2016 Paper 12

a)
i. state two components which would be expected to increase during global warming
Two components that would be expected to increase during global warming include the Ocean
Heat Content and the Temperature over Land.

ii. state two components which would be expected to decrease during global warming
Two components that would be expected to decrease is the Glacier Volume and the Sea Ice
Area.

b) Explain two ways in which human activity may contribute to an increase in the rate of global
warming.
The destruction of the rainforests and pollution are two ways in which human activity
contributes to Global Warming. The destruction of living trees reduces the amount of
photosynthesis, a process that removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to create glucose
and oxygen. Carbon dioxide is one of the major gases contributing to global warming, and
increasing its concentration will affect the rate of Global Warming.

Storm 2015 Paper 11 Hydrology and fluvial geomorphology

(a) (i) Define the terms lag time and peak discharge. Lag time is the time between the height of the
storm and the maximum flow in the river. Peak Discharge is the maximum amount of water in a
river after a rainfall event.
(ii) Briefly explain how overland flow occurs. Overland flow is the movement of water over the
land, downslope toward a surface water body. Rainfall, impermeable surfaces, steep slopes,
and little vegetation all help increase overland flow. If the ground is saturated or near
saturated, rainfall will quickly produce overland flow and a high peak flow and short time lag.
Impermeable surfaces prevent water from infiltrating into the ground thus creating more flow
on the surface. Steep slopes dont allow the rainfall enough time to infiltrate and having little
vegetation means plants wont intercept the falling precipitation.
(b) Using diagrams, explain how (i) rock type and (ii) vegetation can affect the storm hydrographs
of a drainage basin.
If a river is surrounded by non-porous and impermeable rocks its going to have a high peak
discharge and a short lag time. Impermeable rocks wont let water percolate through them,
forcing the water to travel as overland flow. This is much faster than ground flow, interflow and
through flow so the lag time is reduced. Non-porous rocks cant store water so the peak
discharge of a river is increased as more water enters the river rather than being stored in the
drainage basin.
If the area surrounding the river has thick vegetation cover then lots of precipitation will be
intercepted, greatly increasing the lag time. In addition, the peak discharge will decrease
because vegetation will absorb the water and lose it through transpiration and evaporation.

(c) Explain why rivers flood. To what extent is it possible to predict floods and to prevent rivers
from flooding?
A river floods when its discharge is great enough to cause the body of water to overflow its
channel and submerge surrounding land.
Natural causes of floods:
Climatological: Rain, Ice and Snow Melt
Part Climatological: Tidal conditions & coastal storms surges (hurricanes &
tropical storms)
Other: Earthquake, Landslides, Dam failure

Human Causes of Floods:

Urbanization
Impermeable surface and increased drainage channels (storm runoff drains that
concentrate precipitation into small channels instead of a wide river flood plain)
River engineering (Dams and levees)
Channelisation: Modifications to river channels usually a combination of
straightening, deepening, widening, clearing or lining of the natural channel.
Human-induced climate change

Floods can be predicted through forecasts and warning networks. Predictions and forecasts are
based on the recurrence intervals of floods of certain magnitudes. However, unexpected
flooding can occur due to snowmelt and storm surges. Flood abatement methods are plentiful
but they can be costly and not very efficient. Dams can control the floods but it causes
displacement of people, loss of nutrients, salinization, increased erosion downstream, and upset
fish populations. Soft engineering is the best possible method since it aids the environment
instead of oppress it. Planting trees so they can intercept water and restoring water features
such as wetlands add to nature. It is a better way to prevent floods instead of looking for a
temporary solution.