upon the pres-
sures and type of jobs being conducted. When treating wells where the pressures are high and
there is potential for loss of a well, it would seem prudent to have the ability to isolate indi-
vidual pumps during the treatment for repair of equipment or leaks. By having a check valve
and a plug valve on each pump, you have a double safety device so if the check valve fails, you
have a backup whereby pumping equipment can be individually isolated. The failure of a plug
valve or a check valve without a backup on a treatment would almost necessitate the shut
down of the entire job should a leak occur. We have found on many locations that check valves
in many areas have not been maintained and are subject to leaking. We have also noted on
many locations that service companies do not even put a blocking valve between their pump
trucks and the wellhead. This necessitates going to the wellhead and shutting the well in
should a failure occur between the wellhead and the pump. Many times this type of failure
will result in the inability to get to the wellhead. We, therefore, recommend plug valves and
checks between each pump and blocking valves at the wellhead.

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Page 25

TABLE 15
(Continued)

10. Check minimum and maximum rates for trailer manifold, if used.
It happens many times that pigs, manifold trailers, ground manifolds, or other terminology used
for this type of equipment are designed for a maximum rate or in many cases for a minimum rate.
Ile same restrictions apply on maximum rate through the manifold trailer as far as discharge lines.
If you are going to have to pump 40 or 50 bbl/min and you have a 3-inch I.D. discharge line in the
manifold trailer or the manifold itself, severe corrosion or friction will occur in the manifold.
Additionally, these trailer manifolds or ground manifolds have large I.D. suctions. This can cause
a great deal of proppant settling and potential plugging off on low viscosity delayed crosslink jobs
or foam frac treatments where high proppant concentrations are being pumped. Discuss the poten-
tial settling out of high concentrations of proppant in low viscosity fluids with the service com-
pany if trailer manifolds are going to be used where these conditions exist.
11. Check for sufficient suction hose and evaluate velocity per hose.
It is very common to find insufficient suction hose being used between the frac tanks and the
blender and additionally insufficient hose being used on the discharge side of the blender. A good
rule of thumb for 10 to 20 ft sections of 4-inch hose on the backside of the blender is that you must
have one hose per 10 bbl/min of suction required for thin fluid, i.e., prepad or flush fluid. You
should have one 4-inch hose for 5 bbl/min if pumping a 50 or 60 lb viscous gel. In the case of the
discharge side where you are using pressurizing pumps, you need at least one hose for 10 bbl/min
of discharge rate. Obviously, you need to consider the length of hosing and add additional hoses if
there are indications of pumps starving, i.e., not getting fluid. This becomes a very important
consideration on large treatments where many trucks are positioned at fairly large distances from
the pressurizing blender.

There is another consideration that needs to be taken into account when using high concentrations
of proppant, as in foam fracturing treatments. Here, you need to maintain high velocities per hose
to keep settling out and slugging of proppants occurring in low viscosity fluids. Where pumping
very high concentrations of proppants such as 18 to 21 lb/gal from the blender to the pump trucks,
you need to keep the hose length as short as possible and use as small an I.D. hose as will achieve
the necessary rate without starving the pump.
12. Check horsepower and plunger sizes of pumps on location.
This would appear to be something that is obvious and not the responsibility of the quality control
engineer. That simply is not the case. You need to question the service engineer and find out the
plunger size and horsepower of all trucks on location. By doing so and having him give you a flow
rate versus pressure at various gear rates for the pumps, you have a backup for flow should flowmeters
or other devices fail during the treatment. Additionally, it is not uncommon to have equipment on
location that is not suited for the pumping pressures anticipated on the treatment. This would occur
if large size plungers were on location where very high pressure pumping would occur. Human
beings are used to set up equipment, and people make mistakes. The use of equipment not de-
signed for high pressure pumping or alternatively high rate pumping where small size plungers are
on pumps on location can cause very rapid failure of this equipment

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Page 26

TABLE 15
(Continued)

13. Check flow monitoring equipment before the job.


It is always advisable to circulate the equipment on location and be sure that flowmeters,
densiometers, etc. are functioning prior to starting the treatment. This should be done the day
before or early in the morning of the treatment so that any electronic problems can be worked out
and not delay treatments. Ensure that the flowmeters are properly sized for the designed pump
rates. This is especially important on foam treatments, because liquid pump rates are typically
much lower than on normal non-foam treatments. Know the minimum flow rate the meters can
measure accurately. This applies to all types of meters (turbine, venturi, mass, etc.).
14. Estimate available fluid removable from the tanks.
Depending upon the type of frac tanks used, there is always a certain portion that is simply not
practically removed from that tank during that treatment. With large lay down 500 bbl tanks, it is
not uncommon that you will leave 50 bbls or so of fluid in the tank. Attempting to suck lower than
this on small volume or high rate treatments can cause loss of suction resulting in catastrophic
problems at the blender. Work with the service company along these lines making sure that you
have sufficient fluid to do the fracture treatment. Another approach would be to use work tanks to
supply fluid to the primary fracturing blender. The work tanks are kept full, providing good hydro-
static pressure, by pumping from the other tanks into the work tank using a centrifugal pump or
another blender. This will allow you to draw the fluid level in the other tanks as low as possible
without the potential for losing suction at the primary blender. On large fracture treatments it is
not uncommon to use two or three work tanks. It is never a good practice to suck out of 8 or 10
tanks simultaneously on a treatment. This allows no visual monitoring of pump rate during a
treatment. You can very easily suck one of the tanks all the way down and lose prime, potentially
screening out the well.
15. Check placement of proppant storage to assure convenient movement and access to standby blender.
It obviously does no good to have standby blenders if you cannot get proppant to that blender
during the treatment. A standby blender should be one that can immediately come on if you lose
the primary equipment. The standby blender should be primed up and running before and during
the treatment. It is also good practice to ask the service company to bring on the standby blender
during the prepad of the treatment to see its efficiency in doing so, and then go back to the primary
equipment. You need to physically look and be sure that proppant can get to the blender. One
needs to check suction hoses and discharge hoses and be sure they are properly rigged up and
chemical can be transferred and added when using a standby blender.
16. Double check working pressure rating on frac iron.
We recommend physically walking around looking at the iron, and questioning the people on
location if something does not look right. You should ask the personnel if all the iron is, in fact, the
same pressure rating. A common problem here are fittings or connections at the wellhead that may
or may not be supplied by the service company. Examples of disastrous occurrences are using low
pressure Ls or Ts as crossover to the service company equipment. Double checking this equip-
ment is an absolute must for safety and prevention of potential catastrophic accidents.

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Appendix C
Procedures and Surface Equipment
for
Implementing the Forced Closure Fracturing Technique
(Excerpt from New Techniques and Quality Control
Find Success in Enhancing Productivity and
Minimizing Proppant Flowback
Ely, Arnold, and Holditch, 1990, SPE 20708)

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FORCED CLOSURE IMPLEMENTATION PROCEDURE

1. Be sure that the wellhead and flowback manifold system are installed and tested so
the well can be flowed back within 30 seconds of completing flush. Figure 12
illustrates a typical surface layout for forced closure implementation.

2. If a liquid fracturing fluid is used, install a flow meter capable of monitoring rates
from 10to 20 gallons per minute downstream of a variable choke. If a foam frac-
turing fluid is used, no flow meter is needed. The flowback rate of gas can be
calculated from the pressure drop across the orifice.

3. Isolate the choke and flowmeter with a block valve during the treatment-

4. Insure that the choke is fully closed and isolated prior to starting the fracture treat
ment.

5. Within 30 seconds after completing the flush, open the block valve with the choke
still closed. If the choke fails, the block valve can be used as a back-up to regulate
flow rate.

6. Open the choke slowly. Do not exceed a flowback rate of 10-15 gallons per minute
for liquids or an equivalent rate for gases.

7. Monitor pressure vs time to detect fracture closure.

8. Continue to flow at a low rate for 30 minutes after near wellbore fracture closure
has been detected.

9. The flowback rate can then be increased to 20-25 gallons per minute for liquids or
equivalent rates for gases.

10. Continue flowing for an additional 30 minutes. For normal pressured or energized
produced fluids to measure sand content.wells, the flowback rate ran eventually be
increased to 1-2 BPM. Always monitor the produced fluids to measure sand
content.

11. Choke back the well as necessary when gas or oil flow rates become large.

12.Flow the well for several days or weeks using choke sizes no larger than 10-12/64
inch.

13.Monitor and record all data concerning flowing pressures and oil, gas and water flow
rates.
Diagram illustrating surface layout required to implement forced closure

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