Locomotive Railway Internship Report

INTERNSHIP REPORT
LOCOMOTIVE WORKS MUGHALPURA

PAKISTAN RAILWAY
Supervisor
Engr. IRFAN
Senior Instructor
Submitted By
AHMED ALVI
2013-UET-KIT-MECH-24
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
DR A Q KHAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
MIANWALI
2017
I
PAKISTAN RAILWAY
Submitted By
AHMED ALVI
Ph;+92322-6857041
Email;ahmedalvi3@gmail.com
A Project Report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of Bachelors Degree in
Mechanical Engineering Technology
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
DR A Q KHAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
MIANWALI
2017
II
Ahmed Alvi
Roll no. 24
III
Undertaking
I certify that internship report titled PAKISTAN RAILWAY is my/our own

work. No portion of the work presented in this report has been submitted in
support of another award or qualification either at this institution or elsewhere.
Where material has been used from other sources it has been properly
acknowledged / referred.
Signature of Student ________________

Name of Student________________
Registration No. of Student________________
Class Roll No________________
Supervisor: __________________
Chairman: __________________
Principal: ___________________
IV
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Engr.nafees guiding us in understanding the train

engines (Diesel classified Section) I would like to thank all our teachers
especially Engr. Muhammad Zeeshan guiding us in solving our problems
related to my project supervisor Engr. Irfan his cooperation and support
to bring this project to completion.
I would also like to thank my families and friends for their continuous
encouragement and moral support.
V
Abstract
The report is written as per the requirement of our internship, winter 2017 , in
(LOCOMOTIVE WORKSHOP) . The report includes the complete orientation of
the LOCOMOTIVE WORKS situated in Mughalpura Lahore. This report is based
on the working experience in different workshops of LOCOMOTIVES , providing
necessary knowledge about RAILWAY WORKSHOP system.
Pakistan Railways formerly also known as the Pakistan Western

Railway between 1947 and 1974, is the a national state -owned railway company
of Pakistan. Founded in 1861 and headquartered in Lahore, it owns 7,400 miles
(11,881 km) of track across Pakistan, stretching from Torkham to Karachi and
operates both freight and passenger train services. In 2014, the Ministry of
Railways launched "Pakistan Railways Vision 2025" which, along with
the 886.68 billion(US$8.5 billion) ChinaPakistan Economic Corridor railway
upgrade, seeks to reinvigorate Pakistan Railways by increa sing its share in the
transportation sector from 4% to 20% by 2025. The plans include the acquisition
of new locomotives, developing and improving current rail infrastructure,
increasing average train speeds, improving punctuality and expanding passenger
services. The first phase of the project will be completed in December 2017,
while the second phase will be completed by 2021. Pakistan Railways is an
active member of the International Union of Railways
VI
Table of Contents
undertaking ........................................................................................ IV
aknowladgments ................................................................................. V
abstract ............................................................................................. VI
List of Figures .............................................................................. XIIIIII
Chapter 1: Industrial Introduction ....................................................... 2
1.1 PAKISTAN RAILWAY History ............................................................ 2
1.2 Railway board .................................................................................... 2
1.3 Functional units .................................................................................. 3
1.4 Divisions ............................................................................................ 3
1.5 Classes ............................................................................................. 3
Chapter 2: literture Review ................................................................. 4
2.1 Workshops in mughalpura locomotive ................................................... 4
Internship duration and shedule ................................................................. 4
Name of shops ............................................................................................ 4
Period of trainig ......................................................................................... 4
Chapter 3: diesel classified shop ........................................................ 5
3.1 introuction .......................................................................................... 5
3.2 Power assembly section: ..................................................................... 5
3.3 Nozzle & fuel Injection pump section: .................................................... 6
3.3.1 Functions of the system ........................................................... 7
3.3.2 Feeding fuel ............................................................................ 7
3.3.3 Adjusting fuel quantity ............................................................. 7
3.3.4 Adjusting injection timing ......................................................... 7
3.3.5 Atomising fuel ......................................................................... 7
3.4 Electrical section: ................................................................................ 7
3.5 Governor section ................................................................................. 8
3.5.1 Parts of governor .................................................................... 8
3.6 Air compression section: ...................................................................... 9
3.6.1 How air is produced in locomotives .......................................... 9
3.6.2 A9 component ....................................................................... 10
A9 component is used to brake boggies and carriges from engine. ............ 10
3.7 Diesel Locomotive ............................................................................. 10
3.7.1 Power transmission chart: ............................................................... 11
VII
3.7.2 Classification of railways locomotives: .............................................. 11
3000 H.P V-type 16 cylinders locomotives ....................................... 11
2000 H.P V-type 12 cylinders locomotives ....................................... 11
1200 H.P V-type 6 cylinders locomotive (3700 four stroke) ............... 11
950 H.P V-type 6 cylinders locomotive (3400 four stroke) ................. 11
Note: ............................................................................................. 11
3.8 Locomotives used in Pakistan railway ................................................ 12
3.9 Parts of diesel locomotive ................................................................. 12
3.9.1 Ic engine .............................................................................. 12
3.9.2 Cylinder block: ...................................................................... 13
3.9.3 Cylinder head: ....................................................................... 13
3.9.4 Piston: .................................................................................. 14
3.9.5 Connecting rod: ..................................................................... 14
3.9.6 Crankshaft: ........................................................................... 15
3.9.7 Crankcase: ........................................................................... 15
3.9.8 Valves: ................................................................................. 16
3.9.9 Injector: ................................................................................ 16
3.9.10 Manifold: ............................................................................. 17
3.9.11 Camshaft: ........................................................................... 17
3.9.12 Gudgeon pin or piston pin: ................................................... 17
3.9.13 Pushrod: ............................................................................. 17
3.9.14 Flywheel: ............................................................................ 18
3.10 Bogie assembly section .................................................................... 18
3.11 Parts of bogie .................................................................................. 19
3.11.1 Solid welded Bogie Frame.................................................... 19
3.11.2 Primary suspension ............................................................. 19
3.11.3 Secondary suspension ......................................................... 19
3.11.4 Traction Centre ................................................................... 20
3.11.5 Disk Brakes ......................................................................... 20
3.11.6 Taper Roller Cartridge Bearing ............................................. 20
3.11.7 Bogie frame ........................................................................ 20
3.11.8 Primary suspension: ............................................................ 21
3.11.9 Secondary suspension ......................................................... 21
3.12 Traction motor ................................................................................. 22
3.12.1 Use of traction motor in train engines ................................... 22
3.13 WHEEL AND AXLE ASSEMBLY ....................................................... 23
3.13.1 Wheel ................................................................................. 24
3.13.2 Axle .................................................................................... 24
3.13.3 COMPONENTS OF WHEEL AND AXLE ASSEMBLY .............. 24
3.14 Turbo super charger section ............................................................. 25
3.14.1 TURBO SUPERCHARGER AND ITS WORKING PRINCIPLE .. 26
3.14.2 MAIN COMPONENTS OF TURBO-SUPERCHARGER ............ 27
3.14.3 ROTOR ASSEMBLY ............................................................ 27
3.15 LUBRICATING, COOLING AND AIR CUSHIONING ............................. 28
VIII
3.15.1 LUBRICATING SYSTEM ...................................................... 28
3.15.2 COOLING SYSTEM ............................................................. 28
3.15.3 AIR CUSHIONING ............................................................... 29
3.15.4 AFTER COOLER ................................................................. 29
3.15.5 Fitments of higher capacity Turbo Supercharger - .................. 29
3.15.6 TURBO RUN DOW N TEST ................................................. 29
3.15.7 ROTOR BALANCING MACHINE ........................................... 30
3.15.8 ADVANTAGES OF SUPER CHARGED ENGINE .................... 30
Chapter 4: Foundry shop .................................................................. 30
4.1 Parts prepared in brass foundry .......................................................... 31
4.2 Parts prepared in iron foundry ............................................................ 32
4.3 CASTING: ......................................................................................... 32
4.3.1 Casting process .................................................................... 32
4.4 Pattern: ............................................................................................ 33
4.4.1 Different types of patterns: .................................................... 33
4.5 Mould preparation:............................................................................. 33
4.5.1 Mould preparation: ................................................................ 34
4.6 Sand used in molding process ............................................................ 34
4.6.1 Green sand mould : ............................................................... 34
4.6.2 Dry sand mould : ................................................................... 34
4.6.3 Materials used in mould preparation ....................................... 34
4.7 Furnaces used in locomotive foundry workshop ................................... 35
4.7.1 Tilting frnace ......................................................................... 35
4.7.2 Rotary furnace ...................................................................... 35
4.7.3 Cupola Furnace: .................................................................... 36
4.7.4 Construction of Cupola Furnace: ............................................ 36
4.7.5 Working of Cupola Furnace .................................................... 37
Chapter 5: E & DC shop .................................................................... 38
5.1 Sections in E &DC SHOP .................................................................. 38
5.2 Machines used in E & DC SHOP ......................................................... 38
Hydraulic machines .................................................................... 38
Vertical milling machines............................................................ 38
Bench lathes ............................................................................. 38
Center lathes ............................................................................. 38
Universal grinding machines ........................................................ 38
Universal milling machines ......................................................... 38
5.3 Parts prepared in E&DC shop ............................................................. 39
5.3.1 Oil seals ............................................................................... 39
5.3.2 Friction plate ......................................................................... 39
5.3.3 Discharge valve .................................................................... 40
5.3.4 Bearing shell ......................................................................... 40
5.3.5 Conrod / Big Endt .................................................................. 41
IX
5.3.6 Small End Bushes ................................................................. 41
5.3.7 Mains .................................................................................. 41
5.3.8 Thrust Washers ..................................................................... 41
5.3.9 Camshaft Bearings / Bushes .................................................. 41
5.3.10 Cam shaftsparts are following: ............................................. 42
5.3.11 Stub shaft ........................................................................... 42
5.4 Machines used in E&DC shop ............................................................. 43
5.5 Lathe machines ................................................................................ 43
5.5.1 TYPES OF LATHES............................................................... 43
5.5.2 Centre lathe .......................................................................... 44
5.5.3 Bench lathe........................................................................... 44
5.5.4 Turret lathe ........................................................................... 44
5.5.5 Capstan lathe ........................................................................ 45
5.5.6 Lathe machine specifications: ................................................ 45
5.5.7 Parts of lathe machine: .......................................................... 46
5.5.8 Operations of lathe machine: ................................................. 46
5.6 Milling machine ................................................................................. 46
5.7 Types of milling machine .................................................................... 47
5.7.1 Vertical mill ........................................................................... 47
5.7.2 Horizontal milling machine ..................................................... 48
5.7.3 Universal milling machine ...................................................... 49
5.7.4 Milling cutters ....................................................................... 50
5.8 Grinding machine .............................................................................. 50
5.9 Surface grinding machine ................................................................... 51
5.9.1 Parts of surface grinding machine ......................................... 52
5.10 Types of surface grinders ................................................................. 52
5.10.1 Horizontal-spindle (peripheral) surface grinders .................... 52
5.10.2 Vertical-spindle (wheel-face) grinder .................................... 53
5.10.3 Disc grinders and double-disc grinders ................................. 53
5.10.4 Cylindrical grinding machine ................................................ 53
5.11 Shaper machine ............................................................................... 53
5.11.1 Features: ........................................................................... 54
5.11.2 Working principle of shaper machine .................................... 54
5.11.3 Operations done using a shaper: .......................................... 54
5.11.4 Main parts of a shaping machine: ......................................... 55
5.12 Planer machine ............................................................................... 55
5.12.1 Linear planning .................................................................. 56
5.12.2 Helical planing .................................................................... 56
Chapter 6:spring shop ...................................................................... 57
6.1 Spring .............................................................................................. 57
6.2 Classification of spring: ...................................................................... 58
6.2.1 Coilspring ............................................................................. 58
6.2.2 Classification of coil spring .................................................... 59
X
6.2.3 Compression helical springs .................................................. 59
6.2.4 Application of Compression helical springs ............................. 59
6.2.5 Tension helical springs .......................................................... 60
6.2.6 Application of Tension helical springs ..................................... 60
6.2.7 Torsion springs ..................................................................... 60
6.2.8 Application of Torsion springs ................................................ 61
6.3 Spiral Spring: .................................................................................... 61
6.4 Leaf spring ........................................................................................ 61
6.4.1 Characteristics: ..................................................................... 62
6.5 Volute spring .................................................................................... 63
6.6 Spring making .................................................................................. 63
6.6.1 Coiling .................................................................................. 64
6.6.2 hardening ............................................................................. 65
6.6.3 Finishing ............................................................................... 66
6.7 Machines used in spring shop ............................................................. 68
6.7.1 End grinding machine ............................................................ 68
6.7.2 Crash Grinders ...................................................................... 68
6.7.3 Crush Grinders ...................................................................... 69
6.7.4 End grinders ......................................................................... 69
6.8 Process used in spring shop ............................................................... 69
6.8.1 Tempring .............................................................................. 69
6.9 Carbon steel ..................................................................................... 70
6.10 Quenched-steel ............................................................................... 70
6.11 Normalized steel .............................................................................. 71
6.12 Spring sizes and bar sizes: ............................................................... 72
Chapter 7: Wheel shop ...................................................................... 73
Fig.7.1 ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.1 Wheel ............................................................................................... 74
7.2 Wheel geometry and flange ............................................................... 74
7.3 Set wheel .......................................................................................... 75
7.4 Wheel making Processes ................................................................... 76
7.4.1 Casting Process .................................................................... 76
7.4.2 Rolling and Pressing Process ................................................. 77
7.4.3 Heat Treatment Process ........................................................ 79
7.4.5 Finishing Process .................................................................. 80
7.4.6 Automobile Wheel Rim .......................................................... 81
7.4.7 Casting Process ............................................................................. 82
7.4.8 Forging Process .................................................................... 83
7.4.9 Drilling Process ..................................................................... 84
7.4.10 Heat Treatment Process ...................................................... 84
7.4.11 Finishing Process ................................................................ 84
XI
7.5 Steel wheels ..................................................................................... 85
7.6 Traction ............................................................................................ 85
7.7 Engine and generator ........................................................................ 86
7.8 Train truck ........................................................................................ 86
7.9 Propulsion ........................................................................................ 87
7.10 Suspension ..................................................................................... 87
CONCLUSION .................................................................................... 89
Future Recommendations about Pakistan railway workshops .......... 90
References ........................................................................................ 91
XII
List of Figures
Figure 1 Diesel shop ............................................................................. 5
Figure 2 Parts in diesel shop ................................................................. 6
Figure 3 injection nozzle ....................................................................... 6
Figure 4 parts of governor ..................................................................... 8
Figure 5 air nose .................................................................................. 9
Figure 6 air section ............................................................................... 9
Figure 7 diesel locomotive parts .......................................................... 10
Figure 8 locomotives in pakistan .......................................................... 12
Figure 9 cylinder block ........................................................................ 13
Figure 10 piston ................................................................................. 14
Figure 11 connceting rod..................................................................... 14
Figure 12 ........................................................................................... 15
Figure 13 crank shaft ......................................................................... 15
Figure 14 crank case .......................................................................... 16
Figure 15 valves ................................................................................. 16
Figure 16 injector ............................................................................... 16
Figure 17 manifold .............................................................................. 17
Figure 18 camshaft ............................................................................. 17
Figure 19 push rod ............................................................................. 18
Figure 20 fly wheel ............................................................................. 18
Figure 21 bogie assembly ................................................................... 19
Figure 22 bogie frame ......................................................................... 20
Figure 23 traction motor ...................................................................... 22
Figure 24 wheel and axle .................................................................... 24
Figure 25 components of wheel and assembly ...................................... 25
Figure 26 turbocharger ....................................................................... 27
Figure 27 rotor assembly..................................................................... 27
Figure 28 lubricating system................................................................ 28
Figure 29 brass foundry ...................................................................... 31
Figure 30 parts prepared in foundry ..................................................... 32
Figure 31 pattern ................................................................................ 33
Figure 32 moulpreaparation ................................................................. 34
Figure 33 tilting furnace ...................................................................... 35
Figure 34 rotary furnace ...................................................................... 36
Figure 35 cupola furnace..................................................................... 36
Figure 36 cupola furnace..................................................................... 37
Figure 37 oil seals ............................................................................. 39
Figure 38 friction plate ........................................................................ 40
Figure 39 bearing shell ....................................................................... 40
Figure 40 cam shaft 1 ......................................................................... 42
XIII
Figure 41 cam shaft 2 ......................................................................... 42
Figure 42 stub shaft ............................................................................ 43
Figure 43 centre lathe ......................................................................... 44
Figure 44 turret lathe .......................................................................... 45
Figure 45 vertical mill ......................................................................... 47
Figure 46 horizontal milling machine .................................................... 49
Figure 47 universal milling machine ..................................................... 50
Figure 48 grining machine ................................................................... 51
Figure 49 surface grinder .................................................................... 52
Figure 50 shapermachine .................................................................... 54
Figure 51 planer machine .................................................................... 55
Figure 52 spring shop ......................................................................... 57
Figure 53 springs use in frame ............................................................ 57
Figure 54 coil spring ........................................................................... 58
Figure 55 compression helical springs ................................................. 59
Figure 56 tension helical spring ........................................................... 60
Figure 57 torsion springs .................................................................... 61
Figure 58 leaf spring ........................................................................... 62
Figure 59 leaf spring use .................................................................... 63
Figure 60 volute spring ....................................................................... 63
Figure 61 coiling ................................................................................. 64
Figure 62 springs shapes .................................................................... 65
Figure 63 spring hardening.................................................................. 66
Figure 64 different types of springs ...................................................... 67
Figure 65 carsh grinder process .......................................................... 68
Figure 66 spring sizes ......................................................................... 72
Figure 67 wheel on machine ................................................................ 73
Figure 68 wheel flange ........................................................................ 74
Figure 69 casting process ................................................................... 77
Figure 70 Rolling and Pressing Process ............................................... 78
Figure 71 wheel process ..................................................................... 78
Figure 72 heat treatment ..................................................................... 79
Figure 73 heat treatment diagram ........................................................ 80
Figure 74 finishing process ................................................................. 81
Figure 75 overall wheel process .......................................................... 82
Figure 76 forging process ................................................................... 84
Figure 77 traction ............................................................................... 85
Figure 78 engine and generator ........................................................... 86
Figure 79 wheel adjustment ................................................................. 87
XIV
Pakistan locomotive workshops
mughalpura
I
Chapter 1: Industrial Introduction
1.1 PAKISTAN RAILWAY History
Pakistan Railways formerly also known as the Pakistan Western Railway between
1947 and 1974, is the a national state -owned railway company of Pakistan. Founded
in 1861 and headquartered in Lahore, it owns 7,400 miles (11,881 km) of track
across Pakistan, stretching from Torkham to Karachi and operates
both freight and passenger train services. In 2014, the Ministry of Railways
launched "Pakistan Railways Vision 2025" which, along with the 886.68
billion (US$8.5 billion) ChinaPakistan Economic Corridor railway upgrade, seeks
to reinvigorate Pakistan Railways by increasing its share in the transportation sector
from 4% to 20% by 2025. The plans include the acquisition of new locomotives,
developing and improving current rail infrastructu re, increasing average train
speeds, improving punctuality and expanding passenger services. The first phase of
the project will be completed in December 2017, while the second phase will be
completed by 2021 Pakistan Railways is an active member of the International
Union of Railways
1.2 Railway board

The Railway Board functioned from 1959 to 2000 and was modified with addition
of the "Executive Committee of Railway Board" between 2000 and 2014. However,
the Railway Board was reconstituted again on February 20, 2015. The Minister of
Railways Secretary serves as the official chairman of the Pakistan Railway Board.
The autonomous board consists of:
Secretary (Minister of Railways)

Secretary, Communications Division
Secretary, Finance Division
Secretary, Planning & Development Division
General Manager (Operations)
General Manager (Manufacturing & Services)
Member Finance, Ministry of Railwa ys. This composition could not get
parliament approval and presently the Board consists of ex. officio member
listed above with three members from private sector, appointed by Govt. The
Secretary Railways is also Chairman of the Board. The secretariat of B oard is
headed by Secretary Railway Board. The seat of Board is Ministry of Railways,
Islamabad
2
1.3 Functional units
Pakistan Railways comprises three functional units: [1]
Operations
Manufacturing
Welfare & special initiative unit
1.4 Divisions
Pakistan Railway comprises seven territorial operating divisions:
Karachi
Lahore
Multan
Peshawar
Quetta
Rawalpindi
Sukkur
1.5 Classes
Pakistan Railways has several classes of travel. D epending on the route, certain
trains may only have a single class. The fares for all classes are different with
unreserved seating class being the cheapest. The following table lists the classes in
operation.
Class Description
AC Sleeper Class Code = ACSL
AC Parlour Class Code = PC
AC Business Class Code = ACLZ
AC Standard Class Code = ACL
First Class Sleeper Class Code = ISL
Economy Class Class Code = EC
Second Class Class Code = SEC
3
Chapter 2:literature Review
Moghalpura Railway Workshops
The Moghalpura Railway Workshops are one of several Pakistan Railways rolling
stock repair sites, located on the LahoreWagah Branch Line at Moghalpura
Junction railway station in Lahore, Pakistan. The workshop complex began to
emerge at its present site in 1904 in order to manufacture, repair and overhaul
passenger coaches and freight wagons for the then North Western State Railway.
After Pakistan's independence in 1947, it was the only state -of-the-art workshop for
Pakistan Railways
2.1 Workshops in mughalpura locomotive

Diesel classified and rehabiltation shop
Power assembly shop
High capacity wagon shop
Machine shop
Foundry shop
E&DC shop
Spring shop
Wheel shop
Machine maintinence shop
Heat treatment shop
Blacksmith shop
Tool shop
Internship duration and shedule

S.no Name of shops Period of training
1 Diesel classified shop 26/1/17 to 3/2/17
2 Foundry shop 4/2/17 to 15/2/17
3 E & DC shop 16/2/17 to 28/2/17
4 Spring shop 01/3/17 to 10/3/17
4
Chapter 3: diesel classified shop
3.1 introuction
Diesel classified shop deals with the repairing and maintenance of the engines
The responsibility of diesel classified work shop is overhauling of all locomotives
of Pakistan Railways after every 5 years . There are 5 different sections working for
diesel classified.
Power assembly section.
Nozzle, fuel Injection & pump section.
Governor section.
Electrical section.
Air compression section .
Bogie assembly section
Turbo super charger section
Figure 1 Diesel shop
3.2 Power assembly section :

In power assembly section, engine head, connecting rod, valves, piston, liner
(cylinder) and other parts are totally disassembled and overhauled. If there is any
part which is out lived so it will be replaced e.g. piston rings. Engine parts are
transfer to power assembly section by overhead electric crane (5 & 40 ton capacity).
Liner (cylinder) made by cast iron has 9.003 and chrome coated internally.
Aluminum made piston has 8.980,
5
Figure 2 Parts in diesel shop
3.3 Nozzle & fuel Injection pump section:

In this section, injector nozzle is tested on nozzle testing machine by applying the
4050 psi pressure of diesel spray, it will pass through 9 orifices of nozzle, if there
is any blockage so it will be corrected by valve seat adjustment. Fuel injection
pump is also calibrated on calibrating machine.
Figure 3 injection nozzle
The fuel injection system lies at the very heart of the diesel engine. By pressurising
and injecting the fuel, the system forces it into air that has been compressed to high
pressure in the combustion chamber.
The diesel fuel injection system consists of:
fuel injection pump - pressurises fuel to high pressure

high-pressure pipe - sends fuel to the injection nozzle
injection nozzle - injects the fuel into the cylinder
feed pump sucks fuel from the fuel tank
fuel filter - filtrates the fuel
Some types of fuel tanks also have a fuel sedimentor at the bottom of the filter to
separate water content from the fuel.
6
3.3.1 Functions of the system
The diesel fuel injection system has four main functions:
3.3.2 Feeding fuel
Pump elements such as the cylinder and plunger are built into the injection pump
body. The fuel is compressed to high pressure when the cam lifts the plun ger, and is
then sent to the injector.
3.3.3 Adjusting fuel quantity
In diesel engines the intake of air is almost constant, irrespective of the rotating
speed and load. If the injection quantity is changed with the engine speed and the
injection timing is constant, the output and fuel consumption change. Since the
engine output is almost proportional to the injection quantity, this is adjusted by the
accelerator pedal.
3.3.4 Adjusting injection timing
Ignition delay is the period of time between the point when the fuel is injected,
ignited and combusted and when maximum combustion pressure is reached. As this
period of time is almost constant, irrespective of engine speed, a timer is used to
adjust and change injection timing enabling optimum combustion to be achieved.
3.3.5 Atomising fuel
When fuel is pressurised by the injection pump and then atomised from the injection
nozzle, it mixes thoroughly with air, thus improving ignition. The result is complete
combustion.
3.4 Electrical section :

Electrical section deal with all electrical default and correct that defaults
7
3.5 Governor section :
Governor regulates the idling speed and maximum speed of the engine by
controlling the fuel supply. It is tested on machine that how it is working and what
are problems which should correct. Check all 8 notches as well.
The governor system is like a cruise control system. It maintains the speed of your
lawn mower or outdoor power products. When Briggs & Stratton governors are
adjusted properly, they keep your speed steady regardless of engine load - the
amount of work the engine must perform. When powering a lawn mower, engine
load can be affected by hills or height of grass. For a tiller engine, load may depend
on depth of the tines while a chippers load may be affected by the thickness of
branches.
Without a governor, we would need to adjust the throttle manually each time your
lawn mower ran across a dense patch of grass. A governor does the job for you by
detecting changes in the load and adjusting the throttle to compensate.
3.5.1 Parts of governor
Figure 4 parts of governor
8
3.6 Air compression section:
Air compressors of locomotives are repaired or overhauled here, it is use for the
braking system of train. There are two types of braking systems used in Pak
railways, air pressure brakes and vacuum brakes. 6 cylinders compressor is used for
3000/2000 h.p locomotives. Where 3 cylinders for 70 psi air pressure and 3
cylinders for 22 lb/inch vacuum.
6CD3UC compressor.
6CD4UC compressor.
Figure 5 air nose
Figure 6 air section
3.6.1 How air is produced in locomotives

Compressor is connected with engine with a power transmit shaft.when engine start
than compressor automaticaly start doing working and start working
Compressor only create air
Expressor create air and vacume
COMPRESSOR
RESORVIOR 1
Used to rotate vipors and start horn.
RESORVIOR 2
Used only for brakes.
9
3.6.2 A9 component
A9 component is used to brake boggies and carriges from engine.
3.7 Diesel Locomotive :
The diesel locomotive is a self-contained version of the electric locomotive. The

working principle of diesel locomotive is actually diesel engines crank shaft
rotates the alternator like the electric locomotive, it has electric drive, in the form
of traction motors driving the axles and controlled with electronic controls. It also
has many of the same auxiliary systems for cooling, lighting, heating and braking
power for the train. It can be operated by the same drivers. The generating station
consists of a large diesel engine coupled to an alternator producing the necessary
electricity. A 1000 imperial gallons fuel tank is also essential. Diesel engine itself
not be able to pull train because there should large number of gear transmission and
friction loses will be present there, so it impossible to run train without electric
drive, in the form of traction motors.
Figure 7 diesel locomotive parts
10
3.7.1 Power transmission chart:
diesel
6 tracktion motors wheels
engine
3.7.2 Classification of railways locomotives:

Pakistan railways classified their locomotives in H.P (horse power) and every
locomotive is called on their own code numbers given by P.R. Detail of locomotives
with their numbers are following.
3000 H.P V-type 16 cylinders locomotives
8200 two stroke engine

2000 H.P V-type 12 cylinders locomotives
5001 four stroke engine

1200 H.P V-type 6 cylinders locomotive (3700 four stroke)

950 H.P V-type 6 cylinders locomotive (3400 four stroke)
Note:
2000/3000 H.P locomotive is mostly using for passenger coach. It can easily pull more
than 20 passenger coaches and more than 100 cargo carriages. Where 1200/950 H.P
locomotive is mostly using for shunting and transporting of crane in emergency
situation e.g. derail, accident and other needs. Compression ratio: 16:1, Displacement
per cylinder: 11.8 L (726 in 3 ), Cylinder bore: 22.86 cm (9.003 inches), Cylinder
11
stroke: 28.95 cm (11.4 inches), Full speed: 915 rpm, Normal idle speed: 278 rpm
Displacement of 2000 H.P is 8712 in 3 & Displacement of 3000 H.P is 11616 in
3.8 Locomotives used in Pakistan railway
Figure 8 locomotives in pakistan
3.9 Parts of diesel locomotive

Diesel locomotives has following parts :
3.9.1 Ic engine
An internal combustion engine is the engine in which combustion (burning of fuel)
takes place inside the cylinder of engine. By burning of the fuel high temperature
and pressure force generates. This pressure force use to move the vehicle or rotate
wheels by use of some mechanism.
In an engine many parts work together and achieve the goal of converting chemical
energy of fuel into mechanical energy. These parts are bolted together and the
combination of all these parts is known as engine. Today I am going to tell you
12
about these parts and how they work so you can know the basic of automobile
engine
3.9.2 Cylinder block:

Cylinder is the main body of IC engine. Cylinder is a part in which the intake of
fuel, compression of fuel and burning of fuel take place. The main function of
cylinder is to guide the piston. It is in direct contact with the products of
combustion so it must be cooled. For cooling of cylinder a water jacket (for liquid
cooling used in most of cars) or fin (for air cooling used in most of bikes) are
situated at the outer side of cylinder. At the upper end of cylinder, cylinder head
and at the bottom end crank case is bolted. The upper side of cylinder is consists of
a combustion chamber where fuel burns. To handle all this pressure and temperature
generated by combustion of fuel, cylinder material should have high compressive
strength. So it is made by high grade cast iron. It is made by casting and usually
cast in one piece
Figure 9 c ylinder block
3.9.3 Cylinder head:

The top end of cylinder is closed by means of removable cylinder head. There are
two holes or ports at the cylinder head, one for intake of fuel and other for exhaust.
Both the intake and exhaust ports are closed by the two valves known as inlet and
exhaust valve. The inlet valve, exhaust valve, spark plug, injector etc. are bolted on
the cylinder head. The main function of cylinder head is to seal the cylinder block
and not to permit entry and exit of gases on cover head valve engi ne. Cylinder head
is usually made by cast iron or aluminum. It is made by casting or forging and
usually in one piece.
13
3.9.4 Piston:
A piston is fitted to each cylinder as a face to receive gas pressure and transmit the
thrust to the connecting rod. It is the prime mover in the engine. The main function
of piston is to give tight seal to the cylinder through bore and slide freely inside of
cylinder. Piston should be light and sufficient strong to handle the gas pressure
generated by combustion of fuel. So the piston is made by aluminum alloy and
sometimes it is made by cast iron because light alloy piston expands more than cast
iron so they need more clearances to the bore .
Figure 10 piston
3.9.5 Connecting rod:

Connecting rod connects the piston to crankshaft and transmits the motion and
thrust of piston to crankshaft. It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into
rotary motion of crankshaft. There are two end of connecting rod one is known as
big end and other as small end. Big end is connected to the crankshaft and the small
end is connected to the piston by use of piston pin
Figure 11 connceting rod
14
Figure 12
3.9.6 Crankshaft:
The crankshaft of an internal combustion engine receives the efforts or thrust
supplied by piston to the connecting rod and converts the reciprocating motion of
piston into rotary motion of crankshaft. The crank shaft mounts in bearing so it can
rotate freely. The shape and size of crankshaft depends on the number and
arrangement of cylinders. It is usually made by steel forging, but some makers use
special types of cast-iron such as spheroidal graphitic or nickel alloy castings which
are cheaper to produce and have good service life .
Figure 13 crank shaft
3.9.7 Crankcase:
The main body of the engine to which the cylinder are attached and which contains
the crankshaft and crankshaft bearing is called crankcase. It serves as the
lubricating system too and sometime it is called oil sump. All the oil for lubrication
is placed in it.
15
Figure 14 crank case
3.9.8 Valves:
To control the inlet and exhaust of internal combustion engine, valves are used. The
number of valves in an engine depends on the number of cylinders. Two valves are
used for each cylinder one for inlet of air -fuel mixture inside the cylinder and other
for exhaust of combustion gases. The valves are fitted in the port at the cylinder
head by use of strong spring. This spring keep them closed. Both valves usually
open inwards.
Figure 15 valves
3.9.9 Injector:
Injector is usually used in compression ignition engine. It sprays the fuel into
combustion chamber at the end of compression stroke. It is fitted on cylinder head.
Figure 16 injector
16
3.9.10 Manifold:
The main function of manifold is to supply the air fuel mixture and collects the
exhaust gases equally form all cylinder. In an internal combustion engine two
manifold are used, one for intake and other for exhaust. They are usually made by
aluminum alloy.
Figure 17 manifold
3.9.11 Camshaft:
Camshaft is used in IC engine to control the opening and closing of valves at proper
timing. For proper engine output inlet valve should open at the end of exhaust
stroke and closed at the end of intake s troke. So to regulate its timing, a cam is use
which is oval in shape and it exerts a pressure on the valve to open and release to
close. It is drive by the timing belt which drives by crankshaft. It is placed at the
top or at the bottom of cylinder.
Figure 18 camshaft
3.9.12 Gudgeon pin or piston pin:

These are hardened steel parallel spindles fitted through the piston bosses and the
small end bushes or eyes to allow the connecting rods to swivel. It connects the
piston to connecting rod. It is made hollow for lightness.
3.9.13 Pushrod:
Pushrod is used when the camshaft is situated at the bottom end of cylinder. It
carries the camshaft motion to the valves which are situated at the cylinder head
17
Figure 19 push rod
3.9.14 Flywheel:
A flywheel is secured on the crankshaft. The main function of flywheel is to rotate
the shaft during preparatory stroke. It also makes crankshaft rotation more uniform.
Figure 20 fl y w heel
3.10 Bogie assembly section

In this section engine bodyor bogie is being assembled
The Bogie is two-axle type, with a primary and a secondary suspension. The bogie assembly is
consist of following parts:
18
Figure 21 bogie assembl y
3.11 Parts of bogie

Parts of bogie are following:
3.11.1 Solid welded Bogie Frame

made up of two longitudinal components connected by two cross beams. The bogie frame rests on
the primary suspension spring units and supports the vehicle body by means of Bolster beam. The
Bolster beam is connected to the bogie frame by secondary suspension.
3.11.2 Primary suspension

consist of two steel coil springs (internal/external) laid out on the Control Arm upper part.
3.11.3 Secondary suspension

consists of two spring packs which sustain the bolster beam over the bogie frame. Each spring
pack is made up by an internal and external spring. An Anti roll bar fitted on the bogie frame
realizes a constant, reduced inclination coefficient during running. The bogie frame is linked to
the bolster beam through two vertical dampers, a lateral damper, four safety cables and the
traction rods. The bogie frame is linked to the coach body through two yaw dampers.
19
3.11.4 Traction Centre
The traction Centre transmits traction and braking forces between bogie frame and body by a
traction lever on the bolster beam pin and two rods.
3.11.5 Disk Brakes

The bogie is fitted with pneumatic disk brakes. The pneumatically operated brake cylinders are
fitted with automatic device for taking up the clearances.
3.11.6 Taper Roller Cartridge Bearing

Bogie is fitted with 130 mm Cartridge type roller bearings.
3.11.7 Bogie frame

The bogie frame is a solid welded frame made by steel sheets and forged or cast parts. The frame
is made up of two longitudinal components (1) connected by two cross-beams (2) which also
support the brake units. The various supports which connect the different bogie components are
welded to the frame. The bogie frame rests on the primary suspension spring units and supports
the vehicle body by means of a bolster beam. The bolster beam is connected to the bogie frame
by the secondary suspension.
Figure 22 bogie frame
1. Bogie frame longitudinal component

2. Cross-beam
20
3.11.8 Primary suspension:
Primary suspension is implemented by two units of two steel coil springs (internal (4) and
external (5)) laid out on the control arm upper part (13) by a centering disk (8) and adjustment
shims, (if required).
The suspension is also completed by the following components:
A control arm (13), fitted with twin-layer elastic joints (12), connecting the axle bearing to the
bogie frame and transmitting, not stiffly, lateral, longitudinal and part of the vertical forces;
A vertical damper (14).
Rubber elements (2) separate the primary suspension from the bogie to realize noise reduction.
Stops and protections are mounted on the bogie frame for the lifting.
1. Bogie frame
2. Rubber disks
3. Centering disk
4.Internal spring
5. External spring
6. Bump stop
7. Shim
8. Centering disk
9. Control Arm Lower Part
10. Plate
11. Block
12. Rubber joint
13. Control Arm Upper Part
14. Damper
3.11.9 Secondary suspension

The secondary suspension enables lateral and vertical displacements and bogie rotation with
respect to body when running through curves.
It is implemented by two spring packs (A, FIG. 4-4) which sustain the bolster beam (1) over the
bogie frame (6). Each spring pack is made up by an internal (3) and an external spring (4),
mounted and positioned through the centering discs (5).
An anti-roll bar (2), fitted on the bogie frame (6), realizes a constant, reduced inclination
coefficient during running.
The bogie frame is linked to the bolster beam through two vertical dampers (7), a lateral damper
(8), four safety cables (9) and the traction rods (10).
The bogie frame is also linked to the coach body through two yaw dampers (11).
1. Bolster beam
2. Anti- roll bar
3. Internal spring
4. External spring
5. Centring disk
6. Bogie frame
7. Vertical damper
8. Lateral damper
21
9. Safety cables
10.Traction rod
11. Yaw damper
3.12 Traction motor

Traction motor refers to a type of electric motor. A traction motor is used to make
rotation torque on a machine. It is usually changed into a straight line motion.
Traction motors are used in electrically powered rail vehicles such as electric
multiple units and electric locomotives. They are also used in electric vehicl es, such
as electric milk floats, elevators, and conveyors. Vehicles with electrical
transmission systems such as Diesel-electric locomotives, electric hybrid
vehicles and battery powered electric vehicles .
Figure 23 traction motor
3.12.1 Use of traction motor in train engines

Railroad first used DC motors. These motors usually ran on about 600 volts. High -
powered semiconductors were developed to control the switching of AC motors.
They have made AC induction motors a better choice. [1] An induction motor does
not require contacts inside the motor. These AC motors a re simpler, and more
reliable than the old DC motors. AC induction motors known as asynchronous
traction motors.
Before the mid-20th century, a single large motor was often used to drive multiple
wheels through connecting rods. This was the same way that steam
locomotives would turn their drive wheels. Now, the normal practice is to use one
traction motor to drive each axle through a gear drive.
22
Usually, the traction motor is mounted between the wheel frame and the driven
axle. This is called a "nose-suspended traction motor". The problem with this
mounting is that some of the motor's weight is on the axle. This causes the track
and frame to wear out faster. [1] The "Bi-Polar" electric locomotives built by General
Electric for the Milwaukee Road had di rect drive motors. The rotating shaft of the
motor was also the axle for the wheels.
The DC motor is made in two parts; the rotating armature and the fixed field
windings. The field windings, also called the stator, surrounds the armature. The
field windings are made of tightly wound coils of wire inside the motor case. The
armature, also called the rotor, is another set of coils of wire wound round the
central shaft. The armature is connected to the field windings through brushes. The
brushes are spring loaded contacts pressing against the commutator. The
commutator sends the electricity in a circula r pattern to armature windings.
A series-wound motor has the armature and the field windings connected in series.
A series-wound DC motor has a low electrical resistance. When voltage is applied
to the motor, it makes a strong magnetic field inside the motor. [1] This produces a
high amount of torque, so it is good for starting a train. If more current than needed
is sent to the motor, there would be too much torque and the wheels would spin. If
too much current is sent to the motor, it could damage the motor. Resistors are used
to limit the current when the motor starts.
As the DC motor starts to turn, the magnetic fields inside start to join together.
They create an internal voltage. This electromagnetic force (EMF) works against
the voltage sent to the motor. The EMF controls the current flow in the motor. As
the motor speeds up, the EMF falls. Less current flows into the motor, and it makes
less torque. The motor will stop increasing its speed when the torque matches (is
the same as) the drag on the train. To accelerate the train, more voltage must be
sent to the motor. One or more resistors are removed to increase the v oltage. This
will increase the current. The torque will increase, and so will the speed of the
train. When no resistors are left in the circuit, full line voltage is applied directly to
the motor.
On an electric train, the train driver originally had to control the speed by changing
the resistance manually. By 1914, automatic acceleration was being used. This was
achieved by an accelerating relay in the motor circui t. This was often called
a notching relay. The relay would watch the fall of current and control the
resistance. All the driver had to do was select low, medium or full speed. These
speeds are called shunt, series and parallel from the way the motors were wired.
23
3.13 WHEEL AND AXLE ASSEMBLY
This is the part of a rake which is just adjacent to the tracks. It basically consists of four main
parts:
a) Wheel
b) Axle
c) Bearing and Housing
3.13.1 Wheel
Wheel of a rake is a specifically made cylindrical portion having an outer edge
shape to fit in the railway track. The material is stainless steel.
3.13.2 Axle
Axle is the main long cylindrical bar on which wheels are fixed with the help of
bearings. This is also made of stainless steel as above. Each axle contains 2 wheels,
Figure 24 w heel and axle
3.13.3 COMPONENTS OF WHEEL AND AXLE ASSEMBLY

Two brake disks (4), diameter 640 mm and
width 110 mm.
In built slack adjusting brake cylinder fitted
Two wheel disc of tread dia 915 (New), 845
(worn).
24
Figure 25 components of w heel and assembl y
3.14 Turbo super charger section

The diesel engine produces mechanical energy by converting heat energy derived
from burning of fuel inside the cylinder. For efficient burning of fuel, availability
of sufficient air in proper ratio is a prerequisite.
In a naturally aspirated engine, during the suction stroke, air is being sucked in to
the cylinder from the atmosphere. The volume of air thus drawn into the cylinder
through restricted inlet valve passage, within a limited time would also be limited
and at a pressure slightly less than the atmosphere. The availability of less quantity
of air of low density inside the cylinder would limit the scope of burning of fuel.
Hence mechanical power produced in the cylinder is also limited.
An improvement in the naturally aspirated engines is the super -charged or pressure
charged engines. During the suction stroke, pressurised stroke of high density is
being charged into the cylinder through the open suction valve. Air of higher
density containing more oxygen will make it possible to inject more fuel into the
same size of cylinders and produce more power, by effectively burning it.
A turbocharger, or turbo, is a gas compresser used for forced-induction of an
internal combustion engine. Like a supercharger, the purpose of a turbo charger is to
increase the density of air entering the engine to create more power. However, a
turbocharger differs in that the compressor is powered by a turbine driven by the
engine's own exhaust gases.
25
3.14.1 TURBO SUPERCHARGER AND ITS WORKING PRINCIPLE
The exhaust gas discharge from all the cylinders accumulate in the common exhaust
manifold at the end of which, turbo - supercharger is fitted. The gas under pressure
there after enters the turbo- supercharger through the torpedo shaped bell mouth
connector and then passes through the fixed nozzle ring. Then it is directed on the
turbine blades at increased pressure and at the most suitable angle to achieve rotary
motion of the turbine at maximum efficiency. After rotating the turbine, the exhaust
gas goes out to the atmosphere through the exhaust chimney. The turbine has a
centrifugal blower mounted at the other end of the same shaft and the rotation of the
turbine drives the blower at the same speed. The blower connected to the
atmosphere through a set of oil bath filters, sucks air from atmosphere, and delivers
at higher velocity. The air then passes through the diffuser inside the turbo -
supercharger, where the velocity is diffused to increase the pressure of air before it
is delivered from the turbo- supercharger.
Pressurising air increases its density, but due to compression heat develops. It
causes expansion and reduces the density. This effects supply of high -density air to
the engine. To take care of this, air is passed through a heat exchanger know n as
after cooler. The after cooler is a radiator, where cooling water of lower
temperature is circulated through the tubes and around the tubes air passes. The
heat in the air is thus transferred to the cooling water and air regains its lost
density. From the after cooler air goes to a common inlet manifold connected to
each cylinder head. In the suction stroke as soon as the inlet valve opens the booster
air of higher pressure density rushes into the cylinder completing the process of
super charging.
The engine initially starts as naturally aspirated engine. With the increased quantity
of fuel injection increases the exhaust gas pressure on the turbine. Thus the self -
adjusting system maintains a proper air and fuel ratio under all speed and load
conditions of the engine on its own. The maximum rotational speed of the turbine is
18000/22000 rpm for the Turbo supercharger and creates max. Of 1.8 kg/cm 2 air
pressure in air manifold of diesel engine, known as Booster Air Pressure (BAP).
Low booster pressure causes black smoke due to incomplete combustion of fuel.
High exhaust gas temperature due to after burning of fuel may result in considerable
damage to the turbo supercharger and other component in the engine.
26
Figure 26 turbocharger
3.14.2 MAIN COMPONENTS OF TURBO-SUPERCHARGER
Turbo- supercharger consists of following main components.

Gas inlet casing.
Turbine casing.
Intermediate casing
Blower casing with diffuser
Rotor assembly with turbine and rotor on the same shaft.
3.14.3 ROTOR ASSEMBLY
Figure 27 rotor assembly
27
3.15 LUBRICATING, COOLING AND AIR CUSHIONING
3.15.1 LUBRICATING SYSTEM

One branch line from the lubricating system of the engine is connected to the turbo -
supercharger. Oil from the lube oils system circulated through the turbo -
supercharger for lubrication of its bearings. After the lubrication is over, the oil
returns back to the lube oil system through a return pipe. Oil seals are provided on
both the turbine and blower ends of the bearings to prevent oil leakage to the
blower or the turbine housing
Figure 28 lubricating s ystem
3.15.2 COOLING SYSTEM

The cooling system is integral to the water co oling system of the engine.
Circulation of water takes place through the intermediate casing and the turbine
casing, which are in contact with hot exhaust gases. The cooling water after being
circulated through the turbo- supercharger returns back again to the cooling system
of the locomotive.
28
3.15.3 AIR CUSHIONING
There is an arrangement for air cushioning between the rotor disc and the
intermediate casing face to reduce thrust load on the thrust face of the bearing
which also solve the following purposes.
It prevents hot gases from coming in contact with the lube oil.
It prevents leakage of lube oil through oil seals.
It cools the hot turbine disc.
Pressurised air from the blower casing is taken through a pipe inserted in the turbo -
supercharger to the space between the rotor disc and the intermediate casing. It
serves the purpose as described above.
3.15.4 AFTER COOLER

It is a simple radiator, which cools the air to increase its density. Scales formation
on the tubes, both internally and extern ally, or choking of the tubes can reduce heat
transfer capacity. This can also reduce the flow of air through it. This reduces the
efficiency of the diesel engine. This is evident from black exhaust smoke emissions
and a fall in booster pressure.
3.15.5 Fitments of higher capacity Turbo Supercharger-

following new generation Turbo Superchargers have been identified by diesel shed
for 2600/3100HP diesel engine and tabulated in table
TYPE POWER COOLING

1.ALCO 2600HP Water cooled
2.ABB TPL61 3100HP Air cooled
3.HISPANO SUIZA HS 5800 NG 3100HP Air cooled
4. GE 7S1716 3100HP Water cooled
5. NAPIER NA-295 2300,2600&3100HP Water cooled
3.15.6 TURBO RUN DOWN TEST
Turbo run-down test is a very common type of test done to check the free running
time of turbo rotor. It indicates whether there is any abnormal sound in the turbo,
seizer/ partial seizer of bearing, physical damages to the turbine, or any other
abnormality inside it. The engine is started and warmed up to normal working
conditions and running at fourth notch speed. Engine is then shut down through the
over speed trip mechanism. When the rotation of the crank shaft stops, the free
29
running time of the turbine is watched through the chimney and recorded by a stop
watch. The time limit for free running is 90 to 180 seconds. Low or high turbo run
down time are both considered to be harmful for the engine.
3.15.7 ROTOR BALANCING MACHINE

A balancing machine is a measuring tool used for balancing rotating machine parts
such as rotors of turbo subercharger,electric motors,fans, turbines etc. The machine
usually consists of two rigid pedestals, with suspension and bearings on top.The
unit under test is placed on the bearings and is rotated with a belt. As the part is
rotated, the vibration in the suspension is detected with sensors and that
information is used to determine the amount of unbalance in the part. Along with
phase information, the machine can determine how much and where to add or
3.15.8 ADVANTAGES OF SUPER CHARGED ENGINE
A super charged engine can produce 50 percent or more power than a

naturally aspirated engine. The power to weight ratio in such a case is
much more favorable.
Better scavenging in the cylinders. This ensures carbon free cylinders

and valves, and better health for the engine also.
Better ignition due to higher temperature developed by higher

compression in the cylinder.
It increases breathing capacity of engine
Better fuel efficiency due to complete combustion of fuel .
30
Chapter 4: Foundry shop
In foundry shop different types of parts are produced using casting process. After
casting the work pieces are machined to convert them into various parts according
to part structure. Various types of furnaces are available in at Loco shop of railway
industry to cast different number of parts according to demand. Operations to be
performed and time to make that part are mentioned on work order. Operation are
performed according to the sequence mentioned on work order.
Foundry shop is ivided in two parts:

Brass foundry
Iron foundry
Figure 29 brass foundr y
4.1 Parts prepared in brass foundry

There are following parts are prepared in this shop
Sliding door handle
Upper birth handle
Coat hook
Window catcher
Window stopper
Window panel
Glass stand
Motor cover
31
4.2 Parts prepared in iron foundry
There are following parts are prepared in this shop
L.P cylinder for D.E loco
H.P cylinder for D.E loco
Oil tank cock body
Disc brake
Brake shoes
Caps for alternator body
Brake block
Plug for oil tank cock body
Figure 30 parts prepared in foundr y
4.3 CASTING:
Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into
a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to
solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken
out of the mold to complete the process. Ca sting materials are usually metals or
various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more components
together.
4.3.1 Casting process

Casting is the process of pouring molten metal into the previously made cavity to
the desired. Shape and allow it to solidify
The following are the basic operations of casting process

Pattern making
Mould preparation
Melting the metal
Pouring it into a previously made mould which confirms to the
shape of desired component.
32
Figure 31 pattern
4.4 Pattern:
A pattern is an element used for making cavities in the mould, into which molten.
Metal is poured to produce a casting.
Requirements of a good pattern and pattern allowance.
Secure the desired shape and size of the casting
Simple in design, for ease of manufacture
Cheap and readily availableLight in mass and convenient to handle
Have high strength
4.4.1 Different types of patterns:

Split or Parted Pattern
Loose Piece Pattern
Draw backs
Gated Patterns.
Match Plate pattern
Cope and Drag Pattern
Sweep Patterns.
4.5 Mould preparation:

A mold is formed into the geometric shape of a desired part. Molten metal is then
poured into the mold, the mold holds this material in shape as it solidifies. A metal
casting is created. Although this seems rather simple, the manufacturing process of
metal casting is both a science and an art. First, molds can be classified as either
open or closed. An open mold is a container, like a cup, that has only the shape of
the desired part. The molten material is poured directly into the mold cavity which
is exposed to the open environment .
33
4.5.1 Mould preparation:
chaplet
Mold
cavity
Figure 32 moulpreaparation
4.6 Sand used in molding process

Different types of sand use in brass and iron foundry
4.6.1 Green sand mould :

A green sand mould is composed of mixture of sand, clay and water .
4.6.2 Dry sand mould :

Dry sand moulds are basically green sand moulds with 1% to 2% cereal flour and
1% to 2% pitch.
4.6.3 Materials used in mould preparation

Silica sand, Binder, Additives and water
34
4.7 Furnaces used in locomotive foundry workshop
Different types of furnaces used in workshop
4.7.1 Tilting frnace

Aluminum and brass materials are melt in this furnace
Teprature of aluminum melting 550 -600 F
Temperature of brass meltinf 1050-1150 F
Figure 33 tilting furnace
4.7.2 Rotary furnace

Rotary Melting Furnace is very flexible & universal equipment u sed for recycling
many non-ferrous metals. Rotary Furnace is a batch type process furnace. It is
designed according to capacity. In Rotary Furnace the required quantity of raw
material is filled along with a proportionate charge of additives. On the one end is
a moving door & burner is installed on that door for firing. & the other end of the
furnace is attached with Rotary Chamber for flue gases.
35
Figure 34 rotar y furnace
4.7.3 Cupola Furnace:

The cupola is the most widely used furnace in the foundry for melting ferrous and
non-ferrous metals and alloys. A cross-section of a cupola is shown. A cupola is a
shaft furnace of cylindrical shape erected on legs or columns. The cupola shell is
made of steel plate 8 or 10 mm thick. The interior is lined with refractory bricks to
protect the shell from getting over-heated. The charge for the cupola consists of
metallic material, fuel and fluxes.
Figure 35 cupola furnace
4.7.4 Construction of Cupola Furnace:

It is the constructed in the form of a hollow cylindrical vertical steel shell. It is
lined from inside with a refractory material .It is generally supported on fore cast
iron lags mounted on a concrete base .The bottom of the furnace is closed by two
cast iron doors hinged to the bed plate of the furnace .A wind box cast iron
encircles to the outside of the furnace bottom .This box is connected to the furnace
blower by pipe known as the blast pipe .Air which supplies the oxygen necessary to
burn the fuel ,is forced through the cupola by a blower .The top of the furnace is
36
shielded by a mesh screen and topped with a cone shaped spark arrester ,which
permits the free vent of the waste gas and deflects spark and dust back into furnace.
4.7.5 Working of Cupola Furnace :

First of all, the waste material dumped on the floor under the furnace after the
previous heat must be cleared away. The cupola repair man enters the cooled
furnace and cleans out the slag and refuses on the lining and around the tuyeres
from the previous run. Any bad spots or broken bricks are repaired with a refractory
material to return the lining to its original shape .Then the bottom doors are swung
into the position and the prop placed under them .all cracks are closed with fire clay
and a layer of black molding sand is placed on bottom .This sand is rammed down
and given aslope towards the spout.
Figure 36 cupola furnace
The kindling material usually soft, dry pieces of wood is placed on the sand bed and
a charge of coke is put in the furnace .The kindling and bed charge of coke are
ignited through the tap-hole opening .As soon as the coke bed is thoroughly
ignited,the first charge of metal ,pig iron ,scrap and flux is placed on top of the bed
charge of glowing coke .A weighed charge of coke is placed on top of the metal
charge .After the cupola is fully charged up to the charging door ,the iron should
soak in the heat for 45 mins or longer .No forced draft is us ed during this period .
37
Chapter 5: E & DC shop
In this shop all parts related to diesel engine are preared and machined here :
Parts prepared and machined here are:

oil seal
friction plate
discharge valve
valve guide
planger lubricant
bearing shell
con rod
con rod bush
roter shaft
all types of bushes
crank shaft of compresoor
5.1 Sections in E &DC SHOP

grinding section
milling section
lathe section
turbo rotor assembly section
fitting section
5.2 Machines used in E & DC SHOP

Hydraulic machines
Vertical milling machines
Bench lathes
Center lathes
Universal grinding machines
Universal milling machines
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5.3 Parts prepared in E&DC shop
The following parts are prepared here:
5.3.1 Oil seals

Oil seals often called grease, fluid or dirt seals close spaces between stationary and moving
components in mechanical equipment, helping prevent lubricant escape. They also stop harmful
contaminants from entering machinery, particularly in severe environments. Vital components of
practically every type of machine and vehicle in operation, oil seals protect all types of precision-
constructed, close-fitting ball, sleeve and roller bearings.In precision bearings, oil seals help
prevent lubricants from escaping the bearings or a specific area. In machine components, oil
seals help prevent abrasives, corrosive moisture and other harmful contaminants from entering
machinery. They also help stop intermixture of two different mediums, such as lubricating oil
and water.
Figure 37 oil seals
5.3.2 Friction plate

A clutch is a mechanical device which engages and disengages power transmission
especially from driving shaft to driven shaft.In the simplest application, clutches
connect and disconnect two rotating shafts ( drive shafts or line shafts). In these
devices, one shaft is typically attached to an engine or other power unit (the driving
member) while the other shaft (the driven member) provides output power for work.
While typically the motions involved are rotary, linear clutches are also possible.In
a torque-controlled drill, for instance, one shaft is driven by a motor and the other
drives a drill chuck. The clutch connects the two shafts so they may be locked
together and spin at the same sp eed (engaged), locked together but spinning at
different speeds (slipping), or unlocked and spinning at different speeds
(disengaged).
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Figure 38 friction plate
5.3.3 Discharge valve

A basic discharge valve serves to regulate the flow of a substance, making it
possible to increase or decrease that flow so that the desired outcome is achieved.
For example, this type of valve may be included in the design of a dam, making it
possible to control the flow of water so that the water pressure within the dam is
maintained within a safe limit. Doing so helps to preserve the integrity of the dam,
since water is periodically released through the discharge relief valve, and allowed
to flow into nearby bodies of water. Not only does the valve protect the dam, it also
helps to ensure that water levels within those bodies of water are maintained at
respectable levels.
5.3.4 Bearing shell

Shell bearing is a type of bearing used for main bearings and big-end bearings,
consisting of a circular housing which can be divided into two halves Thin shell
bearings are used for most bearing applications in the main engine. They consist of
a steel backing strip coated with a layer of w hite metal Bearings
Figure 39 bearing shell
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5.3.5 Conrod / Big Endt
these shells are located at the larger end of the connecting rod. These shells may have certain
characterics such as oil holes & locating tags. The conrod bearings are made of different
composite metals such as Silicon Aluminium, Lead Copper, Copper Silicone Silver. Our range of
race series bearings have a range of coatings or additional overlays to increase hardness & load
capacity. We keep oversized bearings for crankshafts that have been machined or "ground" to an
undersize.
5.3.6 Small End Bushes

These bearing are located at the smaller end of the connecting rod. This is where the gudgeon pin of the piston
is located. We can source these bearings if your conrod requires them. Often these bearing come with the
conrod. Small end bushed either come at a specific size or need to be lined bored to achieve the correct
fitment.
5.3.7 Mains
The main bearings are located in the engine block where the crankshaft is situated. 1 shell is
located in the engine block and the other in the crank cap. Main bearings may have certain
characteristics such as oil holes, locating tags and oil grooves.
5.3.8 Thrust Washers

Thrust washers are either seperate from the main bearing or integrated into the one or two of the
main shells. The thrust washer is designed to govern the lateral movement of the crankshaft. This
is called the "end float". Oversize thrust washers are available for some engines so the end float
can be re-calculated if there is excessive wear.
5.3.9 Camshaft Bearings / Bushes

The bearings sit between the cylinder head casting and the camshaft caps wich house the
camshaft. These bearings may have oil holes for certain engines to help keep the camshaft
lubricated.
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Figure 40 cam shaft 1
Figure 41 cam shaft 2
5.3.10 Cam shaftsparts are following:

1. Main Bearing
2. Connecting rod shell
3. Flange bearing or main with thrust washer
4. Piston pin bushing / Small End
5.Camshaft bush
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5.3.11 Stub shaft
a stub shaft is a short rotating shaft that extends, cantilevered out past its
supporting bearings in the main structure of a power transmission subsystem.
Figure 42 stub shaft
5.4 Machines used in E&DC shop

The following machines are used in this shop to make engine parts
5.5 Lathe machines

Different types of lathe machine are used in this shop for various operations
The lathe is a machine tool used principally for shaping articles of metal (and sometimes
wood or other materials) by causing the workpiece to be held and rotated by the lathe
while a tool bit is advanced into the work causing the cutting action. The basic lathe that
was designed to cut cylindrical metal stock has been developed further to produce screw
threads. tapered work. Drilled holes. knurled surfaces, and crankshafts. The typical lathe
provides a variety of rotating speeds and a means to manually and automatically move
the cutting tool into the workpiece. Machinists and maintenance shop personnel must be
thoroughly familiar with the lathe and its operations to accomplish the repair and
fabrication of needed parts.
5.5.1 TYPES OF LATHES

Lathes can be divided into three types for easy identification: operator can accomplish
more machining jobs with the engine lathes, turret lathes, and special purpose lathes.
Small engine lathe than with any other machine tool. Turret lathes lathes can be bench
mounted, are lightweight, and can be and special purpose lathes are usually used in
production ortransported in wheeled vehicles easily. The larger lathes are job shops for
mass production or specialized parts.
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5.5.2 Centre lathe
The Centre Lathe is used to manufacture cylindri cal shapes from a range of
materials including; steels and plastics. Many of the components that go together to
make an engine work have been manufactured using lathes. These may be lathes
operated directly by people (manual lathes) or computer controlled lathes (CNC
machines) that have been programmed to carry out a particular task. A basic manual
centre lathe is shown below. This type of lathe is controlled by a person turning the
various handles on the top slide and cross slide in order to make a product / part.
Figure 43 centre lathe
5.5.3 Bench lathe

lathe mounted on a workbench. lathe - machine tool for shaping metal or wood; the
workpiece turns about a horizontal axis against a fixed tool.
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5.5.4 Turret lathe
The turret lathe is a form of metalworking lathe that is used for repetitive
production of duplicate parts, which by the nature of their cutting process are
usually interchangeable. It evolved from earlier lathes with the addition of the
turret, which is an indexable toolholder that allows multiple cutting operations to be
performed, each with a different cutting tool, in easy, rapid succession, with no
need for the operator to perform set-up tasks in between, such as installing or
uninstalling tools, nor to control the toolpath. The latter is due to the toolpath's
being controlled by the machine, either in jig-like fashion, via the mechanical limits
placed on it by the turret's slide and stops, or via electronically-
directed servomechanisms for computer numerical control lathes.
Figure 44 turret lathe
5.5.5 Capstan lathe

A capstan machine is a processing machine used to make the same parts again and
again. The cutting bits are mounted on a rotatable turret known as a capstan, which
permits the client to rapidly change the introduction of the bits for slicing without
needing to take off the first bit and afterward mount the second. A bit of crude
material, off and on again known as a clear, is mounted into the capsta n machine
and is then spun at high velocity. The cutting apparatuses, some of the time known
as blades, are then used to slice into the clear to make another shape or outline.
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5.5.6 Lathe machine specifications:
Swing
Distance between centers
Length of bed
Radius ( one of swing)
5.5.7 Parts of lathe machine:
Bed and ways

Headstock and spindle
Carriage and saddle
Cross slide and compound
Tool post and tools
5.5.8 Operations of lathe machine:

Turning:
Facing:
Boring:
Drilling:
Threading:
Knurling:
5.6 Milling machine

Milling is the machining process of using rotary cutters to remove material [1] from a
workpiece by advancing (or feeding) in a direction at an angle with the axis of the
tool. [2] [3] It covers a wide variety of different operations and machines, on scales
from small individual parts to large, heavy-duty gang milling operations. It is one
of the most commonly used processes in industry and machine shops today for
machining parts to precise sizes and shapes.
Milling can be done with a wide range of machine tools. The original class of
machine tools for milling was the milling machine (often called a mill). After the
advent of computer numerical control (CNC), milling machines evolved into
machining centers (milling machines with automatic tool changers, tool magazines
or carousels, CNC control, coolant systems, and enclosures), generally classified as
vertical machining centers (VMCs) and horizontal machining centers (HMCs). The
integration of milling into turning environments and of turning into milling
environments, begun with live tooling for lathes and the occasional use of mills for
turning operations, led to a new class of machine tools, multitasking machines
(MTMs), which are purpose-built to provide for a default machining strategy of
using any combination of milling and turning wit hin the same work envelope.
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5.7 Types of milling machine
There are following types of milling machine
5.7.1 Vertical mill

In the vertical mill the spindle axis is vertically oriented. Milling cutters are held
in the spindle and rotate on its axis. The spindle can generally be extended (or the
table can be raised/lowered, giving the same effect), allowing plun ge cuts and
drilling. There are two subcategories of vertical mills: the bed mill and the turret
mill.
Figure 45 vertical mill
A turret mill has a stationary spindle and the table is moved both perpendicular
and parallel to the spindle axis to accomplish cutting. The most common
example of this type is the Bridgeport, described below. Turret mills often have
a quill which allows the milling cutter to be raised and lowered in a manner
similar to a drill press. This type of ma chine provides two methods of cutting in
the vertical (Z) direction: by raising or lowering the quill, and by moving the
knee.
In the bed mill, however, the table moves only perpendicular to the spindle's
axis, while the spindle itself moves parallel to it s own axis.
Turret mills are generally considered by some to be more versatile of the two
designs. However, turret mills are only practical as long as the machine remains
relatively small. As machine size increases, moving the knee up and down requires
considerable effort and it also becomes difficult to reach the quill feed handle (if
equipped). Therefore, larger milling machines are usually of the bed type.
A third type also exists, a lighter machine, called a mill -drill, which is a close
relative of the vertical mill and quite popular with hobbyists. A mill -drill is similar
in basic configuration to a small drill press, but equipped with an X -Y table. They
also typically use more powerful motors than a comparably sized drill press, with
47
potentiometer-controlled speed and generally have more heavy-duty spindle
bearings than a drill press to deal with the lateral loading on the spindle that is
created by a milling operation. A mill drill also typically raises and lowers the
entire head, including motor, often on a dovetailed vertical, where a drill press
motor remains stationary, while the arbor raises and lowers within a driving collar.
Other differences that separate a mill -drill from a drill press may be a fine tuning
adjustment for the Z-axis, a more precise depth stop, the capability to lock the X, Y
or Z axis, and often a system of tilting the head or the entire vertical column and
powerhead assembly to allow angled cutting. Aside from size and precision, the
principal difference between these hobby-type machines and larger true vertical
mills is that the X-Y table is at a fixed elevation; the Z -axis is controlled in
basically the same fashion as drill press, where a larger vertical or knee mill has a
vertically fixed milling head, and changes the X -Y table elevation. As well, a mill-
drill often uses a standard drill press -type Jacob's chuck, rather than an internally
tapered arbor that accepts collets. These are frequently of lower quality t han other
types of machines, but still fill the hobby role well because they tend to be
benchtop machines with small footprints and modest price tags.
5.7.2 Horizontal milling machine

A horizontal mill has the same sort but the cutters are mounted on a h orizontal
spindle (see Arbor milling) across the table. Many horizontal mills also feature a
built-in rotary table that allows milling at various angles; this feature is called
a universal table. While endmills and the other types of tools available to a vertical
mill may be used in a horizontal mill, their real advantage lies in arbor -mounted
cutters, called side and face mills, which have a cross section rather like a circular
saw, but are generally wider and smaller in diameter. Because the cutters have good
support from the arbor and have a larger cross -sectional area than an end mill, quite
heavy cuts can be taken enabling rapid material removal rates. These are used to
mill grooves and slots. Plain mills are used to shape flat surfaces. Several cutters
may be ganged together on the arbor to mill a complex shape of slots and planes.
Special cutters can also cut grooves, bevels, radii, or indeed any section desired.
These specialty cutters tend to be expensive. Simplex mills have one spindle, and
duplex mills have two. It is also easier to cut gears on a horizontal mill. Some
horizontal milling machines are equipped with a power-take-off provision on the
table. This allows the table feed to be synchronized to a rotary fixture, enabling the
milling of spiral features such as hypoid gears.
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Figure 46 horizontal milling machine
5.7.3 Universal milling machine
The universal machine can be fitted with various attachments such as the indexing
fixture, rotary table, slotting and rack cutting attachments, and various special fixtures
The basic difference between a universal horizontal milling machine and a plain
horizontal milling machine is the addition of a table swivel housing between the table and
the saddle of the universal machine. This permits the table to swing up to 45 in either
direction for angular and helical milling operations.
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Figure 47 universal milling machine
5.7.4 Milling cutters :

Plain milling cutter
Side milling cutter
Form milling cutter
End milling cutter
Face milling cutter
T-slot cutters
5.8 Grinding machine

Grinding machines are also regarded as machine tools. A distinguishing feature of
grinding machines is the rotating abrasive tool. Grinding machine is employed to
obtain high accuracy along with very high class of surface finish on the work piece
50
Figure 48 grining machine
A grinding machine, often shortened to grinder, is any of various power

tools or machine tools used for grinding, which is a type of machining using
an abrasive wheel as the cutting tool. Each grain of abrasive on the wheel's surface
cuts a small chip from the workpiece via shear deformation.Grinding is used to
finish workpieces that must show high surface quality (e.g., low surface roughness)
and high accuracy of shape and dimension. As the accuracy in dimensions in
grinding is of the order of 0.000025 mm, in most applications it tends to be a
finishing operation and removes comparatively little metal, ab out 0.25 to 0.50 mm
depth. However, there are some roughing applications in which grinding removes
high volumes of metal quite rapidly. Thus, grinding is a diverse field .
5.9 Surface grinding machine

Surface grinding is used to produce a smooth finish on flat surfaces. It is a widely
used abrasive machining process in which a spinning wheel covered in rough
particles (grinding wheel) cuts chips of metallic or nonmetallic substance from a
workpiece, making a face of it flat or smooth.
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Figure 49 surface grinder
5.9.1 Parts of surface grinding machine :
Body
Table
Magnetic chuck
Wheel head
Cross slide feed
5.10 Types of surface grinders
5.10.1 Horizontal-spindle (peripheral) surface grinders

The periphery (flat edge) of the wheel is in contact with the workpiece, producing
the flat surface. Peripheral grinding is used in high -precision work on simple flat
surfaces; tapers or angled surfaces; slots; flat surfaces next to shoulders; recessed
surfaces; and profiles .
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5.10.2 Vertical-spindle (wheel-face) grinder
The face of a wheel (cup, cylinder, disc, or segmental wheel) is used on the flat
surface. Wheel-face grinding is often used for fast material removal, but some
machines can accomplish high-precision work. The workpiece is held on a
reciprocating table, which can be varied ac cording to the task, or a rotary-table
machine, with continuous or indexed rotation. Indexing allows loading or unloading
one station while grinding operations are being performed on another
5.10.3 Disc grinders and double-disc grinders

Disc grinding is similar to surface grinding, but with a larger contact area between
disc and workpiece. Disc grinders are available in both vertical and horizontal
spindle types. Double disc grinders work both sides of a workpiece simultaneously.
Disc grinders are capable of achieving especially fine tolerances .
5.10.4 Cylindrical grinding machine

The cylindrical grinder is a type of grinding machine used to shape the outside of an
object. The cylindrical grinder can work on a variety of shapes, however the object
must have a central axis of rotation. This includes but is not limited to such shapes
as a cylinder, an ellipse, a cam, or a crankshaft .
Cylindrical grinding is defined as having four essential actions:
1. The work (object) must be constantly rotating

2. The grinding wheel must be constantly rotating
3. The grinding wheel is fed towards and away from the work
4. Either the work or the grinding wheel is traversed with respect to the other.
While the majority of cylindrical grinders employ all four movements, there are
grinders that only employ three of the four actions
5.11 Shaper machine

A shaper is a type of machine tool that uses linear relative motion between the work
piece and a single-point cutting tool to machine a linear tool path. Its cut is
analogous to that of a lathe, except that it is (archetypal) linear instead of helical.
A wood shaper is a similar woodworking tool, typically with a powered rotating
cutting head and manually fed work piece, usually known simply as
a shaper in North America and spindle molder in the UK.
A metalworking shaper is somewhat analogous to a metalworking planer, with the
cutter riding a ram that moves relative to a stationary work piece, rather than the
work piece moving beneath the cutter. The ram is typically actuated by a
mechanical crank inside the column, though hydraulically actuated shapers are
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increasingly used. Adding axes of motion to a shaper can yi eld helical tool paths, as
also done in helical planning.
Figure 50 shapermachine
5.11.1 Features:
Single point cutting tool is used for machining. Tool is clamped in the tool post
mounted on the ram of the machine.
The ram reciprocates to and fro; tool cuts the material in the forward stroke, no
cutting during return stroke.
Job is held rigidly in a vice.
5.11.2 Working principle of shaper machine :
The tool is held in the tool post of the reciprocating ram and performs the cutting
operation during its forward stroke. It may be noted that during the backward stroke
of the ram, the tool does not remove material from the work piece.
5.11.3 Operations done using a shaper:

Machining horizontal surfaces
Machining vertical surfaces
Machining angular surfaces
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Cutting slots, groove and key ways.
Machining irregular surfaces
Machining splines /cutting gears.
5.11.4 Main parts of a shaping machine :

Base
Column
Ram
Table
Cross rail
Saddle
Tool head
Clapper box
5.12 Planer machine

A planer is a type of metalworking machine tool that uses linear relative motion
between the work piece and a single-point cutting tool to cut the work piece. [1] A
planer is similar to a shaper, but larger, and with work piece moving, whereas in a
shaper the cutting tool moves.
Figure 51 planer machine
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5.12.1 Linear planning
The most common applications of planers and shapers are linear -toolpath ones, such
as:
Generating accurate flat surfaces. (While not as precise as grinding, a planer can
remove a tremendous amount of material in one pass with high accuracy.) [1]
Cutting slots (such as keyways).
It is even possible to do work that might now be done by wire EDM in some
cases. Starting from a drilled or co red hole, a planer with a boring-bar type tool
can cut internal features that don't lend themselves to milling or boring (such as
irregularly shaped holes with tight corners)
5.12.2 Helical planing

Although the archetypal toolpath of a planer is linear, helical cutting can be
accomplished by coupling the table's linear motion to simultaneous rotation. The
helical planing idea is similar to both helical milling and single-point screw cutting .
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Chapter 6:spring shop
in this shop all types of springs are prepared and manufactured here.
Figure 52 spring shop
6.1 Spring
Springs are flexible machine element used for controlled application of force or
torque or for storing and release of mechanical energy.
Flexibility (elastic deformation) is enabled due to cleverly designed geometry or by
using of flexible material.
Figure 53 springs use in frame
57
6.2 Classification of spring:
There are three class of spring
1-coile spring/helical spring
2-leaf springs
3-spiral springs
6.2.1 Coilspring
A coil spring, also known as a helical spring, is a mechanical device, which is
typically used to store energy due to resilience and subsequently release it, to
absorb shock, or to maintain a force between contacting surfaces. They are made of
an elastic material formed into the shape of a helix which returns to its natural
length when unloaded.
One type of coil spring is a torsion spring. The material of the spring acts in torsion
when the spring is compressed or extended. The quality of spring is judged from the
energy it can absorb. The spring which is capable of absorbing the greatest amount
of energy for the given stress is the best one. Metal coil springs are made by
winding a wire around a shaped former - a cylinder is used to form cylindrical coil
springs.
Figure 54 coil spring
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6.2.2 Classification of coil spring
There are three class of coil spring
1) Compression helical springs (or) Open coil springs
2) Tension helical springs (or) closed coil springs
3) Torsion springs
4)Spiral Spring
6.2.3 Compression helical springs

It is made of round wire and wrapped in cylindrical shape with a constant pitc h
between the coils. The gap between the successive coils is larger. By applying the
load the spring contracts in action.
Figure 55 compression helical springs
6.2.4 Application of Compression helical springs

1) Ball point pens
2) Pogo sticks
3) Valve assemblies in engines
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6.2.5 Tension helical springs
It has some means of transferring the load from the support to the body by means of
some arrangement. Thewire is coiled in a sequence that the turn is at right angles to
the axis of the spring.
Figure 56 tension helical spring
6.2.6 Application of Tension helical springs

1) Garage door assemblies
2) Vise-grip pilers
3) Carburetors
6.2.7 Torsion springs

It is also a form of helical spring, but it rotates about an axis to create load. Mainly
used for torque transmission. The ends of the spring are attached to other
application objects, so that if the object rotates around the center of the spring, it
tends to push the spring to retrieve its normal position.
60
Figure 57 torsion springs
6.2.8 Application of Torsion springs
Mouse tracks
Rocker switches
Door hinges
Clipboards
Automobile starters
6.3 Spiral Spring:

It is made of a band of steel wrapped around it number of times to create a
geometric.
Its inner end is attached to an arbor and outer end is attached to a retaining
drum.
It has a few rotations and also contains a thicker band of steel.
It releases power when it unwinds
6.4 Leaf spring

A leaf spring is a simple form of spring commonly used for
the suspension in wheeled vehicles. Originally called a laminated or carriage spring,
and sometimes referred to as a semi-elliptical spring or cart spring, it is one of the
oldest forms of springing, dating back to medieval times
61
Figure 58 leaf spring
6.4.1 Characteristics:
Leaf spring is also called as a semi-elliptical spring; as it takes the form of
a slender arc shaped length of spring steel of rectangular cross section.
The center of the arc provides the location for the axle, while the tie holes
are provided at either end for attaching to the vehicle body.
Heavy vehicles, leaves are stacked one upon the other to ensure rigidity and
strength.
It provides dampness and springing function.
It can be attached directly to the frame at the both ends or attached directly
to one end, usually at the front, with the oth er end attached through a
shackle, a short swinging arm.
The shackle takes up the tendency of the leaf spring to elongate when it
gets compressed and by which the spring becomes softer.
Thus depending upon the load bearing capacity of the vehicle the leaf
spring is designed with graduated and un -graduated leaves.
Because of the difference in the leaf length, different stress will be there at
each leaf. To compensate the stress level;pre -stressing is to be done.Pre-
stressing is achieved by bending the leaves to different radius of curvature
before they are assembled with the center clip.
The radius of curvature decreases with shorter leaves.
The extra initial gap found between the extra full length leaf and graduated
length leaf is called as nip.Such pre -stressing achieved by a difference in
the radius of curvature is known as nipping.
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Figure 59 leaf spring use
6.5 Volute spring

A volute spring is compression springs in the form of a cone (a volute).volute
spring are used in applications where larger compressive forces are exerted in small
distances. As a volute spring is compressed, the smaller coils can slide inside the
larger coils, allowing the spring to be compressed to a much shorter length than
would be possible with a helical spring. Volute spring have a higher spring rate and
can with stand larger loads than traditionally shaped compression springs of similar
size, making them ideal in shock absorbing situation.
Figure 60 volute spring
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6.6 Spring making
in this shop all types of springs are prepared and manufactured here.
6.6.1 Coiling
1 Cold winding. Wire up to 0.75 in (18 mm) in diameter can be coiled at room
temperature using one of two basic techniques. One consists of winding the wire
around a shaft called an arbor or mandrel. This may be done on a dedicated spring -
winding machine, a lathe, an electric hand drill with the mandrel secured in the
chuck, or a winding machine operated by hand cranking. A guidin g mechanism,
such as the lead screw on a lathe, must be used to align the wire into the desired
pitch (distance between successive coils) as it wraps around the mandrel .
Figure 61 coiling
Alternatively, the wire may be coiled without a mandrel .
64
Figure 62 springs shapes
The wire is pushed forward over a support block toward a grooved head that
deflects the wire, forcing it to bend. The he ad and support block can be
moved relative to each other in as many as five directions to control the
diameter and pitch of the spring that is being formed.
For extension or torsion springs, the ends are bent into the desired loops,
hooks, or straight sections after the coiling operation is completed.
2 Hot winding. Thicker wire or bar stock can be coiled into springs if the
metal is heated to make it flexible. Standard industrial coiling machines can
handle steel bar up to 3 in (75 mm) in diameter, and custom springs have
reportedly been made from bars as much as 6 in (150 mm) thick. The steel is
coiled around a mandrel while red hot. Then it is immediately removed from
the coiling machine and plunged into oil to cool it quickly and harden it. At
this stage, the steel is too brittle to function as a spring, and it must
subsequently be tempered.
6.6.2 hardening
Heat treating. Whether the steel has been coiled hot or cold, the process has created
stress within the material. To relieve this stress and allow the steel to maintain its
characteristic resilience, the spring must be tempered by heat treating it. The spring
is heated in an oven, held at the appropriate temperature for a predetermined tim e,
and then allowed to cool slowly. For example, a spring made of music wire is
heated to 500F (260C) for one hour
65
Figure 63 spring hardening
6.6.3 Finishing
4 Grinding. If the design calls for flat ends on the spring, the ends are ground
at this stage of the manufacturing process. The spring is mounted in a jig to
ensure the correct orientation during grinding, and it is held against a
rotating abrasive wheel until the desired degree of flatness is obtained. When
highly automated equipment is used, the spring is held in a sleeve while both
ends are ground simultaneously, first by coarse wheels and then by finer
wheels. An appropriate fluid (water or an oil -based substance) may be used to
cool the spring, lubricate the grinding wheel, and carry away particles during
the grinding.
5 Shot peening. This process strengthens the steel to resist metal fatigue and
cracking during its lifetime of repeated flexings. The entire surface of the
spring is exposed to a barrage of tiny steel balls that hammer it smooth and
compress the steel that lies just below the surface.
66
6 Setting. To permanently fix the desired length and pitch of the spring, it is
fully compressed so that all the coils touch each other. Some manufacturers
repeat this process several times.
7 Coating. To prevent corrosion, the entire surface of the spring is protected

by painting it, dipping it in liquid rubber, or plating it with another metal
such as zinc or chromium. One process, called mechanical plating, involves
tumbling the spring in a container with metallic powder, water, accelerant
chemicals, and tiny glass beads that pound the metallic powder onto the
spring surface.
Alternatively, in electroplating, the spring is immersed in an electrically
conductive liquid that will corrode the plating metal but not the spring. A
negative electrical charge is applied to the spring. Also immersed in the
liquid is a supply of the plating metal, and it is given a positive electrical
charge. As the plating metal dissolves in the liquid, it releases positively
charged molecules that are attracted to the negatively charged spring, where
they bond chemically. Electroplating makes carbon steel springs brittle, so
shortly after plating (less than four hours) they must be baked at 325 -375F
(160-190C) for four hours to counteract the embrittle ment.
8 Packaging. Desired quantities of springs may simply be bulk packaged in

boxes or plastic bags. However, other forms of packaging have been
developed to minimize damage or tangling of springs. For example, they may
be individually bagged, strung onto wires or rods, enclosed in tubes, or
affixed to sticky paper
Figure 64 different t ypes of springs
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6.7 Machines used in spring shop
6.7.1 End grinding machine

There are three basic types of grinding machines used for spring end grinding, crash
grinders, crush grinders and single end grinders. The first two types, crash and crush,
grind both ends of the spring simultaneously and are the most common.
6.7.2 Crash Grinders

Crash grinders pass the springs between two rotating disc grinding wheels on a rotating
table. The grinding wheels are a fixed distance apart from each other and the springs are
compressed slightly by entrance guides as they enter the wheels.
The upper grinding wheel is adjusted to have a wider gap between the wheels at the point
where the spring enters the wheels. This gap is typically set to be somewhere between
and the wire diameter of the spring. The springs are passed only once between the
grinding wheels. Machines are available in a variety of sizes, employing different
diameter grinding wheels. Typically, larger machines with larger diameter wheels are
used to grind larger diameter wire springs.
For springs that require two passes through the grinding wheels to remove all of the stock
necessary, some machines come with two sets of heads. The springs are passed between
both sets of heads, the first set usually referred to as roughers and the second set as
finishers.
Figure 65 carsh grinder process
The springs are feed into the machine by means of a rotary table with bushings to hold the springs. It
is important that the springs are carried across the entire face of the wheel. If the grinding wheels
have a center hole, the springs should break into the center by approximately of the spring
diameter. If the springs do cross the entire grinding wheel face, the wheel will not wear evenly and
develop a high center. This will require frequent dressing and will cause problems keeping the
springs square.
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6.7.3 Crush Grinders
Crush grinders, also known as downfeed grinders, look very much like crash grinders, but grind the
springs differently. The grinding wheels are kept flat and parallel to each other. The springs are
placed in a rotary carrier and passed between the wheels many times while the top wheel is fed down
incrementally, as depicted in the graph. The carriers for downfeed grinders typically run at a faster
speed than crash grinders. The grinder will often have two carriers, one that can be loaded while the
other is grinding. It is claimed that downfeed grinders can hold tighter tolerances for squareness and
free length than crash grinders, but they typically sacrifice speed. Most spring grinders are run
without coolant and have
6.7.4 End grinders

At times, only a single end of the spring needs to be ground, or the spring is too large to
fit between a conventional spring grinders wheels. A single spindle end grinder is most
often used in this case.
These machines typically have a horizontal spindle. The springs are clamped into a
fixture that is rotated across the face of the grinding wheel.
6.8 Process used in spring shop
6.8.1 Tempring
tempering is a heat treatment technique applied to ferrous alloys, such
as steel or cast iron, to achieve greater toughness by decreasing the hardness of the
alloy. The reduction in hardness is usually accompanied by an increase in ductility,
thereby decreasing the brittleness of the metal. Tempering is usually performed
after quenching, which is rapid cooling of the metal to put it in its hardest state.
Tempering is accomplished by controlled heating of the quenched work -piece to a
temperature below its "lower critical temperature". This is also called the lower
transformation temperature or lower arrest (A 1 ) temperature; the temperature at
which the crystalline phases of the alloy, called ferrite and cementite, begin
combining to form a single-phase solid solution referred to as austenite. Heating
above this temperature is avoided, so as not to destroy the very-hard, quenched
microstructure, called martensite.
Precise control of time and temperature during the tempering process is cru cial to
achieve the desired balance of physical properties. Low tempering temperatures
may only relieve the internal stresses, decreasing brittleness while maintaining a
majority of the hardness. Higher tempering temperatures tend to produce a greater
reduction in the hardness, sacrificing some yield strength and tensile strength for an
increase in elasticity and plasticity. However, in some low alloy steels, containing
other elements like chromium and molybdenum, tempering at low temperatures may
produce an increase in hardness, while at higher temperatures the hardness will
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decrease. Many steels with high concentrations of these alloying elements behave
like precipitation hardening alloys , which produces the opposite effects under the
conditions found in quenching and tempering, and are referred to as maraging steels
In carbon steels, tempering alters the size and distribution of carbides in the
martensite, forming a microstructure called "tempered martensite". Tempering is
also performed on normalized steels and cast irons, to increase ductility,
machinability, and impact strength. [3] Steel is usually tempered evenly, called
"through tempering," producing a nearly uniform hardness, but it is sometimes
heated unevenly, referred to as "differential tempering," producing a variation in
hardness
6.9 Carbon steel

Very few metals react to heat treatment in the same manner, or to the same extent,
that carbon steel does, and carbon steel heat treating behavior can vary radically
depending on alloying elements. Steel can be softened to a very malleable state
through annealing, or it can be hardened to a state nearly as rigid and brittle as
glass by quenching. However, in its hardened state, steel is usually far too brittle,
lacking the structural integrity to be useful for most applications. Tempering is a
method used to decrease the hardness, thereby increasing the ductility of the
quenched steel, to impart some springiness and malleability to the metal. This
allows the metal to bend before breaking. Depending on how much temper is
imparted to the steel, it may bend elastically (the steel returns to its original shape
once the load is removed), or it may bend plastically (the steel does not return to its
original shape, resulting in permanent deformation), before fracturing. Tempering is
used to precisely balance the mechanical proper ties of the metal, such as shear
strength, yield strength, hardness, ductility and tensile strength, to achieve any
number of a combination of properties, making the steel useful for a wide variety of
applications. Tools such as hammers and wrenches require good resistance to
abrasion, impact resistance, and resistance to deformation. Springs do not require as
much rigidity, but must deform elastically before breaking. Automotive parts tend
to be a little less rigid, but need to deform plastically before breaking.
Except in rare cases where maximum rigidity and hardness are needed, such as the
untempered steel used for files, quenched steel is almost always tempered to some
degree. However, steel is sometimes annealed through a process called normalizing,
leaving the steel only partially softened. Tempering is sometimes used on
normalized steels to further soften it, increasing the malleability and machinability
for easier metalworking. Tempering may also be used on welded steel, to relieve
some of the stresses and excess hardness crea ted in the heat affected zone around
the weld.
6.10 Quenched-steel
Tempering is most often performed on steel that has been heated above its upper
critical (A 3 ) temperature and then quickly cooled, in a process called quenching,
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using methods such as immersing the red -hot steel in water, oil, or forced-air. The
quenched-steel, being placed in, or very near, its hardest possible state, is then
tempered to incrementally decrease the hardness to a point more suitable for the
desired application. The hardness of the quenched -steel depends on both cooling
speed and on the composition of the alloy. St eel with a high carbon-content will
reach a much harder state than steel with a low carbon -content. Likewise, tempering
high-carbon steel to a certain temperature will produce steel that is considerably
harder than low-carbon steel that is tempered at the same temperature. The amount
of time held at the tempering temperature also has an effect. Tempering at a slightly
elevated temperature for a shorter time may produce the same effect as tempering at
a lower temperature for a longer time. Tempering times va ry, depending on the
carbon content, size, and desired application of the steel, but typically range from a
few minutes to a few hours.
Tempering quenched-steel at very low temperatures, between 66 and 148 C (151
and 298 F), will usually not have much ef fect other than a slight relief of some of
the internal stresses. Tempering at higher temperatures, from 148 to 205 C (298 to
401 F), will produce a slight reduction in hardness, but will primarily relieve much
of the internal stresses. Tempering in the range of 260 and 340 C (500 and 644 F)
causes a decrease in ductility and an increase in brittleness, and is referred to as the
"tempered martensite embrittlement" (TME) range. Except in the case of
blacksmithing, this range is usually avoided. Steel req uiring more strength than
toughness, such as tools, are usually not tempered above 205 C (401 F). Instead, a
variation in hardness is usually produced by varying only the tempering time. When
increased toughness is desired at the expense of strength, hig her tempering
temperatures, from 370 to 540 C (698 to 1,004 F), are used. Tempering at even
higher temperatures, between 540 and 600 C (1,004 and 1,112 F), will produce
excellent toughness, but at a serious reduction in the strength and hardness. At
600 C (1,112 F), the steel may experience another stage of embrittlement, called
"temper embrittlement" (TE), which occurs if the steel is held within the TE
temperature range for too long. When heating above this temperature, the steel will
usually not be held for any amount of time, and quickly cooled to avoid temper
embrittlement
6.11 Normalized steel

Steel that has been heated above its upper critical temperature and then cooled in
standing air is called normalized steel. Normalized steel consists of pe arlite,
martensite and sometimes bainite grains, mixed together within the microstructure.
This produces steel that is much stronger than full -annealed steel, and much tougher
than tempered quenched-steel. However, added toughness is sometimes needed at a
reduction in strength. Tempering provides a way to carefully decrease the hardness
of the steel, thereby increasing the toughness to a more desirable point. Cast -steel is
often normalized rather than annealed, to decrease the amount of distortion that can
occur. Tempering can further decrease the hardness, increasing the ductility to a
point more like annealed steel. Tempering is often used on carbon steels, producing
much the same results. The process, called "normalize and temper", is used
frequently on steels such as 1045 carbon steel, or most other steels containing 0.35
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to 0.55% carbon. These steels are usually tempered after normalizing, to increase
the toughness and relieve internal st resses. This can make the metal more suitable
for its intended use and easier to machine .
6.12 Spring sizes and bar sizes:
Figure 66 spring sizes
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Chapter 7: Wheel shop
Wheel shop is the sub shop of machine shop. The maintenance of wheel is taking
into the machine shop. The couple of axle and dick is called wheel. The wheel is
enter into the wheel shop .the dick is dismount from the axle .different operation
are used to machine and maintain the axle and disk.
The following operation are taking on the axle.
Cutting
Drilling
Grinding
Turning
Following operation are taking on dick.
Internal facing
External facing
Shamfring
Figure 67 w heel on machine
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7.1 Wheel
A train wheel or rail wheel is a type of wheel specially designed for use on rail
tracks. A rolling component is typically pressed onto an axle and mounted directly
on a rail car or locomotive or indirectly on a bogie (UK), also called a truck (North
America). Wheels are cast or forged (wrought) and are heat-treated to have a
specific hardness. New wheels are trued, using a lathe, to a specific profile before
being pressed onto an axle. All wheel profiles need t o be periodically monitored to
ensure proper wheel-rail interface. Improperly trued wheels increase rolling
resistance, reduce energy efficiency and may create unsafe operation. A railroad
wheel typically consists of two main parts: the wheel itself, and the tire (or tyre)
around the outside. A rail tire is usually made from steel, and is typically heated
and pressed onto the wheel, where it remains firmly as it shrinks and cools.
Monobloc wheels do not have encircling tires, while resilient rail wheels have a
resilient material, such as rubber, between the wheel and tire.
7.2 Wheel geometry and flange

Most train wheels have a conical geometry, which is the primary means of keeping the train's
motion aligned with the track. [ 1 ] Train wheels have a flange on one side to keep the wheels,
and hence the train, running on the rails, when the limits of the geometry based alignment are
reached, e.g. due to some emergency or defect. See Hunting oscillation . Some wheels have a
cylindrical geometry, where flanges are essential to keep the train on the rail track
Figure 68 w heel flange
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7.3 Set wheel
The steel wheel is a mechanical device, which produce rotary motion by means of a
disk or circular frame revolving an axis. The steel wheel can be used for heavy
loads and traction services, such as truck and train. The size and contour of a
specific wheel design is based on the load it must carry and the space limitation of
the equipment on which it is used. The contour of the wheel composed of five parts;
the hub, plate, rim, trade and flange. Classifications are based on service to which
the wheels are applied are defined as:
1. Industrial car wheels for use on various cars such as those used in mining,
railroads and transfer cars.
2. Crane truck wheels, for use in travelling, gantry, bridge cranes and floor -type
changing and drawing machines.
3. Railroad freight car wheels, used according to their capacity and
applications.
Heavy duty wheels, for used under railroad and electric railways car, rapid transit
passenger cars and locomotives.
Most wheels for railways and industrial services are manufactured either by forming
a solid block of metal by a sequence of hot forging and rolling operations or by
casting them directly from liquid into its final shape metal. Mechanically speaking,
steel castings are considered inferior to hot forging and rolling products. The
casting of steel is, however, the most direct method of producing a desired shape.
Today, the steel wheel has been partially replaced by the aluminum alloy wheel on
vehicles, especially light vehicles such as compact cars, Multi -Purpose Vehicle
(MPV) and others, and this trend is expected to continue and become more popular
in the near future. The changeover has already been introduced in General Motors
and Ford in the USA, where new vehicles are introduced with the aluminum wheels
is now rolling off the production lines. There are at least four main reasons why
wheel industries are now prefer to use aluminum alloy to replace wrought steel:
1. Aluminum alloy wheels are more loads worthy. As 1 kg of unsparing weight

is generally equivalent to 10-15 kg of spring weight, and each 14 of
aluminum alloy wheel is less than 2.5 kg, the four wheels under a typical car
can handle loads of about 100-150 kg of extra weight. (Unsprang weight
means the weight put on the tire wheel, suspension or wheel area).
2. Excellent brake system. Aluminum thermal conductivity is about three times
higher than that of steel. This physical property gives the wheel better brake
reliability and longer life than the steel wheel.
75
3. It is fuel-efficient. Basically, a 1kg loads decrease on a car will raise mileage
5-8 meters for every litre of gas used. In other words, fuel -efficiency is
raised about 8.5% for every 10% reduction in car weight. The one -third to
one-fifth work saved will surely prolong the service life of the car engine.
4. Suspension improvements. The suspension system of aluminum alloy wheels
is capable of responding much more quickly to changing surfaces and road
conditions. This increased traction can improve vehicle acceleration,
manoeuvrability and brake performance. It is particularl y noticeable while
driving at high speeds or on rough roads .
However, in production of train wheel, most of the production lines still used steel
instead of aluminum because train is considered as heavy weight vehicles. Besides
that, to run on the steel and strong rail road, the train needs the wheels made of the
very strength steel in order it can run well and there is no obstacle. Absolutely, the
steel which is used to make the wheel must be made of strong steel too, otherwise it
will cause the damages of the wheel, and it cannot stay longer to run on the railroad
Therefore, both metal working processes, train wheel and automobile wheel rim will
be explained briefly in the next chapter as the process may be differs in some part
as it used different material.
7.4 Wheel making Processes

The production of the unit of the train itself was begun at the
Yelahanka,Bangalore, India. The name of the company itself which have been
produced the units of the train is Rail Wheel Factory, and it is the premier
manufacturing unit of Indian Railways which have been enlarged to produce the
wheels of the train too at 1984. It is an ISO 9001: 2000 and ISO 14001 certified
unit for its business processes. The train wheels consist of the rings of wheels and
the wheel itself. Both of them are made of the strength and circular alloy steel
ingots. The processing and the manufacturing of the train wheels are conducted in
the X steel mill. The circular ingots which will be used to produce the wheels of the
train must have the cross-section more or less 280-400 millimetres. The ingots will
be rolled on the round bars with the diameters190, 200, 225, 250, up to 280 and 300
millimetres. Not only that, the ingots also will be rolled on the rectangular bars
with dimensions 280x300 millimetres.
7.4.1 Casting Process

In producing a high quality of steel train wheels, most of the production lines will
use pressure casting process. In pressure casting (also called pressure pouring or
low-pressure casting), the molten metal is forced up ward by gas pressure into a
graphite or metal mold. The pressure is maintained until the metal has solidifies
76
completely in the mold. The molten metal also may be forced upward by a vacuum,
which also removes dissolved gases and produces a casting with low er porosity.
The Plant utilizes Railway scrap as raw material. Thescrap is melted in three
ElectricArc furnaces. The chemistry ofthe molten metal is precision controlled
using Computerized Spectrometers. This enables precise control of steelcomposition
during steel making for obtaining optimum metallurgical characteristics needed for
tough service and long life. The casting is done in graphite molds, which are
precisionmachined using forming tools. This ensures that all wheels are cast to the
same dimensions and tolerances.
Figure 69 casting process
The Controlled Pressure Pouring Process is employed for casting. The molten metal
ladle is placed in a chamber and sealed with an airtight cover. A ceramic pouring
tube isattached to the cover. Compressed air, forced into the chamber,pushes the
steel up through the pouring tube and into the graphite mold positioned over the
tube. The steel fills the mold from bottom to form the wheel. As the steel is forced
into the mold at a controlled rate, the wheel is cast to extremely close tolerances
7.4.2 Rolling and Pressing Process

The outside part of the train wheel is the ring. This ring will be rolled in the ring
rolling process. In ring rolling, a thick ring is expanded into a large -diameter
thinner one. The ring rolling will work to the steels which have had the shape of
rings or the circular ingots. All the parts of the ring will be rolled well by the idler
roll, edging rolls and main roll. In this rolling process, there are two edging roles
which roll the surface and the base face of the rings. The edging roll will press the
circular steel ingots. The edging rolls will press the circular steel ingots so it will
have more strength with the high density of steel. In rolling the train wheels, a roll
mill of somewhat different construction is used. The actions of the different and
various rolls circumventing wheel convert the rough circular forged ingot blank into
77
0the finished ring wheels. As the ring wheel rotates, the diameter of the ring is
gradually increased because of rolls pressure. And, after the ring wheels have been
shaped into the proper and final diameter, they are transferred to a pressing
machine. It will also be treated in the dishing and sizing operation in the other
machines.
Figure 70 Rolling and Pressing Process
Figure 71 w heel process
78
Figure 72 heat treatment
7.4.3 Heat Treatment Process

The rail road wheels manufacturing should be in the high volume manufacturing and
it is preferably done in three chucking setups. The next step after rolling and the
pressing is the heat treatments. The heat treatments have the purpose to make the
steels of the ring wheels become stronger. The heating process is based on the
combustion of the natural gas. In the heat treatment, the ring wheels will be burned
until the certain degrees of high temperatures and then it is will be treated with the
cooling process. This step has the purpose to change the compound and the mic ro
structure of the steel in order to result the high and strength density of the steels.
The wheels as cast are normalized in a huge rotary hearth furnace to improve
metallurgical structure and relieve internal stresses. Quenching of the rim and tread
area is done to increase theirhardness. The wheels are shot peened to induce
compressivestresses so that the cast wheels donot fail due to crack propagation
inservice. Each wheel is subjected tomagnetic particle testing for surface flaws and
ultrasonically tested for internal flaws to ensure maximum reliability.
79
Figure 73 heat treatment diagram
7.4.5 Finishing Process

After the wheels have been treated in the heat and cool treatments, the next steps is
the boring and finish turning machines. Alternatively, the wheels can be rough
machined on turning machines and then transferred to turn mill centres for a
combined boring and finish turning application. And for the axles of the ring wheels
should treated in the boring machines. The boring have the purpose to make a hole
in the axles and in the ring wheels so that, both of them have the precision holes
and may be combined by the screws to make the best train wheels. In this boring
process, the ring wheels are also treated in the vertical Boring mill. The rings
wheels as the work pieces rotates and the cutting tools are stationary except for feed
movements, and are mounted on the adjustable -height cross rail
80
Figure 74 finishing process
Among all the process which supports the manufacturing process of the train
wheels, the rolling process has the important roles. Almost all the process like
rolling, pressing, and heat treatment are done for giving the high dens ity of the
steels. However, the rolling process is the most advantages and the most important
role among the others because there are some advantages of using this, they are:
Long-lasting experience on machining of railroad wheels, Wide variety of vertical -
turning machines, Single-source supplier for entire process and manufacturing
system, Machine tool products designed for the highest rigidity and output.
7.4.6 Automobile Wheel Rim

In the other hand, the manufacturing processes of an automobile wheel rim may be a
little bit differs from the train wheel. This is because, most of the automobile wheel
rims are an aluminum wheel and it also will go through the milling process to
produces holes for bolts and nuts. According to the history, the first light -alloy
sheet wheels were used in Daimler-Benz and Auto-Union racing cars in the 1930s.
In the 1960s, Porsche began the batch production of sheet wheels, which consisted
of a wheel rim and nave.
81
Figure 75 overall w heel process
7.4.7 Casting Process

The aluminum ingot is melted in the proper uniform temperature arc -type electric
holding furnace. After the molten aluminum ingot has a ttained the desired chemical
composition, it is tapped (procured) from the furnace into the top of an open bottom
mold in continuous casting machine in which the casting mold has been preheated
in the hydraulic die casting machine and the temperature is hi gh enough for casting.
The size and design of the casting mold should have accurate dimensions to meet
the requirements of casting equipment and techniques. After the aluminum liquid
solidifies, it is continuously withdrawn from the mold to produce the sem i-finished,
rough wheel shape.
82
Fig.7.10
7.4.8 Forging Process

There is an alternative process to manufacture wheel rim instead of casting process,
which is forging process. Forged is definitely the king of manufacturing when it
comes to wheels. Top-notch quality. The forging process uses immense amounts of
compressive force to shape the metal.
Let me give you an example to make this easy to understand. Have you ever
wrinkled aluminum foil and then tightened it as much as possible by hitting it w ith
a spoon to shape a ball? If you have, this is essentially what forging is. Once that
little ball is as small as possible it is extremely hard. This is virtually what happens
during forging, to an infinite power. The piece is pressed between a Ram and a n
Anvil. (See diagram)
Forging can produce a wheel that is stronger than an equivalent cast or machined
part. During the process the internal grain is deformed and rearranged to the shape
of the part. This deformation due to compressive force improves the strength
uniformly throughout the entire structure of the wheel. As a result you have a
stronger, lighter wheel.
83
Figure 76 forging process
7.4.9 Drilling Process

The rough aluminum alloy wheel is then tran sferred to the drilling machine where
the punching of the hole in the centre is carried out on the press and the burr around
the edge of the wheel is also trimmed out.
7.4.10 Heat Treatment Process

After the die casting, hub punching, burr trimming, which complete the hot forming
operation, the aluminum alloy wheels are conveyed directly into a tunnel type
continuous solution furnace where they are heat treated to a uniform temperature.
The wheels emerge from this furnace are conveyed to the quenching unit where they
are quenched to harden and thereby increase resistance to wear. The time of
quenching varies depending on the thickness and diameter of the wheels. The time
of quenching varies depending on the thickness and diameter of the wheels. After
quenching, the wheels are conveyed through the age furnace where they are
reheated and maintained at the proper tempering temperature so as to strengthen the
duration of the material reaching to 220MPA, elongation to 70% and hardness
between HV80100.
7.4.11 Finishing Process

After the above treatment, the rough aluminum alloy wheels can enter the
machining steps to obtain the final dimensions that meet specified requirements.
Those steps include refinishing the centre hole, polishing the front side of it, then
vent hole drilling, treading, flanging, bore machining, rim profiling, inner side rear
84
copy machining, leak testing, defeating, spray painting, baking, finish copy
machining and bush inserting.
The wheels are then passed down to the automatic inspection line where they are
checked for correct rim circumference, and thickness, for the thickness and height
of the flange, for concentricity and diameter of the bore, location of hub with
reference to rim, hub wall thickness, rotundity, and plate thi ckness. The rims of the
wheels of the wheels are ultrasonically inspected to evaluate their internal quality.
7.5 Steel wheels

trains have steel wheels, rather than tires like a car? It's to reduce rolling friction.
When your car is driving on the freeway, something like 25 percent of the engine's
power is being used to push the tires down the road. Tires bend and deform a lot as
they roll, which uses a lot of energy.
The amount of energy used by the tires is proportional to the weight that is on them.
Since a car is relatively light, this amount of energy is acceptable (you can buy low
rolling-resistance tires for your car if you want to save a little gas).
7.6 Traction
Traction when going around turns is not an issue because train wheels have flanges that keep
them on the track. But traction when braking and accelerating is an issue.
This locomotive can generate 64,000 pounds of thrust. But in order for it to use this thrust
effectively, the eight wheels on the locomotive have to be able to apply this thrust to the track
without slipping. The locomotive uses a neat trick to increase the traction.
Figure 77 traction
In front of each wheel is a nozzle that uses com pressed air to spray sand, which is
stored in two tanks on the locomotive. The sand dramatically increases the traction
of the drive wheels. The train has an electronic traction -control system that
85
automatically starts the sand sprayers when the wheels sli p or when the engineer
makes an emergency stop. The system can also reduce the power of any traction
motor whose wheels are slipping.
7.7 Engine and generator

The main engine in this locomotive is a General Motors EMD 710 series engine.
The "710" means that each cylinder in this turbocharged, two -stroke, diesel V-12
has a displacement of 710 cubic inches (11.6 L). That's more than double the size of
most of the biggest gasoline V-8 car engines -- and we're only talking about one of
the 12 cylinders in this 3,200-hp engine.
Even though this engine is huge, if it operated on the four -stroke diesel cycle, like
most smaller diesel engines do, it would only make about half the power. This is
because with the two-stroke cycle, there are twice as many combustion events
(which produce the power) per revolution. It turns out that the diesel two -stoke
engine is really much more elegant and efficient than the two -stroke gasoline
engine.
Figure 78 engine and generator
7.8 Train truck

The trucks are the heaviest things on the train -- each one weighs 37,000
pounds (16,783 kg). The trucks do several jobs. They support the weight of the
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locomotive. They provide the propulsion, the suspensions and the braking. As you
can imagine, they are tremendous structures.
7.9 Propulsion
The traction motors provide propulsion power to the wheels. There is one on each
axle. Each motor drives a small gear, which meshes with a larger gear on the axle
shaft. This provides the gear reduction that allows the motor to drive the train at
speeds of up to 110 mph.
7.10 Suspension
The trucks also provide the suspension for the locomotive. The weight of the
locomotive rests on a big, round bearing, which allows the trucks to pivot so the
train can make a turn. Below the pivot is a huge leaf spring that rests on a platform.
The platform is suspended by four, giant metal links, which connect to the truck
assembly. These links allow the locomotive to swing from side to side.
Figure 79 w heel adjustment
The weight of the locomotive rests on the leaf springs, which compress when it
passes over a bump. This isolates the body of the locomotive from the bump. The
links allow the trucks to move from side to side with fluctuations in the track. The
track is not perfectly straight, and at high sp eeds, the small variations in the track
87
would make for a rough ride if the trucks could not swing laterally. The system also
keeps the amount of weight on each rail relatively equal, reducing wear on the
tracks and wheels.
88
CONCLUSION
This training focussed upon increasing our knowledge and interest in toward the
Production of Railway Carriage & Wagons and workshops . Because It is most
efficient and necessary needs to peoples in these days so its production at most
efficient method with minimum cost and in proper sequence with less wastage. I
learnt how to produce it by turbine, generators, cooling towers, water and maintain
it. It was a great experience. It increase my practical skills thats the main thing
which i learnt in the training session. Thus, I believe that my training session will
be beneficial for various purposes & hence our efforts will be fruitful.
Finally I would like to thank my instructor and all the person of this organization
who had helped me lot during my course.
89
Future Recommendations about
Pakistan railway workshops
Motivation comes for any work, from within and heavily depends on individual
consideration, which are bound to be different for each human positiveness of
character makes him/her flexible , tolerant and sound in any specific consideration.
The positiveness heavily depends on the individuals education and curiosity
During my course of training in pakistan Railway Workshop ( locomotive works). I

have experienced an immense pleasure while comparing the text that I have come
across practically conversing with people and obtain through questionnaire
Pakistan railway workshop mughalpura Lahore is the best place where you can learn
many things aout related to mechanical works.this is the asia,s largest mechanical
workshop here you can see all operations and mechanical practicals.
Training methods, techniques and equipment continue to be upgraded to the latest

standards. Trainees are taken on extensive study tours over the PR network to
acquire practical knowledge
90
References
1. http://www. pakrail.c om/ ybook 2.pdf
2. http://www. pakrail.c om/ ybbt.pdf
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Locomotive Railway Internship Report

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Locomotive Railway Internship Report

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INTERNSHIP REPORT

LOCOMOTIVE WORKS MUGHALPURA

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

A Project Report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

I certify that internship report titled PAKISTAN RAILWAY is my/our own

Signature of Student ________________

I would like to thank Engr.nafees guiding us in understanding the train

Pakistan Railways formerly also known as the Pakistan Western

1.2 Railway board

Secretary (Minister of Railways)

2.1 Workshops in mughalpura locomotive

Internship duration and shedule

1 Diesel classified shop 26/1/17 to 3/2/17

2 Foundry shop 4/2/17 to 15/2/17

3 E & DC shop 16/2/17 to 28/2/17

4 Spring shop 01/3/17 to 10/3/17

Figure 1 Diesel shop

3.2 Power assembly section :

3.3 Nozzle & fuel Injection pump section:

Figure 3 injection nozzle

The diesel fuel injection system consists of:

fuel injection pump - pressurises fuel to high pressure

The diesel fuel injection system has four main functions:

3.3.2 Feeding fuel

3.3.3 Adjusting fuel quantity

3.3.4 Adjusting injection timing

3.3.5 Atomising fuel

3.4 Electrical section :

3.5.1 Parts of governor

Figure 4 parts of governor

Figure 5 air nose

Figure 6 air section

3.6.1 How air is produced in locomotives

Used to rotate vipors and start horn.

3.7 Diesel Locomotive :

The diesel locomotive is a self-contained version of the electric locomotive. The

Figure 7 diesel locomotive parts

3.7.2 Classification of railways locomotives:

3000 H.P V-type 16 cylinders locomotives

8200 two stroke engine

2000 H.P V-type 12 cylinders locomotives

5001 four stroke engine

1200 H.P V-type 6 cylinders locomotive (3700 four stroke)

3.8 Locomotives used in Pakistan railway

Figure 8 locomotives in pakistan

3.9 Parts of diesel locomotive

3.9.2 Cylinder block:

Figure 9 c ylinder block

3.9.3 Cylinder head:

3.9.5 Connecting rod:

Figure 11 connceting rod

Figure 13 crank shaft

3.9.12 Gudgeon pin or piston pin:

3.10 Bogie assembly section

3.11 Parts of bogie

3.11.1 Solid welded Bogie Frame

3.11.2 Primary suspension

3.11.3 Secondary suspension

3.11.5 Disk Brakes

3.11.6 Taper Roller Cartridge Bearing

3.11.7 Bogie frame

Figure 22 bogie frame