Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Coalbed Methane
Operations
A Guide to
Coalbed Methane
Operations
v v v
By
Vicki A. Hollub
Taurus Exploration, Inc. (Birmingham, Alabama)
Paul S. Schafer
Schafer Associates (Oxford, Ohio)
1
Vicki A. Hollub, P.E. works with Taurus Exploration, Inc. as a reservoir engineer at the GRI Rock
Creek research project in Alabama. She previously worked ten years with OXY USA as a drilling
engineer and as a senior production engineer. Vicki holds a B.S. in Mineral Engineering from The
University of Alabama and is a registered professional engineer. She is a member of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers (SPE) and currently serves as chairperson of the SPE Professional Engineering
Registration Committee.
Paul S. Schafer owns and operates Schafer Associates, a consultancy that provides technical
communication services to the petroleum and petrochemical industries. He previously worked ten
years with Marathon Oil Company as a production and operations engineer and as an advanced reservoir
engineer. Paul holds a Master of Technical and Scientific Communication from Miami University at
Oxford, Ohio and a B. S. in Petroleum Engineering from Marietta College. He is a member of the
Society of Petroleum Engineers and the Society for Technical Communication.
Disclaimer
LEGAL NOTICE: This publication was prepared as an account of work sponsored by
Gas Research Institute (GRI) and other organizations. Neither GRI, members of GRI, nor
any person acting on behalf of either:
a. makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respect to the
accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of the information contained in this publication, nor
that the use of any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this publication
may not infringe privately owned rights; or
b. assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from
the use of, any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this publication.
i
Table of Contents
About this Guide i
List of Figures and Tables iv
Conventions Used in This Guide vii
Acknowledgments viii
About Producing Coalbed Methane x
ii
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams 5-1
Performing a Minifracture Test 5-2
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design 5-4
Preparing for a Fracture Treatment 5-30
Performing a Fracture Treatment 5-35
Evaluating a Fracture Treatment 5-48
iii
T
Figures and Tables
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore 2-1
Figure 2-1 The Planning Process for Drilling a Coalbed Methane Well 2-2
Figure 2-2 Setting Casing Through Zones with Lower Fracture Gradients 2-5
Figure 2-3 Selecting Hole Size 2-7
Figure 2-4 Casing Selection Chart 2-11
Figure 2-5 Conventional Rotary and Rotary-Percussion Drilling Techniques 2-16
Figure 2-6 Typical Cementing Manifold 2-50
Figure 2-7 Two Stage Cementing 2-52
i v
Figure 4-4 Perforated Cased Hole Completion 4-12
Figure 4-5 Slotted Cased Hole Completion 4-13
Figure 4-6 Fracture Communication from Restricted Access 4-21
Figure 4-7 Limited Entry Multiple-Zone Completion 4-22
Figure 4-8 Lithology of the Well P5 Interseam Completion 4-25
v
Figures and Tables (Cont'd)
v i
Conventions Used in
This Guide
S everal special elements in this guides text will help you quickly
identify different types of information:
Caution
A triangular caution note warns you about a situation that could
be unsafe, environmentally hazardous, or damaging to equipment.
Important
Information that is particularly important for you to understand is
highlighted with the symbol above.
vii
1
A
Acknowledgments
viii
Jerry Sanders and Eddie Jones Black Warrior Methane, Inc.
Drilling, fracturing, selecting production equipment and facili-
ties, and operating wells and production equipment
ix
About ProducingCoalbed
Methane
The large volumes of water present in the coal seams. Water must be
pumped continuously from coal seams to reduce reservoir pressure
and release the gas.
The modest gasflow rates from coal reservoirs. Capital outlays and
operating expenses must be minimized to produce an economical
project.
x
These unique characteristics of coalbed reservoirs will allow few ineffi-
ciencies. Successfully developing a coalbed methane field requires pru
dently managing the technical as well as the economic aspects of the project.
The Rock Creek project and the work of other operators in the Black War-
rior Basin have produced many practical techniques and guidelines for
developing coalbed methane fields. The cooperation and open communi-
cation between operators and service companies in the Black Warrior
Basin have been necessary to advance both basic knowledge and applied
experience in producing methane from coal seams.
xi
1
Chapter
Selecting and Preparing a Field Site
I n selecting and preparing a field site, you will make some of the
most important decisions about the coalbed methane project. These
decisions will affect the environmental, safety and operations aspects
of the project. These factors, in turn, will likely influence the projects
economic success.
Environmental Guidelines
As citizens become increasingly aware of and concerned about envi-
ronmental issues, the number and scope of environmental regulations
continue to grow. Certain activities related to coalbed methane
production are regulated by State and Federal agencies to help prevent
damage to the environment. By incorporating sound environmental
management into the planning and operation of a coalbed methane
field, you will help protect the environment, minimize current regula-
tory requirements, and possibly avoid costly penalties.
1-2
Disposing Produced Water
Are there waterways near the site that could be used for water
discharge?
1-3
Chapter 1 Selecting and Preparing a Field Site
Controlling Erosion
1-4
Controlling Non-Point Source Pollution
Controlling Erosion
The major component of non-point source pollution is sedimentation
from soil erosion. Sedimentation reduces stream capacities, interrupts
ecosystems, carries other pollutants into a waterbody and may cause
other potential environmental problems. Soil types, which vary
greatly from one location to another, significantly influence soil
erosion characteristics and are a factor in designing and implementing
BMPs.
Divert runoff from well sites and roads onto level vegetated
areas, terracing, riprap, or other areas that will disperse the
water and prevent soil erosion.
1-5
Chapter 1 Selecting and Preparing a Field Site
When siting access roads, follow the guidelines below to the extent
practical:
1-6
Controlling Non-Point Source Pollution
Test quarterly for pH any mine tailings (i.e., black or red rock)
used in roadbed construction.
Test each source of black or red rock.
The pH must range from 6 to 9 pH units.
Keep good records of the testing for three years.
1-7
Chapter 1 Selecting and Preparing a Field Site
1-8
Controlling Non-Point Source Pollution
1-9
Chapter 1 Selecting and Preparing a Field Site
Do not allow liquid level in pits to rise within two feet of the pit
levees or walls. Maintain pit levees or walls at all times to
prevent deterioration, subsequent overfill, and leakage of
contents to the environment.
1-10
Controlling Non-Point Source Pollution
Do not place into a reserve pit any oil, trash or other materials
which would increase the difficulty in cleanup of the pit or
otherwise harm the environment.
Properly store or dispose such material according to applicable
state or federal regulations.
Do not burn or bury garbage on site. Dispose all garbage at an
approved landfill site.
1-11
Chapter 1 Selecting and Preparing a Field Site
1-12
Preventing Spills
Preventing Spills
1-13
Chapter 1 Selecting and Preparing a Field Site
Pre-Planning
Learn all applicable State and Federal environmental regula-
tions before selecting and preparing a site. For more informa-
tion see Environmental Guidelines in this guide.
1-14
Safety and Operating Guidelines
Clearing Timber
If site development will involve clearing a substantial amount
of timber, you may consider contracting with a timber com-
pany to cut and purchase the timber. Obtain necessary autho-
rization from landowners before clearing any timber.
Contracting timbering to a qualified timber company may make
site development safer and easier. In addition, revenue from
selling the timber may help offset any payments to landowners for
timber removed during site preparation.
Plan main access road(s) into the site with the help and
cooperation of a county commissioner (or equivalent public
official) to help ensure safe road design.
1-15
Chapter 1 Selecting and Preparing a Field Site
Determine the size of the well site based on the space needed
to accommodate not only the drilling rig, but the fracturing
equipment (fluid tanks, pumps, blenders, turbines, etc.) as
well.
1-16
Additional Resources
Additional Resources
1-17
2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Figure 2-1
The Planning Process for Drilling a Coalbed Methane Well
2-2
Planning the Drilling Program
1. Collecting Information
Before you can make informed decisions about a drilling program, you
must learn as much as possible about coalbed drilling and production
operations in your area. Begin by collecting any well information
available from offset coalbed methane operators. You may also find
some of this information recorded as public information at your local
and state oil and gas regulatory agencies. Specifically, you should try
to obtain this well information:
Well logs
Casing program
You should also become familiar with considerations for preparing the
well site for drilling operations. For information on this topic, refer to
2-3
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Finally, you should consult with your local and state oil and gas
agencies and environmental agencies to learn what laws and regu-
lations you must follow.
2. Evaluating Formations
After collecting offset well information, you should evaluate any
available well logs and drilling records to determine approximate
depths for prospective coal intervals. You should also attempt to
identify any potential problem zones, such as:
Sloughing shales
Regulatory requirements
Drilling problems
Before selecting the casing setting depth, you first must determine
the fracture gradient, or pressure per foot of depth, required to
fracture the coal seams and adjacent formations. In general, you
should set casing through zones that have a fracture gradient that is
2-4
Planning the Drilling Program
Figure 2-2
Setting Casing Through Zones with
Lower Fracture Gradients
F = ( S-P x v
D 1- ) + P
D
v
where:
F = fracture gradient, psi/ft
S = overburden stress, psi
P = wellbore pressure, psi
D = depth, ft
v = Poissons ratio
2-5
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Fracture gradients for coal seams in the Black Warrior Basin range
from as low as 0.5 psi/ft to over 1.0 psi/ft.
To determine proper casing setting depths, you must also consider the
requirements of state and local regulatory agencies. For example,
regulatory agencies governing the Black Warrior Basin require that
you set a minimum of 300 feet of surface casing in wells up to 4000
feet deep.
This section will guide you through the steps for determining
proper hole sizes. Figure 2-3 illustrates the steps in this process.
Each of these steps is explained below.
2-6
Planning the Drilling Program
Figure 2-3
Selecting Hole Size
Production Performing
Rates Stimulation
Treatments
Tubing Size
Performing Future
Workovers and
Completion Method Recompletions
Select Optimum
Production Casing Size
Select Production
Hole Size
Select Optimum
Surface Casing Size
Select Surface
Hole Size
2-7
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Tubing Size
When you design the artificial lift system, you will de-
termine the optimum production tubing size to install in
the well. This decision is based on the type and size of
lift system you select as well as the estimated produc-
tion rates. For more information on selecting tubing
size, refer to Chapter 4.
Important
Selecting an insufficient tubing size may pre-
vent you from effectively dewatering a coalbed
reservoir, and thus severely limit ultimate gas
production.
Completion Method
Next, you should consider how you will complete the
well. Your choice of an open hole or cased hole completion will
influence the amount and size of production casing you run. For
example, you must select casing sizes that will accommodate the
diameter of completion tools (e.g., perforation guns, slotting tools,
underreamers) you will need to complete the well. For more
information on designing the well completion, refer to Chapter 4.
After determining the optimum casing string for your tubing and
completion requirements, you should consider several other factors.
2-8
Planning the Drilling Program
2-9
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Many operators in the Black Warrior Basin run 4-1/2 inch or 5-1/2
inch production casing. Most of the wells at the Rock Creek Project
were cased with 5-1/2 inch production casing.
2-10
Planning the Drilling Program
Figure 2-4
Casing Selection Chart
You can use this chart to select the casing, hole, and bit sizes for many drilling programs. To use the chart, follow the steps below:
1. Determine the size of the last casing to be run.
3. Follow the arrows to select the hole size required to set that size pipe (e.g., 5 in. casing inside 6-1/8 in. or 6-1/2 in. hole).
Solid lines indicate commonly used bits for that size pipe. This bit size will normally provide adequate clearance to run and
cement the casing (e.g., 5-1/2 in. casing inside 7-7/8 in. hole). Dashed lines indicate less common hole sizes (e.g., 5 in. casing
inside 6-1/8 in. hole). If you select a dashed path, you should carefully consider casing connections, mud weight, cementing,
and doglegs. Large OD connections, thick mudcake buildup, problem cementing areas (high water loss, lost returns, etc.), and
doglegs may aggravate attempts to run casing when clearance is low.
4. Follow the arrows to select a casing large enough to allow passage of a bit to drill the hole selected in step 3.
Solid lines indicate commonly required casing sizes, encompassing most weights (e.g., 6-1/2 in. bit inside 7-5/8 in. casing).
Dashed lines indicate casing sizes for which you can use only the lighter weights (e.g., 6-1/8 in. bit inside 7 in. casing).
5. Repeat steps 2-4 until you have selected all casing sizes for the well.
2-11
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Many operators in the Black Warrior Basin run an 8-5/8 inch surface
casing string. Most of the wells at the Rock Creek Project were also
cased with 8-5/8 inch surface casing.
When you design a casing string, you must consider three principal
forces:
Burst Pressure
Collapse Pressure
Tensile Load
2-12
Planning the Drilling Program
Burst Pressure
Burst pressure refers to a condition of unbalanced internal pressure.
Burst pressure is probably the most important factor in designing
the coalbed casing string because the pipe will likely experience the
greatest pressures during fracturing stimulations, when treating
pressures can exceed 5000 psi. You can estimate the treating
pressures required by using the fracture gradients you predicted
when determining casing setting depth (step 3 above). Once you
have estimated fracture gradients for the coal seams of interest, you
can select the proper casing weight and grade. For more informa-
tion on casing specifications, refer to a service company casing
handbook.
Collapse Pressure
Collapse pressure is the unbalanced external pressure imposed on
the pipe. The worst operational case is for the pipe to be empty
with a normal hydrostatic pressure gradient exerted on it from the
outside. The greatest differential pressure exerted on the casing is
most likely to occur during flowback of a fracture treatment or
during the later stage of production when pressure inside the
wellbore decreases significantly. You should design the casing
string for this worst case scenario.
Tensile Load
Tensile load is the force exerted on a joint by the weight of the
joints below it. Because each joint supports all the weight below it,
the greatest tension occurs at the top of the string. Most coalbed
wells in the Black Warrior Basin are shallow; therefore, tensile load
is not a primary consideration for this area.
2-13
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Limited service casing is also called mill reject because one or more
specifications does not meet API standards. However, limited service
casing may also be tested to 80 percent of the minimum yield as set
forth by API specifications. Therefore, to reduce cost you may choose
to use limited service casing for some applications.
Typical casing grades are F-25, H-40, J-55, K-55, C-75, N-80,
C-95, and P-110. These grades represent the strength of the casing. A
variety of casing weights and wall thicknesses is also available for use
according to well conditions. Select the size, weight, and grade of
production casing based on the individual well design and completion
technique. For more information on completing coalbed methane
wells, refer to Chapter 4.
Important
Before ordering casing, find out the limitations of casing weight
and length for the rig you will use to run the tubulars. By
ordering Range Two casing and tubing, which have lengths of
28-32 feet, you may be able to use a smaller, less costly rig.
Caution Using casing smaller than 4-1/2 inch (O.D) limits the size of
production tubing you can run inside it. If the casing/tubing
annulus is too small, the flow path for gas will be restricted and
the annulus can easily plug.
2-14
Planning the Drilling Program
In the northern end of the Black Warrior Basin, where the surface
formations are hard, coalbed wells are often drilled from surface to
total depth using the rotary-percussion technique. In this area,
drilling with a tri-cone rotary bit yields lower penetration rates
because at shallow depths it is not possible to apply sufficient
weight on the bit.
In the southern end of the Black Warrior Basin, however, where the
softer Cretaceous formations are encountered from surface to as
deep as 500 feet, the surface hole must be drilled using a tri-cone
rotary bit with drilling fluid (usually water) to prevent hole col-
lapse. After drilling through the Cretaceous formations and setting
surface casing, drillers usually switch to rotary-percussion drilling
to achieve greater penetration rates in the harder formations.
Most of the coalbeds in the Black Warrior Basin are water satu-
rated, low pressure, low permeability formations. In some parts of
the basin, little formation water flows into the wellbore during
drilling, and air circulation can easily remove not only cuttings, but
any produced water as well. When the wells at the Rock Creek site
2-15
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
were drilled, a mixture of water and liquid soap was added to the
compressed air to enhance lifting of cuttings and cleaning of the
hole. For more information on removing drilling cuttings, refer to
step 7, Designing the Hydraulics of the Drillstring.
Figure 2-5
Conventional Rotary and Rotary-Percussion
Drilling Techniques
2-16
Planning the Drilling Program
In most cases, you can achieve the greatest penetration rate in hard
formations by using a percussion bit with an air hammer. However, if
you encounter a particularly hard formation when drilling with a tri-cone
roller bit, you may switch from air to water to better cool the bit. All of
the wells at the Rock Creek site were drilled using only air or air mist
as the circulating fluid.
The main benefits and limitations of drilling with air circulation are:
Benefits
Eliminates possible filtration damage to coal
Limitations
Unable to effectively lift large volumes of water
When drilling in some parts of the Black Warrior Basin, you may
encounter permeable faults and fracture systems that produce large
volumes of water. Because state and federal environmental regulations
prohibit overflow of drilling pits, you must stop air drilling if a well
produces water faster than it can be hauled away. This problem can
severely jeopardize projects with economics based on the lower cost of
air drilling.
Water producing zones can also cause loss of circulation problems with
wellbores that are rotary drilled with fluid. Using conventional lost
circulation materials to control fluid loss has sometimes proven ineffec-
tive and expensive. In addition, lost circulation materials may greatly
reduce the effective permeability and the gas producing potential of coal
formations. Similarly, squeeze cementing to control water influx and
loss of returns can be prohibitively expensive.
2-17
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
If you use the alternating fluid technique, you should use bits that
do not contain jets. (Air bits usually do not have jets installed.) If
you must use jets, they should be large enough to keep standpipe
pressure below maximum compressor pressure. (For more infor-
mation on drillbits, refer to step 8, Selecting the Drillbit and
Drillstring).
2-18
Planning the Drilling Program
2-19
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
You can estimate the required surface air pressure using the equa-
tion below:
where:
Psurf = the compressor discharge pressure at the surface
2-20
Planning the Drilling Program
Pah = the total hydrostatic head in the annulus minus the hydro-
static head in the drillpipe.
Because air mist fluids have a higher viscosity than air fluids, they
can effectively lift cuttings at a much lower flow velocity than air.
For example, air circulation usually requires a flow velocity of
3000 ft/minute to effectively clean the hole, whereas a stable foam
fluid may require a velocity of only 200-300 ft/minute. The high
flow velocity needed for air drilling can erode and enlarge the hole,
greatly reducing the ability to remove cuttings.
2-21
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
When drilling with air or air mist, you do not have the advantage of
drilling fluid in the wellbore to cool the bit. However, specially
designed tri-cone rotary bits are available for air drilling. These
bits contain ports that allow air to circulate around the bearings in
the bit to dissipate heat and extend bit life.
When using a common rotary bit with air mist drilling, the water in
the mist helps to cool the bit. If you encounter a particularly hard
formation when drilling with a tri-cone roller bit, you may switch
from air to water to better cool the bit. You will find more infor-
mation on drillbits for air drilling in the next section.
DRILLBITS
When determining the bit program for a coalbed well, you should
consider these factors:
Bit cost
Formation types
Drilling techniques
Hydraulics
Rig cost
2-22
Planning the Drilling Program
Before selecting the bits for your drilling program, the data that you
gathered as discussed in Section 1 should provide information about
formation types, drilling techniques, and commonly used hydraulics.
The bit records of offset wells should be included in that data. If not,
this type of information can often be obtained from bit suppliers. A
review of the offset bit records will help to estimate the number and
types of bits to use.
You will determine the size of the drillbits based on the sizes of the holes
for the surface casing and production casing, which you selected in step
4, Selecting Hole Size, earlier in this chapter.
The bits most commonly used in drilling coalbed methane wells are tri-
cone rotary bits and percussion bits.
A specially designed tri-cone rotary bit is available for air drilling. This
bit contains ports which allow air to flow through the bearing assembly
for cooling. Most tri-cone air bits are open port bits and are thus more
susceptible to corrosion than sealed bearing tri-cone rotary bits.
If you drill with air only, a tri-cone air bit may provide the longest bit
life. However, if you plan to alternate drilling air mist and water, a
sealed bearing bit will likely last longer. You should consider using
sealed bearing bits to provide the flexibility of drilling with either air-
mist or water.
Percussion bits
Percussion bits are used in combination with air hammers. This type of
bit is used exclusively for drilling hard formations with air or air-foam
mist. As discussed earlier in step 6, Selecting a Drilling Technique,
percussion drilling is necessary when drilling hard formations at very
shallow depths. Percussion bits with air hammers cannot be used in soft
or sloughing formations. A typical percussion bit and air hammer is
shown in Figure 2-5. If you encounter a soft formation, such as the
Cretaceous in the Southwestern part of the Black Warrior Basin, you
should use tri-cone rotary bits with fluid.
2-23
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
At the Rock Creek project, the surface holes were drilled with
rotary bits because the first several feet of the hole are in a soft
formation. Because the State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama
required less surface casing then than it does now, drilling was
continued with the rotary bit down to the setting depth for the
surface casing. After setting surface casing, the production holes at
Rock Creek were drilled with percussion bits and air hammers.
Drill Collars
To select the number of drill collars for the drillstring, you must
consider the weight-on-bit that the operator or drilling contractor has
determined necessary to drill the hole. You can determine the opti-
mum weight-on-bit by conducting drilloff tests or by estimating it
from offset bit records. For more information on determining weight-
on-bit, you may consult with drilling contractors in your areas of
interest as well as drillbit suppliers.
When air drilling, the drillstring and bottomhole assembly (BHA) are
subjected to high vibration loads. This vibration is often extreme on
the bottomhole assembly and the connection between the BHA and the
drillpipe, especially when drilling hard formations. To protect the
drillstring and the drillstring/BHA connection, you should design the
drillstring so that the neutral point between axial, tensile, and com-
pressive stresses during normal drilling is located in the drill collars.
You can calculate the length of drill collars needed to achieve this
condition by using this equation:
where:
2-24
Planning the Drilling Program
Drillpipe
When selecting drillpipe, you should base your selection on the
worst case drilling scenario. If you are drilling wells in a devel-
oped area, consult with drilling contractors in the area. They likely
have gained enough experience to recommend drillpipe designs that
work effectively in that area. In the Black Warrior Basin, most
drilling contractors use 4-1/2 inch drillpipe. For more information
on designing drillstrings, refer to Additional Resources at the end of
this chapter.
Stabilizers
Stabilizers are sometimes run in the drillstring to control hole
deviation. The operator must usually decide what arrangement of
stabilizers, if any, to run. When determining the type and number
of stabilizers to run, you should consider the desired weight-on-bit,
penetration rate, and type of formations to be drilled. To learn
what arrangements of stabilizers work best in your area of interest,
you should consult with drilling contractors in the area.
2-25
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Check Valves
You should install check valves at specific intervals in the
drillstring to:
Reduce the volume of air that must be bled off when mak-
ing a connection.
2-26
Planning the Drilling Program
where:
2-27
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Air Compressors
In the Black Warrior Basin, most wells are drilled with compressed
air. To determine the number and size of air compressors needed
to drill a particular well, you must first estimate an air circulation
rate and maximum injection pressure. For information on estimat-
ing air circulation rate and injection pressure, refer to step 7,
Designing the Hydraulics of the Drillstring, earlier in this chapter.
2-28
Planning the Drilling Program
Derrick
You should select a rig with a derrick weight capacity that will
enable the operator to use the designed drillstring and to run the
desired casing string. The maximum loading on the rig usually
occurs when running casing. You should also select a derrick
height (single or double stand) that fits your well location size and
is compatible with the depth of your well. The increased cost for a
rig that can run doubles (two joints of pipe connected), may be
justified in deeper wells because it could significantly reduce trip
time. However, a rig with a single-stand derrick is usually suffi-
cient for most coalbed wells.
Drive System
In general, you can choose from two types of drive systems. The
most common system is the conventional rotary table and kelly used
in most oil and gas fields.
2-29
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Blooey Line
The return line, or blooey line, carries the exhaust air and cuttings from
the annulus to the flare pit. The blooey line should be long enough to
keep dust from interfering with rig operations. In most cases, the line
should be 100-300 feet long.
You should size the blooey line so that the internal cross-sectional area
is about 10% greater than the annular area of the near-surface
borehole. This slightly larger area is needed to compensate for the
fluid energy loss that occurs as the air and cuttings make a 90-degree
turn from vertical flow to horizontal flow under the rig floor.
The end of the line should terminate downwind from the prevailing
wind direction. You should also make sure the end of the blooey line
is tied down securely.
Chemical Pumps
Chemical pumps are used to inject water or chemical foamers into the
wellbore during drilling.
2-30
Planning the Drilling Program
meter is available, you can estimate the air rate based on the size of the
compressor and the suction and discharge pressures.
Pump Gauges
Accurate pressure gauges should be installed on the standpipe and at the
compressor discharge. These gauges can be used to monitor wellbore
conditions and predict potential downhole problems.
Bleed-Off Line
A bleed-off line should be installed to bleed pressure off the standpipe
and the drillpipe down to the top check valve. This pressure is bled
through the blooey line.
Burn Pit
A burn pit at the end of the blooey line can be used to catch any wellbore
effluent (such as chemicals or hydrocarbons) that would otherwise
contaminate the reserve pit. Because few chemicals are used to drill
coalbed methane wells in the Black Warrior Basin, contamination of
the reserve pit is usually not a problem. Thus most drilling contractors
vent the blooey line directly to the reserve pit.
2-31
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
2-32
Drilling the Wellbore
3. Drill the initial part of the surface hole (20-30 feet) using a tri-
cone roller bit with compressed air.
When drilling 7-7/8 inch hole, the optimum rate of rotation for
a percussion bit and air hammer is 10-30 RPM, and the
optimum rate of rotation for a tri-cone rotary bit is 50-60
RPM.
2-33
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Caution Once you begin circulating water, you must continue using
some water to drill the rest of the hole. If you switch back
to just air after using water, you risk mixing dry and wet
cuttings and causing severe plugging in the drillpipe-casing
annulus.
2-34
Drilling the Wellbore
Caution Use drilling mud and other additives only if clear heavy-
weight fluids are not available or are not sufficient to
control formation pressure. Drilling mud invasion into the
coal may cause formation damage and may permanently
destroy the productivity of the well.
Important 9. Drill at least 250 to 300 feet below the deepest target coal seam
to provide adequate sump for logging, fracturing, and pro-
duction operations.
11. After the drillbit is removed from the hole, measure the
diameter of the bit to make sure the diameter of the hole will
provide the required clearance for the casing and casing
hardware.
2-35
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
This section explains the equipment used for three different coring
methods as well as important considerations and guidelines for coring
operations:
2-36
Coring the Wellbore
2-37
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
pulled with the wireline overshot, and it is replaced with the coring
barrel. The coring barrel (and core catcher) is dropped inside the
drillpipe and it automatically latches into the drill collar. After the core
has been cut, the barrel (with the core inside) is pulled with the wireline
overshot.
Can take cores from any depth after the hole is drilled
2-38
Coring the Wellbore
Fill the wellbore with fluid before coring to reduce the amount
of gas lost from core samples.
Cores taken from air-drilled holes may lose a large amount of gas.
2-39
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Select core points with competent rock above and below the
coal interval.
Competent core above and below the coal in the core barrel will
increase the probability of successfully retrieving the core.
Begin coring with a light bit weight and low rotary speed and
then gradually increase weight and speed as cutting is estab-
lished.
Use low pump rates when coring to avoid washing away the
coal.
2-40
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore
2-41
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Guide Shoe
A guide shoe is a short heavy-walled pipe or collar with a round
nose on bottom. The shoe is installed on the bottom of the casing
to prevent the casing from hanging on ledges or other borehole
irregularities. The guide shoe is attached to the bottom of the
production casing before running the casing into the hole.
Float Collar
A float collar contains an internal valve which prevents backflow
of cement up the casing string during cementing operations. It also
increases the buoyancy of the casing, thus reducing the load on the
rig while running casing. In addition, the float collar serves as a
stop for the cement wiper plug so that all of the cement is not
inadvertently pumped out of the casing. The float collar is usually
installed one joint above the guide shoe.
Casing Centralizers
Casing centralizers ensure the casing remains in the center of the
wellbore during cementing operations to allow for cement coverage on
all sides of the casing string. Centralizing the casing improves the
probability of effective cement jobs and zone isolation. In addition,
centralization reduces the negative effects of bends or doglegs in the
casing which could hamper artificial lift equipment and workover
operations.
When cementing across a coal seam, you should always run central-
izers above and below each seam that may be produced at some future
time.
2-42
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore
The number of centralizers that you should run in the rest of the casing
string depends on the hole size and the amount of hole deviation. When
running 5-1/2 inch casing in a 7-7/8 inch hole, most service companies
recommend running a centralizer at least every third or fourth joint. If
the hole is highly deviated, you will need to space the centralizers closer
together.
Important
Inadequate centralization of the casing can prevent an effective
cement job.
Cement Basket
A cement basket is a tool attached to the outside of the casing to
provide support for the cement column while it cures. Cement baskets
can be placed above zones that have low fracture gradients to prevent
them from breaking down. If cement baskets become filled with
debris, they may inhibit reciprocation of casing.
The latch-down plugs wipe the casing free of cement during displace-
ment. The wiper plug latches in an internal catch in the baffle plate to
prevent flow back into the casing after cementing.
Float Shoe
A float shoe is a combination guide shoe and float collar. It has a round
nose, and it contains a check valve and may also contain a catcher for
the wiper plug. A latch-down plug may be used to prevent backflow
in case the check valve fails. A float shoe can be used instead of a float
collar and guide shoe.
2-43
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
2-44
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore
Class A Slurry
Pozmix Slurry
Silicalite Slurry
Foam Slurry
Specialized Slurry
Class A Slurry
Operators have used several different types of cement in coalbed
methane wells. The simplest type used is Class A, which is a
common portland cement. Class A cement has a density of 15.6 ib/
gal without additives. Adding bentonite to Class A cement can
lower its density by increasing the maximum allowable volume of
water that can be added to the cement. Adding 6% bentonite can
reduce the density to 13.5 lb/gal.
You can use Class A cement for relatively shallow coals if the coal
will support its density. The maximum depth recommended for
Class A is 6000 ft. Class A cement is more economical than the
other premium cements.
2-45
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Pozmix Slurry
Pozzolans are siliceous or siliceous/aluminuous materials which you
can use to lower the density of cement slurries, much the same as
bentonite. If you are working in an area where the coal formation will
support cement densities of 12 to 14 lb/gal, you can use a Pozmix
slurry to provide zone isolation and adequate compressive strength.
Silicalite Slurry
2-46
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore
Foam Slurry
Operators often use foam cement slurries to cement shallow, low
pressure coalbed methane wells where weak zones would break
down if a normal density cement were used. If you are working in
an area where wellbore integrity requires slurries under 11 lb/gal,
you may consider using a foam cement.
Caution Pumping foam cement at too high a rate may create a higher
friction pressure in the casing annulus than would other types
of cement. This increased friction pressure may offset the
benefit of the lighter weight of foam cement. To fully realize
the benefits of foam cements lighter weight, do not pump foam
cement at an excessive rate.
Specialized Slurries
You can use a variety of specialized slurries and additives to meet
individual well requirements. For example, if you encounter a highly
permeable zone that causes lost circulation, you could seal it off using
a thixotropic cement, which sets very quickly. Thixotropic cements are
also very effective for secondary or remedial cementing.
If you need a light cement for a primary cement job, you might use a
special cement that incorporates hollow glass beads, or microspheres,
with a base cement. You can add these hollow microspheres to any type
2-47
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Cement Additives
Special additives are usually mixed with the base cement to alter or
improve slurry properties. You can use additives to accelerate or
retard cement curing, to reduce slurry density, to control fluid loss or
lost circulation, or to modify other slurry properties. For example, you
can add calcium chloride or sodium chloride to cement to accelerate
the time required for the cement to set or to hydrate. As mentioned
earlier, you also can add pozzolans or bentonite to reduce the density
of the cured cement.
Add a low fluid loss additive to the slurry. Use an additive that
does not delay thickening time or increase slurry
viscosity.
2-48
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore
2-49
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Figure 2-6
Typical Cementing Manifold
2-50
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore
Caution
Be careful not to bump the plug so hard that the pressure
increase exceeds the casing burst pressure. Make sure the
cementing service company uses a pump operator with enough
experience to avoid this problem.
If the well was drilled with mud, pump a bottom plug ahead of the
cement slurry to wipe the mud from the casing and prevent contami-
nation of the lead cement. As an alternative to pumping a bottom plug,
you can pump a spacer or a mud preflush ahead of the cement. In wells
drilled with air and circulated with fresh water, you do not need to
pump a plug or spacer ahead of the cement.
2-51
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Figure 2-7
Two Stage Cementing
2-52
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore
8. After the plug is set, apply pump pressure inside the casing
to open the lower sleeve of the cementing collar or to open
the ports of the external casing packer, whichever is used.
For more information on cementing collars and external casing
packers, refer to Selecting Casing Hardware, earlier in this
chapter.
2-53
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
12. Pump water behind the plug to displace the cement into
the annulus. See Figure 2-7.
When the closing plug reaches the closing seat, the pump
pressure in the casing closes the cementing collar ports to the
annulus.
13. Shut in the well for at least 48 hours to allow the cement
time to cure. A curing time of 72 hours is even better.
14. Pump into the casing with water and pressure test the
cement to 1000 psi or to the pressure specified by your
company.
Because all of the internal parts of the cementing collar and float shoes
are drillable, you can pass drillbits through the casing to complete
open hole intervals below the casing.
2-54
Casing and Cementing the Wellbore
Caution Reciprocating casing too rapidly can create pressure surges in the
wellbore and fracture the coal. To prevent pressure surges,
reciprocate the casing no more than 15-20 ft over a period of two
minutes.
2-55
Chapter 2 Drilling and Casing the Wellbore
Additional Resources
2-56
3 Wireline Logging
Reservoir
Property Source
3-2
Sources For Estimating Reservoir Properties
Table 3-2
Logging Sources for Estimating Reservoir Properties
Reservoir
Property Open Hole Log Cased Hole Log
3-3
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
The bulk density log is an excellent tool for identifying and evaluating
coal seams. Generally, you can identify coal seams by comparing
3-4
Open Hole Logging Tools for Identifying Coal Seams
the bulk density of coal (1.20 to 1.80 g/cc) to that of other formations
(2.2 to 2.7 g/cc). The density of coal is affected by ash content. The
higher the ash content, the higher the density response on the log.
Gamma rays are emitted from the source into the formation and then
are scattered by the orbital electrons of the atoms in the material being
measured. This phenomena, called Compton Scattering, causes the
gamma rays to lose energy. If the material is very dense (i.e., contains
many electrons), the gamma rays become more scattered and more of
them are absorbed by the material. Because of this absorption of
gamma rays near the detector, fewer gamma rays reach the detector.
In formations with fewer electrons (lower density), the gamma rays are
not slowed as much and therefore more of them reach the detector.
3-5
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
Figure 3-1
Bulk Density Log
3-6
Open Hole Logging Tools for Identifying Coal Seams
Some of the more common matrix densities are listed in Table 3-3.
Table 3-3
Matrix Densities
Once you determine from the density log that an interval contains a coal
seam, be sure also to check the caliper log and gamma ray log to verify that
the density response was not caused by a hole washout.
Evaluating seam thickness using log data is directly related to the vertical
resolution and sample rate of the logging device. The distance of the
detector from the radioactive source strongly influences the vertical
resolution of the logging device. Most standard oilfield density tools have
a source-to-detector spacing of 18 inches. The vertical resolution of this
tool has been improved by increasing the sample rate from every 6 inches
to every tenth of a foot. Currently, oilfield density tools can provide a
resolution of about 6 inches. The oilfield density logs can be computer
enhanced to provide results similar to the density tools available from
mineral logging service companies.
3-7
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
Important When using a density log, make sure to question the validity of
density measurements across washed out zones. The density tool
is a pad device which requires good borehole contact to measure
accurately.
As a guide for determining net pay thickness of coal seams for use in
reservoir simulators and well test analysis, ResTech, Inc. recommends
using a density cutoff of 1.75 g/cc. The coal thickness obtained using
this method should be compared to core data (if available). In thin coal
seams, the density value on the density log can be erroneously high.
3-8
Open Hole Logging Tools for Identifying Coal Seams
Figure 3-2
Comparison of Conventional Density and
Mineral Logging Density Logs
3-9
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
Table 3-4
Photoelectric Absorption Index
for Common Formations
Photoelectric
Formation Absorption Index
Sandstone 1.810
Shale 3.420
Coal 0.180
Caliper Log
The caliper log measures the gauge of the borehole. Formations
may remain in gauge during drilling or they may have severe
washouts. The hole condition will depend on the formations en-
countered and the drilling techniques used.
Figure 3-3 shows a caliper log run with a bulk density log. The caliper
shows that the Mary Lee seam at (1045-1048 ft) and the Blue Creek
seam at (1051-1057 ft) are in gauge.
3-10
Open Hole Logging Tools for Identifying Coal Seams
Table 3-5
Total Natural Radioactivity of
Common Formations
Sandstone 10 - 30
Coal <70
Shale 80 - 140
3-11
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
You can use the deep induction curve primarily for correlating
coalbeds. The deep induction shows a very gradual increase in
resistivity at coalbed boundaries because of its large vertical resolu-
tion (approximately 6 feet). Because most coals in the Black
Warrior Basin are less than 2 feet thick (the Blue Creek seam is
approximately 5 feet thick), the dual induction log is not widely
used on wells in this basin. Dual induction logs are limited by thin
bed effects, borehole washouts, and mud resistivity.
The shallow induction log, which is usually run with the dual
induction log, is a resistivity device that normally shows sharp
increases in resistivity at coalbed boundaries. Because this tool has
a resolution of approximately 18 inches, you can use it for measur-
ing the thickness of coalbeds.
When using the dual induction log, you should follow these guide-
lines:
3-12
Open Hole Logging Tools for Identifying Coal Seams
Figure 3-3
Dual Induction/Shallow Log
3-13
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
Figure 3-4
Phasor Induction Log
3-14
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
The most recent advance in the induction log is the Array Induction
Tool (AIT). This Schlumberger log, which is an improvement
over the Phasor Induction Log, collects 28 measurements and can
display five induction curves. This tool can investigate as deep as
90 inches and as shallow as 10 inches. The AIT provides even
better definition of shoulder beds than the Phasor Induction Log.
The AIT has only been available to the industry for a few months,
and it has not yet been used in coalbed methane wells in the Black
Warrior Basin.
3-15
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
Table 3-6
Responses for Logs
Commonly Used to Evaluate Coals
Density Logs
Bulk Photo- Sonic
Density electric Gamma Ray Neutron TravelTime
Formation (g/cc) Index (API units) Porosity (%) ( sec/ft)
You can run several logs to evaluate the quality and mechanical
properties of coal and non-coal formations encountered in the
wellbore. This section provides a brief discussion of the logging
tools listed below:
Microlog
Dual Laterolog/Microspherically Focussed Log
Spontaneous Potential (SP) Log
Compensated Neutron Log
Epithermal Neutron Log
Formation Microscanner
Sonic Log
Full Waveform Sonic Log
3-16
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
Geochemical Logs
Carbon/Oxygen Log
Spectral Gamma Ray Log
Borehole Televiewer
Temperature Log
Computer-Processed Log Presentations
Geophysical Well Log Models
Microlog
The microlog is a tool that measures resistivities at two different
depths in the formation immediately adjacent to the borehole. One
of the resistivities is the mudcake resistivity and the other is the
formation (or coal) resistivity. The resistivity of the mudcake is
significantly less than that of coal. Consequently, if mudcake has
formed in the borehole across an interval, the two resistivity curves
will separate because they are reading different levels of resistivity.
For mudcake to form, mud filtrate (liquid) must pass into the
formation. Thus, the presence of mudcake across a formation is an
indication of permeability in that formation. Therefore, positive
separation of the resistivity curves on a microlog could indicate
coal cleat development in coalbed wells drilled with mud.
Because most wells in the Black Warrior Basin are drilled with air
or water instead of mud, the microlog is not usually run in this
basin. In areas where coalbed methane wells are drilled with mud,
there are several factors that can affect the microlog:
3-17
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
3-18
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
Because most wells in the Black Warrior Basin are air-drilled, the
DLL/MSFL log is not usually run in this basin.
3-19
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
Figure 3-5
SP Log
into the formation. These neutrons collide with hydrogen atoms and
are slowed down. The receivers on the neutron tool measure the
speed, or energy, of the neutrons that have collided. This measure-
ment reflects the concentration of hydrogen in the formation. Be-
cause the only hydrogen in clean reservoir rock is associated with
water or oil, the neutron measurement indicates the porosity of the
formation. In coalbeds, however, the high concentration of hydro-
gen (even when water is not present) causes the neutron log to
measure erroneously high porosity values.
3-20
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
Important The CNL can be run in liquid-filled holes, either open hole or
cased hole. However, the CNL cannot be run in air or
gas-filled holes. When using the compensated neutron log, you
should question the validity of compensated neutron log mea-
surements across washed out intervals.
Figure 3-6
Compensated Neutron Log
3-21
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
The compensated neutron log (CNL) can detect only thermal neu-
trons. However, the epithermal neutron log contains detectors
which can distinguish between thermal and epithermal neutrons.
Both the CNL and epithermal logs are useful for identifying
coalbeds. However, the epithermal log can provide more accurate
porosity measurements in non-coal formations. In addition, the
epithermal log can be run in both open and cased holes.
Formation MicroScanner
The Formation Microscanner (a registered trademark of
Schlumberger) is a pad device that records microresistivity varia-
tions around the borehole wall. The tool can be used to determine
coal cleat orientation.
3-22
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
Figure 3-7
Comparison of Cleat Orientation Determined from
a Formation MicroScanner Log and from Cores
3-23
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
Sonic Log
In conventional applications, empirical correlations are used to
relate sonic travel time to porosity if the lithology is known. In
coalbed methane wells, sonic logs may be used to determine coal
rank. They also may be used to identify coalbeds; however, they
are not as accurate as the density and gamma ray logs.
Important You should evaluate all log information available when using
the sonic tool to identify coal. You can easily confuse carbon-
aceous shales for coal if you rely only on analysis of transit
time.
Figure 3-8 shows a sonic log run at the Rock Creek project. The
sonic travel time in the Blue Creek coal (1050-1056 ft) and the
Mary Lee coal (1044-1047 ft) show travel times greater than 125
microseconds and 115 microseconds, respectively. The travel time
in the Mary Lee coal is shorter because it is a thinner bed.
3-24
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
Figure 3-8
Sonic Log
3-25
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
3-26
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
Figure 3-9
Full Waveform Sonic Log
Geochemical Logs
Geochemical logs are useful in measuring elemental components of
the formation. These logs can be used in creating depositional
models for coalbeds and in correlating ash beds from well-to-well,
similar to the use of the spectral gamma ray tools. Currently, GRI
is sponsoring research on developing depositional models for
coalbeds based on geochemical logging.
3-27
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
The geochemical log and the carbon/oxygen log are often run
together and displayed on a computer-processed presentation such
as the one shown in Figure 3-10 from the Rock Creek project. The
right hand track of this presentation shows the formation composi-
tion derived by a computer model from the base logs (gamma ray
spectroscopy, natural gamma ray, neutron, density, and dual induc-
tion). Because early lithology models could not adequately account
for coal intervals, this log erroneously shows a quartz (sandstone)
formation with high porosity across the Mary Lee/Blue Creek coal
seam at 1044-1056 ft.
Carbon/Oxygen Log
The carbon/oxygen log provides a measure of the carbon content of
the formation. In conventional oil and gas applications, the carbon/
oxygen (C/O) log is used to help determine oil saturation behind
pipe. In coalbed methane wells, the carbon/oxygen log may be used
to determine the BTU content of coal. Bituminous coal yields a large
contrast between the carbon/oxygen ratio at the sand-shale baseline
and in the coal. This contrast can help you identify coals behind pipe.
3-28
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
Figure 3-10
Geochemical and Carbon/Oxygen Log
3-29
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
Because coals have very low porosity (2-6%) and very high carbon
content, the carbon/oxygen log responds primarily to the carbon
content of the coal rather than to fluid-filled porosity. In fact, the
carbon/oxygen log response is much more pronounced across a coal
seam than across an oil-bearing sandstone. Figure 3-10 shows a
carbon/oxygen log run across the Blue Creek/Mary Lee coal seam at
1044-1056 ft.
Important The C/O log is most accurate in a uniform gauge, open hole. In
cased holes, washouts behind the pipe will degrade the C/O ratio.
Figure 3-11
VOLAN Geochemical Log
3-30
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
You can also use the spectral gamma ray log for modeling deposi-
tional environments. For example, many coals, especially low rank
coals, can be identified by their high concentrations of Uranium.
You may also enhance depositional models by estimating clay
mineral content from the spectral gamma ray log.
On the left-hand track of the spectral gamma ray log, total radioac-
tivity counts are recorded in either counts per minute or API units.
On the right-hand track of the log, the potassium (K) curve is re-
corded in percent, and the uranium (U) and Thorium (Th) curves are
recorded in parts per million (ppm).
Figure 3-12 shows a spectral gamma ray log run at the Rock Creek
project. The Mary Lee and Blue Creek coal seams are shown at
1045-1057 ft.
Borehole Televiewer
The borehole televiewer is an acoustic device that scans the bore-
hole horizontally with a rotating, focused receiver. The televiewer
has been used with only limited success in detecting coalbed
thickness and in identifying coal cleats. Borehole televiewers are
very sensitive to borehole geometry. Because it provides poor
measurements in elongated, rugose, or collapsing boreholes, the
borehole televiewer has been used little in coalbed wells.
Temperature Log
Because temperature changes across coalbeds are usually very
subtle, temperature logs are not useful for delineating coalbeds.
3-31
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
Figure 3-12
Spectral Gamma Ray Log
3-32
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
When a correlation between the core and log data has been estab-
lished for one well, a model based on that correlation can be devel-
oped for the entire field. The model can then be used to estimate
coal quality, gas content, and coal permeability for development
wells in that field based solely on well log information. This
technique, when perfected, could eliminate the need to obtain cores
from each well. For more information on this GRI research, refer
to The Development of Formation Evaluation Technology for
Coalbed Methane - Annual Technical Report (December 1990 -
December 1991), ResTech, Inc. for GRI, March, 1992.
3-33
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
Figure 3-13
Computer-Processed Coal Quality Log
If you use geophysical modelling for a field, you should model each
coal seam separately. Don't assume correlations for one coal seam
will apply to another seam. In addition, you should understand the
geology of the field well enough to recognize what factors might
cause a variation in coal quality, gas content, or coal permeability.
The reservoir and rock properties of the coal and overlying rock can
vary considerably over short distances. Some of the variables that
may contribute to this heterogeneity are the presence or absence of
fractures in the overlying rock, stress regimes in the rock, cleat
development within the coal, and the presence of mineral filling in
the cleat system.
3-34
Selecting an Open Hole Logging Suite
Table 3-7
Logging Tools for
Open Hole Exploration Wells
Density,
Full Waveform Sonic Mechanical properties
3-35
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
Table 3-8
Logging Tools for
Open Hole Development Wells
Important When possible, you should log the open (uncased) hole as
soon as practical after drilling and conditioning it. This
practice helps to reduce the chance of damaging the forma-
tion before measuring its properties.
3-36
Cased Hole Logging Tools
If you are logging in a new area, you can refer to well logs
from offset wells (if they are available) to approximate coal
seam depths.
Make one or two repeat runs over the coal beds before
making the main logging run.
Repeat runs help you to validate the logging measurement.
3-37
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
You should establish the pulsed neutron ratio cutoff for coal
on a well-by-well basis.
Differences in hole size, cement quality, casing size, and tubing
size affect the accuracy of the ratio curve.
3-38
Cased Hole Logging Tools
The variable density log (VDL) is usually included with the CBL.
The VDL provides information about the quality of the formation
bonding. You can run a gamma ray log simultaneously with the
CBL/VDL.
3-39
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
Figure 3-14
Cement Bond/Variable Density Log
3-40
Selecting a Cased Hole Logging Suite
3-41
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
Table 3-9
Logging Tools for Cased Hole Wells
3-42
Guidelines for Cased HoleLogging
Correlate the cement bond log with the open hole log to
make sure they are recorded at the same depth. The
gamma ray log is the primary source for this correlation.
When running a cement bond log, make sure you tag and
record the plugged back total depth (PBTD) of the well and
log from PBTD to the top of the cement.
3-43
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
Figure 3-15
Wellhead Configuration for Annular Logging
3-44
Production Logging Tools
Gradiomanometer
Temperature Log
Downhole Camera
Continuous Flowmeter
The continuous flowmeter is used to determine which coal inter-
vals are contributing flow to the wellbore and the percentage flow
contribution from each interval. The tool is a spinner type veloci-
meter which records a continuous flow profile versus depth. Al-
though the continuous flowmeter has no practical upper limit on
flow rate which can be measured, there is a minimum flow rate
below which the tool will not operate.
3-45
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
Figure 3-16
Flowmeter Developed for Coalbed Methane Wells
Important
To properly calibrate a continuous flowmeter, you must first
establish the baseline of no flow below the perforations and then
make multiple runs at different speeds.
Gradiomanometer
The gradiomanometer is an effective tool for identifying gas entry
and for locating standing water levels in wellbores.
3-46
Production Logging Tools
Figure 3-17
Flowmeter Log
Important
Repeat runs with the well shut-in are useful in calibrating the
gradiomanometer.
Temperature Log
The temperature log responds to temperature anomalies produced
by fluid flow either within the production tubing, the casing or in
the casing annulus. Therefore, the temperature log is useful for
detecting tubing leaks or water flow behind casing. Temperature
3-47
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
Downhole Camera
The downhole camera is a specially designed video camera that
allows viewing of actual conditions in the wellbore. Because the
resolution of downhole cameras has improved greatly in recent
years, the camera has become an effective tool in diagnosing
downhole production problems in coalbed methane wells. It has
also helped in evaluating the location and orientation of fractures in
open holes.
3-48
Production Logging Tools
the Rock Creek Project was rated for 1000 psi, it worked effectively
for the shallow zones of the Black Warrior Basin.
3-49
Chapter 3 Wireline Logging
10. Rig up the workover rig and run the tubing string, pump,
and rod string back into the well.
3-50
Additional Resources
Additional Resources
3-51
4 Completing the Well
4-2
Objectives of Completing the Well
Hole Enlargement
In this method, you remove near-wellbore damage simply by
underreaming the hole, but not by applying any other stimulation.
(The underreamer tool is described in Equipment for Workovers
and Completions, later in this chapter.) This method may help
establish economical production if reservoir permeability is high
enough to drain a reasonable area of the reservoir. If permeability
4-3
Chapter 4 Completing the Well
Hydraulic Fracturing
In fracturing the formation, you bypass wellbore damage rather
than treating it directly. If the coal seam is not damaged, fracturing
can provide a highly conductive flow path between the natural
fractures in the coal and the wellbore. This technique creates a
long fracture that connects the wellbore to the virgin reservoir.
The length of fracture needed depends on many variables includ-
ing the permeability and gas content of the coal.
A fracture stimulation designed only to overcome near wellbore
damage will not sufficiently stimulate the well. Experience at the
Rock Creek project has shown that an optimum fracture length
exists for a coal seam with a given permeability and gas content.
In general, the longer the fracture length, the greater will be the gas
producing potential of the reservoir. However, beyond a certain
size fracture treatment, the incremental gas production may not
justify the cost of the larger treatment.
For more information on hydraulic fracturing, see Chapter 5.
4-4
Completing in Open Hole
Figure 4-1
Single-Zone Open Hole Completion
In the Black Warrior Basin, the three most common methods for
performing a single-zone, open hole completion are:
Drilling to Total Depth and Setting Casing
Drilling to the Top of the Coalbed and Setting Casing
Drilling to Total Depth, Backfilling, and Setting Casing
4-5
Chapter 4 Completing the Well
The general procedures for each of these three methods are explained
below:
4. Drill out the float shoe and hole to total depth, leaving the
coalbed exposed.
4-6
Completing in Open Hole
5. Wash the fill material from the well, leaving the coalbed open.
In each of these methods, you can also underream or enlarge the open hole
portion to remove near-wellbore damage. Underreaming may help
establish economical production from the reservoir if the wellbore
intersects the natural fractures in the coal and if the permeability of the
coal is high enough to drain a large area of the reservoir.
Open hole completions were used with limited success in the Deerlick
Creek Field in the Black Warrior Basin. However, this method was
abandoned because of operational problems and resulting low gas
production rates. In general, open hole completions have not proven
effective for multiple-zone wells.
The main disadvantages of the multiple-zone open-hole completion
method are:
Separating zones is impractical if pay stringers are thin.
4-7
Chapter 4 Completing the Well
Figure 4-2
Multiple-Zone Open Hole Completion
4-8
Completing in Cased Hole
4-9
Chapter 4 Completing the Well
At the Rock Creek project, a stage cementing technique was once used
successfully to prevent cement invasion into coal seams. For more
information on this technique, refer to Cementing the Casing String in
Chapter 2.
The Rock Creek project also tested a fracturing technique used by some
operators in the Black Warrior Basin that can reduce blockage of access
points during fracture stimulation. In this technique, called interseam
completion, coal seams are fractured by initiating the fracture in non-
coal formations adjacent to the coal layers. For more information on
interseam completions, refer to Special Formation Access Techniques,
later in this chapter.
4-10
Accessing the Formation
You can perforate the casing using either bullets or jet charges. Jet
charges have largely replaced bullets in the oil industry because they
penetrate deeper in hard rock formations. However, bullets may
provide better penetration and hole uniformity in low density coal
formations.
4-11
Chapter 4 Completing the Well
Figure 4-4
Perforated Cased Hole Completion
4-12
Accessing the Formation
Figure 4-5
Slotted Cased Hole Completion
4-13
Chapter 4 Completing the Well
4-14
Accessing the Formation
10. Drop a ball to shut off the bottom opening of the tool.
Before running the jetting tool, make sure the ball is the
proper size for the seat in the tool. On some tools, the tung-
sten carbide nozzles may protrude into the throat of the tool,
which reduces the I.D. above the ball seat.
4-15
Chapter 4 Completing the Well
13. After you see coal cuttings at the surface, move the tubing
one or two inches to reposition the nozzle.
14. Begin jetting again, and monitor returns for metal cut-
tings and coal cuttings.
After the first slot is cut, the water may remain dark for the
rest of the slotting operation.
16. After the interval has been slotted, stop pumping sand
and circulate clean water until the returns are free of coal
cuttings.
The water may remain dark if you are cycling the water, but
the coal cuttings should stop when the well is cleaned up.
17. When the returns are clean, shut down the pump and
reverse the circulation by pumping down the annulus and
up the tubing string to remove the ball in the nozzle.
18. After the ball is at the surface, lower the tubing string
slowly while reverse circulating to clean out the casing to
bottom.
Monitor pump pressure closely. Large pieces of coal can
plug the small opening at the bottom of the tool and cause a
rapid increase in pump pressure.
4-16
Accessing the Formation
3. Trip the tubing into the well so the end of the tubing is
below the target zone.
4. Run a gamma ray log down through the tubing and locate
the target coal seam(s) by correlating this through-tubing
gamma ray log with the openhole gamma ray log.
4-17
Chapter 4 Completing the Well
5. Lower the gamma ray tool in the tubing to the jetting nozzle
and record the depth. Then raise the gamma ray tool up to the
target zone and record this depth. Calculate the distance
between these two depths and use this value in step 7.
7. Place a mark on the outside of the tubing at the top of the slips
or the top of the wellhead. Raise the tubing string the distance
calculated in step 5 and place another mark on the tubing at the
top of the slips or wellhead. This mark indicates the position
that the tubing must be in to begin jetting.
9. Connect the injection lines from the pump truck to the tubing.
10. Circulate water down the tubing, out the bottom opening of
the jetting nozzle, and up the annulus to remove any debris
that may plug the nozzles.
11. Drop a ball to shut off the bottom opening of the tool.
Before running the jetting tool, make sure the ball is the proper
size for the seat in the tool. On some tools, the tungsten carbide
nozzles may protrude into the throat of the tool, which reduces the
I.D. above the ball seat.
12. Circulate with water after the ball is dropped to make sure the
ball has seated.
When the ball is seated properly, you will notice a pressure
increase in the tubing.
4-18
Accessing the Formation
14. Repeat step 13 until you have slotted the entire target
interval.
15. After the interval has been slotted, stop pumping sand and
clean up the well by circulating clean water until the returns
are free of coal cuttings.
The water may remain dark if you are cycling the water, but the
coal cuttings should stop when the well is cleaned up.
16. When the returns are clean, shut down the pump and reverse
the circulation by pumping down the annulus and up the
tubing string to remove the ball in the nozzle.
17. After the ball is at the surface, lower the tubing string slowly
while reverse circulating to clean out the casing to bottom.
Monitor pump pressure closely. Large pieces of coal can plug the
small opening at the bottom of the tool and cause a rapid increase
in pump pressure.
4-19
Chapter 4 Completing the Well
4-20
Accessing the Formation
Figure 4-6
Fracture Communication Created by the
Restricted Access Completion Technique
The research from the Rock Creek project showed that restricted
access completions are effective in a closely-spaced group of coal
seams if:
4-21
Chapter 4 Completing the Well
Figure 4-7
Limited Entry Multiple-Zone Completion
4-22
Accessing the Formation
you place across each zone. Adjusting the number and size of
perforations at each zone controls the friction pressure through the
perforations, which gives you some control over the treating pres-
sure at each zone.
The limited entry completion has not been as successful for fracturing
multiple coal groups as it has for fracturing multiple seams within one
4-23
Chapter 4 Completing the Well
Interseam Completions
This completion technique involves perforating through casing into
rock partings above, below, or between coal seams rather than directly
into the seams.
At the Rock Creek project, two separate coal groups in Well P5 were
completed using the interseam technique. Though high treating
pressures have not presented problems at Rock Creek, the interseam
technique was used to assess its effectiveness. Despite having no coal
directly connected to the wellbore, Well P5 became one of the highest
sustained gas producers in the field following its interseam comple-
tion. In addition, Well P5 required no pump repairs for 2 1/2 years.
(On average, wells in the Black Warrior Basin require pump work 2-
4 times a year). The results of this one test certainly cannot be
considered conclusive; however, they do indicate that interseam
completion may be effective for some wells.
Figure 4-8 shows the lithology and location of perforations for the
Well P5 interseam completion.
4-24
Accessing the Formation
Figure 4-8
Lithology of the Well P5 Interseam Completion
4-25
Chapter 4 Completing the Well
In the Black Warrior Basin, experience has shown that the most
effective access for fracturing is obtained by perforating the casing
with a casing gun having a charge size between 16 and 23 grams.
This charge will create a hole size of approximately 0.37 to 0.41
inch and a depth of penetration from 11 to 20 inches.
4-26
Selecting Production Tubing
The access also must be able to maintain this low pressure differen-
tial for the life of the well (often 10 to 20 years.)
Important You should not perforate or slot the casing until just before you
fracture the well or place it on production. In some areas, leav-
ing a coal seam exposed for an extended time without producing
it may result in higher than expected treating pressures.
4-27
Chapter 4 Completing the Well
Learn as much as you can about your well and offset wells
so you can determine the type of equipment needed to do
the job safely and effectively.
4-28
Working Over Wells
Packers
Operators normally use compression or tension packers for stimula-
tion treatments, for testing zones and for squeeze cementing.
Compression packers are used for deeper applications because they
require sufficient tubing weight above them to set. Usually, the
minimum required setting weight is 4,000 - 5,000 lbs. When using
2-3/8 inch, 4.7 lb/ft production tubing, the minimum depth for
setting a compression packer is approximately 850 feet. For shal-
lower depths, you should use a tension packer.
4-29
Chapter 4 Completing the Well
Perforating Guns
Conventional casing perforating guns are normally used to perfo-
rate coalbed methane wells. Before running a perforating gun in
the wellbore, make sure the correct number of charges is loaded.
Also, make sure length of the charges from one end to the other is
equal the desired perforated interval. You should also note the
distance from the collar locator tool to the top shot so you position
the gun at the correct depth before firing. Keep in mind that you
(not the wireline operator) are responsible for ensuring that the
perforations are shot in the right location. After firing the gun and
pulling it out of the hole, check to see that all shots fired.
Underreamer
An underreamer is a tool which may be run through casing to
enlarge an openhole section below the casing. The tool is equipped
with cutter arms which are normally held within the tool body by a
coil spring. When the tool is in the openhole below the casing, the
cutter arms may be extended by applying pump pressure through
the tubing string. In medium or soft formations, most
underreamers can enlarge a hole up to twice the diameter of the
tool. The typical tool size for 5-1/2 inch casing is 4-1/2 inches.
This size tool can enlarge a hole up to 9 inches.
4-30
Working Over Wells
4-31
Chapter 4 Completing the Well
Additional Resources
4-32
5 Fracturing Coal Seams
In the reservoir, methane gas is adsorbed onto the surface of the coal.
After the reservoir pressure is lowered and the gas desorbs from the coal,
it flows through the natural fractures in the coal. For gas to flow to the
wellbore at economical rates, effective communication must be estab-
lished between the natural coal fractures or cleats and the wellbore. The
most effective way to create this communication is by hydraulically
fracturing the coal seam.
Table 5-1 shows three types of minifracture tests and the data you can
obtain from them.
Table 5-1
Minifracture Tests
5-2
Performing a Minifracture Test
5-3
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
Use the same fracture fluid and injection rate that you plan to
use for the stimulation treatment.
Because fluid loss in coal seams is essentially limited to the cleat
and fracture system, the fluid loss rate is not controlled by a filter
cake on the fracture face. Fluid viscosity plays an important role in
fluid loss: higher viscosity fluids tend to exhibit lower fluid loss.
5-4
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design
Table 5-2
Information Needed for
Designing a Fracture Treatment
Information Source
5-5
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
The thickness of the coal also will affect the economics of the
fracture design. Because coal thickness affects gas recovery, it is a
factor in determining the fracture length needed to make make a
coalbed methane well economical. In general, the greater the frac-
ture length needed, the more costly will be the fracture treatment.
To select a fracture length, you can run sensitivity evaluations to
compare the incremental cost of greater fracture length against the
value of expected incremental gas recovery from the fracture.
5-6
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design
5-7
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
Figure 5-1
Instantaneous Shut In Pressure (ISIP)
5-8
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design
After obtaining an ISIP, you can easily calculate the fracture gradi-
ent for the formation using the equation below:
where:
ISIP = Instantaneous shut in pressure, psi
After you have determined the fracture gradient, you can estimate
the bottomhole treating pressure and the surface treating pressure
using the equations below:
where:
BHTP = Bottomhole treating pressure, psi
FG = Fracture gradient, psi/ft
5-9
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
The number of perforations used will affect the injection rate. If you
use a very large number of perforations, the injection rate may be so
low that a moderate to low viscosity fluid may be incapable of carrying
proppant into the perforation tunnels. Conversely, using too few
perforations may restrict overall injectivity.
5-10
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design
If you are designing a limited entry fracture treatment, you should use
enough perforations so that each perforation has a pressure drop of
only a few hundred psi. A common rule of thumb for a limited entry
treatment is to design for an injection rate of 1/4 to 1 BPM/perforation.
For an explanation of the limited entry technique, refer to Accessing
the Formation in Chapter 4.
The size of the perforation could affect the selection of the proppant
size. Each perforation must be large enough relative to the maximum
proppant diameter to prevent bridging across the perforation tunnel.
Proppant bridging usually is not a problem in coalbed methane wells
because most wells are perforated with casing guns that provide a
perforation diameter of 0.37 - 0.41 inches. A perforation diameter of
0.41 inch would not limit the concentration of 20/40 or 16/30 proppant
to below the maximum concentrations (4-6 lb/gal) that are normally
pumped in coalbed methane wells.
Important
The discharge coefficient is a factor used to calculate frictional
pressure drop of fluid passing through the perforations. Perfora-
tions have an initial discharge coefficient of about 0.6. After you
begin pumping proppant, the sand erodes the perforations and
the discharge coefficient usually increases to around 0.95. The
higher the discharge coefficient, the lower the pressure differen-
tial through the perforations. You should keep this guideline in
mind both when designing the treatment and while pumping it.
5-11
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
Through-Casing Fracturing
Most operators in the Black Warrior Basin fracture wells by pumping
the treatment directly down the production casing string into the
formation. To fracture through-casing, the low pressure casing head
is removed and a high pressure frac valve is installed in its place.
5-12
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design
Figure 5-2
Wellbore Configurations for Fracturing
Single Zone
The simplest through-casing method involves perforat-
ing or slotting a single coal seam and then pumping the fracture
treatment down the casing into the seam. The primary wellhead
equipment needed for this method is a frac valve. No downhole
equipment is required. Figure 5-2 (a) shows a single-zone,
through-casing fracture treatment.
5-13
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
5-14
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design
Figure 5-3 illustrates a tubing dead string assembly run in a well at the
Rock Creek project to determine bottomhole pressure during fractur-
ing of the Blue Creek seam.
5-15
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
BHTP = Pt + Ph
where:
Figure 5-3
Tubing "Dead String for Measuring Bottomhole Pres-
sure
5-16
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design
When using a tubing dead string, you should place the tubing as close
to the coal interval as practical. You must also select a pressure gauge
or recorder that has a pressure rating greater than the maximum
anticipated injection pressure.
To protect the tubing from the abrasion of the sand-laden fluid, a tubing
dead string assembly requires several pieces of equipment. This
equipment is described below:
Blast Joint A blast joint should be installed in the tubing string through
the injection spool to prevent the abrasion of the proppant-laden fluid
from cutting a hole in the tubing. At the Rock Creek project, a 2-3/8
inch tubing string was used for the dead string. To eliminate the cost
for a 2-3/8 inch blast joint, a 2-7/8 inch pup joint was placed over the
2-3/8 inch non-upset tubing. The pup joint was supported on the bottom
by a collar on the 2-3/8 inch string and on the top by the BOP rams, as
shown in Figure 5-3.
Mechanical Tubing Slips Tubing slips are placed above the BOP
to support the weight of the tubing.
Through-Tubing Fracturing
Coal seams may be fractured with low injection rates. However, to
adequately open and widen fractures, fracturing fluids must be
pumped at relatively high rates to overcome high fluid leak-off
rates. Therefore, fracturing coalbed methane wells through tubing
is generally impractical because sufficient injection rates cannot be
established.
5-17
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
Fracturing Fluids
Selecting proper fracturing fluids is critical to a successful fracturing
treatment. These fluids help initiate the fracture in the formation,
extend the fracture once it opens, and transport the proppant into the
fracture.
To select the best fracturing fluid for a well, you should consider
these factors:
Fluid Viscosity
Formation Properties
Frictional Pressure
Fluid Loss Properties
Economics
5-18
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design
Fluid Viscosity
Viscosity may be the most critical factor in selecting a fluid. An
effective fluid must not only initiate and extend a fracture, but also
carry the proppant deep into the fracture. High viscosity fluids are
necessary to develop fracture width and to effectively transport the
proppant. A fluid with insufficient viscosity will limit the fracture
width and prevent the transport of proppants deep into the fracture.
Formation Properties
To optimize the fracture treatment and prevent coal damage, the
fracturing fluid must be compatible with the formation. In the
Black Warrior Basin, guar gum and hydroxypropyl guar (HPG) gel
fluids have been used extensively for fracturing. However, recent
GRI-sponsored research has indicated that HPG gels and guar could
adversely affect the permeability to both water and gas. Experience
at Rock Creek has shown that guar and HPG gels can be used
successfully, but they may also cause failure. For example, Wells
P2 and P7 were both fractured in the Mary Lee formation with HPG
gel, but Well P2s post fracture production rate (190 MCFD) was
significantly higher than that of Well P7 (40 MCFD). The poor
performance of the P7 treatment was attributed to the failure of the
gel to break properly, which reduced permeability.
5-19
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
The GRI and Amoco data suggest that you may reduce the possibility
of damaging coal by using a fluid with low damage potential (such as
KCl or a KCl substitute) or a fluid that contains a minimal amount of
gel and that has a high fluid efficiency (such as foam).
Amoco has successfully fractured wells in the Oak Grove Field (Black
Warrior Basin) using water as the fracturing fluid. Similarly, GRI has
successfully fractured wells at the Rock Creek project using 75 quality
foam as the fracturing fluid. The greater fracture lengths that can be
achieved with the foam fluid may offset any formation damage that
might be caused by the HEC gel used with the foam treatment.
Frictional Pressure
Because nearly all coalbed methane wells are fractured through
casing, frictional pressure does not usually affect fluid selection.
However, if you must fracture a well through tubing, the frictional
pressure may be the limiting factor in selecting a fluid.
Fluid Loss Properties
When selecting a fracturing fluid, you must consider the cost of the
treatment relative to the results expected from it. For example, if your
objective is to create a short fracture that will simply ensure commu-
nication between the wellbore and the natural fracture system of the
coal, you may not need to use a high viscosity fluid. However, if you
have determined that a very long fracture length is needed to generate
economical production rates from the well, you should probably use
a high viscosity fluid.
Types of Fracturing Fluids
In the Black Warrior Basin, operators use only water-based fractur-
ing fluids. There are four types of water-based fluids:
Nongelled Water
Linear Gel
Crosslinked Gel
Foam
5-20
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design
Nongelled Water
You can pump fresh water, or treated water at high rates to place
low concentrations of sand (e.g., less than 1 lb/gal) into fractures.
However, if you use a water-based fluid, you will likely place the
proppant a relatively short distance from the wellbore. The
propped fractures from a water-based stimulation will be short
because of the poor transport capacity of water and because the
created fractures are close to wellbore.
Caution
Make sure that any water used is compatible with the fractur-
ing fluids you plan to pump. Do not use water flowed back
from a previous fracture treatment unless it has been properly
treated.
Important
Sand-water fracture treatments are relatively inexpensive, but
they also require recovering large volumes of water after the
treatment.
5-21
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
you can obtain greater propped fracture length with a linear gel
fluid than with a water-based system. Linear gels also help reduce
friction and control fluid loss.
To facilitate recovery of the gel fluid after the treatment, the gel is
designed to revert or break to the viscosity of water. This break-
down allows the stimulation fluid to drain from the fracture into
the wellbore.
Linear gels clean up with breakers and produced load water and
can leave a highly conductive propped bed. The cost of a linear gel
fracture is higher than for a water-based fracture treatment. How-
ever, the longer propped length usually created by a linear gel
should provide greater production than a water fracture treatment
of the same size. Typically, the higher cost of a gel fracture is
offset by higher production rates.
Important For several years, operators in the Black Warrior Basin com-
monly used hydroxypropyl guar (HPG) fluids for fracturing.
However, recent research sponsored by GRI indicates that
hydroxypropyl guar (HPG) fluids may adversely affect the
permeability to both gas and water.
5-22
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design
Foam Fluids
Foam fluids are created by dispersing gas, usually nitrogen, in a
liquid. To initiate the dispersion, a surfactant is normally used as a
foaming agent.
Because foams have high viscosity and low fluid leakoff properties,
they can carry proppant further out into the formation than gel
fracturing fluids.
Foam quality is the volumetric ratio of the gas to the total volume of
foam at downhole conditions. A 75 quality foam contains 75% gas
by volume at downhole temperature and pressure.
Foams used for fracturing typically range from 65-85 quality. Foam
fracturing treatments at the Rock Creek project have used 75 quality
foam. Higher quality foam provides greater viscosity, but also may
increase pump pressure and limit maximum sand concentration.
Foams with a quality less than 52 have a much lower viscosity than
higher quality foams and thus do not function as effectively as high
viscosity fluids. Foams with a quality less than 52 are usually
unstable.
Excellent fluid loss control eliminates the need for fluid loss
additives, which reduces impairment of fracture conductiv-
ity.
5-23
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
Important Though foams offer the highest potential for minimizing dam-
age to the coal, you still should carefully consider the polymer
used for the aqueous phase as well as the foaming surfactant.
Select a polymer and foamer that is least damaging to the coal.
Many foamers will not work with coal because they adsorb
onto the coal. Such foamers may reduce formation permeabil-
ity. Select a foamer that will ensure 100% gas entrainment
and maximum viscosity and proppant transport characteris-
tics.
Biocides
Biocides eliminate surface degradation of the polymers in the fluid
tanks and stop the growth of anaerobic bacteria in the formation.
Breakers
Breakers enable viscous fracturing fluids to be controllably de-
graded to a thin, low viscosity fluid. The two types of breaker
systems currently used are enzymes and catalyzed oxidizers. It is
very important to select the appropriate breaker and breaker con-
centration. No matter how good the proppant transport characteris-
tics of the fracturing fluid, they can be completely negated by using
excessive breaker concentrations.
Buffers
Buffers control the pH of the fracturing fluid for the crosslinker
and breaker systems and also accelerate or slow down the hydration
of certain polymers.
Surfactants
Surfactants lower the surface tension of water in the fracturing
5-24
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design
Diverting Agents
Diverting agents divert the flow of fracturing fluids to zones above
or below the zone that was initially treated by plugging off perfora-
tions or the formation. Diverting agents are usually soluble in the
formation fluid.
Fracturing Proppants
When fracturing a coalbed, the primary purpose of including
proppant (sand) in the fluid is to provide mechanical support to
hold open the hydraulically created fracture in the reservoir rock.
Essentially all major producers agree that commercially successful
coalbed completions depend on long, well-propped fractures. Long
term success from fracturing without using proppant has been
minimal. In many cases, wells without propped fractures demon-
5-25
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
Other producers believe that larger size sands, such as a 12/20 size,
serve mainly as a scouring agent, removing sufficient coal from the
fracture faces so that the fracture will not close completely.
Production of coal
5-26
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design
Pumping Schedule
After all of the design considerations previously discussed have
been incorporated into the fracture design, the pumping schedule
can be prepared. The pumping schedule is a table showing the
volumes, concentrations, and rates for pumping the fracturing
fluids. Because optimizing the pumping schedule is usually an
iterative process, it is best accomplished by using fracture design
software.
The type and size of fracture treatment you use will depend on the
properties of the coal reservoir and your particular objectives for
the treatment. To give you a sense of the type of fracture treat-
ments typically used in the Black Warrior Basin, a gel fracture
design and a foamed fracture design used successfully at the Rock
Creek project are shown in Tables 5-3 and 5-4. The input data and
the selected pumping schedule are shown for each of the treatment
designs.
5-27
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
Table 5-3
Pumping Schedule for a Gel Fracture Treatment
on Well P2 at the Rock Creek Project
Pumping Schedule
Fluid Proppant
Volume Concentration
Stage Fluid Type (gals) (lb/gal)
5-28
Planning a Fracture Treatment Design
Table 5-4
Pumping Schedule for a Foam Fracture Treatment
on Well P3 at the Rock Creek Project
Pumping Schedule
Fluid Proppant
Volume Concentration
Stage Fluid Type (gals) (lb/gal)
5-29
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
5-30
Preparing for a FractureTreatment
5-31
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
Drill at least 100 to 200 feet below the deepest target coalbed
to provide an adequate sump for fracturing and production
operations.
An adequate sump could help prevent a screenout when pumping
the fracture treatment. An adequate sump can also allow the
pump to be placed below the perforations, which is beneficial for
production. For more information on the sump, refer to
Pumping Equipment in Chapter 6.
5-32
Preparing for a FractureTreatment
5-33
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
5-34
Performing a FractureTreatment
Test the gel fluid to make sure it will mix, crosslink, and break
at reservoir temperature.
Several hours to one day before the fracturing job, meet with all
operating personnel and service company personnel and discuss:
The type of data wanted from the service company and the
form in which you want it
After the service company has placed and connected the fracturing
equipment and you have reviewed the fracture treatment plan with
all personnel at the well site, you are ready to begin pumping the
fracture treatment.
5-35
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
5-36
Performing a Fracture Treatment
Some operators believe that if you pump the sand slurry with-
out first pumping a pad (i.e., before the fracture is opened
sufficiently), the sand may bridge off at the entrance or tip of
the fracture (referred to as tip plugging) and cause a
screenout or cause the treating pressure to increase beyond the
safe limits of the surface equipment or casing. Other operators
feel that if the quality of the fluids pumped meets the design
standards, little or no pad is needed.
5-37
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
Figure 5-4
Nolte Plot for Evaluating
Treatment Pressure Responses
5-38
Performing a Fracture Treatment
The cause of the constant pressure region (Mode II) can usually be
inferred by interpreting the pressure behavior following the con-
stant pressure region in Modes III and IV.
5-39
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
5-40
Performing a Fracture Treatment
C. If the end of the job is near, increase the pump rate and
continue pumping the fluid at a higher sand concentra-
tion until the entire treatment is pumped or screenout
occurs.
Some operators increase sand concentration while continu-
ing to pump at increased rate to try to maximize the amount
of proppant they place before screenout occurs.
1. Shut down pumps and free flow the well back to the
surface pit until you get bottoms-up.
2. Monitor the blooey (return) line for dirty fluid and/or
fluid with a high concentration of sand.
5-41
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
12. Near the end of the job, observe and record these pres-
sures at the surface to help in the design of future fracture
treatments:
Final treating pressure before shutting down pumps.
5-42
Performing a FractureTreatment
When the fracture closes, the fluid can only flow through
the proppant pack, which creates increased frictional
pressure loss. Therefore, the decreased rate of pressure
decline you observe at the surface reflects the closure of
the propped fracture.
5-43
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
5-44
Performing a FractureTreatment
The length of the shut-in period depends on your purpose for shut-
ting in the well. If you use the shut-in period to allow the gel time
to break, you can estimate the time for gel breakdown by consulting
with the service company pumping the treatment. You should also
watch the gel samples that were collected throughout the job and
make sure at least the gel pumped during the later stages of the job
did break. If there is a significant temperature difference between
the surface and bottomhole (i.e., the coal seam is deep), the gel in
the formation may break before the gel sample on the surface. In
some cases, the gel sample may not break at all. If the gel samples
do not break, you can accept the service companys estimated break
time and then monitor the fluid that is flowed back to see if it ap-
pears to be gel or broken gel.
If you use this flowback method to allow time for the fracture to
close on the proppant, you should closely monitor well pressures
after the fracture treatment and try to identify fracture closure as it
occurs. It is not possible to accurately predict closure pressure in
advance of the treatment. Moreover, the closure pressure for
coalbed methane wells cannot be estimated accurately from closure
pressure data from offset wells.
At the Rock Creek project, the shut-in with slow flowback method
has been used successfully for gel fracture treatments. Experience
has demonstrated that this method produces the most effective
fracture treatment with the fewest production problems. Because
slow flowback effectively reduces the amount of coal fines and
5-45
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
4. After the well has been flowed back long enough to bleed
off wellhead pressure, remove the frac valve and re-install
the wellhead.
7. Lower the tubing string and wash the wellbore down to the
bottom of the sump.
Caution Pumping down the tubing and taking returns up the tubing-
casing annulus may cause any debris in the well to flow into
perforations or slots and plug them. You may avoid this
problem by washing the wellbore with air instead of water.
5-46
Performing a FractureTreatment
The decision to use the Shut-In with Slow Flowback method may
depend on the type of fracture fluid used. If using a fluid with poor
proppant-carrying capacity (i.e., water), sand in the fracture
could quickly settle below the pay zone causing the fracture
through the pay zone to close. Thus, when using a fluid with poor
proppant carrying capacity, you may consider using the Forced
Closure method.
Caution
The forced closure method may cause sand to flow into the
wellbore if you flow the well back at an excessive rate. This
proppant flowback may leave near-wellbore fractures
unpropped and thus restrict production.
5-47
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
Caution
The high rate flowback method may damage the fracture
treatment by pulling sand out of the fracture. This proppant
flowback may leave near-wellbore fractures unpropped and
thus restrict production. This method is not recommended.
Production Comparison
5-48
Evaluating a FractureTreatment
Tiltmeters
Production Comparison
In some conventional gas fields, the simplest and most conclusive
way to evaluate a fracture treatment is to test the well before frac-
turing and then compare the pre-frac production rate to the rate
after treatment. However, such production comparisons can be
misleading for coalbed methane wells.
5-49
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
5-50
Evaluating a FractureTreatment
The gamma ray log usually run in combination with the cased hole
cement evaluation log is often used as the base gamma ray log. If a
cased hole gamma ray log was not run before the treatment, you
need not run make a special logging run. You can use the open
hole gamma ray log as the base log.
You should wait until the well has been flowed back and produced
for a while before running the gamma ray log. This period of time
5-51
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
Important Using radioactive tracers may not always help you determine
actual fracture height because tracers have a limited detection
depth and because the fracture may not be in line with the
wellbore.
Make sure that either a cased hole or open hole gamma ray
log has been run on the well before the fracture treatment.
Tiltmeters
Tiltmeters are sensitive geophysical instruments that are used to
measure slight displacements in the earths surface from horizontal.
5-52
Evaluating a FractureTreatment
Figure 5-5
Tiltmeter Sensor
5-53
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
Figure 5-6
Tiltmeter Installation
5-54
Evaluating a FractureTreatment
Figure 5-7 shows a typical tilt vector display for a vertical fracture
and for a horizontal fracture. Most actual displays may appear as
some combination of the vertical and horizontal displays because of
other effects such as fluid leakoff during the fracture treatment.
Figure 5-7
Tiltmeter Displays for Vertical and Horizontal Fractures
5-55
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
to record data when Wells P1A, P1B, P1C, and P4 were fractured.
Analysis of the data for Well P1A indicated the Pratt coalseam (at
478 feet) was fractured horizontally. Analysis of data for Wells
P1B and P1A indicated the Mary Lee/Blue Creek coalseams (1039
feet) and the Black Creek coalseam (1418 feet), respectively, were
fractured vertically. The fracture of the Mary Lee in Well P4 also
was found to be vertical.
Drill holes for tiltmeters at least one week before the frac-
ture treatment.
5-56
Evaluating a FractureTreatment
5-57
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
Additional Resources
Ely, J.W., W.T. Arnold, and S.A. Holditch, New Techniques and
Quality Control Find Success in Enhancing Productivity and
Minimizing Proppant Flowback, SPE Paper 20708 presented at
the 1990 Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New
Orleans (September 23-25).
Gidley, J.L., S.A. Holditch, D.E. Nierode, and R.W. Veatch Jr.,
Recent Advances in Hydraulic Fracturing, SPE
Monograph 12, 1989.
5-58
Additional Resources
Puri, R., G.E. King, and I.D. Palmer, Damage to Coal Permeabil-
ity During Hydraulic Fracturing, Proceedings of the 1991
Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama,
Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-16).
5-59
Chapter 5 Fracturing Coal Seams
5-60
6 Selecting Production Equipment and
Facilities
Pumping Equipment
Gas Compressors
6-2
Pumping Equipment
Pumping Equipment
To maximize gas production from a coalbed methane well, you must
keep the water level in the wellbore below the lowest producing
coalbed. Because coalbeds are usually relatively shallow, low-
pressure formations, you must pump water from coalbed wells con-
tinuously (or intermittently) to minimize bottomhole pressure and
allow gas to flow into the wellbore.
This section will explain the benefits and limitations of the most
common methods used to pump water from coalbed wells. These
methods are:
Beam Pumps
Progressing Cavity Pumps
Gas Lift
Electric Submersible Pumps
6-3
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
Table 6-1
Artificial Lift Methods for Coalbed Methane Production
Electric Submersible Can lift large volumes High initial cost and
Pumps of water maintenance cost
6-4
Pumping Equipment
Beam Pumps
Beam pumps, also called sucker rod pumps, have served as an
effective, reliable, and relatively inexpensive method for removing
liquids from wells since the early days of the oil industry.
Figure 6-1
Beam Pump
6-5
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
Beam pumps are relatively simple and durable. They require only
minor routine maintenance. Special subsurface designs may be
required in extremely gassy wells or wells with large amounts of
sand and fines. Properly sized units can pump up to 2,500 BWPD;
however, pumping units pumping less than 600 BWPD are more
common.
To select the best type of pump system for your operation, consult a
trained, experienced pump specialist. A competent pump specialist
will discuss the particular requirements of your field, simulate various
producing scenarios, and provide detailed computer analyses for a
variety of possible pump designs. For example, pump specialists can
explain the benefits and limitations of combining various types and
sizes of plungers, tubing, rod strings, pump jacks, and motors. For
more information on beam pumping systems, refer to Additional
Resources the end of this chapter.
6-6
Pumping Equipment
6-7
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
Figure 6-2
Top-Seating Pump Hold-Down
6-8
Pumping Equipment
Figure 6-3
Bottom-Seating Pump Hold-Down
6-9
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
Figure 6-4
Gas Anchor
6-10
Pumping Equipment
This tool allows you to release the sucker rod string from the pump
and pull the rods if the pump becomes stuck in the tubing. You can
then retrieve the pump by pulling the tubing.
Install a spray metal rod guide in the sucker rod string just
above the top of the pump.
This guide centers the valve rod in the pump and centers the pump
in the tubing. Centering these components helps eliminate sucker
rod whip, which can cause the pump plunger and barrel to wear
excessively.
Install one or more joints of weight bar in the sucker rod string
directly above the pump.
Weight bar will help prevent the rods from whipping and allow the
pump to operate more smoothly.
Set the pump below the deepest producing coal seam to draw the
fluid level below the lowermost perforations (or slots).
Because shallow coal seams have very low reservoir pressures, you
must decrease the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid column in the
wellbore as much as possible to maximize the gas flow rate into the
wellbore.
Some operators in the Black Warrior Basin set the polished rod
clamp so that the plunger bumps the bottom of the pump on the
downstroke.
Bumping bottom can help ensure the travelling valve and standing
valve operate properly by keeping valve seats free of debris.
However, bumping bottom can also subject the rod string to
additional stress, which can cause premature rod failure.
6-11
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
Both progressing cavity pumps and beam pumps offer distinct advan-
tages and disadvantages. In many cases, the decision to use one system
over the other is based on the specific application and the preference
of the operator.
To select the best type of progressing cavity pump system for your
operation, consult a pump specialist who is trained and experienced
with progressing cavity pumps. A competent pump specialist will
discuss the particular requirements of your field, simulate various
producing scenarios, and provide detailed computer analyses of a
variety of possible pump designs.
6-12
Pumping Equipment
Figure 6-5
Progressing Cavity Pump
6-13
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
Important
3. Attach the pumps rotor to the first sucker rod and insert the
sucker rod string into the production tubing.
6-14
Pumping Equipment
5. Run the sucker rods and gently tag the pin at the bottom of the
stator.
8. Attach the surface drive head to the rod string and the
pumping tee.
Gas Lift
Gas lift is a method of artificial lift that uses an external source of
gas to lift formation water from the wellbore. Gas is injected into
the wellbore either continuously or intermittently. The injection
gas mixes with the water and decreases the flowing pressure gradi-
ent of the mixture from the point of injection to the surface. The
lower flowing pressure gradient reduces the flowing bottomhole
pressure to establish the drawdown required to initiate and maintain
gas production.
6-15
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
The gas lift system consists of a series of gas lift valves housed in
mandrels which are spaced at intervals in the tubing string. Two gas
lift injection methods have been used to produce coalbed methane
wells. The least common method is to inject gas down the tubing string
and produce water and gas up the annulus. The method used more
often is to inject gas down the casing and produce water and gas up the
tubing string. In either case, aerating the water reduces its density and
allows it to flow to the surface where the gas and water are separated.
The produced water is then sent to the water disposal system and the
methane gas is either recycled to continue gas lifting or sent to the
gathering system. Figure 6-6 shows a typical gas lift installation.
Figure 6-6
Gas Lift Installation
6-16
Pumping Equipment
The main advantages of gas lift are the ability to handle production of
solids with little or no mechanical problems and the ability to accom-
modate a wide range of initial production rates.
If you install a gas lift system, you can run wireline-retrievable gas lift
valves to optimize performance and eliminate the cost of pulling
tubing when valve replacement is needed.
6-17
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
Figure 6-7
Electric Submersible Pump
6-18
Power Supply for Pumping Equipment
Important Because the motor is cooled by fluid passing down the annulus
to the intake of the pump, the pump is normally placed above
the producing zone. Alternatively, a shroud can be installed
with the pump to direct fluid past the motor if the pump is
placed below the producing zone. In any case, the well should
never be pumped dry.
Electric Power
6-19
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
You should base your decision of power supply on both the eco-
nomic and the operational benefits and limitations of each method.
Electric Power
Electric power may provide the most efficient and cost-effective
power source if your field has ready access to existing power lines.
6-20
Power Supply for Pumping Equipment
6-21
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
6-22
Surface Production Facilities
6-23
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
Figure 6-8
Typical Water Flow Path for Fields in the Black Warrior
Basin
6-24
Surface Production Facilities
Except for very large particles, most solids pass through the water
production and metering system without difficulty. The solids
remaining in the system usually accumulate in the housing chamber
of the water meter, which can eventually impair and finally stop the
measuring mechanism. Some meters may, however, repeatedly
malfunction within several days after installation. Rock material
can lodge in valve openings in the downhole pumping mechanism.
Usually this material is coal or shale that has sloughed off forma-
tions exposed in the wellbore. This material is most likely to plug
and stop the downhole pump during the first few days of produc-
tion, especially after the well has been stimulated.
Most large pieces of solid debris carried through the tubing settle in
the separator. You can remove the remaining solids suspended in
the flow system by installing a strainer downstream of the separator
and upstream of the water meter.
6-25
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
Caution Use only fixtures and wiring approved and appropriate for
such equipment enclosures.
Solution You can remove gas from the water line and improve
water meter accuracy by installing a separator in the surface water
flow system. Alternatively, you can install a simple 30 to 50 gallon
vented separation tank.
6-26
Surface Production Facilities
24
Barrels Per Day = 0.119 x
( Minutes to
fill 6 0
)
By recording bucket tests over a period of time, you can determine
the efficiency of the downhole pump and tell whether or not a well
is being pumped off effectively.
Where: h = height between the dump line on the bucket and the float, ft
6-27
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
Caution
Flow lines that are too large in diameter can cause solids to
drop out of the water and create plugging problems. A
pipe partially full of water will tend to plug more easily
than a pipe full of moving water. To prevent solids from
settling in the flow lines, the flow velocity should be a
minimum of 3 ft/second.
6-28
Surface Production Facilities
As warm coalbed gas cools at the surface, it loses some of its ability
to carry water and the water therefore condenses. The water con-
6-29
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
Figure 6-9
Typical Gas Flow Path for Fields in the Black Warrior
Basin
Water also separates from gas when the gas passes from a smaller to
a larger diameter pipe, which reduces gas flow velocity. Therefore,
water often accumulates in areas where pipe diameter changes.
6-30
Surface Production Facilities
Also, install drips at low points in the gas lines to remove liquid
from the gas stream or liquid that has accumulated in the pipeline.
A drip is simply a 10-15 foot length of pipe tied into the line. The
drip collects water in the line and allows drainage of the water
through a valve in the pipe.
6-31
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
Table 6-2
Comparison of Gas Flow Meters
Requires less
maintenance
AGPA standard
for gas sales
6-32
Surface Production Facilities
The gas purchaser pays the producer based on the BTU content of the
sales gas, which the purchaser calculates from measured properties of
the gas. The gas sales contract specifies precise ranges for the gas
properties and measurement conditions. Table 6-3 shows specifica-
tions for a typical gas sales contract in the Black Warrior Basin.
Table 6-3
Typical Sales Gas Specifications
Specification Value
6-33
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
The guidelines below will help you to properly select other impor-
tant equipment for producing gas from a coalbed methane field:
Install a gas flare stack on the well site to vent gas during a
pilot test program or during an emergency in a producing
field.
Caution Never vent gas without the approval of the oil and gas
agencies and environmental agencies in your area.
6-34
Gas Compressors
Gas Compressors
Because methane gas produced from coal seams has little natural
pressure, you must compress it to a higher pressure before it can be
delivered to a pipeline for transportation and sale. Compression
equipment used for conventional natural gas production can be
easily adapted to the requirements of coalbed methane production.
Selecting an efficient, reliable compressor package requires a basic
understanding of the various types of compressors and the unique
characteristics of coalbed methane production.
Types of Compressors
The two basic types of compressors commonly used for coalbed
methane production are rotary compressors and reciprocating
compressors. Both types are positive displacement compressors
that increase the pressure of gas by reducing its volume. Each type
has its own advantages and disadvantages .
Rotary Compressors
The rotary design uses either vanes, lobes, or screws which rotate
within a casing to compress and displace gas. The principal advan-
tage of this design is its ability to compress large quantities of low
pressure gas. The rotary compressor is particularly suitable for
6-35
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
Reciprocating Compressors
The reciprocating compressor consists of a piston moving back and
forth within a cylinder. Each stroke displaces a positive volume.
Spring-loaded valves open whenever a pressure differential exists
across the valve. When the valve opens, suction gas automatically
enters the cylinder and discharge gas exits.
6-36
Gas Compressors
Types of Drivers
In addition to selecting a compressor, you must also select the
driver, or engine, to power the compressor. For field applications,
you have two alternatives for drivers: electric motors or natural gas
engines. Although electric motors are simple, reliable, and easy to
operate and maintain, the cost of electric power usually dictates
using natural gas engines for the savings in fuel cost. Natural gas
engines also allow you to adjust capacity by varying engine speed,
but regular A.C. motors do not.
Integral engines operate at speeds of 400 rpm and less. The power
and compressor cylinders share a common frame and crankshaft.
Although they cost more initially than high-speed engines, integral
engines are more efficient, more reliable, and cost less to maintain.
Some integral engines can be built as a skid-mounted package, but
the high-speed design provides more horsepower in less space with
less weight than does an integral engine.
6-37
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
Fuel filters
Solids filters
Pilot devices
Catalytic converters
6-38
Gas Compressors
6-39
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
Glycol regenerator
Filter
Glycol pump
6-40
Gas Dehydration Equipment
The gas from the compressor usually flows into an inlet gas scrubber
that is installed with the glycol dehydrator system. The purpose of the
inlet gas scrubber is to prevent slugs of free water from entering the
glycol-gas contact tower.
After flowing through the inlet gas scrubber, the gas stream enters the
bottom of the glycol-gas contact tower. The inside of the contact tower
contains trays or packing which facilitate contact between the glycol
and the gas. When the gas contacts the glycol, the glycol absorbs the
water in the gas. The dry gas then exits through the top of the contact
tower and the water-rich glycol exits through the bottom of the tower.
6-41
Chapter 6 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities
You should also check the volume of glycol in the system to ensure that
excessive amounts of glycol are not being lost. Glycol absorbs a trace
amount of gas at relatively low pressures. This gas is burned off in the
regenerator. A small amount of glycol may be lost when the gas is
burned.
6-42
Additional Resources
Additional Resources
API Specification for Subsurface Pumps and Fittings, " API Spec
11AX, Seventh Edition, Dallas (June 1979).
6-43
7 Operating Wells and Production
Equipment
The various equipment you need to check may vary slightly from field
to field. Regardless of the type of equipment used, this pre-production
check should include not only equipment at the wellhead, but also all
downstream lines and facilities such as separators, meter runs, gath-
ering lines, drips, water treatment facilities and compressors.
Before bringing wells on line, check the guidelines below:
Important
Make sure you have complied with all applicable federal,
state, and local safety and environmental regulations. You
also may be required to notify certain regulatory agencies in
your area of your intent to begin production from the field.
Notify the gas purchaser of the date you will begin delivery of
gas so they have time to make any necessary preparations or
adjustments. In addition, you should make sure the gas
composition will meet the contract specifications with the gas
purchaser.
If separation vessels are used, make sure that the drain valve
is closed and that the liquid dump valve has been installed and
is working properly.
7-2
Unloading the Well
requirements.
The type of gas venting equipment needed may depend on where
you are operating. Some state oil and gas regulatory agencies
require you to vent gas through a flare stack. Contact your local
regulatory agencies to find out about equipment requirements such
as height and minimum distance from the wellhead.
Check orifice meters to make sure they are fitted with the
proper size orifice plate for the volume of gas expected.
7-3
Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment
When you pump a well down, you create a pressure drop near the
wellbore which causes water and gas to flow to the wellbore. The gas
saturation near the wellbore may be high initially. Thus, if you bleed
off gas from the annulus (thus drawing down the gas pressure) too
rapidly, gas and water will surge into the wellbore. The surging water
usually carries damaging coal fines through the perforations and into
the wellbore.
Caution
Bringing a well on production at an excessive flow rate can cause
surging in the wellbore, which can plug perforations, pumps and
surface equipment. Surging the well may also damage formation
7-4
Unloading the Well
Experience at the Rock Creek project has shown that wells can plug
with coal fines and sand in as little as 15 to 20 minutes when they are
brought on stream too rapidly.
The procedures used at the Rock Creek project to pump wells down are
described below:
2. Begin pumping the well at a rate that begins to reduce the water
level in the well.
7-5
Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment
5. When the water level is at or near the pump intake, crack the
globe valve and begin flowing gas at a rate that maintains a
fairly constant or only slightly decreasing wellhead pressure.
Your goal is to maintain sufficient backpressure on the casing to
prevent surging of gas and water into the wellbore.
Caution
7-6
Unloading the Well
Experience at the Rock Creek project has shown that reducing the
velocity of the foam by maintaining backpressure on the annulus may
help prevent foam from flowing into surface equipment. To pump a
well down after treating it with a foam fracturing fluid, follow the same
steps explained in Technique for Pumping Wells Down, earlier in this
chapter.
Important
7-7
Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment
Important Before venting any gas, you should obtain authorization from
the local oil and gas agency and environmental agencies.
1. Adjust the rod linkage between the separators float arm and
float valve to ensure the outlet valve closes at the bottom of
float travel.
4. Monitor the liquid level in the separator to ensure that the size
of the dump valve is sufficient to discharge flow at maximum
expected water flow rate.
7-8
Troubleshooting Well and Equipment Problems
Production Tubing
Separation Equipment
Surface Piping
Gas Compressors
This section explains how to diagnose and correct the most common
operational problems with the artificial lift methods listed below:
Beam Pumps
Gas Lift
7-9
Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment
Figure 7-1
Beam Pumping System
7-10
Troubleshooting Well and Equipment Problems
The guidelines below will help you further diagnose and correct
problems with the pump jack, prime mover, and rod string:
7-13
Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment
Running nylon rod guides on the rod string. You may run the
guides on every rod joint or on every other joint, depending
on the amount of rod wear expected. Because the bottom
portion of the hole is usually the most crooked, rods in this
area usually wear the most.
7-14
Troubleshooting Well and Equipment Problems
continuous seal between the rotor and the stator helices keeps the
fluid moving steadily, at a fixed rate directly proportional to the
rotational speed of the pump.
Important
Progressing cavity pumps will burn up if they are not sub-
merged in fluid. Therefore, you must periodically check the
fluid level in the well using an echometer device. You can then
adjust the speed of the pump or change the size of the pump to
ensure that the pump remains submerged in fluid.
Important
The heat generated by electric submersible pumps can cause
severe deposition of scale on the downhole pump. This scale
can eventually plug the pump and cause it to burn up. Because
scale deposition presents serious problems in some parts of the
Black Warrior Basin, electric submersible pumps may not be
practical in these areas.
7-15
Troubleshooting Well and Equipment Problems
Production Tubing
Leaks in the production tubing string can reduce pumping effi-
ciency and decrease gas flow up the tubing/casing annulus. One of
the most common problems is connections that leak while under
external or internal pressure. You can alleviate this problem by
avoiding the following actions:
7-17
Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment
To extend the life of tubing strings at the Rock Creek project, when-
ever a string is pulled, it is run back in the well in the reverse order.
Thus, joints that were located near the top of the string end up near
the bottom. This procedure prevents the sucker rod string from
wearing excessively in the same locations.
You can achieve the same goal by running a pup joint of tubing in
the string, and changing the location of the pup joint whenever you
pull the tubing string.
To detect tubing leaks when you pull the tubing string, check for
obvious cuts or holes, but also look for telltale water stains on the
7-18
Troubleshooting Well and Equipment Problems
outside of the tubing. Such stains often evidence small leaks that are
otherwise difficult to detect.
At the Rock Creek project most tubing leaks have been observed in
the lower portion of the tubing string because the wellbore is usually
more deviated near the bottom. Wellbore deviation problems, and
thus the number of tubing leaks, generally increase with depth.
Separation Equipment
Most problems with separation equipment are caused by deposition
of solids in vessels or their components. The guidelines below may
help you prevent many of the plugging problems caused by solids:
Periodically flush out dump valves and check the valve seats
to make sure they seal properly. Also check the float
mechanism to make sure it operates properly.
If the float is not cleaned regularly, it can stick and cause the
separator to overflow liquid into the gas line.
Surface Piping
To ensure trouble-free operation of instruments and meters used to
measure flow, you should prevent fines from entering the gathering
system. If gas carries even a small amount of fines, the velocity of the
gas will quickly abrade or plug turbine meters and orifice plates.
Operating experience at the Rock Creek project has shown that you can
significantly reduce maintenance costs by removing fines at the
wellhead before they can move into the collection system. You can
effectively control fines by installing a very fine mesh in-line filter at
the wellhead. A screen will protect downstream equipment, such as
orifice meters, turbine meters, etc.
7-19
Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment
Gas Compressors
The gas compressor is perhaps the single most important equip-
ment in a coalbed methane field. Because coalbed methane is
produced at such low pressures (1/2 - 30 psi in the Black War-
rior Basin), it will not flow naturally into the pipeline. Thus,
without an effectively operating compressor, you simply are
unable to sell coalbed methane gas.
7-20
Gas Compressors
Torque the bolts which anchor the engine to its pad to main-
tain proper alignment of the engine and the compressor.
7-21
Chapter 7 Operating Wells and Production Equipment
7-22
Additional Resources
Additional Resources
Klein, S.T., Robbins & Myers, Inc. The Progressing Cavity Pump in
Coalbed Methane Extraction, SPE Paper 23454, presented at the
1991 SPE Eastern Regional Meeting, Lexington, Kentucky
(October 22-25).
7-23
8 Treating and Disposing Produced
Water
8-2
Characteristics of Coalbed Methane Produced Water
In some cases, scale may also form outside casing and in the induced
fractures. Scale inside fractures can severely restrict gas flow, and is
difficult to remove.
8-3
Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water
Gypsum Scale
Gypsum scale is composed of calcium sulfate. Gypsum scale
exhibits these characteristics:
Iron Scales
Iron scales are often caused by corrosion products such as various
iron oxides and iron sulfide. Sulfate-reducing bacteria can produce
8-4
Characteristics of Coalbed Methane Produced Water
The analysis of water samples taken at the surface does not allow
accurate prediction of downhole scaling. However, you may have a
surface sample analyzed to approximate the tendency of a produced
water to create calcium carbonate scale. In general, produced water
will have a tendency to create scale if the calcium carbonate supersatu-
ration of the water is greater than 10 percent of the bicarbonate
alkalinity content.
Identifying Scale
You can identify the various types of scale by using these methods:
X-Ray Diffraction
The most common method for identifying scale, X-ray diffraction,
involves directing a beam of X-rays onto a powdered sample of scale
crystals. Because each crystalline chemical compound in the scale
diffracts X-rays in a characteristic manner, the scale can be identified.
This method requires the least amount of sample.
Chemical Analysis
In this method, samples of scale are crushed and then dissolved in
chemical solution. The elements are then analyzed by standard
titration and precipitation techniques.
Effervescence
This method is used to identify calcium carbonate (CaCO3) scale. If
a sample is CaCO3, it will bubble when you drop hydrochloric acid
(HCl) on it. However, this test may not work if the sample contains
iron sulfide or iron carbonate. The odor of sulphur indicates the
presence of sulfide scale.
8-5
Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water
Removing Scale
Operators in the Black Warrior Basin have used both mechanical
and chemical methods to remove scale. The most common me-
chanical method is reperforating and/or running a bit and scraper
through the perforations. The most successful chemical treatment
method is pumping HCL acid with an iron sequestering agent.
Preventing Scale
In the Black Warrior Basin, an effective method for
preventing scale is to pump scale inhibitors in fracturing
treatments. Fracturing service companies can recommend an
inhibitor for your application. If you encounter a serious scale
problem, you may consider continuously treating for scale down
the annulus.
Caution
Before pumping any chemical into a well, make sure the chemi-
cal is tested to ensure it is compatible with the formation water
and that it is non-damaging to the coal. Make sure also that
the chemical can be handled under the projects regulatory
discharge permit (i.e., NPDES, etc.)
8-6
Regulations and Permitting for Water Disposal
environmental agency for the state in which the surface water is located.
Because almost all coalbed methane production water in the Warrior
Basin is discharged to surface water, the Alabama Department of
Environmental Management (ADEM) has the responsibility for permit-
ting and monitoring the discharge of water produced by most coalbed
methane wells.
Table 8-1 shows the current surface discharge limitations and monitor-
ing requirements for a NPDES permit for the Black Warrior Basin.
Table 8-1
NPDES Discharge Limitations
for the Black Warrior Basin
Discharge Limitations
Daily Daily Monthly
Water Characteristics Minimum Maximum Average
8-7
Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water
To design the system, you will need to know or estimate these five
parameters:
Water quality
8-8
Considerations for Designing a Water Disposal System
Water Quality
The principal constituent influencing the quality of coalbed meth-
ane waters is the concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS),
which includes the concentration of chlorides. Total dissolved
solids concentrations range from 500 to 27,000 mg/l in waters
generated in the eastern United States, and from 200 to 4,000 mg/l
in the western United States (Lee-Ryan et al., 1991).
The quality of the total produced water stream will determine the
type of discharge method you can use (these methods are explained
later in this chapter). For example, in Alabama, water produced
from coalbed methane wells can be treated like any other industrial
or municipal waste stream. Thus, if the water meets permit stan-
dards, surface discharge of the water is allowed. To discharge into
a surface water, you must apply for and receive an NPDES permit.
8-9
Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water
This permit will allow discharge into streams as long as the dis-
charge is monitored and remains within permit requirements.
8-10
Methods for Treating and Disposing Produced Water
8-11
Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water
8-12
Methods for Treating and Disposing Produced Water
Figure 8-1
Typical Water Disposal System in the Black Warrior Basin
Important In cases where stream flows are much greater than the flow of
discharged fluids, relatively high amounts of chlorides can be
discharged with little increase in the chloride concentration in the
stream. In streams with low flow or with seasonal flow variations,
produced water discharge may be limited.
8-13
Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water
8-14
Methods for Treating and Disposing Produced Water
Injection wells are more commonly used for water disposal in states
where coalbed methane produced water is treated like a conven-
tional oil and gas waste stream, where surface stream flow is not
sufficient year round to assimilate produced waters, and where there
are formations that will accept the necessary disposal volumes.
If you cannot treat the water to meet permit discharge criteria, you may
need to transport the water via a permitted truck to commercial
injection wells for disposal.
Chlorides concentration
pH
8-15
Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water
8-16
Additional Resources
Additional Resources
ONeill, P.E., S.C. Harris, and M.F. Mattee, 1989, "Stream Monitor-
ing of Coalbed Methane Produced Water from the Cedar Cove
Degasification Field, Alabama, Proceedings of the 1989 Coalbed
Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Ala-
bama (April 17-20).
8-17
Chapter 8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water
8-18
9 Testing the Well
This chapter explains methods for obtaining the reservoir data needed
to assess the productive potential of coalbed methane wells. You will
find information to help you in:
This section explains the most commonly used well tests for obtaining
coal reservoir properties and the procedures used at the Rock Creek
project to perform them. These tests are:
Slug Tests
Injection/Fall-off Tests
Interference Tests
9-2
Performing Pressure Transient Tests
Slug Tests
Slug tests are the simplest and least expensive tests. They are
commonly used on coalbed methane wells because they can be
performed with a minimal amount of manpower and equipment.
Most slug tests used on coalbed methane wells are run by injecting a
slug of fresh water into the wellbore rather than withdrawing a slug of
fluid from the wellbore.
Low cost
9-3
Chapter 9 Testing the Well
Figure 9-1
Slug Test Equipment Configuration
9-4
Performing Pressure Transient Tests
Tubular Size
Tubular Configuration
Method of Slugging
Tubular Size
The most important consideration is the diameter of the tubing or
casing through which the well will be slugged. The duration of the test
is directly proportional to the square of the radius of the tubing or
casing used. The duration of the test increases with increasing
diameters because as the tubing size increases, the volume of water that
must flow into the coal seam increases. Consequently, the permeabil-
ity of the coal seam directly affects the duration of the test. To
minimize the time required to test the well, you can use the smallest
tubing size that is economically and operationally feasible. However,
decreasing the test time also decreases the radius of investigation for
the test.
You can estimate the minimum test duration for a unique type curve
match by using the equation below:
where:
9-5
Chapter 9 Testing the Well
Tubular Configuration
If you conduct the slug test down the casing, you will not need any
additional equipment. However, if you conduct the test down the
tubing string, you must run a packer on the tubing to isolate the annulus.
If you do not seal off the annulus, the benefit of using a small tubing
string (shorter test duration) will be negated.
Method of Slugging
To perform a slug test, you must load a volume of water into the tubing
or casing. The methods most commonly used to load the slug of water
into the tubing or casing are:
The method you use to load the well depends on the permeability of the
coal and on the volume of water needed for the slug. The higher the
coal permeability, the more rapidly you can load the water slug.
You can estimate the volume of water needed for the slug if you know
the static fluid level for the coal seam you are testing. The maximum
volume of water required for the slug is the volume needed to fill the
tubing or casing from the static fluid level to the surface.
9-6
Performing Pressure Transient Tests
Fluid leaking into the well from the annulus would require using
multiple storage coefficients, which would make the test difficult
to analyze. If perforated intervals are above the zone of interest,
you may not be able to test the packer unless those zones will
support a minimal amount of pressure.
An alternative method of determining that the packer is providing
isolation is by pumping water into the annulus and monitoring the
downhole data recorder for a pressure response.
9-7
Chapter 9 Testing the Well
You should set the data recorder to record data at the frequen-
cies shown in Table 9-1.
Table 9-1
Data Recording Frequency
for Slug Tests
When you use a data recorder at the surface, you can analyze data
as the test progresses and determine when you have collected a
sufficient amount of data and when to conclude the test.
Injection/Fall-Off Tests
An injection/fall-off test is a single-well pressure transient test
which you can also use to estimate permeability. To conduct an
injection/fall-off test, you inject water into the well at a constant rate
for a period of time and then you shut in the well. During both
injection and the shut-in periods, the bottomhole pressure is mea-
sured using a downhole pressure gauge. You can analyze pressure
data from both the injection period and the fall-off period indepen-
dently to estimate permeability.
9-8
Performing Pressure Transient Tests
Relatively expensive
Supply of water
Pressure gauges
9-9
Chapter 9 Testing the Well
If you do not know the permeability of the zone, you can design the
test based on an estimated minimum permeability. Alternatively, you
can run a slug test first to get an estimate of the permeability. You can
then use that permeability value to calculate the maximum injection
rate for the test using the equation below:
Pinj - Pr
q
= 162.6 Bw [ log k t c t
rw2
]
- 3.23 + 0.869 S
k h
= porosity, %
Notes: (1) The maximum injection pressure should be less than 75%
of the fracture pressure.
9-10
Performing Pressure Transient Tests
The fall-off portion of the test normally yields the most useful infor-
mation. To increase the amount and quality of information obtained
during this period, you can install a downhole shut-in plug after
injection to reduce the wellbore storage effects.
1. Contact the service company who will perform the test and
find out what equipment they will provide and what equip-
ment you need to provide.
The service company will usually supply water, pumps, and all
metering equipment for the job.
Perforated sub
Packer
9-11
Chapter 9 Testing the Well
If you observe a leak during the job, attempt to fix the leak
while continuing to inject, if possible.
Important Once you begin injection, you should not discontinue
injecting unless safety or environmental regulations are
threatened. Water that is not fresh should never be allowed
to drain onto the ground.
9-12
Performing Pressure Transient Tests
2. Allow the gauges to sit in the well for a least one hour to
measure the current pressure trend (if any) in the reser-
voir.
P = h x x 0.052 , psi
where:
h = height of the lubricator above the tubing, ft
9-13
Chapter 9 Testing the Well
10. After the pressure has fallen off completely, retrieve the
downhole shut-in tool with a wireline retrieving tool and
retrieve the downhole pressure gauges.
9-14
Performing Pressure Transient Tests
Interference Tests
An interference test is a multiple-well test with
an active well and one or more observation wells. In an interference
test, a pressure transient is applied to the formation to be tested by
either injecting fluid into or withdrawing fluid from the active well.
The pressure response to the applied stress is then monitored continu-
ously in the active well and all of the observation wells. In designing
an interference test, it is important to select an injection rate low
enough not to fracture the formation.
The main advantages of interference tests over other tests methods are:
Expensive
Lengthy test period
Sometimes difficult to analyze
9-15
Chapter 9 Testing the Well
Supply of water
If the permeability of the zone is not known, you can run a slug test
first to estimate the permeability of the active well. You can then
use that permeability value to calculate the maximum injection rate
for the test using the equation below:
Pinj - Pr
q
= 162.6 B w
[ log k t c t
]
- 3.23 + 0.869 S
rw2
k h
9-16
Performing Pressure Transient Tests
= porosity, %
Notes: (1) The maximum injection pressure should be less than 75%
of the fracture pressure.
1. Contact the service company who will perform the test and
find out what equipment they will provide and what you need
to provide.
The service company will usually supply water, pumps, and all
metering equipment for the job.
9-17
Chapter 9 Testing the Well
Perforated sub
Packer
4. Calculate the average injection rate during the test using the
equations below:
Remember to take into account the volume of water used to fill
the tubing and the lubricator.
9-18
Performing Pressure Transient Tests
9-19
Chapter 9 Testing the Well
Easy to operate
9-20
Evaluating Production from Multiple-Seam Wells
Inexpensive
Can only be used on wells with a working fluid level below the
perforations
9-21
Chapter 9 Testing the Well
9-22
Evaluating Production from Multiple-Seam Wells
Figure 9-2
Typical Coalbed Methane Production Decline Curve
To use the specially-built ZIP tool, you install it between two joints of
tubing and then position it in the well below the uppermost coal seams
you wish to test. You inflate the packer with nitrogen from the surface
through a stainless steel control line attached to the tubing string.
Inflating the ZIP seals the annulus between the production tubing and
the casing, preventing production of gas from the seams below the tool.
This zone isolation enables you to accurately measure the gas rate from
the upper coal group. You can then determine the production rate of the
lower coal seams by subtracting the gas rate of the upper group from the
wells total gas production rate before the ZIP tool was installed.
9-23
Chapter 9 Testing the Well
If you are testing more than one coal seam, you can equip the ZIP
tool with a pass-through, which enables you to run a control line
through the ZIP to another packer installed deeper in the well.
This configuration allows you to determine the gas rate of three
separate zones. Figures 9-3 and 9-4 illustrate the ZIP tool used for
a two-seam test and a three-seam test, respectively.
Figure 9-3
Two-Seam Well Test Using the ZIP Tool
At the Rock Creek project, the ZIP tool is installed in several wells
which are tested frequently to determine production rates from the
Mary Lee and Black Creek coal seams. One such test provided
information which led to the successful re-stimulation of the Mary
Lee interval in Well P3. For more information on the ZIP tool,
refer to Determining Production from Individual Coal Groups in
Multi-Zone Wells with a Zone Isolation Packer. See Additional
Resources at the end of this chapter.
9-24
Evaluating Production from Multiple-Seam Wells
Figure 9-4
Three-Seam Well Test Using the ZIP Tool
The advantages of using the ZIP tool to test coal seams are:
The tool can remain installed in the tubing string for use in
frequent tests
The test can be completed quickly because the well does not
have to be shut down to install test equipment
9-25
Chapter 9 Testing the Well
9-26
Evaluating Production from Multiple-Seam Wells
over the years, you may still find it difficult to estimate production
rates from individual seams because many seams produce at ex-
tremely low rates.
Production tests may help you determine that each seam in the well
is not producing at optimum rates. If you have eliminated the
possibility of mechanical problems with the artificial lift equipment
or surface equipment, then you must conclude the problem is
associated with the reservoir. Some of the most common coalbed
methane reservoir problems are:
Some of the coal seams in the Black Warrior Basin contain waters
with a high tendency for scaling. Scaling can occur in surface
equipment and downhole equipment as well as in perforations and
in the formation. Though you can easily observe scaling in equip-
ment and in perforations (with a camera survey), you cannot ob-
serve scaling in the formation. To determine if scaling has oc-
curred in the formation, you must use pressure transient tests to
assess formation damage. If formation damage exists, it could have
been caused by scale. For information on the scaling tendency of
coalbed methane produced water, refer to Chapter 8.
9-27
Chapter 9 Testing the Well
9-28
Additional Resources
Additional Resources
9-29
Appendix A
Summary of Permitting Requirements
for
Drilling a Coalbed Methane Well in Alabama
(State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama)
Summary of Permitting Requirements for Drilling a
Coalbed Methane Well in Alabama
A summary of the permitting requirements of the State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama
are listed below:
Permit to Drill
Before you can spud a well in the State of Alabama, you must submit a Form OGB
I (Application for Permit to Drill, Deepen, Convert, or Amend). This form must be accompa-
nied by the following:
Permit Fee
This permit may not be approved until all other applicable environmental regulations have
been approved by other agencies.
Drilling Operations
During drilling operations, an agent of the State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama
(Board) must be notified and approval obtained prior to performing any of the follow-
ing operations:
Casing Requirements
The minimum amount of surface or first string intermediate casing to be set below ground
level and the test pressure requirements are as follows:
Coalbed methane gas wells may be completed open hole or cased hole. If completed open
hole, the production casing must be set not more than 100' above the uppermost coalbed
which the operator intends to complete and the casing must be cemented to a point 200'
above the base of the casing.
For cased hole completions, the production casing must be cemented in place with sufficient
cement to allow for 200' of cement over the uppermost coalbed that the operator intends to
complete.
After cementing the casing and before completing the well, the production casing must be
tested to 600 psi for 30 minutes without a drop of more than 10 percent. The cement shall be
allowed to stand a total of 12 hours before drilling the plug or initiating tests.
Drilling Pits
Reserve pits which are used during the drilling of the wells must be inspected by a qualified
engineer and determined to be constructed in a manner that will prevent the pollution of the
ground water. Ile level in the pits must be kept at least 2' below the top of the pit. After the
well is completed or is plugged and abandoned, all fluids and recoverable slurry from pits
must be disposed in a manner that is acceptable to the Board and the pit must be backfilled
within 90 days.
Miscellaneous
A detailed and accurate record of the well must be kept during the drilling and
completion of the well and must be accessible to the Board at any time. Pertinent
information from these records must be submitted to the Board within 30 days of the
completion of the well.
Copies of logs, drillstem test results, and cuttings must be submitted to the Board
within 30 days of the completion of the well.
If cores are taken, either whole or at least quarter slabs must be submitted to the
Board within 6 months unless otherwise approved by the Board.
Adequate blow-out preventers are required and must be tested regularly. Test results
should be recorded in the drillers log and available to an agent of the Board upon
request.
Inclination surveys are required beginning with a depth not greater than the surface
casing and succeeding shot points not more than 1000' apart or as required by the
Board. The results should be reported to the Board on Form OGB-7.
The summary above is only a partial listing of the regulations which affect the drilling of a
coalbed methane well in Alabama. For further detail regarding these regulations and a full
listing of the regulations regarding production operations in Alabama, you should consult the
State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama Administrative Code.
v v v
Appendix B
Summary of Permitting Requirements
for
Drilling a Coalbed Methane Well in Alabama
(State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama)
QUALITY CONTROL GUIDELINES
Page 1
QUALITY CONTROL AND JOB SUPERVISION GUIDELINES
FOR STIMULATION TREATMENTS
INTRODUTION
Quality control is a key element in the successful implementation of any stimulation treat-
ment. Simply stated, attention to quality control is needed to ensure that the stimulation treat-
ment is pumped as designed. Often times, quality control is considered the responsibility of
the service company alone, but frankly, ensuring a successful job is the responsibility of both
the operator and the service company. Attention to detail by both the operator and the service
company and close cooperation between the two before, during, and after the job is certain to
increase the quality of service in any stimulation treatment.
The guidelines which follow this discussion should assist the engineer in the quality con-
trol and job supervision of stimulation treatments. The guidelines include a comprehensive
supervision checklist to remind the engineer of equipment needed for the job, safety concerns,
and questions to ask before, during, and after the job. The tables that follow the checklist
permit the engineer to prepare a complete summary of the job (injection rates, injection pres-
sures, fluid and proppant volumes, etc.), as well as an inventory of all products on location
before and after the treatment. An important responsibility of the stimulation engineer is to
obtain a reliable record of what actually occurred during the treatment; these guidelines and
tables should help meet this responsibility.
While these guidelines can be used for quality control and supervision of any stimulation
treatment, we have attempted to tailor them for use in Appalachian Basin reservoirs where
possible. While quality control problems are not unique to this area, proper job execution in
Appalachian Basin reservoirs is especially important due primarily to the smaller treatments
pumped routinely. Quality control on smaller, shorter treatments is often more troublesome
than for the much larger stimulation treatments typically pumped in the western and south-
western United States. On larger volume treatments involving high pressure, high temperature
wells, there is often more time to correct mistakes. In addition, the reservoir pressure and
temperature themselves may help reduce cleanup problems created by gel lumping or lack of
sufficient breaker.
The combination of low pressures and low temperatures frequently encountered in many
Appalachian Basin reservoirs provides for an environment that is not as tolerant of procedural
mistakes. Unbroken gel or gel lumping, which may be only inconveniences in well cleanup for
most wells, can result in the failure of a stimulation treatment in the Appalachian Basin. Pre-
and post-fracture inventory of materials, fluid quality assurance, real-time monitoring of chemi-
cal additives, and attention to details such as flush volume and proper flowback can often make
the difference between success and failure in low-pressure, low-temperature reservoirs.
7. Check the valves on the tanks to ensure that they are not leaking. If a valve has a
trickle leak, replace it before the next job. If the tank has a large leak, consider having
the tanks switched out prior to any pumping.
8. Conduct pre-gel quality control on fluid by completing quality control Tables 1, 2, 3,
4 or 5, and 7. Parts of Tables 1 and 2 will be done either again or only on the day of the
job.
Sand Storage
1. Get on top of the sand storage unit yourself and see if they contain enough proppant
to do the job. Sieve proppant from each compartment.
2. Is the proppant in each compartment the correct size? Check for contamination. Add
sand or other proppant to water and check pH. Also check while sieving for foreign
material.
Discussions with the Service-company Treatment Supervisor
1. Review the sand and fluid schedules in detail.
2. Are the proper additives and amounts going to be on the location?
3. Ask for confirmation that the chemicals are fresh and not shelf degraded or contami-
nated.
4. Is a standby blender going to be on location and in position to be usable? A standby
is needed on treatments with pump time exceeding 1 hour.
5. Insist that a sand densiometer be available on the job. Check for the last time the
densiometer was calibrated.
6. When pumping energized fluids, insist that a flowmeter is installed to measure the
gas injection rates.
7. If the pumping time is going to take more than 4 hours, request that a service company
mechanic be on the location to repair any equipment that malfunctions. Also, request
an electronics technician to repair electrical problems on jobs with long pump times.
8. Make sure the required hydraulic horsepower is on location. Plan for contingencies.
Are you willing to treat the well at a lower rate if a pump fails?
9. Go over rig up checklist (Table 15) with service company representative.
10. Arrange for testing of all gelled fluids and test crosslink time if applicable. (Table3).
11. Establish rapport with the treater and give the treater instructions on what you expect
before, during, and after the treatment.
12. Have Tables 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 completed (to the extent possible) at least 2
hours before pump time.
III. Just Before Beginning the Treatment
Discussions with the Service-company Treatment Supervisor
1. Review the sand and fluid schedules. Discuss quality control Tables 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12.
2. Specify whether clean or dirty volumes will be recorded. Clean volumes are fluid
volumes with no sand. Dirty volumes are the slurry volumes. Also check to see if
the volumes will be displayed in barrels or gallons.
Dirty volume, bbl = Clean volume, bbl + (lb/gal sand x 0.00109)
= bbl + ( lb/gal x 0.00109)
= bbl
or
Dirty volume, gal = Clean volume, gal + (lb sand x 0.0456)
= gal + ( lb x 0.0456)
= gal
3. Calculate the foam quality that will be pumped (if applicable).
Quality - Nitrogen Rate, scf/min x Volume Factor, bbl/scf
Liquid Rate, bbl/min + Nitrogen Rate x Volume Factor
10. Get on top of the sand storage unit with the treater and gauge the volume of
proppant in each compartment. Remember to check any 100-mesh sand that is
being pumped in the pad as a fluid-loss agent. Keep hatches on the sand stor-
age unit closed to protect proppant from inclement weather. Wet proppant will
tend to clump in the storage unit and may not come out at the required delivery
rates.
11. Set up a system with the treater on numbering the sand storage unit compart
ments in the order that they will be pumped.
12. Have service company weigh sand trucks before leaving yard and upon return
ing to yard. Complete the Proppant Tracking Chart (Table 9). This will help
you keep track of how much proppant is left at any point during the job.
13. Complete the Crosslinker Tracking Chart (Table 10), if applicable. This will
help you keep track of how much crosslinker is left at any point during the
job.
14. Complete the Breaker Tracking Chart (Table 11). This will help you keep
track of how much breaker is left at any point during the job.
15. Complete the Fluid Loss Additive Tracking Chart (Table 12). This will help
you keep track of how much fluid loss additive is left at any point during the
job.
16. If pumping energized fluid, fill out the nitrogen product tracking chart (Table
13).
Discussions with the Service-company Field Chemist or District Engineer
1. Have the chemist complete Table 1 for each tank of gel and acid. This is in
addition to your own quality control work. Always have the service company
confirm your tests to be surthe values are correct.
2. Check with the chemist to find which additives (such as crosslinkers,
fluid-loss additives, and breakers) will be added on the fly during the job.
3. Check with the chemist to see that all tanks have been premixed with the
necessary additives.
4. If running a crosslinked gel, catch a sample of gel from each tank and add
the appropriate amount of crosslinker to evaluate the crosslinker.
5. Test the crosslinker and breaker systems at bottomhole temperature using a
Fann 35 and a heated cup.
Equipment
1. Is all equipment fueled up, and is there enough fuel on the location to complete
the job?
2. Were all pumps and lines flushed with clean water before the job started?
3. Are all injection lines staked down? Ibis is very important when pump
energized fluids.
4. Is a standby blender rigged up or in an immediately usable position?
5. Is the blender located close enough to each tank so that sucking the fluid at a high
rate will not be a problem?
6. To be assured of sufficient suction between the blender and the tanks you should
have 1 suction hose per 10 BPM for thin fluids; for thick fluids use 1 suction hose
per 5 BPM. For example, a 40 BPM rate would require 8 suction hoses for
60-pound viscous gel.
TABLE 1
I. PRE-TREATMENT INFORMATION
Water Sample Analyzed by: Date:
Water Analysis Results:
Bacteria Culture Results: Aerobic:
Anaerobic:
Bactericide Recommendation:
Gel Pilot Test Results
Frac Tanks Delivered: No. Date:
Frac Tanks Inspected: Date:
Remarks:
Bactericide Added: Date. Amount:
Water Added: Date: Amount:
II. TREATMENT INFORMATION
Type of Fracturing Fluid:
Amount of Fracturing Fluid on Location
Beginning of Job:
End of Job:
Amount of Nitrogen on Location (if applicable):
Beginning of Job: Pumpable(minuscooldown):
End of Job: Total Pumped:
Type of Proppant:
Amount of Proppant on Location
Beginning of Job:
End of Job:
Type of Prepad and Flush:
Amount of Prepaid and Flush on Location
Beginning of Job:
End of Job:
Pre-Job Safety and Information Meeting: Time:
Remarks:
TABLE 1
(Continued)
Remarks:
Vicosity
Cross Volume Volume
Tank Type Fluid Tank Tank Link Start End Reducing
TABLE 3
BASE GEL FLUID ANALYSIS*
Vicosity
GAS RESEARCH INSTITUTE
Page 10
TABLE 4
PROPOSED GELLED FLUID PUMPING SCHEDULE*
Page 11
TABLE 5
PROPOSED FOAM PUMPING SCHEDULE*
Page 12
TABLE 12
Compartment No.
Proppant Type
Sieve Sizes Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On
8
10
12
16
20
25
30
35
40
GAS RESEARCH INSTITUTE
60
80
100
120
140
Pan
*If this data not available on location, have service company supply recent sieve analysis on sand in yard.
Page 13
QUALITY CONTROL GUIDELINES
Page 14
TABLE 7
DESCRIPTION OF FRACTURE FLUIDS
Fluid Type:
Base Fluid:
Salts Added: Type Amount /1000 gal
Base Gel: Type Amount /1000 gal
Crosslinker: Type Amount /1000 gal
Bactericide: Type Amount /1000 gal
Surfactant: Type Amount /1000 gal
Buffer: Type Amount /1000 gal
Breaker: Type Amount /1000 gal
Fluid Loss: Type Amount /1000 gal
Type Amount /1000 gal
Type Amount /1000 gal
Fluid Type:
Base Fluid:
Salts Added: Type Amount /1000 gal
Base Gel: Type Amount /1000 gal
Crosslinker: Type Amount /1000 gal
Bactericide: Type Amount /1000 gal
Surfactant: Type Amount /1000 gal
Buffer: Type Amount /1000 gal
Breaker: Type Amount /1000 gal
Fluid Loss: Type Amount /1000 gal
Type Amount /1000 gal
Type Amount /1000 gal
TABLE 8
FRAC TANK TRACKING CHART
Total
*Pumpable volume = gauged volume - 10% of tank volume. (Some tank configu rations may allow
more or less fluid removal. Consult with the treater as to pumpable tank volume.)
TABLE 9
PROPPANT TRACKING CHART
Total
Have service companies weigh sand trucks before leaving yard and upon return to yard.
TABLE 10
CROSSLINKER/FOAMER TRACKING CHART
Total
TABLE 11
BREAKER TRACKING CHART
Compartment No.
Proppant Type
Sieve Sizes Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On Percent On
8
10
12
16
20
25
30
35
40
GAS RESEARCH INSTITUTE
60
80
100
120
140
Pan
*If this data not available on location, have service company supply recent sieve analysis on sand in yard.
Page 19
TABLE 13
NITROGEN PRODUCTION TRACKING CHART
1
Read from guage on service company nitrogen truck.
2
Obtain volimes from service company charts for the nitrogen truck.
Page 20
QUALITY CONTROL GUIDELINES
Page 21
TABLE 14
ACID AND FRACTURE TREATMENT SUMMARY SHEET
TABLE 15
(Continued)
TABLE 15
(Continued)
10. Check minimum and maximum rates for trailer manifold, if used.
It happens many times that pigs, manifold trailers, ground manifolds, or other terminology used
for this type of equipment are designed for a maximum rate or in many cases for a minimum rate.
Ile same restrictions apply on maximum rate through the manifold trailer as far as discharge lines.
If you are going to have to pump 40 or 50 bbl/min and you have a 3-inch I.D. discharge line in the
manifold trailer or the manifold itself, severe corrosion or friction will occur in the manifold.
Additionally, these trailer manifolds or ground manifolds have large I.D. suctions. This can cause
a great deal of proppant settling and potential plugging off on low viscosity delayed crosslink jobs
or foam frac treatments where high proppant concentrations are being pumped. Discuss the poten-
tial settling out of high concentrations of proppant in low viscosity fluids with the service com-
pany if trailer manifolds are going to be used where these conditions exist.
11. Check for sufficient suction hose and evaluate velocity per hose.
It is very common to find insufficient suction hose being used between the frac tanks and the
blender and additionally insufficient hose being used on the discharge side of the blender. A good
rule of thumb for 10 to 20 ft sections of 4-inch hose on the backside of the blender is that you must
have one hose per 10 bbl/min of suction required for thin fluid, i.e., prepad or flush fluid. You
should have one 4-inch hose for 5 bbl/min if pumping a 50 or 60 lb viscous gel. In the case of the
discharge side where you are using pressurizing pumps, you need at least one hose for 10 bbl/min
of discharge rate. Obviously, you need to consider the length of hosing and add additional hoses if
there are indications of pumps starving, i.e., not getting fluid. This becomes a very important
consideration on large treatments where many trucks are positioned at fairly large distances from
the pressurizing blender.
There is another consideration that needs to be taken into account when using high concentrations
of proppant, as in foam fracturing treatments. Here, you need to maintain high velocities per hose
to keep settling out and slugging of proppants occurring in low viscosity fluids. Where pumping
very high concentrations of proppants such as 18 to 21 lb/gal from the blender to the pump trucks,
you need to keep the hose length as short as possible and use as small an I.D. hose as will achieve
the necessary rate without starving the pump.
12. Check horsepower and plunger sizes of pumps on location.
This would appear to be something that is obvious and not the responsibility of the quality control
engineer. That simply is not the case. You need to question the service engineer and find out the
plunger size and horsepower of all trucks on location. By doing so and having him give you a flow
rate versus pressure at various gear rates for the pumps, you have a backup for flow should flowmeters
or other devices fail during the treatment. Additionally, it is not uncommon to have equipment on
location that is not suited for the pumping pressures anticipated on the treatment. This would occur
if large size plungers were on location where very high pressure pumping would occur. Human
beings are used to set up equipment, and people make mistakes. The use of equipment not de-
signed for high pressure pumping or alternatively high rate pumping where small size plungers are
on pumps on location can cause very rapid failure of this equipment
TABLE 15
(Continued)
Appendix C
Procedures and Surface Equipment
for
Implementing the Forced Closure Fracturing Technique
(Excerpt from New Techniques and Quality Control
Find Success in Enhancing Productivity and
Minimizing Proppant Flowback
Ely, Arnold, and Holditch, 1990, SPE 20708)
1. Be sure that the wellhead and flowback manifold system are installed and tested so
the well can be flowed back within 30 seconds of completing flush. Figure 12
illustrates a typical surface layout for forced closure implementation.
2. If a liquid fracturing fluid is used, install a flow meter capable of monitoring rates
from 10to 20 gallons per minute downstream of a variable choke. If a foam frac-
turing fluid is used, no flow meter is needed. The flowback rate of gas can be
calculated from the pressure drop across the orifice.
3. Isolate the choke and flowmeter with a block valve during the treatment-
4. Insure that the choke is fully closed and isolated prior to starting the fracture treat
ment.
5. Within 30 seconds after completing the flush, open the block valve with the choke
still closed. If the choke fails, the block valve can be used as a back-up to regulate
flow rate.
6. Open the choke slowly. Do not exceed a flowback rate of 10-15 gallons per minute
for liquids or an equivalent rate for gases.
8. Continue to flow at a low rate for 30 minutes after near wellbore fracture closure
has been detected.
9. The flowback rate can then be increased to 20-25 gallons per minute for liquids or
equivalent rates for gases.
10. Continue flowing for an additional 30 minutes. For normal pressured or energized
produced fluids to measure sand content.wells, the flowback rate ran eventually be
increased to 1-2 BPM. Always monitor the produced fluids to measure sand
content.
11. Choke back the well as necessary when gas or oil flow rates become large.
12.Flow the well for several days or weeks using choke sizes no larger than 10-12/64
inch.
13.Monitor and record all data concerning flowing pressures and oil, gas and water flow
rates.
Diagram illustrating surface layout required to implement forced closure