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MathHandbook

ofFormulas,ProcessesandTricks
(www.mathguy.us)

Trigonometry

Preparedby:EarlL.Whitney,FSA,MAAA

Version2.1

April10,2017

Copyright20122017,EarlWhitney,RenoNV.AllRightsReserved
NotetoStudents
ThisTrigonometryHandbookwasdevelopedprimarilythroughworkwithanumberofHigh
SchoolandCollegeTrigonometryclasses.Inaddition,anumberofmoreadvancedtopicshave
beenaddedtothehandbooktowhetthestudentsappetiteforhigherlevelstudy.

OneofthemainreasonswhyIwrotethishandbookwastoencouragethestudenttowonder;
toaskwhataboutorwhatif.Ifindthatstudentsaresobusytodaythattheydont
havethetime,ordonttakethetime,toseekoutthebeautyandmajestythatexistsin
Mathematics.And,itisthere,justbelowthesurface.Sobecuriousandgofindit.

Theanswerstomostofthequestionsbelowareinsidethishandbook,butareseldomtaught.
IsthereamethodIcanlearnthatwillhelpmerecallthekeypointsonaunitcircle
withoutmemorizingtheunitcircle?
WhatsthefastestwaytographaTrigfunction?
CanIconvertthesumoftwotrigfunctionstoaproductoftrigfunctions?Howabout
theotherwayaround,changingaproducttoasum?
IsthereaneasywaytocalculatetheareaofatriangleifIamgivenitsverticesaspoints
onaCartesianplane?
DontsomeofthePolargraphsinChapter9lookliketheyhavebeendrawnwitha
Spirograph?Whyisthat?
Acycloidisbothabrachistochroneandatautochrone.Whataretheseandwhyare
theyimportant?(youwillhavetolookthisoneup,butitiswellworthyourtime)
Whatisavectorcrossproductandhowisitused?
Howdothepropertiesofvectorsextendto3dimensions,wheretheyreallymatter?

Additionally,askyourself:
WhattrigidentitiescanIcreatethatIhavenotyetseen?
WhatPolargraphscanIcreatebymessingwithtrigfunctions?Whatmakesapretty
graphinsteadofonethatjustlooksmessedup?
CanIcomeupwithasimplermethodofdoingthingsthanIambeingtaught?
WhatproblemscanIcomeupwithtostumpmyfriends?

Thosewhoapproachmathinthismannerwillbetomorrowsleaders.Areyouoneofthem?

Pleasefeelfreetocontactmeatearl@mathguy.usifyouhaveanyquestionsorcomments.

Thankyouandbestwishes!
Earl CoverartbyRebeccaWilliams,
Twitterhandle:@jolteonkitty

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Trigonometry Handbook
Table of Contents

Page Description

Chapter1:FunctionsandSpecialAngles
7 Introduction
8 AngleDefinitions
9 FunctionDefinitionsonthex andy Axes
9 PythagoreanIdentities
9 SineCosineRelationship
9 KeyAnglesinRadiansandDegrees
9 Cofunctions
10 UnitCircle
11 FunctionDefinitionsinaRightTriangle
11 SOHCAHTOA
11 TrigonometricFunctionsofSpecialAngles
12 TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
13 ProblemsInvolvingTrigFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
14 ProblemsInvolvingAnglesofDepressionandInclination

Chapter2:GraphsofTrigFunctions
15 BasicTrigFunctions
17 CharacteristicsofTrigonometricFunctionGraphs
19 TableofTrigonometricFunctionCharacteristics
20 SineFunction
22 CosineFunction
24 TangentFunction
26 CotangentFunction
28 SecantFunction
30 CosecantFunction
32 Application:SimpleHarmonicMotion

Chapter3:InverseTrigonometricFunctions
33 Definitions
33 PrincipalValuesandRanges
34 GraphsofInverseTrigFunctions
35 ProblemsInvolvingInverseTrigonometricFunctions

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Trigonometry Handbook
Table of Contents

Page Description

Chapter4:KeyAngleFormulas
37 AngleAddition,DoubleAngle,HalfAngleFormulas
38 Examples
41 PowerReducingFormulas
41 ProducttoSumFormulas
41 SumtoProductFormulas
42 Examples

Chapter5:TrigonometricIdentitiesandEquations
43 VerifyingIdentities
44 VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques
47 SolvingTrigonmeticEquations
48 SolvingTrigonmeticEquationsExamples

Chapter6:SolvinganObliqueTriangle
51 SummaryofMethods
52 LawsofSinesandCosines
53 LawsofSinesandCosinesExamples
54 TheAmbiguousCase
56 FlowchartfortheAmbiguousCase
57 AmbiguousCaseExamples
59 Bearings
60 BearingsExamples

Chapter7:AreaofaTriangle
61 GeometryFormula
61 Heron'sFormula
62 TrigonometricFormulas
62 CoordinateGeometryFormula
63 Examples

Chapter8:PolarCoordinates
64 Introduction
64 ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarCoordinates
65 ExpressingComplexNumbersinPolarForm
65 OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
67 DeMoivre'sTheorem
68 DeMoivre'sTheoremforRoots

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Trigonometry Handbook
Table of Contents

Page Description

Chapter9:PolarFunctions
69 PartsofthePolarGraph
69 Symmetry
70 GraphingMethods
70 GraphingwiththeTI84PlusCalculator
71 GraphTypes(Circles,Roses,Limaons,Lemniscates,Spirals)
74 Rose
75 Cardioid
76 ConvertingBetweenPolarandRectangularFormsofEquations
77 ParametricEquations

Chapter10:Vectors
79 Introduction
79 SpecialUnitVectors
79 VectorComponents
80 VectorProperties
81 VectorPropertiesExamples
83 DotProduct
84 DotProductExamples
86 VectorProjection
86 OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
86 Work
87 ApplicationsofVectorsExamples
90 VectorCrossProduct
92 VectorTripleProducts

Appendices
93 AppendixASummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
103 AppendixBSolvingTheAmbiguousCaseAlternativeMethod
105 AppendixCSummaryofPolarandRectangularForms

106 Index

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Trigonometry Handbook
Table of Contents

UsefulWebsites

Mathguy.usDevelopedspecificallyformathstudentsfromMiddleSchooltoCollege,based
ontheauthor'sextensiveexperienceinprofessionalmathematicsinabusinesssettingandin
mathtutoring.Containsfreedownloadablehandbooks,PCApps,sampletests,andmore.
http://www.mathguy.us/

WolframMathWorldPerhapsthepremiersiteformathematicsontheWeb.Thissite
containsdefinitions,explanationsandexamplesforelementaryandadvancedmathtopics.
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/

KhanAcademySuppliesafreeonlinecollectionofthousandsofmicrolecturesviaYouTube
onnumeroustopics.It'smathandsciencelibrariesareextensive.
www.khanacademy.org

AnalyzeMathTrigonometryContainsfreeTrigonometrytutorialsandproblems.UsesJava
appletstoexploreimportanttopicsinteractively.
http://www.analyzemath.com/Trigonometry.html

SchaumsOutline

AnimportantstudentresourceforanyhighschoolorcollegemathstudentisaSchaums
Outline.Eachbookinthisseriesprovidesexplanationsofthevarioustopicsinthecourseand
asubstantialnumberofproblemsforthestudenttotry.Manyoftheproblemsareworked
outinthebook,sothestudentcanseeexamplesofhowtheyshouldbesolved.

SchaumsOutlinesareavailableatAmazon.com,Barnes&Nobleandotherbooksellers.

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Chapter1 FunctionsandSpecialAngles

Introduction

WhatisTrigonometry?
ThewordTrigonometrycomesfromtheGreektrigonon(meaningtriangle)
andmetron(meaningmeasure).So,simplyput,Trigonometryisthestudyof
themeasuresoftriangles.Thisincludesthelengthsofthesides,themeasures
oftheanglesandtherelationshipsbetweenthesidesandangles.
ThemodernapproachtoTrigonometryalsodealswithhowrighttrianglesinteractwithcircles,
especiallytheUnitCircle,i.e.,acircleofradius1.Althoughthebasicconceptsaresimple,the
applicationsofTrigonometryarefarreaching,fromcuttingtherequiredanglesinkitchentilesto
determiningtheoptimaltrajectoryforarockettoreachtheouterplanets.

RadiansandDegrees
AnglesinTrigonometrycanbemeasuredineitherradiansordegrees:
Thereare360degrees i.e.,360 inonerotationaroundacircle.Althoughtherearevarious
accountsofhowacirclecametohave360degrees,mostofthesearebasedonthefactthat
earlycivilizationsconsideredacompleteyeartohave360days.
Thereare2 ~ 6.283 radiansinonerotationaroundacircle.The
ancientGreeksdefined tobetheratioofthecircumferenceofa r
circletoitsdiameter(i.e., ).Sincethediameterisdoublethe 1 rad
r
radius,thecircumferenceis2 timestheradius(i.e., 2 ).One
radianisthemeasureoftheanglemadefromwrappingtheradiusofa
circlealongthecirclesexterior.

MeasureofanArc
OneofthesimplestandmostbasicformulasinTrigonometryprovidesthemeasureofanarcinterms
oftheradiusofthecircle, ,andthearcscentralangle,expressedinradians.Theformulaiseasily
derivedfromtheportionofthecircumferencesubtendedby.
Sincethereare2 radiansinonefullrotationaroundthecircle,themeasure
ofanarcwithcentralangle,expressedinradians,is:

2 so
2 2

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Chapter1 FunctionsandSpecialAngles

AngleDefinitions

BasicDefinitions
AfewdefinitionsrelatingtoanglesareusefulwhenbeginningthestudyofTrigonometry.
Angle:Ameasureofthespacebetweenrayswithacommonendpoint.Anangleistypically
measuredbytheamountofrotationrequiredtogetfromitsinitial
sidetoitsterminalside.
InitialSide:Thesideofananglefromwhichitsrotational
measurebegins.
TerminalSide:Thesideofanangleatwhichitsrotational
measureends.
Vertex:Thevertexofanangleisthecommonendpointofthetworaysthatdefinetheangle.

DefinitionsintheCartesian( )Plane
Whenanglesaregraphedonacoordinate
system(RectangularorPolar),anumberof
additionaltermsareuseful.
StandardPosition:Anangleisinstandard
positionifitsvertexistheorigin(i.e.,the
point 0, 0 )anditsinitialsideisthe
positive axis.
PolarAxis:ThePolarAxisisthepositive axis.Itistheinitialsideofallanglesinstandardposition.
PolarAngle:Foranangleinstandardposition,itspolarangleistheanglemeasuredfromthepolar
axistoitsterminalside.Ifmeasuredinacounterclockwisedirection,thepolarangleispositive;if
measuredinaclockwisedirection,thepolarangleisnegative.
ReferenceAngle:Foranangleinstandardposition,itsreferenceangleistheanglebetween0and
90measuredfromthe axis(positiveornegative)toitsterminalside.Thereferenceanglecanbe
0;itcanbe90;itisnevernegative.
CoterminalAngle:Twoanglesarecoterminaliftheyareinstandardpositionandhavethesame
terminalside.Forexample,anglesofmeasure50and410arecoterminalbecause410isonefull
rotationaroundthecircle(i.e.,360),plus50,sotheyhavethesameterminalside.
QuadrantalAngle:Anangleinstandardpositionisaquadrantalangleifitsterminalsidelieson
eitherthe axisorthe axis.

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Chapter1 FunctionsandSpecialAngles

TrigonometricFunctions

TrigonometricFunctions 1
sin sin
(onthe and axes) csc
1
cos cos
sec
1 sin
tan tan tan
cot cos
1 cos
cot cot cot
tan sin
1
sec sec
cos
1
csc csc
sin

PythagoreanIdentities SineCosineRelationship KeyAngles


(foranyangle) ( )
sin cos
sin cos 1 2
0 0 radians
sec 1 tan sin cos
2
30 radians
csc 1 cot 6

45 radians
4

60 radians
3

90 radians
Cofunctions(inQuadrantI) 2

sin cos cos sin
2 2

tan cot cot tan
2 2

sec csc csc sec
2 2

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Chapter1 FunctionsandSpecialAngles

TheUnitCircle

TheUnitCirclediagrambelowprovides and valuesonacircleofradius1atkeyangles.Atany


pointontheunitcircle,the coordinateisequaltothecosineoftheangleandthe coordinateis
equaltothesineoftheangle.Usingthisdiagram,itiseasytoidentifythesinesandcosinesofangles
thatrecurfrequentlyinthestudyofTrigonometry.



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Chapter1 FunctionsandSpecialAngles

TrigonometricFunctionsandSpecialAngles

TrigonometricFunctions(RightTriangle)

SOHCAHTOA

sin sin sin

cos cos cos

tan tan tan




SpecialAngles

TrigFunctionsofSpecialAngles( )
Radians Degrees

0 0

30

45

60

90 undefined

Notethepatternsintheabovetable:Inthesinecolumn,thenumbers0to4occurinsequence
undertheradical!Thecosinecolumnisthesinecolumnreversed.Tangent sine cosine.

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Chapter1 FunctionsandSpecialAngles

TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV

InquadrantsotherthanQuadrantI,trigonometricvaluesforanglesarecalculatedinthefollowing
manner:
DrawtheangleontheCartesianPlane.
Calculatethemeasureofthereferenceangle
fromthe axisto.
Findthevalueofthetrigonometricfunctionof
theangleinthepreviousstep.
Assigna or signtothetrigonometric
valuebasedonthefunctionusedandthe
quadrantisin(fromthetableatright).


Examples:

inQuadrantIICalculate: 180
For 120,thereferenceangleis180 120 60

sin 60 ,so:

inQuadrantIIICalculate: 180
For 210,thereferenceangleis210 180 30
cos 30 ,so:




inQuadrantIVCalculate: 360

For 315,thereferenceangleis360 315 45
tan 45 1,so:

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Chapter1 FunctionsandSpecialAngles

ProblemsInvolvingTrigFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV

AtypicalprobleminTrigonometryistofindthevalueofoneormoreTrigfunctionsbasedonasetof
constraints.Often,theconstraintsinvolvethevalueofanotherTrigfunctionandthesignofyeta
thirdTrigFunction.Thekeytosolvingthistypeofproblemistodrawthecorrecttriangleinthe
correctquadrant.
Acoupleofexampleswillillustratethisprocess.

Example1.1:sin , tan 0.Findthevaluesofsec andcot .

Noticethatsin 0 , tan 0.Therefore, isin 3,sowedrawtheangleinthatquadrant.

In 3, isnegative; isalwayspositive.Sincesin ,welet 2, 3.

UsingthePythagoreanTheorem,wecalculatethelengthofthehorizontal
legofthetriangle: 3 2 5.Sincetheangleisin 3, is
negative,sowemusthave 5.


Then,sec


And,cot

Example1.2:cot , cos 0.Findthevalueofcsc andcos .

Noticethatcot 0 , cos 0.Therefore, isin 2,sowedrawtheangleinthatquadrant.

In 2, isnegative,and ispositive.Sincecot ,welet 9, 4.

UsingthePythagoreanTheorem,wecancalculatethelengthofthe
hypotenuseofthetriangle: 9 4 97.

Then,csc


And,cos

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Chapter1 FunctionsandSpecialAngles

ProblemsInvolvingAnglesofDepressionandInclination

AcommonprobleminTrigonometrydealswithanglesofdepressionorinclination.Anangleof
depressionisananglebelowthehorizontalatwhichanobservermustlooktoseeanobject.An
angleofinclinationisanangleabovethehorizontalatwhichanobservermustlooktoseeanobject.

Example1.3:Abuilding185feettallcastsa60footlongshadow.Ifapersonlooksdownfromthe
topofthebuilding,whatisthemeasureoftheangleofdepression?Assumetheperson'seyesare5
feetabovethetopofthebuilding.

Thetotalheightfromwhichthepersonlooksdownupontheshadowis:185 5 190ft.We
beginbydrawingthediagrambelow,thenconsiderthetrigonometryinvolved.

60
tan x 0.3158
190
tan 0.3158 17.5

Theangleofdepressionisthecomplementof .

90 17.5 72.5

Example1.4:Ashipis300metersfromaverticalcliff.Thenavigatorusesasextanttodeterminethe
angleofinclinationfromthedeckoftheshiptothetopoftheclifftobe62.4.Howfarabovethe
deckoftheshipisthetopofthecliff?Whatisthedistancefromthedecktothetopofthecliff?
Webeginbydrawingthediagrambelow,thenconsiderthetrigonometryinvolved.

a) Tofindhowfarabovethedeckthetopofthecliffis( ):

tan 62.4
300
300 tan 62.4 573.8meters

b) Tofindthedistancefromthedecktothetopofthecliff( ):

300
cos 62.4

647.5meters
.

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

GraphsofBasic(Parent)TrigonometricFunctions

Thesineandcosecantfunctionsarereciprocals.So:

1 1
sin and csc
csc sin

Thecosineandsecantfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
1 1
cos and sec
sec cos

Thetangentandcotangentfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
1 1
tan and cot
cot tan

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

GraphsofBasic(Parent)TrigonometricFunctions

Itisinstructivetoviewtheparenttrigonometricfunctionsonthesameaxesastheirreciprocals.
Identifyingpatternsbetweenthetwofunctionscanbehelpfulingraphingthem.

Lookingatthesineandcosecantfunctions,
weseethattheyintersectattheirmaximum
andminimumvalues(i.e.,when 1).The
verticalasymptotes(notshown)ofthe
cosecantfunctionoccurwhenthesine
functioniszero.

Lookingatthecosineandsecantfunctions,
weseethattheyintersectattheirmaximum
andminimumvalues(i.e.,when 1).The
verticalasymptotes(notshown)ofthesecant
functionoccurwhenthecosinefunctionis
zero.

Lookingatthetangentandcotangent
functions,weseethattheyintersectwhen
sin cos (i.e.,at , an
integer).Theverticalasymptotes(not
shown)oftheeachfunctionoccurwhenthe
otherfunctioniszero.

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

CharacteristicsofTrigonometricFunctionGraphs

Alltrigonometricfunctionsareperiodic,meaningthattheyrepeatthepatternofthecurve(calleda
cycle)onaregularbasis.Thekeycharacteristicsofeachcurve,alongwithknowledgeoftheparent
curvesaresufficienttographmanytrigonometricfunctions.Letsconsiderthegeneralfunction:
A B C D
whereA, B, CandDareconstantsand isanyofthesixtrigonometricfunctions(sine,cosine,
tangent,cotangent,secant,cosecant).

Amplitude
Amplitudeisthemeasureofthedistanceofpeaksandtroughs
fromthemidline(i.e.,center)ofasineorcosinefunction;
amplitudeisalwayspositive.Theotherfourfunctionsdonot
havepeaksandtroughs,sotheydonothaveamplitudes.For
thegeneralfunction, , definedabove,amplitude |A|.

Period
Periodisthehorizontalwidthofasinglecycleorwave,i.e.,thedistanceittravelsbeforeitrepeats.
Everytrigonometricfunctionhasaperiod.Theperiodsoftheparentfunctionsareasfollows:for
sine,cosine,secantandcosecant,period 2;fortangentandcotangent,period .

Forthegeneralfunction, , definedabove,

period .

Frequency
Frequencyismostusefulwhenusedwiththesineand
cosinefunctions.Itisthereciprocaloftheperiod,i.e.,

frequency .

Frequencyistypicallydiscussedinrelationtothesineandcosinefunctionswhenconsidering
harmonicmotionorwaves.InPhysics,frequencyistypicallymeasuredinHertz,i.e.,cyclesper
second.1Hz 1cyclepersecond.

Forthegeneralsineorcosinefunction, , definedabove,frequency .

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

PhaseShift
Phaseshiftishowfarhasthefunctionbeenshiftedhorizontally
(leftorright)fromitsparentfunction.Forthegeneralfunction,
, definedabove,

phase shift .

Apositivephaseshiftindicatesashifttotherightrelativetothe
graphoftheparentfunction;anegativephaseshiftindicatesashift
totheleftrelativetothegraphoftheparentfunction.

Atrickforcalculatingthephaseshiftistosettheargumentofthetrigonometricfunctionequalto
zero: B C 0,andsolvefor .Theresultingvalueof isthephaseshiftofthefunction.

VerticalShift
Verticalshiftistheverticaldistancethatthemidlineofacurvelies
aboveorbelowthemidlineofitsparentfunction(i.e.,the axis).
Forthegeneralfunction, , definedabove,vertical shift D.
ThevalueofDmaybepositive,indicatingashiftupward,or
negative,indicatingashiftdownwardrelativetothegraphofthe
parentfunction.

PuttingitAllTogether
Theillustrationbelowshowshowalloftheitemsdescribedabovecombineinasinglegraph.

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions
SummaryofCharacteristicsandKeyPointsTrigonometricFunctionGraphs

Function: Sine Cosine Tangent Cotangent Secant Cosecant


ParentFunction sin cos tan cot sec csc

Domain , , , except , , except , , except , , except ,


where isanInteger where isanInteger
where isodd where isodd

,where isan ,where isodd ,where isan


VerticalAsymptotes none none ,where isodd
Integer Integer

Range 1, 1 1, 1 , , , 1 1, , 1 1,

Period 2 2 2 2
midwaybetween midwaybetween
intercepts ,where isanInteger ,where isodd none none
asymptotes asymptotes

(1)
OddorEvenFunction OddFunction EvenFunction OddFunction OddFunction EvenFunction OddFunction

GeneralForm sin cos tan cot sec csc

Amplitude/Stretch,Period, 2 2 2 2
PhaseShift,VerticalShift
| |, , , | |, , , | |, , , | |, , , | |, , , | |, , ,

(2)
when verticalasymptote verticalasymptote

when verticalasymptote

when verticalasymptote verticalasymptote

when verticalasymptote

when verticalasymptote verticalasymptote

Notes:
(1) Anoddfunctionissymmetricabouttheorigin,i.e. .Anevenfunctionissymmetricaboutthe axis,i.e., .
(2) AllPhaseShiftsaredefinedtooccurrelativetoastartingpointofthe axis(i.e.,theverticalline 0).

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

GraphofaGeneralSineFunction

GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofasinefunctionis: .
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Amplitude: | |.Theamplitudeisthemagnitudeofthestretchorcompressionofthe
functionfromitsparentfunction: sin .

Period: .Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasineorcosine
function,thisisthelengthofonecompletewave;itcanbemeasuredfrompeaktopeakor
fromtroughtotrough.Notethat2istheperiodof sin .

PhaseShift: .Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift: .Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .

Example2.1:

Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onewave,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow. Forthisexample:

; ; ;

Amplitude: | | | |

Period:

PhaseShift:

VerticalShift:

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

GraphingaSineFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:

Awave(cycle)ofthesinefunctionhasthreezeropoints(pointsonthexaxis) Example:

atthebeginningoftheperiod,attheendoftheperiod,andhalfwayinbetween. .

Step1:PhaseShift: .
.
Thefirstwavebeginsatthe
point unitstotherightof Thepointis: ,
theOrigin.

Step2:Period: . .Thefirst
Thefirstwaveendsatthe waveendsatthepoint:
point unitstotherightof
wherethewavebegins. , ,

Step3:Thethirdzeropoint The pointis:


islocatedhalfwaybetween

thefirsttwo. , ,

Step4:The valueofthe The pointis:


pointhalfwaybetweenthe

leftandcenterzeropointsis , ,
" ".

Step5:The valueofthe The pointis:


pointhalfwaybetweenthe

centerandrightzeropoints , ,
is .

Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthefivekey Thiswillproducethegraph
points. ofonewaveofthefunction.

Step7:Duplicatethewave
totheleftandrightas Note:If 0,allpoints
desired. onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

GraphofaGeneralCosineFunction

GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacosinefunctionis: .
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Amplitude: | |.Theamplitudeisthemagnitudeofthestretchorcompressionofthe
functionfromitsparentfunction: cos .

Period: .Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasineorcosine
function,thisisthelengthofonecompletewave;itcanbemeasuredfrompeaktopeakor
fromtroughtotrough.Notethat2istheperiodof cos .

PhaseShift: .Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift: .Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .

Example2.2:

Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onewave,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow. Forthisexample:

; ; ;

Amplitude: | | | |

Period:

PhaseShift:

VerticalShift:

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

GraphingaCosineFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Awave(cycle)ofthecosinefunctionhastwomaxima(orminimaif 0)
oneatthebeginningoftheperiodandoneattheendoftheperiodanda Example:

minimum(ormaximumif 0)halfwayinbetween. .

Step1:PhaseShift: .
,
Thefirstwavebeginsatthe
point unitstotherightof Thepointis: ,
thepoint , .

Step2:Period: . .Thefirst
Thefirstwaveendsatthe waveendsatthepoint:
point unitstotherightof
wherethewavebegins. , ,

Step3:The valueofthe Thepointis:


pointhalfwaybetweenthose

inthetwostepsaboveis , ,
" ".

Step4:The valueofthe Thepointis:


pointhalfwaybetweenthe

leftandcenterextremais , ,
" ".

Step5:The valueofthe Thepointis:


pointhalfwaybetweenthe

centerandrightextremais , ,
" ".

Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthefivekey Thiswillproducethegraph
points. ofonewaveofthefunction.

Step7:Duplicatethewave
totheleftandrightas Note:If 0,allpoints
desired. onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

GraphofaGeneralTangentFunction

GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofatangentfunctionis: .
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Scalefactor:| |.Thetangentfunctiondoesnothaveamplitude.| |isthemagnitudeofthe
stretchorcompressionofthefunctionfromitsparentfunction: tan .

Period: .Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Foratangentor
cotangentfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutiveasymptotes(itisalso
thedistancebetween intercepts).Notethatistheperiodof tan .

PhaseShift: .Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift: .Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .

Example2.3:

Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow. Forthisexample:

Notethat,forthe
; ; ;
tangentcurve,we
typicallygraphhalf ScaleFactor:| | | |
oftheprincipal
cycleatthepoint Period:
ofthephaseshift,
andthenfillinthe PhaseShift:
otherhalfofthe
cycletotheleft VerticalShift:
(seenextpage).

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

GraphingaTangentFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:

Acycleofthetangentfunctionhastwoasymptotesandazeropoint halfwayin Example:



between.Itflowsupwardtotherightif 0anddownwardtotherightif 0. .


Step1:PhaseShift: .
.
Thefirstcyclebeginsatthe
zeropoint unitstothe Thepointis: ,
rightoftheOrigin.


Step2:Period: . . .
Placeaverticalasymptote Therightasymptoteisat:
unitstotherightofthe

beginningofthecycle.


Step3:Placeavertical Theleftasymptoteisat:

asymptote unitstothe

leftofthebeginningofthe

cycle.


Step4:The valueofthe The pointis:
pointhalfwaybetweenthe

zeropointandtheright , ,
asymptoteis" ".


Step5:The valueofthe The pointis:

pointhalfwaybetweenthe

leftasymptoteandthezero , ,
pointis" ".


Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthethreekey Thiswillproducethegraph
points,approachingthe ofonecycleofthefunction.
asymptotesoneachside.


Step7:Duplicatethecycle
totheleftandrightas Note:If 0,allpoints
desired. onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

GraphofaGeneralCotangentFunction

GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacotangentfunctionis: .
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Scalefactor:| |.Thecotangentfunctiondoesnothaveamplitude.| |isthemagnitudeof
thestretchorcompressionofthefunctionfromitsparentfunction: cot .

Period: .Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Foratangentor
cotangentfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutiveasymptotes(itisalso
thedistancebetween intercepts).Notethatistheperiodof cot .

PhaseShift: .Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift: .Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .

Example2.4:

Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow. Forthisexample:

Notethat,forthe
; ; ;
cotangentcurve,
wetypicallygraph ScaleFactor:| | | |
theasymptotes
first,andthen Period:
graphthecurve
betweenthem(see PhaseShift:
nextpage).
VerticalShift:

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

GraphingaCotangentFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:

Acycleofthecotangentfunctionhastwoasymptotesandazeropoint halfwayin Example:



between.Itflowsdownwardtotherightif 0andupwardtotherightif 0. .


Step1:PhaseShift: . .Theleft
Placeaverticalasymptote
asymptoteisat:
unitstotherightofthe
axis.


Step2:Period: . .

Placeanothervertical Therightasymptoteisat:
asymptote unitstothe
rightofthefirstone.

Step3:Azeropointexists
halfwaybetweenthetwo Thepointis: ,
asymptotes.
,



Step4:The valueofthe The pointis:
pointhalfwaybetweenthe

leftasymptoteandthezero , ,
pointis" ".

Step5:The valueofthe The pointis:
pointhalfwaybetweenthe

zeropointandtheright , ,
asymptoteis" ".

Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthethreekey Thiswillproducethegraph
points,approachingthe ofonecycleofthefunction.
asymptotesoneachside.


Step7:Duplicatethecycle
totheleftandrightas Note:If 0,allpoints
desired. onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

GraphofaGeneralSecantFunction

GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofasecantfunctionis: .
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Scalefactor:| |.Thesecantfunctiondoesnothaveamplitude.| |isthemagnitudeofthe
stretchorcompressionofthefunctionfromitsparentfunction: sec .

Period: .Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasecantor
cosecantfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutivemaximaorminima(itis
alsothedistancebetweeneverysecondasymptote).Notethat2istheperiodof sec .

PhaseShift: .Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift: .Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .

Example2.5:

Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
OnecycleofthesecantcurvecontainstwoUshapedcurves,one Forthisexample:

openingupandoneopeningdown.
; ; ;

ScaleFactor:| | | |

Period:

PhaseShift:

VerticalShift:

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

GraphingaSecantFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:

Acycleofthesecantfunctioncanbedevelopedbyfirstplottingacycleofthe
correspondingcosinefunctionbecausesec .
Thecosinefunctionszeropointsproduceasymptotesforthesecantfunction.
Maximaforthecosinefunctionproduceminimaforthesecantfunction.
Minimaforthecosinefunctionproducemaximaforthesecantfunction. Example:

SecantcurvesareUshaped,alternatelyopeningupandopeningdown. .


Step1:Graphonewaveof Theequationofthe
thecorrespondingcosine correspondingcosine

function. functionfortheexampleis:



Step2:Asymptotesforthe Thezeropointsoccurat:
secantfunctionoccuratthe , 0 and , 0
zeropointsofthecosine
Secantasymptotesare:
function.
and


Step3:Eachmaximumof Cosinemaximaand,

thecosinefunction therefore,secantminimaare
representsaminimumfor at: , 4 and ,4
thesecantfunction.


Step4:Eachminimumof Thecosineminimum and,
thecosinefunction therefore,thesecant

representsamaximumfor maximumisat: , 4
thesecantfunction.


Step5:DrawsmoothU
shapedcurvesthrougheach Thiswillproducethegraph

keypoint,approachingthe ofonecycleofthefunction.

asymptotesoneachside.


Step6:Duplicatethecycle
totheleftandrightas
Note:If 0,allpoints
desired.Erasethecosine
onthecurveareshifted
functionifnecessary.
verticallyby units.

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

GraphofaGeneralCosecantFunction

GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacosecantfunctionis: .
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Scalefactor:| |.Thecosecantfunctiondoesnothaveamplitude.| |isthemagnitudeof
thestretchorcompressionofthefunctionfromitsparentfunction: csc .

Period: .Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasecantor
cosecantfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutivemaximaorminima(itis
alsothedistancebetweeneverysecondasymptote).Notethat2istheperiodof csc .

PhaseShift: .Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift: .Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .

Example2.6:

Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
OnecycleofthecosecantcurvecontainstwoUshapedcurves,one Forthisexample:

openingupandoneopeningdown.
; ; ;

ScaleFactor:| | | |

Period:

PhaseShift:

VerticalShift:

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

GraphingaCosecantFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:

Acycleofthecosecantfunctioncanbedevelopedbyfirstplottingacycleofthe
correspondingsinefunctionbecausecsc .
Thesinefunctionszeropointsproduceasymptotesforthecosecantfunction.
Maximaforthesinefunctionproduceminimaforthecosecantfunction.
Minimaforthesinefunctionproducemaximaforthecosecantfunction. Example:

CosecantcurvesareUshaped,alternatelyopeningupandopeningdown. .


Step1:Graphonewaveof Theequationofthe
thecorrespondingsine correspondingsinefunction

function. fortheexampleis:



Step2:Asymptotesforthe Thezeropointsoccurat:
cosecantfunctionoccurat
,0 , ,0 , ,0
thezeropointsofthesine
Cosecantasymptotesare:
function.
, ,


Step3:Eachmaximumof Thesinemaximumand,

thesinefunctionrepresents therefore,thecosecant
aminimumforthecosecant minimumisat: , 4
function.


Step4:Eachminimumof Thesineminimumand,
thesinefunctionrepresents therefore,thecosecant

amaximumforthecosecant maximumisat: , 4
function.


Step5:DrawsmoothU
shapedcurvesthrougheach Thiswillproducethegraph

keypoint,approachingthe ofonecycleofthefunction.

asymptotesoneachside.


Step6:Duplicatethecycle
totheleftandrightas
Note:If 0,allpoints
desired.Erasethesine
onthecurveareshifted
functionifnecessary.
verticallyby units.

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Chapter2 GraphsofTrigFunctions

SimpleHarmonicMotion

InPhysics,SimpleHarmonicMotionisanoscillatingmotion(think:repeatingupanddownmotion)
wheretheforceappliedtoanobjectisproportionaltoandintheoppositedirectionofits
displacement.Acommonexampleistheactionofacoiledspring,whichoscillatesupanddown
whenreleased.Suchmotioncanbemodeledbythesineandcosinefunctions,usingthefollowing
equations(note: isthelowercaseGreekletteromega,nottheEnglishletterw):
Harmonicmotionequations: cos or sin

Period:

Frequency: or 2 with 0

Situationsinwhichanobjectstartsatrestatthecenterofitsoscillation,oratrest,usethesine
function(becausesin 0 0);situationsinwhichanobjectstartsinanupordownpositionpriortoits
releaseusethecosinefunction(becausecos 0 1).

Example2.7:Anobjectisattachedtoacoiledspring.Theobjectispulledupandthenreleased.If
theamplitudeis5cmandtheperiodis7seconds,writeanequationforthedistanceoftheobject
fromitsstartingpositionafter seconds.

Thespringwillstartata valueof 5(sinceitispulledup),andoscillatebetween 5and 5


(absentanyotherforce)overtime.Agoodrepresentationofthiswouldbeacosinecurvewith
leadcoefficient 5.
Theperiodofthefunctionis7seconds.So,weget:
1 1 1 2
and 2 2
period 7 7 7

Theresultingequation,then,is: 5 cos

Example2.8:Anobjectinsimpleharmonicmotionhasafrequencyof1.5oscillationspersecondand
anamplitudeof13cm.Writeanequationforthedistanceoftheobjectfromitsrestpositionafter
seconds.
Assumingthatdistance 0attime 0,itmakessensetouseasinefunctionforthis
problem.Sincetheamplitudeis13cm,agoodrepresentationofthiswouldbeasinecurvewith
leadcoefficient 13.Notethataleadcoefficient 13wouldworkaswell.

Recallingthat 2 ,with 1.5 weget: 2 1.5 3 .

Theresultingequations,then,are: 13 sin 3 or 13 sin 3

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Chapter3 InverseTrigonometricFunctions

InverseTrigonometricFunctions

InverseTrigonometricFunctions

Inversetrigonometricfunctionsareshownwitha" 1"exponentoranarcprefix.So,theinverse
sineof maybeshownassin orarcsin .Inversetrigonometricfunctionsaskthequestion:
whichangle hasafunctionvalueof ?Forexample:
sin 0.5 askswhichanglehasasinevalueof0.5.Itisequivalentto:sin 0.5.
arctan 1 askswhichanglehasatangentvalueof1.Itisequivalentto:tan 1.

PrincipalValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Thereareaninfinitenumberofanglesthatanswertheabove
questions,sotheinversetrigonometricfunctionsarereferredtoas
multivaluedfunctions.Becauseofthis,mathematicianshavedefined
aprincipalsolutionforproblemsinvolvinginversetrigonometric
functions.Theanglewhichistheprincipalsolution(orprincipalvalue)
isdefinedtobethesolutionthatliesinthequadrantsidentifiedinthe
figureatright.Forexample:
Thesolutionstotheequation sin 0.5areall valuesinthe
intervals 2 2 .Thatis,thesetofall
solutionstothisequationcontainsthetwosolutionsintheinterval
0, 2 ,aswellasallanglesthatareintegermultiplesof2 less
thanorgreaterthanthosetwoangles.Giventheconfusionthiscancreate,mathematicianshave
definedaprincipalvalueforthesolutiontothesekindsofequations.

Theprincipalvalueof forwhich sin 0.5liesinQ1because0.5ispositive,andis .

RangesofInverseTrigonometric
RangesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Functions
Function Range
Therangesofinversetrigonometricfunctions
aregenerallydefinedtobetherangesofthe sin
2 2
principalvaluesofthosefunctions.Atable
summarizingtheseisprovidedatright. cos 0

AnglesinQ4areexpressedasnegativeangles. tan
2 2

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Chapter3 InverseTrigonometricFunctions

GraphsofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Principalvaluesareshowningreen.

Version 2.1 Page 34 of 109 April 10, 2017


Chapter3 InverseTrigonometricFunctions

ProblemsInvolvingInverseTrigonometricFunctions

Itistemptingtobelieve,forexample,thatsin sin or
tan tan .Thetwofunctionsare,afterallinverses.However,
thisisnotalwaysthecasebecausetheinversefunctionvaluedesired
istypicallyitsprincipalvalue,whichthestudentwillrecallisdefined
onlyincertainquadrants(seethetableatright).

Letslookatacoupleofproblemstoseehowtheyaresolved.

Example3.1:Calculatetheprincipalvalueoftan tan .

Beginbynoticingthattan andtanareinversefunctions,sothe
solutiontothisproblemisrelatedtotheanglegiven: .This
angleisinQ2,buttheinversetangentfunctionisdefinedonlyin
Q1andQ4,ontheinterval , .

WeseektheangleinQ1orQ4thathasthesametangentvalueas .
Sincethetangentfunctionhasperiod ,wecancalculate:

tan tan (inQ4)asoursolution.

Example3.2:Calculatetheprincipalvalueofsin cos .

Wearelookingfortheanglewhosesinevalueiscos intheinterval , .

Method1:sin cos sin sincesinevaluesarenegativeinQ4.

Method2:Recall:sin cos .Then,cos sin sin .

Then,sin cos

sin sin becausecos sin sin

sin sin because and isintheinterval , .

becauseinversefunctionsworknicelyinquadrantsinwhichthe
principalvaluesoftheinversefunctionsaredefined.

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Chapter3 InverseTrigonometricFunctions

ProblemsInvolvingInverseTrigonometricFunctions

Whentheinversetrigonometricfunctionistheinnerfunctioninacompositionoffunctions,itwill
usuallybenecessarytodrawatriangletosolvetheproblem.Inthesecases,drawthetriangle
definedbytheinner(inversetrig)function.Thenderivethevalueoftheouter(trig)function.


Example3.3:Calculatethevalueofcot sin .

Recallthattheargumentofthesin function, .Drawthetrianglebasedonthis.
Next,calculatethevalueofthetriangleshorizontalleg:

61 561 661.

Basedonthediagram,then,

561 661 6
cot sin
61 561 5


Example3.4:Calculatethevalueoftan cos .

Recallthattheargumentofthecos function, .Drawthetrianglebasedonthis.
Next,calculatethevalueofthetrianglesverticalleg:

2 2 2.

Basedonthediagram,then,

2 2
tan cos 1
2 2


Example3.5:Calculateanalgebraicexpressionforsin sec .

Recallthattheargumentofthesec function, .Drawthetrianglebasedonthis.
Next,calculatethevalueofthetrianglesverticalleg:

9 3
Basedonthediagram,then,

9 3
sin sec
9

Version 2.1 Page 36 of 109 April 10, 2017


Chapter4 KeyAngleFormulas

KeyAngleFormulas

AngleAdditionFormulas

sin sin cos cos sin cos cos cos sin sin
sin sin cos cos sin cos cos cos sin sin


tan tan

DoubleAngleFormulas

sin 2 2 sin cos cos 2 cos sin


1 2 sin
2 cos 1

tan 2

HalfAngleFormulas
Theuseofa+orsigninthehalfangle

formulasdependsonthequadrantinwhich

sin theangle resides.Seechartbelow.

SignsofTrigFunctions
cos
ByQuadrant

sin+ sin+
tan cos cos+

tan tan+
x

sin sin
cos cos+

tan+ tan

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Chapter4 KeyAngleFormulas

KeyAngleFormulasExamples

Example4.1:Findtheexactvalueof:cos 175 cos 55 sin 175 sin 55 .

Recall:cos cos cos sin sin

cos 175 cos 55 sin 175 sin 55 cos 175 55


cos 120
cos 60 ConvertingtoanangleinQ1


Example4.2:Findtheexactvalueof:tan 255 Recall:tan

tan 255 tan 315 60

AnglesinQ4andQ1


ConvertingtoQ1angles

Example4.3:Findtheexactvalueof:sin 105 . Recall:sin sin cos sin cos

sin 105 sin 60 45 Note:bothanglesareinQ1,whichmakesthingseasier.


sin 60 cos 45 sin 45 cos 60

3 2 2 1
2
2 2
2


or

Version 2.1 Page 38 of 109 April 10, 2017


Chapter4 KeyAngleFormulas

Example4.4:sin , liesinquadrantII,andcos , liesinquadrantI.Findcos .

Constructtrianglesforthetwoangles,beingcarefultoconsiderthesignsofthevaluesineach
quadrant:


Then,cos cos cos sin sin

Example4.5:Giventhediagramatright,find:tan 2

tan 2

7 7
2 24 12
2 527
7
1 24 576

Example4.6: tan ,and liesinquadrantIII. Find sin 2 , cos 2 , tan 2 .

Drawthetrianglebelow,thenapplytheappropriateformulas.

15 8
sin 2 2 sin cos 2
17 17
8 15
cos 2 cos sin
17 17
sin 2
tan 2
cos 2

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Chapter4 KeyAngleFormulas


Example4.7:Findtheexactvalueof:cos Recall:cos

5
Notethat isinQ1,sothevalueof cos ispositive.
12
5
5 6
cos cos
12 2


Usingthehalfangleformulaabove


ConvertingtoanangleinQ1


2 3

2



Example4.8:csc 4, liesinquadrantIV.Findsin . Recall:sin

Notethatif isinQ4,then isinQ2,sothevalueofsin ispositive.


2

sin so,sin

15
cos 1 sin 1 Note:cosineispositiveinQ4
4

1 cos
sin
2
2
Usingthehalfangleformulaabove

8 215

Version 2.1 Page 40 of 109 April 10, 2017


Chapter4 KeyAngleFormulas

KeyAngleFormulas

PowerReducingFormulas


sin cos


tan

ProducttoSumFormulas

SumtoProductFormulas

Version 2.1 Page 41 of 109 April 10, 2017


Chapter4 KeyAngleFormulas

KeyAngleFormulasExamples

Example4.9:Converttoasumformula:sin 8 cos 5

Use:

sin 8 cos 5 sin 8 5 sin 8 5

Example4.10:Converttoasumformula:cos cos

Use:

cos cos cos cos


Example4.11:Converttoaproductformula:sin 8 sin 2

Use:

sin 8 sin 2 2 sin cos

Example4.12:Converttoaproductformula:cos 8 cos 2

Use:

cos 8 cos 2 2 sin sin

Version 2.1 Page 42 of 109 April 10, 2017


Chapter5 IdentitiesandEquations

VerifyingIdentities

AsignificantportionofanytrigonometrycoursedealswithverifyingTrigonometricIdentities,i.e.,
statementsthatarealwaystrue(assumingthetrigonometricvaluesinvolvedexist).Thissection
dealswithhowthestudentmayapproachverificationofidentitiessuchas:

1 tan 1 sin 1

InverifyingaTrigonometricIdentity,thestudentisaskedtoworkwithonlyonesideoftheidentity
and,usingthestandardrulesofmathematicalmanipulation,derivetheotherside.Thestudentmay
workwitheithersideoftheidentity,sogenerallyitisbesttoworkonthesidethatismostcomplex.
Thestepsbelowpresentastrategythatmaybeusefulinverifyingidentities.

VerificationSteps
1. Identifywhichsideyouwanttoworkon.LetscallthisSideA.Letscallthesideyouarenot
workingonSideB.So,youwillbeworkingonSideAtomakeitlooklikeSideB.
a. Ifonesidehasamultipleofanangle(e.g.,tan 3 )andtheothersidedoesnot(e.g.,
cos ),workwiththesidethathasthemultipleofanangle.
b. Ifonesidehasonlysinesandcosinesandtheotherdoesnot,workwiththesidethat
doesnothaveonlysinesandcosines.
c. Ifyougetpartwaythroughtheexerciseandrealizeyoushouldhavestartedwiththe
otherside,startoverandworkwiththeotherside.
2. Ifnecessary,investigateSideBbyworkingonitalittle.Thisisnotaviolationoftherulesas
longas,inyourverification,youcompletelymanipulateSideAtolooklikeSideB.Ifyou
choosetoinvestigateSideB,moveyourworkoffalittletothesidesoitisclearyouare
investigatingandnotactuallyworkingsideB.
3. SimplifySideAasmuchaspossible,butremembertolookattheothersidetomakesureyou
aremovinginthatdirection.Dothisalsoateachstepalongtheway,aslongasitmakesSide
AlookmorelikeSideB.
a. UsethePythagoreanIdentitiestosimplify,e.g.,ifonesidecontains 1 sin and
theothersidecontainscosinesbutnotsines,replace 1 sin withcos .
b. Changeanymultiplesofangles,halfangles,etc.toexpressionswithsingleangles(e.g.,
replacesin 2 with2 sin cos ).
c. Lookfor1s.Oftenchanginga1intosin cos (orviceversa)willbehelpful.
4. RewriteSideAintermsofsinesandcosines.
5. Factorwherepossible.
6. SeparateorcombinefractionstomakeSideAlookmorelikeSideB.

Thefollowingpagesillustrateanumberoftechniquesthatcanbeusedtoverifyidentities.

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Chapter5 IdentitiesandEquations

VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques

Technique:InvestigateOneorBothSides

Often,whenlookingatanidentity,itisnotimmediatelyobvioushowtoproceed.Inmanycases,
investigatingbothsideswillprovidethenecessaryhintstoproceed.

Example5.1:
1 1
sin
cos cot 1

1 1 cot 1

sin cos

Yuk!Thisidentitylooksdifficulttodealwiththerearelotsoffractions.Letsinvestigateitby
convertingtherightsidetosinesandcosines.Notethatontheright,wemovethenewfraction
offtothesidetoindicateweareinvestigatingonly.Wedothisbecausewemustverifyan
identitybyworkingononlyonesideuntilwegettheotherside.

1 1 cos cos
sin cos cot 1 sin cos
cos cos
1 1 cot 1
sin cos
sin cos

Inmanipulatingtherightside,wechangedeach1inthegreenexpressionto becausewe
wantsomethingthatlooksmoreliketheexpressionontheleft.

Noticethattheorangeexpressionlooksalotliketheexpressionontheleft,exceptthatevery
placewehavea1intheexpressionontheleftwehavecos intheorangeexpression.

Whatisournextstep?Weneedtochangeallthe1sintheexpressiononthelefttocos .We
candothisbymultiplyingtheexpressionontheleftby ,asfollows:

1 1
cos sin
cos
cos 1 1

sin cos



Noticethatthismatchestheorangeexpressionabove.

cot 1 cot 1

cot 1 cot 1

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Chapter5 IdentitiesandEquations

VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques(contd)

Technique:BreakaFractionintoPieces

Whenafractioncontainsmultipletermsinthenumerator,itissometimesusefultobreakitinto
separateterms.Thisworksespeciallywellwhentheresultingnumeratorhasthesamenumberof
termsasexistontheothersideoftheequalsign.

Example5.2:

cos
1 tan tan
cos cos

First,itsagoodideatoreplacecos withcos cos sin sin :

cos cos sin sin



cos cos

Next,breakthefractionintotwopieces:

cos cos sin sin



cos cos cos cos

Finally,simplifytheexpression:

sin sin
1
cos cos

1 tan tan 1 tan tan

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Chapter5 IdentitiesandEquations

VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques(contd)

Technique:GetaCommonDenominatoronOneSide

Ifitlookslikeyouwouldbenefitfromgettingacommondenominatorforthetwosidesofanidentity,
tryconvertingonesidesothatithasthatdenominator.Inmanycases,thiswillresultinan
expressionthatwillsimplifyintoamoreusefulform.

Example5.3:

cos 1 sin

1 sin cos

Ifweweretosolvethislikeanequation,wemightcreateacommondenominator.Remember,
however,thatwecanonlyworkononeside,sowewillobtainthecommondenominatorononly
oneside.Inthisexample,thecommondenominatorwouldbe:cos 1 sin .

cos cos

cos 1 sin

cos

cos 1 sin

Oncewehavemanipulatedonesideoftheidentitytohavethecommondenominator,therestof
theexpressionshouldsimplify.Tokeepthecos inthedenominatoroftheexpressiononthe
left,weneedtoworkwiththenumerator.Acommonsubstitutionistoconvertbetweensin
andcos usingthePythagoreanidentitysin cos 1.

1 sin

cos 1 sin

Noticethatthenumeratorisadifferenceofsquares.Letsfactorit.

1 sin 1 sin

cos 1 sin

Finally,wesimplifybyeliminatingthecommonfactorinthenumeratoranddenominator.

1 sin 1 sin

cos cos

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Chapter5 IdentitiesandEquations

SolvingTrigonometricEquations

Solvingtrigonometricequationsinvolvesmanyofthesameskillsassolvingequationsingeneral.
Somespecificthingstowatchforinsolvingtrigonometricequationsarethefollowing:
Arrangement.Itisoftenagoodideatogetarrangetheequationsothatalltermsareonone
sideoftheequalsign,andzeroisontheother.Forexample,tan sin tan canbe
rearrangedtobecometan sin tan 0.
Quadratics.Lookforquadraticequations.AnytimeanequationcontainsasingleTrig
functionwithmultipleexponents,theremaybeawaytofactoritlikeaquadraticequation.
Forexample,cos 2 cos 1 cos 1 .
Factoring.Lookforwaystofactortheequationandsolvetheindividualtermsseparately.For
example,tan sin tan tan sin 1 .
TermswithNoSolution.Afterfactoring,sometermswillhavenosolutionandcanbe
discarded.Forexample,sin 2 0requiressin 2,whichhasnosolutionsincethe
sinefunctionnevertakesonavalueof2.
Replacement.HavingtermswithdifferentTrigfunctionsinthesameequationisnota
problemifyouareabletofactortheequationsothatthedifferentTrigfunctionsarein
differentfactors.Whenthisisnotpossible,lookforwaystoreplaceoneormoreTrig
functionswithothersthatarealsointheequation.ThePythagoreanIdentitiesare
particularlyusefulforthispurpose.Forexample,intheequationcos sin 1 0,
cos canbereplacedby1 sin ,resultinginanequationcontainingonlyoneTrig
function.
ExtraneousSolutions.Checkeachsolutiontomakesureitworksintheoriginalequation.A
solutionofonefactorofanequationmayfailasasolutionoverallbecausetheoriginal
functiondoesnotexistatthatvalue.SeeExample5.6below.
InfiniteNumberofSolutions.Trigonometricequationsoftenhaveaninfinitenumberof
solutionsbecauseoftheirperiodicnature.Insuchcases,weappend 2 oranotherterm
tothesolutionstoindicatethis.SeeExample5.9below.
SolutionsinanInterval.Becarefulwhensolutionsaresoughtinaspecificinterval.Forthe
interval 0, 2 ,therearetypicallytwosolutionsforeachfactorcontainingaTrigfunctionas
longasthevariableinthefunctionhasleadcoefficientof1(e.g., or).Ifthelead
coefficientisotherthan1(e.g.,5 or5),thenumberofsolutionswilltypicallybetwo
multipliedbytheleadcoefficient(e.g.,10solutionsintheinterval 0, 2 foraterminvolving
5 ).SeeExample5.5below,whichhas8solutionsontheinterval 0, 2 .

Anumberofthesetechniquesareillustratedintheexamplesthatfollow.

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Chapter5 IdentitiesandEquations

SolvingTrigonometricEquationsExamples

Example5.4:Solvefor ontheinterval 0, 2 :cos 2 cos 1 0


Thetrickonthisproblemistorecognizetheexpressionasaquadraticequation.Replacethe
trigonometricfunction,inthiscase,cos ,withavariable,like ,thatwillmakeiteasiertosee
howtofactortheexpression.Ifyoucanseehowtofactortheexpressionwithoutthetrick,byall
meansproceedwithoutit.

Let cos ,andourequationbecomes: 2 1 0.

Thisequationfactorstoget: 1 0

Substitutingcos backinfor gives: cos 1 0



Andfinally: cos 1 0 cos 1

Theonlysolutionforthisontheinterval 0, 2 is:



Example5.5:Solvefor ontheinterval 0, 2 :sin 4
Whenworkingwithaproblemintheinterval 0, 2 thatinvolvesafunctionof ,itisusefulto
expandtheintervalto 0, 2 forthefirststepsofthesolution.

Inthisproblem, 4,sowewantallsolutionstosin where 4 isanangleinthe
interval 0, 8 .Notethat,beyondthetwosolutionssuggestedbythediagram,additional
solutionsareobtainedbyaddingmultiplesof2 tothosetwosolutions.

Usingthediagramatleft,wegetthefollowingsolutions:
2 7 8 13 14 19 20
4 ,
, , , , , ,
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Then,dividingby4,weget:
2 7 8 13 14 19 20
,, , , , , ,
12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
Notethatthereare8solutions Andsimplifying,weget:
becausetheusualnumberof
solutions(i.e.,2)isincreased , , , , , , ,
byafactorof 4.

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Chapter5 IdentitiesandEquations

SolvingTrigonometricEquationsExamples

Example5.6:Solvefor ontheinterval 0, 2 :tan sin tan

tan sin tan 0


tan sin 1 0

tan 0 or sin 1 0 While isasolutiontotheequation
0, sin 1 sin 1,tan isundefinedat ,

so isnotasolutiontothisequation.
,

Example5.7:Solvefor ontheinterval 0, 2 :cos 2 cos sin 0


cos 1 2 sin 0

cos 0or 1 2 sin 0

, sin

, , ,

Example5.8:Solvefor ontheinterval 0, 2 :cos cos 1

Use:cos cos cos sin sin cos cos cos sin sin

cos cos 1
3 3

cos cos sin sin cos cos sin sin 1


3 3 3 3

2 cos cos 1
3
1
2 cos 1
2

cos 1

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Chapter5 IdentitiesandEquations

SolvingTrigonometricEquationsExamples

Example5.9:Solveforallsolutionsof :2 sin 3 0

2 sin 3 Thedrawingatleftillustratesthetwo

anglesin 0, 2 forwhichsin .To
3
sin getallsolutions,weneedtoaddall
2
integermultiplesof2 tothesesolutions.
So,

Example5.10:Solveforallsolutionsof :tan sec 2 tan

tan sec 2 tan 0 sec 2 0


tan sec 2 0 sec 2

tan 0 or sec 2 0 cos

0 2 or 2

Collectingthevarioussolutions,

Note:thesolutioninvolvingthetangentfunctionhastwoanswersintheinterval 0, 2 .
However,theyare radiansapart,asmostsolutionsinvolvingthetangentfunctionare.
Therefore,wecansimplifytheanswersbyshowingonlyonebaseanswerandadding ,instead
ofshowingtwobaseanswersthatare apart,andadding2 toeach.
Forexample,thefollowingtwosolutionsfortan 0aretelescopedintothesinglesolution
givenabove:

0 2 , 4 , 2 , 0, 2 , 4 ,
0 , 2 , , 0, , 2 ,
2 , 3 , , ,3 ,5

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Chapter6 SolvinganObliqueTriangle

SolvinganObliqueTriangle

Severalmethodsexisttosolveanobliquetriangle,i.e.,atrianglewithnorightangle.Theappropriate
methoddependsontheinformationavailableforthetriangle.Allmethodsrequirethatthelengthof
atleastonesidebeprovided.Inaddition,oneortwoanglemeasuresmaybeprovided.Notethatif
twoanglemeasuresareprovided,themeasureofthethirdisdetermined(becausethesumofall
threeanglemeasuresmustbe180).Themethodsusedforeachsituationaresummarizedbelow.

GivenThreeSidesandnoAngles(SSS)
Giventhreesegmentlengthsandnoanglemeasures,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofCosinestodeterminethemeasureofoneangle.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethemeasureofoneofthetworemainingangles.
Subtractthesumofthemeasuresofthetwoknownanglesfrom180toobtainthemeasure
oftheremainingangle.

GivenTwoSidesandtheAnglebetweenThem(SAS)
Giventwosegmentlengthsandthemeasureoftheanglethatisbetweenthem,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofCosinestodeterminethelengthoftheremainingleg.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethemeasureofoneofthetworemainingangles.
Subtractthesumofthemeasuresofthetwoknownanglesfrom180toobtainthemeasure
oftheremainingangle.

GivenOneSideandTwoAngles(ASAorAAS)
Givenonesegmentlengthandthemeasuresoftwoangles,dothefollowing:
Subtractthesumofthemeasuresofthetwoknownanglesfrom180toobtainthemeasure
oftheremainingangle.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethelengthsofthetworemaininglegs.

GivenTwoSidesandanAnglenotbetweenThem(SSA)
ThisistheAmbiguousCase.Severalpossibilitiesexist,dependingonthelengthsofthesidesandthe
measureoftheangle.Thepossibilitiesarediscussedonthenextseveralpages.

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Chapter6 SolvinganObliqueTriangle

LawsofSinesandCosines

c b

B a C

Thetriangleabovecanbeorientedinanymanner.Itdoesnotmatterwhichangleis , or .
However,
Side isalwaysopposite(acrossfrom) .
Side isalwaysopposite(acrossfrom) .
Side isalwaysopposite(acrossfrom) .

LawofSines(seeaboveillustration)

LawofCosines(seeaboveillustration)

2 cos
2 cos
2 cos
Thelawofcosinescanbedescribedinwordsasfollow:Thesquareofanysideisthesumof
thesquaresoftheothertwosidesminustwicetheproductofthosetwosidesandthecosine
oftheanglebetweenthem.
ItlooksalotlikethePythagoreanTheorem,withtheminustermappended.

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Chapter6 SolvinganObliqueTriangle

LawsofSinesandCosinesExamples

Example6.1:Solvethetriangle,given:A 38, B 32, a 42.1.

Tosolve:findthethirdangle,andthenusetheLawofSines.

180 38 32 110

ThenusetheLawofSinestofindthelengthsofthetwo
remainingsides.

42.1 42.1 sin 32


36.2
sin 38 sin 32 sin 38

42.1 42.1 sin 110


64.3
sin 38 sin 110 sin 38


Example6.2:Solvethetriangle,given:a 6, c 12, B 124.

First,drawthetrianglefromtheinformationyouaregiven.Thiswillhelpyougetanideaof
whetherthevaluesyoucalculateinthisproblemarereasonable.

Next,findthelengthofthe3rdsideofthetriangleusingthe
LawofCosines: 2 cos

6 12 2 6 12 cos 124 236.52378

236.52378 16.14075 ~ 16.1

UsetheLawofSinestofindthemeasureofoneoftheremainingangles.

6 16.14075
sin 0.3082
sin sin sin sin 124

sin 0.3082 18

ThemeasureoftheremaininganglecanbecalculatedeitherfromtheLawofSinesorfrom
knowledgethatthesumofthethreeanglesinsideatriangleis180.

180 124 18 38



Version 2.1 Page 53 of 109 April 10, 2017
Chapter6 SolvinganObliqueTriangle

TheAmbiguousCase(SSA)

Giventwosegmentlengthsandananglethatisnotbetweenthem,itisnotclearwhetheratriangleis
defined.Itispossiblethatthegiveninformationwilldefineasingletriangle,twotriangles,orevenno
triangle.Becausetherearemultiplepossibilitiesinthissituation,itiscalledtheambiguouscase.
Herearethepossibilities:

Therearethreecasesinwhich .

Case1: Producesnotrianglebecause isnotlongenoughtoreachthebase.

Case2: Producesone(right)trianglebecause isexactlylongenoughtoreachthe


base. formsarightanglewiththebase,andistheheightofthetriangle.

Case3: Producestwotrianglesbecause istherightsizetoreachthebaseintwo


places.Theanglefromwhich swingsfromitsapextomeetthebasecantaketwovalues.

Thereisonecaseinwhich .

Case4: Producesonetrianglebecause istoolongtoreachthebaseinmorethanone


location.

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Chapter6 SolvinganObliqueTriangle

TheAmbiguousCase(SSA)

SolvingtheAmbiguousCase
Howdoyousolveatriangle(ortwo)intheambiguouscase?Assumetheinformationgivenisthe
lengthsofsides and ,andthemeasureofAngle .Usethefollowingsteps:

Step1:Calculatetheheightofthetriangle(inthisdevelopment, ).
Step2:Compare totheheightofthetriangle, :
If ,thenwehaveCase1thereisnotriangle.Stophere.





If ,then 90,andwehaveCase2arighttriangle.ProceedtoStep4.




If ,thenwehaveCase3orCase4.ProceedtotheStep3todeterminewhich.

Step3:Compare to .

If ,thenwehaveCase3twotriangles.Calculate usingtheLawofSines.Find
thetwoanglesintheinterval 0, 180 withthissinevalue;eachofthese sproducesa
separatetriangle.ProceedtoStep4andcalculatetheremainingvaluesforeach.

If ,thenwehaveCase4onetriangle.Find usingtheLawofSines.Proceedto
Step4.

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Chapter6 SolvinganObliqueTriangle

TheAmbiguousCase(SSA)

SolvingtheAmbiguousCasecontd

Step4:Calculate .Atthispoint,wehavethelengthsofsides and ,andthemeasuresofAngles


and .IfwearedealingwithCase3twotriangles,wemustperformSteps4and5foreachtriangle.

Step4istocalculatethemeasureofAngle asfollows: 180

Step5:Calculate .Finally,wecalculatethevalueof usingtheLawofSines.


sin sin
or
sin sin sin sin sin sin

Note:using and mayproducemoreaccurateresultssincebothofthesevaluesaregiven.

AmbiguousCaseFlowchart

Start Here

Compare to Compare

to

Two triangles

Calculate , and then


(steps 4 and 5, above).

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Chapter6 SolvinganObliqueTriangle

AmbiguousCaseExamples

Example6.3:Determinewhetherthefollowingmeasurementsproduceonetriangle,twotriangles,
ornotriangle: 35, a 18.7, c 16.1.Solveanytrianglesthatresult.

Sincewearegiventwosidesandananglethatisnotbetweenthem,thisistheambiguouscase.

Wedrawthissituationwith ontheleftand hangingdown,asshownbelow.

Step1:Calculate . 18.7 sin 35 10.725


Step2:Compare to . 16.1 10.725.
Step3:Compare to . 16.1 18.7,sowehaveCase3twotriangles.

Calculatesin usingtheLawofSines:
18.7 16.1
sin 0.6662
sin sin sin sin 35

Twoanglesintheinterval 0, 180 havethissinevalue.Letsfindthem:

sin 0.6662 42or 180 42 138

Sincewewillhavetwotriangles,wemustsolveeach.

Triangle1Startwith: Triangle2 Startwith:


18.7, 16.1 18.7, 16.1

35, 42 35, 138

Step4: Step4:
180 35 42 103 180 35 138 7
Step5:
Step5:
16.1 16.1

sin sin sin 103 sin 35 sin sin sin 7 sin 35

27.4 3.4

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Chapter6 SolvinganObliqueTriangle

AmbiguousCaseExamples

Example6.4:Determinewhetherthefollowingmeasurementsproduceonetriangle,twotriangles,
ornotriangle: B 88, b 2, a 23.Solveanytrianglesthatresult.

Sincewearegiventwosidesandananglethatisnotbetweenthem,thisistheambiguouscase.

Wedrawthissituationwith ontheleftand hangingdown,asshownbelow.

Step1:Calculate . 23 sin 88 22.986

Step2:Compare to . 2 22.986.





Stop.WehaveCase1notriangle.

AlternativeMethod
Calculatethemeasureofangle usingtheLawofSines:
23 2
sin 11.493
sin sin sin sin 88

sin 11.493

11.493isnotavalidsinevalue(recallthatsinevaluesrangefrom 1to1).Therefore,thegiven
valuesdonotdefineatriangle.

Note:TheAlternativeMethodfordealingwiththeambiguouscaseislaidoutindetailin
AppendixB.

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Chapter6 SolvinganObliqueTriangle

Bearings

BearingsaredescribeddifferentlyfromotheranglesinTrigonometry.Abearingisaclockwiseor
counterclockwiseanglewhoseinitialsideiseitherduenorthorduesouth.Thestudentwillneedto
translatetheseintoreferenceanglesand/orpolaranglestosolveproblemsinvolvingbearings.

Somebearings,alongwiththekeyassociatedanglesareshownintheillustrationsbelow.Thebearing
angleisshownas ,thereferenceangleisshownas ,andthepolarangleisshownas .


Bearing: Bearing:
BearingAngle: 50 BearingAngle: 30
ReferenceAngle: 40 ReferenceAngle: 60
PolarAngle: 140 PolarAngle: 60

Bearing: Bearing:
BearingAngle: 60 BearingAngle: 70
ReferenceAngle: 30 ReferenceAngle: 20
PolarAngle: 210 PolarAngle: 340

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Chapter6 SolvinganObliqueTriangle

BearingsExamples

Example6.5:Twotrackingstationsareontheequator127milesapart.Aweatherballoonislocated
onabearingofN 36 EfromthewesternstationandonabearingofN 13 Wfromtheeastern
station.Howfaristheballoonfromthewesternstation?

Thebearinganglesgivenarethoseshowninorangeinthe
diagramatright.Thefirststepistocalculatethereference

anglesshowninmagentainthediagram.
90 36 54

90 13 77
180 54 77 49

Then,usetheLawofSines,asfollows:

127
164.0 miles
sin 49 sin 77

Example6.6:TwosailboatsleaveaharborintheBahamasatthesametime.Thefirstsailsat25mph
inadirectionS 50 E.Thesecondsailsat30mphinadirectionS 70 W.Assumingthatbothboats
maintainspeedandheading,after4hours,howfarapartaretheboats?

Letsdrawadiagramtoillustratethissituation.Thelengthsoftwosidesofatrianglearebased
onthedistancestheboatstravelinfourhours.Thebearinganglesgivenareusedtocalculate
thereferenceshowninorangeinthediagrambelow.

Boat1travels:25 mph 4 hours 100 milesata


headingofS 50 E.Thisgivesareferenceangleof
90 50 40 belowthepositive axis.

Boat2travels:30 mph 4 hours 120 mi.ata


headingofS 70 W.Thisgivesareferenceangleof
90 70 20 belowthenegative axis.

UsingtheLawofCosines,wecancalculate:

100 120 2 100 120 cos 120 36,400 190.8 miles

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Chapter7 AreaofaTriangle

AreaofaTriangle

AreaofaTriangle
Thereareanumberofformulasfortheareaofatriangle,dependingonwhatinformation
aboutthetriangleisavailable.

GeometryFormula:Thisformula,learnedinElementaryGeometry,isprobablymostfamiliar
tothestudent.Itcanbeusedwhenthebaseandheightofatriangleareeitherknownorcan
bedetermined.

where, isthelengthofthebaseofthetriangle.
istheheightofthetriangle.

Note:Thebasecanbeanysideofthetriangle.Theheightisthelengthofthealtitudeof
whicheversideisselectedasthebase.So,youcanuse:

or or

HeronsFormula:Heronsformulafortheareaofatrianglecanbeusedwhenthelengthsof
allofthesidesareknown.Sometimesthisformula,thoughlessappealing,canbeveryuseful.

where, .

, , arethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.

Note: iscalledthesemiperimeterofthetrianglebecauseitishalfofthetrianglesperimeter.

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Chapter7 AreaofaTriangle

AreaofaTriangle(contd)

TrigonometricFormulas
ThefollowingformulasfortheareaofatrianglecanbederivedfromtheGeometryformula,
,usingTrigonometry.Whichonetousedependsontheinformationavailable:

Twoanglesandoneside:

Twosidesandtheanglebetweenthem:

CoordinateGeometryFormula

Ifthethreeverticesofatrianglearedisplayedinacoordinateplane,theformulabelow,usinga
determinant,willgivetheareaofatriangle.
Letverticesofatriangleinthecoordinateplanebe: , , , , , .Then,the
areaofthetriangleis:


Example7.1:Forthetriangleinthefigureatright,theareais:

2 4 1
3 2 1
3 1 1
1 2 1 3 1 3 2
2 4 1
2 1 1 3 1 3 1
1 1 27
| 2 3 4 6 1 3 | 27
2 2 2

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Chapter7 AreaofaTriangle

AreaofaTriangleExamples

Example7.2:Findtheareaofthetriangleif:C=120,a=4yards,b=5yards.
1
sin
2
1 3
4 5 sin 120 10 8.66yards2
2 2

Example7.3:Findtheareaofthetriangleif: 10yards, 11yards, 15yards.

Tosolvethisproblem,wewilluseHeronsformula:

1

2
1
Firstcalculate: 10 11 15 18
2

Then,

18 18 10 18 11 18 15

18 8 7 3 1221 54.99yards2

Example7.4:FindtheareaofthetriangleinthefigurebelowusingCoordinateGeometry:

1 1 1 1
1 1
1 7 1 1
2 1 2
6 5 1
1 1 1 7 1 7 1
1 1 1
2 5 1 6 1 6 5
1 1
| 1 4 1 1 1 29 | 24 12
2 2
Note:Itiseasytoseethatthistrianglehasabaseoflength6andaheightof4,sofrom
ElementaryGeometry,theareaofthetriangleis: 64 12(sameanswer).
Thestudentmaywishtotesttheothermethodsforcalculatingareathatarepresentedin
thischaptertoseeiftheyproducethesameresult.(Hint:theydo.)

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Chapter8 PolarCoordinates

PolarCoordinates

PolarcoordinatesareanalternativemethodofdescribingapointinaCartesianplanebasedonthe
distanceofthepointfromtheoriginandthepolaranglewhoseterminalsidecontainsthepoint.

Letstakealookattherelationshipbetweenapointsrectangularcoordinates , anditspolar
coordinates , .

Themagnitude,r, isthedistanceofthepointfromtheorigin:

Theangle,,isthepolaranglewhoseterminalsidecontainsthepoint.Generally,thisangleis
expressedinradians,notdegrees:

tan so tan ,adjustedtobeintheappropriatequadrant.

Conversionfrompolarcoordinatestorectangularcoordinatesisstraightforward:
cos and sin

Example8.1:Expresstherectangularform 4, 4 inpolar
coordinates:
Given: 4 4

4 4 42

tan tan tan 1 inQuadrantII,


so

So,thecoordinatesofthepointareasfollows:

Rectangularcoordinates: 4, 4 PolarCoordinates: 42,

Example8.2:Expressthepolarform 42, inrectangularcoordinates:

Given: 42


cos 42 cos 42 4


sin 42 sin 42 4

So,thecoordinatesofthepointareasfollows:

PolarCoordinates: 42, Rectangularcoordinates: 4, 4

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Chapter8 PolarCoordinates

PolarFormofComplexNumbers

ExpressingComplexNumbersinPolarForm
AcomplexnumbercanberepresentedaspointintheCartesianPlane,usingthehorizontalaxisfor
therealcomponentofthenumberandtheverticalaxisfortheimaginarycomponentofthenumber.

Ifweexpressacomplexnumberinrectangularcoordinatesas ,wecanalsoexpressitin
polarcoordinatesas cos sin ,with 0, 2 .Then,theequivalencesbetweenthe
twoformsfor are:

ConvertRectangulartoPolar ConvertPolartoRectangular
Magnitude:| | xcoordinate: cos

Angle: tan ycoordinate: sin

Since willgenerallyhavetwovalueson 0, 2 ,weneedtobecarefultoselecttheangleinthe


quadrantinwhich resides.

OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
Around1740,LeonhardEulerprovedthat: cos sin .Asaresult,wecanexpressany
complexnumberasanexponentialformof .Thatis:
cos sin
Thinkingofeachcomplexnumberasbeingintheform ,thefollowingrulesregarding
operationsoncomplexnumberscanbeeasilyderivedbasedonthepropertiesofexponents.
Let: cos sin , cos sin .Then,

Multiplication: cos sin


So,tomultiplycomplexnumbers,youmultiplytheirmagnitudesandaddtheirangles.

Division: cos sin

So,todividecomplexnumbers,youdividetheirmagnitudesandsubtracttheirangles.

Powers: cos sin


Thisresultsdirectlyfromthemultiplicationrule.

Roots: cos sin also,seeDeMoivresTheorembelow


Thisresultsdirectlyfromthepowerruleiftheexponentisafraction.

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Chapter8 PolarCoordinates

OperationsonComplexNumbersExamples

Example8.3:Findtheproduct: .

3 cos sin shorthandis: 3 cis 3

6 cos sin shorthandis: 6 cis 6

Tomultiplytwonumbersinpolarform,multiplythe valuesandaddtheangles.
7 9
3 6 cis
4 4

32 cis 4 32 cis 0 32 because cis 0 1.

Note:multiplicationmaybeeasiertounderstandinexponentialform,sinceexponentsareadded
whenvalueswiththesamebasearemultiplied:

3 6 3 6 32 32 32

Example8.4:Findthequotient: .

3 cos sin shorthandis: 3 cis 3

6 cos sin shorthandis: 6 cis 6

Todividetwonumbersinpolarform,dividethe valuesandsubtracttheangles.
3 7 9
cis
6 4 4

1 2 2 3 2 3
cis cis 2 cis because cis i.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Note:divisionmaybeeasiertounderstandinexponentialform,sinceexponentsaresubtracted
whenvalueswiththesamebasearedivided:

3 1 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2
6

Version 2.1 Page 66 of 109 April 10, 2017


Chapter8 PolarCoordinates

DeMoivresTheorem

AbrahamdeMoivre(16671754)wasaFrenchmathematicianwhodevelopedaveryusefulTheorem
fordealingwithoperationsoncomplexnumbers.
Ifwelet cos sin ,DeMoivresTheoremgivesusthepowerruleexpressedontheprior
page:
cos sin

Example8.5:Find 3 7

First,since ,wehave 3and 7.

Then, 3 7 4; 4 4,096


And, tan 138.590inQ2

6 831.542 ~ 111.542
So,
3 7 4,096 cis 111.542 4,096 cos 111.542 sin 111.542
1,504.0 3,809.9

Example8.6:Find 5 2

First,since ,wehave 5and 2.

Then, 5 2 3; 3 243

And, tan 221.810inQ3


5 1,109.052 ~ 29.052
So,
5 2 243 cis 29.052 243 cos 29.052 sin 29.052
212.4 118.0

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Chapter8 PolarCoordinates

DeMoivresTheoremforRoots

Let cos sin .Then, has distinctcomplex throotsthatoccupypositions


equidistantfromeachotheronacircleofradius .Letscalltheroots: , , , , .Then,
theserootscanbecalculatedasfollows 0, 1, 2, , 1 :

2 2 2
cos sin cis

Theformulacouldalsoberestatedwith2 replacedby360ifthishelpsinthecalculation.

Example8.7:Findthefifthrootsof .
First,since ,wehave 2and 3.

Then, 2 3 13; 13 ~ 1.2924

And, tan 56.310; 11.262inQ4

Theincrementalangleforsuccessiverootsis:360 5 roots 72.


Thencreateachartlikethis:

Fifthrootsof ~ . .

Angle( )
0 11.262 1.2675 0.2524
1 11.262 72 60.738 0.6317 1.1275
2 60.738 72 132.738 0.8771 0.9492
3 132.738 72 204.738 1.1738 0.5408
4 204.738 72 276.738 0.1516 1.2835

Noticethatifweaddanother72,weget348.738,whichisequivalenttoourfirstangle,
11.262because 348.738 360 11.262.Thisisagoodthingtocheck.Thenext
anglewillalwaysbeequivalenttothefirstangle!Ifitisnt,gobackandcheckyourwork.

Rootsfitonacircle:Noticethat,sincealloftherootsof have
thesamemagnitude,andtheiranglesare72apartfromeachother,
theyoccupyequidistantpositionsonacirclewithcenter 0, 0 and
radius 13 ~ 1.2924.

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Chapter9 PolarFunctions

PolarGraphs

Typically,PolarGraphswillbeplottedonpolargraphpapersuchasthat
illustratedatright.Onthisgraph,apoint , canbeconsideredtobethe
intersectionofthecircleofradius andtheterminalsideoftheangle (see
theillustrationbelow).Note:afreePCappthatcanbeusedtodesignand
printyourownpolargraphpaperisavailableatwww.mathguy.us.

PartsofthePolarGraph
Theillustrationbelowshowsthekeypartsofapolargraph,alongwithapoint, 4, .


ThePoleisthepoint 0, 0 (i.e.,theorigin).

ThePolarAxisisthepositive axis.
TheLine: isthepositive axis.

Manyequationsthatcontainthecosine
functionaresymmetricaboutthe axis.

Manyequationsthatcontainthesine
functionaresymmetricaboutthe axis.

PolarEquationsSymmetry
Followingarethethreemaintypesofsymmetryexhibitedinmanypolarequationgraphs:

Symmetryabout: QuadrantsContainingSymmetry SymmetryTest(1)

Pole Opposite(IandIIIorIIandIV) Replace with intheequation


Lefthemisphere(IIandIII) or
axis Replace with intheequation
righthemisphere(IandIV)

axis Upperhemisphere(IandII)or Replace , with , inthe


lowerhemisphere(IIIandIV) equation
(1)
Ifperformingtheindicatedreplacementresultsinanequivalentequation,theequationpasses
thesymmetrytestandtheindicatedsymmetryexists.Iftheequationfailsthesymmetrytest,
symmetrymayormaynotexist.

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Chapter9 PolarFunctions

GraphsofPolarEquations

GraphingMethods

Method1:Pointplotting
Createatwocolumnchartthatcalculatesvaluesof forselectedvaluesof .Thisisakintoa
twocolumnchartthatcalculatesvaluesof forselectedvaluesof thatcanbeusedtoplota
rectangularcoordinatesequation(e.g., 4 3).
The valuesyouselectforpurposesofpointplottingshouldvarydependingontheequation
youareworkingwith(inparticular,thecoefficientof intheequation).However,asafebet
istostartwithmultiplesof 6(including 0).Ploteachpointonthepolargraphand
seewhatshapeemerges.Ifyouneedmoreorfewerpointstoseewhatcurveisemerging,
adjustasyougo.
Ifyouknowanythingaboutthecurve(typicalshape,symmetry,etc.),useittofacilitate
plottingpoints.
Connectthepointswithasmoothcurve.Admiretheresult;manyofthesecurvesare
aestheticallypleasing.

Method2:Calculator
UsingaTI84PlusCalculatororitsequivalent,dothefollowing:
Makesureyourcalculatorissettoradiansandpolarfunctions.HittheMODE
key;selectRADIANSinrow4andPOLARinrow5.Afteryoudothis,hitting
CLEARwillgetyoubacktothemainscreen.
HitY=andentertheequationintheform .UsetheX,T, ,nkeyto
enterintotheequation.Ifyourequationisoftheform ,youmay
needtoentertwofunctions, and ,andplotboth.
HitGRAPHtoplotthefunctionorfunctionsyouenteredinthepreviousstep.
Ifnecessary,hitWINDOWtoadjusttheparametersoftheplot.
o Ifyoucannotseethewholefunction,adjusttheXandYvariables(oruseZOOM).
o Ifthecurveisnotsmooth,reducethevalueofthe stepvariable.Thiswillplotmore
pointsonthescreen.Notethatsmallervaluesof steprequiremoretimetoplotthe
curve,sochooseavaluethatplotsthecurvewellinareasonableamountoftime.
o Iftheentirecurveisnotplotted,adjustthevaluesofthe minand maxvariablesuntil
youseewhatappearstobetheentireplot.
Note:Youcanviewthetableofpointsusedtographthepolarfunctionbyhitting2NDTABLE.

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Chapter9 PolarFunctions

GraphofPolarEquations

Circle





Equation: sin Equation: cos Equation:
Location: Location: Location:
above axisif 0 rightof axisif 0 CenteredonthePole
below axisif 0 leftof axisif 0
Radius: /2 Radius: /2 Radius:
Symmetry: axis Symmetry: axis Symmetry:Pole, axis,
axis

Rose

Characteristicsofroses:
Equation: sin
o Symmetricaboutthe axis
Equation: cos
o Symmetricaboutthe axis
Containedwithinacircleofradius
If isodd,therosehas petals.
If iseventherosehas2 petals.
Notethatacircleisarosewithonepetal(i.e, 1).

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Chapter9 PolarFunctions

GraphsofPolarEquations

LimaonofPascal





Equation: sin Equation: cos
Location:bulbabove axisif 0 Location:bulbrightof axisif 0
bulbbelow axisif 0 bulbleftof axisif 0
Symmetry: axis Symmetry: axis

FourLimaonShapes

2 2
Innerloop Cardioid Dimple Nodimple

FourLimaonOrientations(usingtheCardioidasanexample)

sinefunction sinefunction cosinefunction cosinefunction


0 0 0 0

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Chapter9 PolarFunctions

GraphofPolarEquations

LemniscateofBernoulli


Thelemniscateisthesetofallpoints
forwhichtheproductofthe
distancesfromtwopoints(i.e.,foci)

whichare2 apartis .


Characteristicsoflemniscates:
Equation: sin 2
o Symmetricabouttheline
Equation: cos 2
o Symmetricaboutthe axis
Containedwithinacircleofradius

Spirals

HyperbolicSpiral


ArchimedesSpiralFermatsSpiral




Lituus
Characteristicsofspirals:
Equation: , 0
o DistancefromthePoleincreaseswith

Equation: , 0
o HyperbolicSpiral 1 :asymptotictotheline unitsfromthe axis
o Lituus 2 :asymptotictothe axis
Notcontainedwithinanycircle

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Chapter9 PolarFunctions

GraphingPolarEquationsTheRose
Example9.1:

Thisfunctionisarose.Considertheforms sin and cos .


Thenumberofpetalsontherosedependsonthevalueof .
If isaneveninteger,therosewillhave2 petals.
If isanoddinteger,itwillhave petals.
Letscreateatableofvaluesandgraphtheequation:
Becausethisfunctioninvolvesan

argumentof2 ,wewanttostartby
lookingatvaluesofin 0, 2
2 0, .Youcouldplotmore
0 0
points,butthisintervalissufficient
/12 2 7/12 2
toestablishthenatureofthecurve;
/6 3.464 2/3 3.464 soyoucangraphtheresteasily.
/4 4 3/4 4
/3 3.464 5 /6 3.464 Oncesymmetryis
5 /12 2 11 /12 2 established,thesevalues

areeasilydetermined.
/2 0 0

Thevaluesinthetable
generatethepointsinthe Bluepointsonthegraph
twopetalsrightofthe axis. correspondtobluevalues
inthetable.
Knowingthatthecurveisa
roseallowsustographthe Orangepointsonthe
othertwopetalswithout graphcorrespondto
calculatingmorepoints. orangevaluesinthetable.

ThefourRoseforms:

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Chapter9 PolarFunctions

GraphingPolarEquationsTheCardioid
Example9.2:

Thiscardioidisalsoalimaonofform sin with .Theuseofthesinefunction


indicatesthatthelargeloopwillbesymmetricaboutthe axis.The signindicatesthatthelarge
loopwillbeabovethe axis.Letscreateatableofvaluesandgraphtheequation:

Generally,youwanttolookat

valuesof in 0, 2 .However,
somefunctionsrequirelarger
0 2
intervals.Thesizeoftheinterval
/6 3 7/6 1 dependslargelyonthenatureofthe
/3 3.732 4/3 0.268 functionandthecoefficientof .

/2 4 3/2 0
2 /3 3.732 5 /3 0.268
Oncesymmetryis
5 /6 3 11 /6 1 established,thesevalues

2 2 2 areeasilydetermined.

Theportionofthegraph
abovethe axisresults
Bluepointsonthegraph
from inQ1andQ2,
correspondtobluevalues
wherethesinefunctionis inthetable.
positive.

Similarly,theportionof Orangepointsonthe
thegraphbelowthexaxis graphcorrespondto
resultsfrom inQ3and orangevaluesinthetable.
Q4,wherethesine
functionisnegative.

ThefourCardioidforms:

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Chapter9 PolarFunctions

ConvertingBetweenPolarandRectangularFormsofEquations

RectangulartoPolar
ToconvertanequationfromRectangularFormtoPolarForm,usethefollowingequivalences:
cos Substitute cos for
sin Substitute sin for
Substitute for

Example9.3:Convert8 3 10 0toapolarequationoftheform .
StartingEquation: 8 3 10 0
Substitute cos and sin : 8 cos 3 sin 10 0
Factorout : 8 cos 3 sin 10

Divideby 8 cos 3 sin :



PolartoRectangular
ToconvertanequationfromPolarFormtoRectangularForm,usethefollowingequivalences:

cos Substitute for cos

sin Substitute for sin

Substitute for

Example9.4:Convertr = 8 cos + 9 sin toarectangularequation.


StartingEquation: r = 8 cos + 9 sin

Substitutecos , sin : 8 9
Multiplyby : 8 9
Substitute : 8 9
Subtract8 9 : 8 9 0
Completethesquare: 8 16 9 16

Simplifytostandardformforacircle:


Version 2.1 Page 76 of 109 April 10, 2017
Chapter9 PolarFunctions

ParametricEquations

Onewaytodefineacurveisbymaking and (or and )functionsofathirdvariable,often (for


time).ThethirdvariableiscalledtheParameter,andfunctionsdefinedinthismanneraresaidtobe
inParametricForm.TheequationsthatdefinethedesiredfunctionarecalledParametricEquations.
InParametricEquations,theparameteristheindependentvariable.Eachoftheothertwo(ormore)
variablesisdependentonthevalueoftheparameter.Astheparameterchanges,theothervariables
change,generatingthepointsofthefunction.

Example9.5:Arelativelysimpleexampleisacircle,whichwecandefineasfollows:
Circle: cos sin
Asthevariable progressesfrom0to2 ,acircleofradius isborn.
Thecircleintheillustrationatrightcanbedefinedinseveralways:
Cartesianform: 16
Polarform: 4
Parametricform: 4 cos 4 sin

FamiliarCurves
Manycurveswithwhichthestudentmaybefamiliarhaveparametricforms.Amongthosearethe
following:

Curve CartesianForm PolarForm ParametricForm

Parabolawithhorizontal 2

directrix 1 sin

Ellipsewithhorizontal cos
1 1 cos
majoraxis sin
0 1

Hyperbolawithhorizontal sec
1 1 cos
transverseaxis tan
1

Ascanbeseenfromthischart,sometimestheparametricformofafunctionisitssimplest.Infact,
parametricequationsoftenallowustographcurvesthatwouldbeverydifficulttographineither
PolarformorCartesianform.Someoftheseareillustratedonthenextpage.

Version 2.1 Page 77 of 109 April 10, 2017


Chapter9 PolarFunctions

SomeFunctionsDefinedbyParametricEquations
(StarWarsfans:arethesetheoidsyouarelookingfor?)

Thegraphsbelowareexamplesoffunctionsdefinedbyparametricequations.Theequationsanda
briefdescriptionofthecurveareprovidedforeachfunction.

Deltoid Nephroid Astroid










Parametricequations: Parametricequations: Parametricequations:
2 cos cos 2 3 cos cos 3 cos
2 sin sin 2 3 sin sin 3 sin
Thedeltoidisthepathofa Thenephroidisthepathofa Theastroidisthepathofa
pointonthecircumference
pointonthecircumference pointonthecircumference
ofacircleasitmakesthree ofacircleasitmakestwo ofacircleasitmakesfour

completerevolutionsonthe completerevolutionsonthe completerevolutionsonthe
insideofalargercircle.
outsideofalargercircle. insideofalargercircle.

Cycloid

Parametricequations: Thecycloidisthepathofapointonthecircumferenceofacircleasthe
sin circlerollsalongaflatsurface(think:thepathofapointontheoutside
ofabicycletireasyourideonthesidewalk).Thecycloidisbotha
1 cos
brachistochroneandatautochrone(looktheseupifyouareinterested).

Version 2.1 Page 78 of 109 April 10, 2017


Chapter10 Vectors

Vectors

Avectorisaquantitythathasbothmagnitudeanddirection.Anexamplewouldbewind
blowingtowardtheeastat30milesperhour.Anotherexamplewouldbetheforceofa10kg
weightbeingpulledtowardtheearth(aforceyoucanfeelifyouareholdingtheweight).

SpecialUnitVectors
Wedefineunitvectorstobevectorsoflength1.Unitvectorshavingthedirectionofthe
positiveaxesareveryuseful.Theyaredescribedinthechartandgraphicbelow.

UnitVector Direction Graphical


positive axis representationof
positive axis unitvectors andj
intwodimensions.
positive axis

VectorComponents
Thelengthofavector, ,iscalleditsmagnitudeandisrepresentedbythesymbol .Ifa
vectorsinitialpoint(startingposition)is , , ,anditsterminalpoint(endingposition)is
, , ,thenthevectordisplaces inthe direction, inthe
direction,and inthe direction.Wecan,then,representthevectorasfollows:

Themagnitudeofthevector, ,iscalculatedas:

Ifthislooksfamiliar,itshould.Themagnitudeofavectorinthree
dimesnsionsisdeterminedasthelengthofthespacediagonalofa
rectangularprismwithsides , and .

Intwodimensions,theseconceptscontracttothefollowing:


Intwodimensions,themagnitudeofthevectoristhelengthofthehypotenuseofaright
trianglewithsides and .

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Chapter10 Vectors

VectorProperties

Vectorshaveanumberofnicepropertiesthatmakeworkingwiththembothusefuland
relativelysimple.Let and bescalars,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,

If ,then cos and sin

Then, cos sin (note:thisformulaisoften


usedinForcecalculations)

If and ,then

If ,then

Define tobethezerovector(i.e.,ithaszerolength,sothat 0).Note:the


zerovectorisalsocalledthenullvector.

Note: canalsobeshownwiththefollowingnotation: , .Thisnotationis


usefulincalculatingdotproductsandperformingoperationswithvectors.

PropertiesofVectors
AdditiveIdentity

AdditiveInverse

CommutativeProperty

AssociativeProperty

AssociativeProperty

DistributiveProperty

DistributiveProperty

1 MultiplicativeIdentity

Also,notethat:

| | MagnitudeProperty



Unitvectorinthedirectionof

Version 2.1 Page 80 of 109 April 10, 2017


Chapter10 Vectors

VectorPropertiesExamples

Example10.1:u=3i6j,v=6i+8j;Findu+v.
Analternativenotationforavectorintheform is , .Usingthisalternative
notationmakesmanyvectoroperationsmucheasiertoworkwith.
Toaddvectors,simplylinethemup 3, 6
verticallyandadd: 6, 8
3 6, 6 8

3, 2 3 2

Example10.2:u=2i7jandv=4i21j;Find .
4, 21 Subtracting isthesameasadding .
2, 7 Toget ,simplychangethesignofeach

2, 14 elementof .Ifyoufinditeasiertoadd

thantosubtract,youmaywanttoadopt
2 14 thisapproachtosubtractingvectors.

200 100 2 102

Example10.3:Findtheunitvectorthathasthesamedirectionasthevectorv=5i12j.

Aunitvectorhasmagnitude1.Togetaunitvectorinthesamedirectionastheoriginal
vector,dividethevectorbyitsmagnitude.


Theunitvectoris:

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Chapter10 Vectors

VectorPropertiesExamples

Example10.4:Writethevectorvintermsofiandjif =10anddirectionangle=120.

Ithelpstographthevectoridentifiedintheproblem.
Theunitvectorinthedirection 120is:

1 3 1 3
cos 120, sin 120 ,
2 2 2 2

Multiplythisby toget :

1 3
10 5 53
2 2

Version 2.1 Page 82 of 109 April 10, 2017


Chapter10 Vectors

VectorDotProduct

TheDotProductoftwovectors, and ,isdefinedas


follows:

Itisimportanttonotethatthedotproductisascalar(i.e.,anumber),notavector.Itdescribes
somethingabouttherelationshipbetweentwovectors,butisnotavectoritself.Auseful
approachtocalculatingthedotproductoftwovectorsisillustratedhere:

, , alternative
vector
, , notation
General Example
Intheexampleatrightthevectorsarelinedupvertically. , , 4, 3, 2
Thenumbersintheeachcolumnaremultipliedandthe , , 2, 2, 5
resultsareaddedtogetthedotproduct.Intheexample,
8 6 10
4, 3, 2 2, 2, 5 8 6 10 24.
24

PropertiesoftheDotProduct
Let beascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,

0 ZeroProperty

0 , and areorthogonaltoeachother.

CommutativeProperty

MagnitudeSquareProperty

DistributiveProperty

MultiplicationbyaScalarProperty

Moreproperties:

If 0and and ,then and areorthogonal(perpendicular).

Ifthereisascalar suchthat ,then and areparallel.



If istheanglebetween and ,thencos .

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Chapter10 Vectors

VectorDotProductExamples

Example10.5:u=5i+3j,v=5i6j,w=3i+12j;Finduw+vw.
Thealternatenotationforvectorscomesinespeciallyhandyindoingthesetypesof
problems.Also,notethat:(uw)+(vw)=(u+v) w.Letscalculate(u+v)w.

5, 3
5, 6 Usingthedistributivepropertyfordot

productsresultsinaneasierproblem
0, 3
withfewercalculations.
3, 12
u v w 0 3 3 12 0 36 36

Example10.6:Findtheanglebetweenthegivenvectors:u=ij,v=4i+5j.
1, 1
cos


4, 5
0 180 14 1 5 1
1 1 2

4 5 41

cos



1
cos 96.3
82

Example10.7:Arethefollowingvectorsparallel,orthogonal,orneither?v=4i+3j,w=3i4j

Ifvectorsareparallel,oneisamultipleoftheother;also .
Ifvectorsareperpendicular,theirdotproductiszero.

Calculatethedotproduct.
4, 3
3, 4
43 3 4 12 12 0So,thevectorsareorthogonal.

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Chapter10 Vectors

VectorDotProductExamples

Example10.8:Arethevectorsareparallel,orthogonal,orneither.v=3i+4j,w=6i+8j


VectorMultipleApproach
Itisclearlyeasiertocheckwhetherone
3, 4 vectorisamultipleoftheotherthanto
6, 8 usethedotproductmethod.The
Clearly, 2 studentmayuseeither,unlessinstructed

Thevectorsareparallel. touseaparticularmethod.

DotProductApproach

Todetermineiftwovectorsareparallelusingthedotproduct,wechecktoseeif:

3, 4
6, 8
18 32 50

3 4 5

6 8 10
5 10 50

Thevectorsareparallel.

CrossProductApproach(seeCrossProductbelow)

Todetermineiftwovectorsareparallelusingthecrossproduct,wechecktoseeif:
x 0
v v
x w w v w v w

3 4
x 38 46 0
6 8
Thevectorsareparallel.

Version 2.1 Page 85 of 109 April 10, 2017


Chapter10 Vectors

ApplicationsoftheVectorDotProduct

VectorProjection
Theprojectionofavector, ,ontoanothervector ,isobtainedusingthedotproduct.The
formulausedtodeterminetheprojectionvectoris:

proj


Noticethat isascalar,andthatproj isavector.

Inthediagramatright,v1 proj .

OrthogonalComponentsofaVector(Decomposition)
Avector, ,canbeexpressedasthesumoftwoorthogonalvectors and ,asshowninthe
abovediagram.Theresultingvectorsare:

proj and

isparallelto isorthogonalto

Work
Workisascalarquantityinphysicsthatmeasurestheforceexertedonanobjectovera
particulardistance.Itisdefinedusingvectors,asshownbelow.Let:
Fbetheforcevectoractingonanobject,movingitfrompoint topoint .

bethevectorfrom to .

betheanglebetweenFand .

Then,wedefineworkas:
Bothoftheseformulasareuseful.
Whichonetouseinaparticular
cos situationdependsonwhat
informationisavailable.

Magnitude Distance Anglebetween


ofForce Traveled Vectors

Version 2.1 Page 86 of 109 April 10, 2017


Chapter10 Vectors

ApplicationsofVectorsExamples

Example10.9:Themagnitudeanddirectionoftwoforcesactingonanobjectare60pounds,
N 40 E,and70pounds,N 40 W,respectively.Findthemagnitudeandthedirectionangleof
theresultantforce.

Thisproblemrequirestheadditionoftwovectors.Theapproachusedhereis:
1) Converteachvectorintoits iandjcomponents,callthem and ,
2) Addtheresulting and valuesforthetwovectors,and
3) Convertthesumtoitspolarform.
Keepadditionalaccuracythroughoutandroundattheend.Thiswillpreventerror
compoundingandwillpreservetherequiredaccuracyofyourfinalsolutions.

Step1:Converteachvectorintoits iandjcomponents
Let beaforceof60lbs.atbearing:N 40 E
Fromthediagramatright,
90 40 50
60 cos 50 38.5673
60 sin 50 45.9627
Let beaforceof70lbs.atbearing:N 40 W
Fromthediagramatright,
90 40 50
70 cos 50 44.9951
70 sin 50 53.6231

Step2:Addtheresultsforthetwovectors
38.5673, 45.9627
44.9951, 53.6231

6.4278, 99.5858

Step3:Convertthesumtoitspolarform
.
DirectionAngle tan 93.7
.

Magnitude 6.4278 99.5858 99.79lbs.

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Chapter10 Vectors

ApplicationsofVectorsExamples

Example10.10:Oneropepullsabargedirectlyeastwithaforceof79newtons,andanother
ropepullsthebargedirectlynorthwithaforceof87newtons.Findthemagnitudeand
directionangleoftheresultingforceactingonthebarge.

Theprocessofaddingtwovectorswhoseheadingsarenorth,east,
westorsouth(NEWS)isverysimilartoconvertingasetofrectangular
coordinatestopolarcoordinates.So,ifthisprocessseemsfamiliar,
thatsbecauseitis.

Magnitude 79 87 117.52 newtons

DirectionAngle tan 47.8

Example10.11:AforceisgivenbythevectorF=5i+2j.Theforcemovesanobjectalonga
straightlinefromthepoint(5,7)tothepoint(18,13).Findtheworkdoneifthedistanceis
measured
infeetandtheforceismeasuredinpounds.

Forthisproblemitissufficienttousetheworkformula,
Wearegiven 5, 2.

Wecancalculate asthedifferencebetweenthetwogivenpoints.
18, 13
5, 7
13, 6 Notethatthedifferencebetweentwopointsisavector.

Then,calculate
5, 2
13, 6
5 13 26 77footpounds

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Chapter10 Vectors

ApplicationsofVectorsExamples

Example10.12:Decompose intotwovectors and ,where isparalleltowand is


orthogonaltow. =i4j, =2i+j

Theformulasforthisare:

proj



Letsdothecalculations.
1, 4

2, 1

12 41 2

2 1 5

Then,

proj 2, 1 ,

And,
1, 4
4 2
,
5 5
9 18
,
5 5

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Chapter10 Vectors

VectorCrossProduct

CrossProduct
Inthreedimensions,
Let: u u u and v v v
Then,theCrossProductisgivenby:

x u u u u v u v u v u v u v u v
v v v

x sin

Explanation:Thecrossproductoftwononzerovectorsinthreedimensionsproducesathird
vectorthatisorthogonaltoeachofthefirsttwo.Thisresultingvector x is,therefore,
normaltotheplanecontainingthefirsttwovectors(assuming and arenotparallel).Inthe
secondformulaabove, istheunitvectornormaltotheplanecontainingthefirsttwovectors.
Itsorientation(direction)isdeterminedusingtherighthandrule.

RightHandRule
Usingyourrighthand: x
Pointyourforefingerinthedirectionof ,and
Pointyourmiddlefingerinthedirectionof .
Then:
Yourthumbwillpointinthedirectionof x .

Intwodimensions,
Let: u u and v v
u u
Then, x v v u v u v whichisascalar(intwodimensions).

Thecrossproductoftwononzerovectorsintwodimensionsiszeroifthevectorsareparallel.
Thatis,vectors and areparallelif x 0.
Theareaofaparallelogramhaving and asadjacentsidesandanglebetweenthem:
sin .

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Chapter10 Vectors

VectorCrossProduct

PropertiesoftheCrossProduct
Let beascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,

x x ZeroProperty

x , x , x , and areorthogonaltoeachother

x , x , x Reverseorientationorthogonality

x Everynonzerovectorisparalleltoitself

x x AnticommutativeProperty

x x x DistributiveProperty

x x x DistributiveProperty

m x x m m x ScalarMultiplication

Moreproperties:

If x ,then and areparallel.



If istheanglebetween and ,thensin .

AngleBetweenTwoVectors
Noticethesimilaritiesintheformulasfortheanglebetweentwovectorsusingthedotproduct
andthecrossproduct:

cos

sin

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Chapter10 Vectors

VectorTripleProducts

ScalarTripleProduct
Let: u u u , v v v , w w w .

Thenthetripleproduct x givesascalarrepresentingthevolumeofaparallelepiped
(a3Dparallelogram)with , ,and asedges:

u u u
x v v v
w w w

x x

Note:vectors , ,and arecoplanarifandonlyif x 0.

OtherTripleProducts
x x Duplicatingavectorresultsinaproductof
x x
x x
x x x

NoAssociativeProperty
Theassociativepropertyofrealnumbersdoesnottranslatetotripleproducts.Inparticular,
Noassociativepropertyofdotproducts/multiplication
x x x x Noassociativepropertyofcrossproducts

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AppendixA SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas

Appendix A
SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas


TrigonometricFunctions 1
sin sin
( and axes) csc
1
cos cos
sec
1 sin
tan tan tan
cot cos
1 cos
cot cot cot
tan sin
1
sec sec
cos
1
csc csc
sin


PythagoreanIdentities SineCosineRelationship KeyAngles
(foranyangle) ( )
sin cos
sin cos 1 2
0 0 radians
sec 1 tan sin cos
2
30 radians
csc 1 cot 6

45 radians
4

60 radians
3
Cofunctions(inQuadrantI)
90 radians
sin cos cos sin 2
2 2

tan cot cot tan
2 2

sec csc csc sec
2 2

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AppendixA SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas

TrigonometricFunctions(RightTriangle)

SOHCAHTOA

sin sin sin

cos cos cos

tan tan tan

LawsofSinesandCosines(ObliqueTriangle)

LawofSines(seeillustrationbelow) LawofCosines(seeillustrationbelow)

2 cos

2 cos
2 cos
A

c b

B a C

Version 2.1 Page 94 of 109 April 10, 2017


AppendixA SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas

AngleAdditionFormulas

sin sin cos cos sin cos cos cos sin sin
sin sin cos cos sin cos cos cos sin sin


tan tan

DoubleAngleFormulas

sin 2 2 sin cos cos 2 cos sin


1 2 sin
2 cos 1

tan 2

HalfAngleFormulas
Theuseofa+orsigninthehalfangle

formulasdependsonthequadrantinwhich

sin theangle resides.Seechartbelow.

SignsofTrigFunctions
cos
ByQuadrant

sin+ sin+
tan cos cos+

tan tan+
x

sin sin
cos cos+

tan+ tan

Version 2.1 Page 95 of 109 April 10, 2017


AppendixA SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas

PowerReducingFormulas


sin


cos


tan

ProducttoSumFormulas

SumtoProductFormulas

Version 2.1 Page 96 of 109 April 10, 2017


AppendixA SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas

TriangleAreaFormulas

Geometry

where, isthelengthofthebaseofthetriangle.
istheheightofthetriangle.

HeronsFormula

where, .

, , arethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.

UsingBothLengthsandAngles

CoordinateGeometry

Letthreeverticesofatriangleinthecoordinateplanebe: , , , , , .

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AppendixA SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas

ComplexNumbersinPolarForm

cos sin cis


cos sin cis

Operations
Let: cos sin
cos sin

Multiplication: cos sin

Division: cos sin

Powers: cos sin

2 2
Roots: cos sin ,

variesfrom0to 1

Note: has distinctcomplex throots: , , , ,

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AppendixA SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas

Vectors

, , aretheunitvectorsinthe , , directionsrespectively.

2dimensions 3dimensions

Properties
AdditiveIdentity

AdditiveInverse

CommutativeProperty

AssociativeProperty

AssociativeProperty

DistributiveProperty

DistributiveProperty

1 MultiplicativeIdentity
| | MagnitudeProperty

Unitvectorinthedirectionof

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AppendixA SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas

VectorDotProduct

Let: and

Properties
0 ZeroProperty

0 , and areorthogonaltoeachother.

CommutativeProperty

MagnitudeSquareProperty

DistributiveProperty

MultiplicationbyaScalarProperty


cos

istheanglebetween and

VectorProjection

proj

OrthogonalComponentsofaVector

proj and

Work
Fistheforcevectoractingonanobject,movingitfrompoint topoint .

cos isanglebetweenFand .

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AppendixA SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas

VectorCrossProduct

2Dimensions
Let: u u and v v
u u
Then, x v v u v u v

Areaofaparallelogramhaving and asadjacentsidesandanglebetweenthem:


sin

3Dimensions
Let: u u u and v v v

x u u u u v u v u v u v u v u v
v v v

x sin

istheunitvectornormaltotheplanecontainingthefirsttwovectorswithorientation
determinedusingtherighthandrule.

Properties
x x ZeroProperty

x , x , x , and areorthogonaltoeachother

x , x , x Reverseorientationorthogonality

x Everynonzerovectorisparalleltoitself

x x AnticommutativeProperty

x x x DistributiveProperty

x x x DistributiveProperty

m x x m m x ScalarMultiplication

sin

istheanglebetween and

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AppendixA SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas

VectorTripleProducts

Let: u u u , v v v , w w w .

ScalarTripleProduct
u u u
x v v v
w w w

x x

OtherTripleProducts
x x
x x
x x
x x x

NoAssociativeProperty

x x x x

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AppendixB SolvingtheAmbiguousCaseAlternativeMethod

AppendixB
SolvingtheAmbiguousCaseAlternativeMethod

Howdoyousolveatriangle(ortwo)intheambiguouscase?Assumetheinformationgivenisthe
lengthsofsides and ,andthemeasureofAngle .Usethefollowingsteps:

Step1:Calculatethesineofthemissingangle(inthisdevelopment,angle ). Step1:Use
Step2:Considerthevalueof :
sin sin
If 1,thenwehaveCase1thereisnotriangle.Stophere.





If 1,then 90,andwehaveCase2arighttriangle.ProceedtoStep4.




If 1,thenwehaveCase3orCase4.Proceedtothenextsteptodeterminewhich.

Step3:Compare and .

If ,thenwehaveCase3twotriangles.Calculatethevaluesofeachangle ,usingthe
LawofSines.Then,proceedtoStep4andcalculatetheremainingvaluesforeachtriangle.

If ,thenwehavecase4onetriangle.ProceedtoStep4.

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AppendixB SolvingtheAmbiguousCaseAlternativeMethod

Step4:Calculate .Atthispoint,wehavethelengthsofsides and ,andthemeasuresofAngles


and .IfwearedealingwithCase3twotriangles,wemustperformSteps4and5foreachangle.

Step4istocalculatethemeasureofAngle asfollows: 180

Step5:Calculate .Finally,wecalculatethevalueof usingtheLawofSines.


sin sin
or
sin sin sin sin sin sin

Note:using and mayproducemoreaccurateresultssincebothofthesevaluesaregiven.

AmbiguousCase(AlternativeMethod)Flowchart

Start Here

yes
1 Value of 1
Is ?
sin

1 no

Two triangles

Calculate , and then .


Steps 4 and 5, above

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AppendixC SummaryofRectangularandPolarForms

Appendix C

SummaryofRectangularandPolarForms

RectangularForm PolarForm

Coordinates Form , ,

Conversion cos
sin
tan

Complex Form cos sin or


Numbers

Conversion cos
sin
tan

Vectors Form
magnitude
directionangle

Conversion cos
sin
tan

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Trigonometry Handbook
Index

Page Subject

54,103 AmbiguousCaseforObliqueTriangles
56,104 AmbiguousCaseforObliqueTrianglesFlowchart
17 Amplitude
8 Angle
37 AngleAdditionFormulas
14 AngleofDepression
14 AngleofDepression
7 ArcMeasure
AreaofaTriangle
61 GeometryFormula
61 Heron'sFormula
62 TrigonometricFormulas
62 CoordinateGeometryFormula
78 Astroid
72,75 Cardioid
17 CharacteristicsofTrigonometricFunctionGraphs
71 Circles
9 Cofunctions
ComplexNumbers
65,105 ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
65 OperationsinPolarForm
65 PolarForm
79 ComponentsofVectors
ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
65,105 ComplexNumbers
64,105 Coordinates
76 Equations
105 Vectors
11 CosecantFunction
11 CosineFunction
11 CotangentFunction
8 CoterminalAngle
90 CrossProduct
78 Cycloid

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Trigonometry Handbook
Index

Page Subject

11 DefinitionsofTrigFunctions(RightTriangle)
9 DefinitionsofTrigFunctions(xandyaxes)
7 Degrees
78 Deltoid
67 DeMoivre'sTheorem
68 DeMoivre'sTheoremforRoots
14 Depression,Angleof
83 DotProduct
37 DoubleAngleFormulas
77 Ellipse
Equations
76 ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
47 SolvingTrigonometricEquations
17 Frequency
Graphs
15 BasicTrigFunctions
75 Cardioid
30 CosecantFunction
22 CosineFunction
26 CotangentFunction
34 InverseTrigonometricFunctions
72 LimaonofPascal
69 PolarFunctions
74 Rose
28 SecantFunction
20 SineFunction
24 TangentFunction
19 TrigFunctionCharacteristics(Table)
37 HalfAngleFormulas
32 HarmonicMotion
61 Heron'sFormula
77 Hyperbola
IdentitiesVerification
43 Steps
44 Techniques

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Trigonometry Handbook
Index

Page Subject

14 Inclination,Angleof
8 InitialSideofanAngle
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
33 Definitions
34 Graphs
33 PrincipalValues
33 Ranges
52 LawofCosines
52 LawofSines
73 LemniscateofBernoulli
72 LimaonofPascal
78 Nephroid
51 ObliqueTriangleMethodstoSolve
65 OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
86 OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
77 Parabola
17 Period
18 PhaseShift
8 PolarAngle
8,69 PolarAxis
64,105 PolarCoordinates
65,105 PolarFormofComplexNumbers
71 PolarGraphTypes
64,105 PolartoRectangularCoordinateConversion
41 PowerReducingFormulas
33 PrincipalValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
41 ProducttoSumFormulas
86 ProjectionofOneVectorontoAnother
80 PropertiesofVectors
9 PythagoreanIdentities
8 QuadrantalAngle
7,9 Radians
64,80 RectangulartoPolarCoordinateConversion

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Trigonometry Handbook
Index

Page Subject

8 ReferenceAngle
71,74 Rose
11 SecantFunction
32 SimpleHarmonicMotion
11 SineFunction
9 SineCosineRelationship
11 SOHCAHTOA
73 Spirals
8 StandardPosition
41 SumtoProductFormulas
11 TangentFunction
8 TerminalSideofanAngle
12 TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
11 TrigonometricFunctionsofSpecialAngles
92 TripleProducts
10 UnitCircle
79 UnitVectorsiandj
79 Vectors
79 Components
105 ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
90 CrossProduct
83 DotProduct
86 OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
86 Projection
80 Properties
86 SpecialUnitVectorsiandj
92 TripleProducts
8 VertexofanAngle
18 VerticalShift
86 Work

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