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Trigonometry
Preparedby:EarlL.Whitney,FSA,MAAA
Version2.1
April10,2017
Copyright20122017,EarlWhitney,RenoNV.AllRightsReserved
NotetoStudents
ThisTrigonometryHandbookwasdevelopedprimarilythroughworkwithanumberofHigh
SchoolandCollegeTrigonometryclasses.Inaddition,anumberofmoreadvancedtopicshave
beenaddedtothehandbooktowhetthestudentsappetiteforhigherlevelstudy.
OneofthemainreasonswhyIwrotethishandbookwastoencouragethestudenttowonder;
toaskwhataboutorwhatif.Ifindthatstudentsaresobusytodaythattheydont
havethetime,ordonttakethetime,toseekoutthebeautyandmajestythatexistsin
Mathematics.And,itisthere,justbelowthesurface.Sobecuriousandgofindit.
Theanswerstomostofthequestionsbelowareinsidethishandbook,butareseldomtaught.
IsthereamethodIcanlearnthatwillhelpmerecallthekeypointsonaunitcircle
withoutmemorizingtheunitcircle?
WhatsthefastestwaytographaTrigfunction?
CanIconvertthesumoftwotrigfunctionstoaproductoftrigfunctions?Howabout
theotherwayaround,changingaproducttoasum?
IsthereaneasywaytocalculatetheareaofatriangleifIamgivenitsverticesaspoints
onaCartesianplane?
DontsomeofthePolargraphsinChapter9lookliketheyhavebeendrawnwitha
Spirograph?Whyisthat?
Acycloidisbothabrachistochroneandatautochrone.Whataretheseandwhyare
theyimportant?(youwillhavetolookthisoneup,butitiswellworthyourtime)
Whatisavectorcrossproductandhowisitused?
Howdothepropertiesofvectorsextendto3dimensions,wheretheyreallymatter?
Additionally,askyourself:
WhattrigidentitiescanIcreatethatIhavenotyetseen?
WhatPolargraphscanIcreatebymessingwithtrigfunctions?Whatmakesapretty
graphinsteadofonethatjustlooksmessedup?
CanIcomeupwithasimplermethodofdoingthingsthanIambeingtaught?
WhatproblemscanIcomeupwithtostumpmyfriends?
Thosewhoapproachmathinthismannerwillbetomorrowsleaders.Areyouoneofthem?
Pleasefeelfreetocontactmeatearl@mathguy.usifyouhaveanyquestionsorcomments.
Thankyouandbestwishes!
Earl CoverartbyRebeccaWilliams,
Twitterhandle:@jolteonkitty
Page Description
Chapter1:FunctionsandSpecialAngles
7 Introduction
8 AngleDefinitions
9 FunctionDefinitionsonthex andy Axes
9 PythagoreanIdentities
9 SineCosineRelationship
9 KeyAnglesinRadiansandDegrees
9 Cofunctions
10 UnitCircle
11 FunctionDefinitionsinaRightTriangle
11 SOHCAHTOA
11 TrigonometricFunctionsofSpecialAngles
12 TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
13 ProblemsInvolvingTrigFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
14 ProblemsInvolvingAnglesofDepressionandInclination
Chapter2:GraphsofTrigFunctions
15 BasicTrigFunctions
17 CharacteristicsofTrigonometricFunctionGraphs
19 TableofTrigonometricFunctionCharacteristics
20 SineFunction
22 CosineFunction
24 TangentFunction
26 CotangentFunction
28 SecantFunction
30 CosecantFunction
32 Application:SimpleHarmonicMotion
Chapter3:InverseTrigonometricFunctions
33 Definitions
33 PrincipalValuesandRanges
34 GraphsofInverseTrigFunctions
35 ProblemsInvolvingInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Page Description
Chapter4:KeyAngleFormulas
37 AngleAddition,DoubleAngle,HalfAngleFormulas
38 Examples
41 PowerReducingFormulas
41 ProducttoSumFormulas
41 SumtoProductFormulas
42 Examples
Chapter5:TrigonometricIdentitiesandEquations
43 VerifyingIdentities
44 VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques
47 SolvingTrigonmeticEquations
48 SolvingTrigonmeticEquationsExamples
Chapter6:SolvinganObliqueTriangle
51 SummaryofMethods
52 LawsofSinesandCosines
53 LawsofSinesandCosinesExamples
54 TheAmbiguousCase
56 FlowchartfortheAmbiguousCase
57 AmbiguousCaseExamples
59 Bearings
60 BearingsExamples
Chapter7:AreaofaTriangle
61 GeometryFormula
61 Heron'sFormula
62 TrigonometricFormulas
62 CoordinateGeometryFormula
63 Examples
Chapter8:PolarCoordinates
64 Introduction
64 ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarCoordinates
65 ExpressingComplexNumbersinPolarForm
65 OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
67 DeMoivre'sTheorem
68 DeMoivre'sTheoremforRoots
Page Description
Chapter9:PolarFunctions
69 PartsofthePolarGraph
69 Symmetry
70 GraphingMethods
70 GraphingwiththeTI84PlusCalculator
71 GraphTypes(Circles,Roses,Limaons,Lemniscates,Spirals)
74 Rose
75 Cardioid
76 ConvertingBetweenPolarandRectangularFormsofEquations
77 ParametricEquations
Chapter10:Vectors
79 Introduction
79 SpecialUnitVectors
79 VectorComponents
80 VectorProperties
81 VectorPropertiesExamples
83 DotProduct
84 DotProductExamples
86 VectorProjection
86 OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
86 Work
87 ApplicationsofVectorsExamples
90 VectorCrossProduct
92 VectorTripleProducts
Appendices
93 AppendixASummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
103 AppendixBSolvingTheAmbiguousCaseAlternativeMethod
105 AppendixCSummaryofPolarandRectangularForms
106 Index
UsefulWebsites
Mathguy.usDevelopedspecificallyformathstudentsfromMiddleSchooltoCollege,based
ontheauthor'sextensiveexperienceinprofessionalmathematicsinabusinesssettingandin
mathtutoring.Containsfreedownloadablehandbooks,PCApps,sampletests,andmore.
http://www.mathguy.us/
WolframMathWorldPerhapsthepremiersiteformathematicsontheWeb.Thissite
containsdefinitions,explanationsandexamplesforelementaryandadvancedmathtopics.
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/
KhanAcademySuppliesafreeonlinecollectionofthousandsofmicrolecturesviaYouTube
onnumeroustopics.It'smathandsciencelibrariesareextensive.
www.khanacademy.org
AnalyzeMathTrigonometryContainsfreeTrigonometrytutorialsandproblems.UsesJava
appletstoexploreimportanttopicsinteractively.
http://www.analyzemath.com/Trigonometry.html
SchaumsOutline
AnimportantstudentresourceforanyhighschoolorcollegemathstudentisaSchaums
Outline.Eachbookinthisseriesprovidesexplanationsofthevarioustopicsinthecourseand
asubstantialnumberofproblemsforthestudenttotry.Manyoftheproblemsareworked
outinthebook,sothestudentcanseeexamplesofhowtheyshouldbesolved.
SchaumsOutlinesareavailableatAmazon.com,Barnes&Nobleandotherbooksellers.
Introduction
WhatisTrigonometry?
ThewordTrigonometrycomesfromtheGreektrigonon(meaningtriangle)
andmetron(meaningmeasure).So,simplyput,Trigonometryisthestudyof
themeasuresoftriangles.Thisincludesthelengthsofthesides,themeasures
oftheanglesandtherelationshipsbetweenthesidesandangles.
ThemodernapproachtoTrigonometryalsodealswithhowrighttrianglesinteractwithcircles,
especiallytheUnitCircle,i.e.,acircleofradius1.Althoughthebasicconceptsaresimple,the
applicationsofTrigonometryarefarreaching,fromcuttingtherequiredanglesinkitchentilesto
determiningtheoptimaltrajectoryforarockettoreachtheouterplanets.
RadiansandDegrees
AnglesinTrigonometrycanbemeasuredineitherradiansordegrees:
Thereare360degrees i.e.,360 inonerotationaroundacircle.Althoughtherearevarious
accountsofhowacirclecametohave360degrees,mostofthesearebasedonthefactthat
earlycivilizationsconsideredacompleteyeartohave360days.
Thereare2 ~ 6.283 radiansinonerotationaroundacircle.The
ancientGreeksdefined tobetheratioofthecircumferenceofa r
circletoitsdiameter(i.e., ).Sincethediameterisdoublethe 1 rad
r
radius,thecircumferenceis2 timestheradius(i.e., 2 ).One
radianisthemeasureoftheanglemadefromwrappingtheradiusofa
circlealongthecirclesexterior.
MeasureofanArc
OneofthesimplestandmostbasicformulasinTrigonometryprovidesthemeasureofanarcinterms
oftheradiusofthecircle, ,andthearcscentralangle,expressedinradians.Theformulaiseasily
derivedfromtheportionofthecircumferencesubtendedby.
Sincethereare2 radiansinonefullrotationaroundthecircle,themeasure
ofanarcwithcentralangle,expressedinradians,is:
2 so
2 2
AngleDefinitions
BasicDefinitions
AfewdefinitionsrelatingtoanglesareusefulwhenbeginningthestudyofTrigonometry.
Angle:Ameasureofthespacebetweenrayswithacommonendpoint.Anangleistypically
measuredbytheamountofrotationrequiredtogetfromitsinitial
sidetoitsterminalside.
InitialSide:Thesideofananglefromwhichitsrotational
measurebegins.
TerminalSide:Thesideofanangleatwhichitsrotational
measureends.
Vertex:Thevertexofanangleisthecommonendpointofthetworaysthatdefinetheangle.
DefinitionsintheCartesian( )Plane
Whenanglesaregraphedonacoordinate
system(RectangularorPolar),anumberof
additionaltermsareuseful.
StandardPosition:Anangleisinstandard
positionifitsvertexistheorigin(i.e.,the
point 0, 0 )anditsinitialsideisthe
positive axis.
PolarAxis:ThePolarAxisisthepositive axis.Itistheinitialsideofallanglesinstandardposition.
PolarAngle:Foranangleinstandardposition,itspolarangleistheanglemeasuredfromthepolar
axistoitsterminalside.Ifmeasuredinacounterclockwisedirection,thepolarangleispositive;if
measuredinaclockwisedirection,thepolarangleisnegative.
ReferenceAngle:Foranangleinstandardposition,itsreferenceangleistheanglebetween0and
90measuredfromthe axis(positiveornegative)toitsterminalside.Thereferenceanglecanbe
0;itcanbe90;itisnevernegative.
CoterminalAngle:Twoanglesarecoterminaliftheyareinstandardpositionandhavethesame
terminalside.Forexample,anglesofmeasure50and410arecoterminalbecause410isonefull
rotationaroundthecircle(i.e.,360),plus50,sotheyhavethesameterminalside.
QuadrantalAngle:Anangleinstandardpositionisaquadrantalangleifitsterminalsidelieson
eitherthe axisorthe axis.
TrigonometricFunctions
TrigonometricFunctions 1
sin sin
(onthe and axes) csc
1
cos cos
sec
1 sin
tan tan tan
cot cos
1 cos
cot cot cot
tan sin
1
sec sec
cos
1
csc csc
sin
45 radians
4
60 radians
3
90 radians
Cofunctions(inQuadrantI) 2
sin cos cos sin
2 2
tan cot cot tan
2 2
sec csc csc sec
2 2
TheUnitCircle
TrigonometricFunctionsandSpecialAngles
TrigonometricFunctions(RightTriangle)
SOHCAHTOA
SpecialAngles
TrigFunctionsofSpecialAngles( )
Radians Degrees
0 0
30
45
60
90 undefined
Notethepatternsintheabovetable:Inthesinecolumn,thenumbers0to4occurinsequence
undertheradical!Thecosinecolumnisthesinecolumnreversed.Tangent sine cosine.
TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
InquadrantsotherthanQuadrantI,trigonometricvaluesforanglesarecalculatedinthefollowing
manner:
DrawtheangleontheCartesianPlane.
Calculatethemeasureofthereferenceangle
fromthe axisto.
Findthevalueofthetrigonometricfunctionof
theangleinthepreviousstep.
Assigna or signtothetrigonometric
valuebasedonthefunctionusedandthe
quadrantisin(fromthetableatright).
Examples:
inQuadrantIICalculate: 180
For 120,thereferenceangleis180 120 60
sin 60 ,so:
inQuadrantIIICalculate: 180
For 210,thereferenceangleis210 180 30
cos 30 ,so:
inQuadrantIVCalculate: 360
For 315,thereferenceangleis360 315 45
tan 45 1,so:
ProblemsInvolvingTrigFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
AtypicalprobleminTrigonometryistofindthevalueofoneormoreTrigfunctionsbasedonasetof
constraints.Often,theconstraintsinvolvethevalueofanotherTrigfunctionandthesignofyeta
thirdTrigFunction.Thekeytosolvingthistypeofproblemistodrawthecorrecttriangleinthe
correctquadrant.
Acoupleofexampleswillillustratethisprocess.
UsingthePythagoreanTheorem,wecalculatethelengthofthehorizontal
legofthetriangle: 3 2 5.Sincetheangleisin 3, is
negative,sowemusthave 5.
Then,sec
And,cot
UsingthePythagoreanTheorem,wecancalculatethelengthofthe
hypotenuseofthetriangle: 9 4 97.
Then,csc
And,cos
ProblemsInvolvingAnglesofDepressionandInclination
AcommonprobleminTrigonometrydealswithanglesofdepressionorinclination.Anangleof
depressionisananglebelowthehorizontalatwhichanobservermustlooktoseeanobject.An
angleofinclinationisanangleabovethehorizontalatwhichanobservermustlooktoseeanobject.
Example1.3:Abuilding185feettallcastsa60footlongshadow.Ifapersonlooksdownfromthe
topofthebuilding,whatisthemeasureoftheangleofdepression?Assumetheperson'seyesare5
feetabovethetopofthebuilding.
Thetotalheightfromwhichthepersonlooksdownupontheshadowis:185 5 190ft.We
beginbydrawingthediagrambelow,thenconsiderthetrigonometryinvolved.
60
tan x 0.3158
190
tan 0.3158 17.5
Theangleofdepressionisthecomplementof .
90 17.5 72.5
Example1.4:Ashipis300metersfromaverticalcliff.Thenavigatorusesasextanttodeterminethe
angleofinclinationfromthedeckoftheshiptothetopoftheclifftobe62.4.Howfarabovethe
deckoftheshipisthetopofthecliff?Whatisthedistancefromthedecktothetopofthecliff?
Webeginbydrawingthediagrambelow,thenconsiderthetrigonometryinvolved.
a) Tofindhowfarabovethedeckthetopofthecliffis( ):
tan 62.4
300
300 tan 62.4 573.8meters
b) Tofindthedistancefromthedecktothetopofthecliff( ):
300
cos 62.4
647.5meters
.
GraphsofBasic(Parent)TrigonometricFunctions
Thesineandcosecantfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
1 1
sin and csc
csc sin
Thecosineandsecantfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
1 1
cos and sec
sec cos
Thetangentandcotangentfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
1 1
tan and cot
cot tan
GraphsofBasic(Parent)TrigonometricFunctions
Itisinstructivetoviewtheparenttrigonometricfunctionsonthesameaxesastheirreciprocals.
Identifyingpatternsbetweenthetwofunctionscanbehelpfulingraphingthem.
Lookingatthesineandcosecantfunctions,
weseethattheyintersectattheirmaximum
andminimumvalues(i.e.,when 1).The
verticalasymptotes(notshown)ofthe
cosecantfunctionoccurwhenthesine
functioniszero.
Lookingatthecosineandsecantfunctions,
weseethattheyintersectattheirmaximum
andminimumvalues(i.e.,when 1).The
verticalasymptotes(notshown)ofthesecant
functionoccurwhenthecosinefunctionis
zero.
Lookingatthetangentandcotangent
functions,weseethattheyintersectwhen
sin cos (i.e.,at , an
integer).Theverticalasymptotes(not
shown)oftheeachfunctionoccurwhenthe
otherfunctioniszero.
CharacteristicsofTrigonometricFunctionGraphs
Alltrigonometricfunctionsareperiodic,meaningthattheyrepeatthepatternofthecurve(calleda
cycle)onaregularbasis.Thekeycharacteristicsofeachcurve,alongwithknowledgeoftheparent
curvesaresufficienttographmanytrigonometricfunctions.Letsconsiderthegeneralfunction:
A B C D
whereA, B, CandDareconstantsand isanyofthesixtrigonometricfunctions(sine,cosine,
tangent,cotangent,secant,cosecant).
Amplitude
Amplitudeisthemeasureofthedistanceofpeaksandtroughs
fromthemidline(i.e.,center)ofasineorcosinefunction;
amplitudeisalwayspositive.Theotherfourfunctionsdonot
havepeaksandtroughs,sotheydonothaveamplitudes.For
thegeneralfunction, , definedabove,amplitude |A|.
Period
Periodisthehorizontalwidthofasinglecycleorwave,i.e.,thedistanceittravelsbeforeitrepeats.
Everytrigonometricfunctionhasaperiod.Theperiodsoftheparentfunctionsareasfollows:for
sine,cosine,secantandcosecant,period 2;fortangentandcotangent,period .
Forthegeneralfunction, , definedabove,
period .
Frequency
Frequencyismostusefulwhenusedwiththesineand
cosinefunctions.Itisthereciprocaloftheperiod,i.e.,
frequency .
Frequencyistypicallydiscussedinrelationtothesineandcosinefunctionswhenconsidering
harmonicmotionorwaves.InPhysics,frequencyistypicallymeasuredinHertz,i.e.,cyclesper
second.1Hz 1cyclepersecond.
Forthegeneralsineorcosinefunction, , definedabove,frequency .
PhaseShift
Phaseshiftishowfarhasthefunctionbeenshiftedhorizontally
(leftorright)fromitsparentfunction.Forthegeneralfunction,
, definedabove,
phase shift .
Apositivephaseshiftindicatesashifttotherightrelativetothe
graphoftheparentfunction;anegativephaseshiftindicatesashift
totheleftrelativetothegraphoftheparentfunction.
Atrickforcalculatingthephaseshiftistosettheargumentofthetrigonometricfunctionequalto
zero: B C 0,andsolvefor .Theresultingvalueof isthephaseshiftofthefunction.
VerticalShift
Verticalshiftistheverticaldistancethatthemidlineofacurvelies
aboveorbelowthemidlineofitsparentfunction(i.e.,the axis).
Forthegeneralfunction, , definedabove,vertical shift D.
ThevalueofDmaybepositive,indicatingashiftupward,or
negative,indicatingashiftdownwardrelativetothegraphofthe
parentfunction.
PuttingitAllTogether
Theillustrationbelowshowshowalloftheitemsdescribedabovecombineinasinglegraph.
Range 1, 1 1, 1 , , , 1 1, , 1 1,
Period 2 2 2 2
midwaybetween midwaybetween
intercepts ,where isanInteger ,where isodd none none
asymptotes asymptotes
(1)
OddorEvenFunction OddFunction EvenFunction OddFunction OddFunction EvenFunction OddFunction
Amplitude/Stretch,Period, 2 2 2 2
PhaseShift,VerticalShift
| |, , , | |, , , | |, , , | |, , , | |, , , | |, , ,
(2)
when verticalasymptote verticalasymptote
when verticalasymptote
when verticalasymptote
Notes:
(1) Anoddfunctionissymmetricabouttheorigin,i.e. .Anevenfunctionissymmetricaboutthe axis,i.e., .
(2) AllPhaseShiftsaredefinedtooccurrelativetoastartingpointofthe axis(i.e.,theverticalline 0).
GraphofaGeneralSineFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofasinefunctionis: .
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Amplitude: | |.Theamplitudeisthemagnitudeofthestretchorcompressionofthe
functionfromitsparentfunction: sin .
Period: .Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasineorcosine
function,thisisthelengthofonecompletewave;itcanbemeasuredfrompeaktopeakor
fromtroughtotrough.Notethat2istheperiodof sin .
PhaseShift: .Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift: .Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .
Example2.1:
Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onewave,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow. Forthisexample:
; ; ;
Amplitude: | | | |
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
GraphingaSineFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Awave(cycle)ofthesinefunctionhasthreezeropoints(pointsonthexaxis) Example:
atthebeginningoftheperiod,attheendoftheperiod,andhalfwayinbetween. .
Step1:PhaseShift: .
.
Thefirstwavebeginsatthe
point unitstotherightof Thepointis: ,
theOrigin.
Step2:Period: . .Thefirst
Thefirstwaveendsatthe waveendsatthepoint:
point unitstotherightof
wherethewavebegins. , ,
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthefivekey Thiswillproducethegraph
points. ofonewaveofthefunction.
Step7:Duplicatethewave
totheleftandrightas Note:If 0,allpoints
desired. onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.
GraphofaGeneralCosineFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacosinefunctionis: .
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Amplitude: | |.Theamplitudeisthemagnitudeofthestretchorcompressionofthe
functionfromitsparentfunction: cos .
Period: .Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasineorcosine
function,thisisthelengthofonecompletewave;itcanbemeasuredfrompeaktopeakor
fromtroughtotrough.Notethat2istheperiodof cos .
PhaseShift: .Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift: .Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .
Example2.2:
Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onewave,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow. Forthisexample:
; ; ;
Amplitude: | | | |
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
GraphingaCosineFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Awave(cycle)ofthecosinefunctionhastwomaxima(orminimaif 0)
oneatthebeginningoftheperiodandoneattheendoftheperiodanda Example:
minimum(ormaximumif 0)halfwayinbetween. .
Step1:PhaseShift: .
,
Thefirstwavebeginsatthe
point unitstotherightof Thepointis: ,
thepoint , .
Step2:Period: . .Thefirst
Thefirstwaveendsatthe waveendsatthepoint:
point unitstotherightof
wherethewavebegins. , ,
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthefivekey Thiswillproducethegraph
points. ofonewaveofthefunction.
Step7:Duplicatethewave
totheleftandrightas Note:If 0,allpoints
desired. onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.
GraphofaGeneralTangentFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofatangentfunctionis: .
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Scalefactor:| |.Thetangentfunctiondoesnothaveamplitude.| |isthemagnitudeofthe
stretchorcompressionofthefunctionfromitsparentfunction: tan .
Period: .Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Foratangentor
cotangentfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutiveasymptotes(itisalso
thedistancebetween intercepts).Notethatistheperiodof tan .
PhaseShift: .Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift: .Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .
Example2.3:
Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow. Forthisexample:
Notethat,forthe
; ; ;
tangentcurve,we
typicallygraphhalf ScaleFactor:| | | |
oftheprincipal
cycleatthepoint Period:
ofthephaseshift,
andthenfillinthe PhaseShift:
otherhalfofthe
cycletotheleft VerticalShift:
(seenextpage).
GraphingaTangentFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Step1:PhaseShift: .
.
Thefirstcyclebeginsatthe
zeropoint unitstothe Thepointis: ,
rightoftheOrigin.
Step2:Period: . . .
Placeaverticalasymptote Therightasymptoteisat:
unitstotherightofthe
beginningofthecycle.
Step3:Placeavertical Theleftasymptoteisat:
asymptote unitstothe
leftofthebeginningofthe
cycle.
Step4:The valueofthe The pointis:
pointhalfwaybetweenthe
zeropointandtheright , ,
asymptoteis" ".
Step5:The valueofthe The pointis:
pointhalfwaybetweenthe
leftasymptoteandthezero , ,
pointis" ".
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthethreekey Thiswillproducethegraph
points,approachingthe ofonecycleofthefunction.
asymptotesoneachside.
Step7:Duplicatethecycle
totheleftandrightas Note:If 0,allpoints
desired. onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.
GraphofaGeneralCotangentFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacotangentfunctionis: .
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Scalefactor:| |.Thecotangentfunctiondoesnothaveamplitude.| |isthemagnitudeof
thestretchorcompressionofthefunctionfromitsparentfunction: cot .
Period: .Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Foratangentor
cotangentfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutiveasymptotes(itisalso
thedistancebetween intercepts).Notethatistheperiodof cot .
PhaseShift: .Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift: .Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .
Example2.4:
Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow. Forthisexample:
Notethat,forthe
; ; ;
cotangentcurve,
wetypicallygraph ScaleFactor:| | | |
theasymptotes
first,andthen Period:
graphthecurve
betweenthem(see PhaseShift:
nextpage).
VerticalShift:
GraphingaCotangentFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Step1:PhaseShift: . .Theleft
Placeaverticalasymptote
asymptoteisat:
unitstotherightofthe
axis.
Step2:Period: . .
Placeanothervertical Therightasymptoteisat:
asymptote unitstothe
rightofthefirstone.
Step3:Azeropointexists
halfwaybetweenthetwo Thepointis: ,
asymptotes.
,
Step4:The valueofthe The pointis:
pointhalfwaybetweenthe
leftasymptoteandthezero , ,
pointis" ".
Step5:The valueofthe The pointis:
pointhalfwaybetweenthe
zeropointandtheright , ,
asymptoteis" ".
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthethreekey Thiswillproducethegraph
points,approachingthe ofonecycleofthefunction.
asymptotesoneachside.
Step7:Duplicatethecycle
totheleftandrightas Note:If 0,allpoints
desired. onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.
GraphofaGeneralSecantFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofasecantfunctionis: .
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Scalefactor:| |.Thesecantfunctiondoesnothaveamplitude.| |isthemagnitudeofthe
stretchorcompressionofthefunctionfromitsparentfunction: sec .
Period: .Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasecantor
cosecantfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutivemaximaorminima(itis
alsothedistancebetweeneverysecondasymptote).Notethat2istheperiodof sec .
PhaseShift: .Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift: .Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .
Example2.5:
Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
OnecycleofthesecantcurvecontainstwoUshapedcurves,one Forthisexample:
openingupandoneopeningdown.
; ; ;
ScaleFactor:| | | |
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
GraphingaSecantFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthesecantfunctioncanbedevelopedbyfirstplottingacycleofthe
correspondingcosinefunctionbecausesec .
Thecosinefunctionszeropointsproduceasymptotesforthesecantfunction.
Maximaforthecosinefunctionproduceminimaforthesecantfunction.
Minimaforthecosinefunctionproducemaximaforthesecantfunction. Example:
SecantcurvesareUshaped,alternatelyopeningupandopeningdown. .
Step1:Graphonewaveof Theequationofthe
thecorrespondingcosine correspondingcosine
function. functionfortheexampleis:
Step2:Asymptotesforthe Thezeropointsoccurat:
secantfunctionoccuratthe , 0 and , 0
zeropointsofthecosine
Secantasymptotesare:
function.
and
Step3:Eachmaximumof Cosinemaximaand,
thecosinefunction therefore,secantminimaare
representsaminimumfor at: , 4 and ,4
thesecantfunction.
Step4:Eachminimumof Thecosineminimum and,
thecosinefunction therefore,thesecant
representsamaximumfor maximumisat: , 4
thesecantfunction.
Step5:DrawsmoothU
shapedcurvesthrougheach Thiswillproducethegraph
keypoint,approachingthe ofonecycleofthefunction.
asymptotesoneachside.
Step6:Duplicatethecycle
totheleftandrightas
Note:If 0,allpoints
desired.Erasethecosine
onthecurveareshifted
functionifnecessary.
verticallyby units.
GraphofaGeneralCosecantFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacosecantfunctionis: .
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Scalefactor:| |.Thecosecantfunctiondoesnothaveamplitude.| |isthemagnitudeof
thestretchorcompressionofthefunctionfromitsparentfunction: csc .
Period: .Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasecantor
cosecantfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutivemaximaorminima(itis
alsothedistancebetweeneverysecondasymptote).Notethat2istheperiodof csc .
PhaseShift: .Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift: .Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .
Example2.6:
Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
OnecycleofthecosecantcurvecontainstwoUshapedcurves,one Forthisexample:
openingupandoneopeningdown.
; ; ;
ScaleFactor:| | | |
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
GraphingaCosecantFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthecosecantfunctioncanbedevelopedbyfirstplottingacycleofthe
correspondingsinefunctionbecausecsc .
Thesinefunctionszeropointsproduceasymptotesforthecosecantfunction.
Maximaforthesinefunctionproduceminimaforthecosecantfunction.
Minimaforthesinefunctionproducemaximaforthecosecantfunction. Example:
CosecantcurvesareUshaped,alternatelyopeningupandopeningdown. .
Step1:Graphonewaveof Theequationofthe
thecorrespondingsine correspondingsinefunction
function. fortheexampleis:
Step2:Asymptotesforthe Thezeropointsoccurat:
cosecantfunctionoccurat
,0 , ,0 , ,0
thezeropointsofthesine
Cosecantasymptotesare:
function.
, ,
Step3:Eachmaximumof Thesinemaximumand,
thesinefunctionrepresents therefore,thecosecant
aminimumforthecosecant minimumisat: , 4
function.
Step4:Eachminimumof Thesineminimumand,
thesinefunctionrepresents therefore,thecosecant
amaximumforthecosecant maximumisat: , 4
function.
Step5:DrawsmoothU
shapedcurvesthrougheach Thiswillproducethegraph
keypoint,approachingthe ofonecycleofthefunction.
asymptotesoneachside.
Step6:Duplicatethecycle
totheleftandrightas
Note:If 0,allpoints
desired.Erasethesine
onthecurveareshifted
functionifnecessary.
verticallyby units.
SimpleHarmonicMotion
InPhysics,SimpleHarmonicMotionisanoscillatingmotion(think:repeatingupanddownmotion)
wheretheforceappliedtoanobjectisproportionaltoandintheoppositedirectionofits
displacement.Acommonexampleistheactionofacoiledspring,whichoscillatesupanddown
whenreleased.Suchmotioncanbemodeledbythesineandcosinefunctions,usingthefollowing
equations(note: isthelowercaseGreekletteromega,nottheEnglishletterw):
Harmonicmotionequations: cos or sin
Period:
Frequency: or 2 with 0
Situationsinwhichanobjectstartsatrestatthecenterofitsoscillation,oratrest,usethesine
function(becausesin 0 0);situationsinwhichanobjectstartsinanupordownpositionpriortoits
releaseusethecosinefunction(becausecos 0 1).
Example2.7:Anobjectisattachedtoacoiledspring.Theobjectispulledupandthenreleased.If
theamplitudeis5cmandtheperiodis7seconds,writeanequationforthedistanceoftheobject
fromitsstartingpositionafter seconds.
Theresultingequation,then,is: 5 cos
Example2.8:Anobjectinsimpleharmonicmotionhasafrequencyof1.5oscillationspersecondand
anamplitudeof13cm.Writeanequationforthedistanceoftheobjectfromitsrestpositionafter
seconds.
Assumingthatdistance 0attime 0,itmakessensetouseasinefunctionforthis
problem.Sincetheamplitudeis13cm,agoodrepresentationofthiswouldbeasinecurvewith
leadcoefficient 13.Notethataleadcoefficient 13wouldworkaswell.
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
Inversetrigonometricfunctionsareshownwitha" 1"exponentoranarcprefix.So,theinverse
sineof maybeshownassin orarcsin .Inversetrigonometricfunctionsaskthequestion:
whichangle hasafunctionvalueof ?Forexample:
sin 0.5 askswhichanglehasasinevalueof0.5.Itisequivalentto:sin 0.5.
arctan 1 askswhichanglehasatangentvalueof1.Itisequivalentto:tan 1.
PrincipalValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Thereareaninfinitenumberofanglesthatanswertheabove
questions,sotheinversetrigonometricfunctionsarereferredtoas
multivaluedfunctions.Becauseofthis,mathematicianshavedefined
aprincipalsolutionforproblemsinvolvinginversetrigonometric
functions.Theanglewhichistheprincipalsolution(orprincipalvalue)
isdefinedtobethesolutionthatliesinthequadrantsidentifiedinthe
figureatright.Forexample:
Thesolutionstotheequation sin 0.5areall valuesinthe
intervals 2 2 .Thatis,thesetofall
solutionstothisequationcontainsthetwosolutionsintheinterval
0, 2 ,aswellasallanglesthatareintegermultiplesof2 less
thanorgreaterthanthosetwoangles.Giventheconfusionthiscancreate,mathematicianshave
definedaprincipalvalueforthesolutiontothesekindsofequations.
RangesofInverseTrigonometric
RangesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Functions
Function Range
Therangesofinversetrigonometricfunctions
aregenerallydefinedtobetherangesofthe sin
2 2
principalvaluesofthosefunctions.Atable
summarizingtheseisprovidedatright. cos 0
AnglesinQ4areexpressedasnegativeangles. tan
2 2
GraphsofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Principalvaluesareshowningreen.
ProblemsInvolvingInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Itistemptingtobelieve,forexample,thatsin sin or
tan tan .Thetwofunctionsare,afterallinverses.However,
thisisnotalwaysthecasebecausetheinversefunctionvaluedesired
istypicallyitsprincipalvalue,whichthestudentwillrecallisdefined
onlyincertainquadrants(seethetableatright).
Letslookatacoupleofproblemstoseehowtheyaresolved.
Example3.1:Calculatetheprincipalvalueoftan tan .
Beginbynoticingthattan andtanareinversefunctions,sothe
solutiontothisproblemisrelatedtotheanglegiven: .This
angleisinQ2,buttheinversetangentfunctionisdefinedonlyin
Q1andQ4,ontheinterval , .
WeseektheangleinQ1orQ4thathasthesametangentvalueas .
Sincethetangentfunctionhasperiod ,wecancalculate:
Example3.2:Calculatetheprincipalvalueofsin cos .
Wearelookingfortheanglewhosesinevalueiscos intheinterval , .
Method1:sin cos sin sincesinevaluesarenegativeinQ4.
Then,sin cos
becauseinversefunctionsworknicelyinquadrantsinwhichthe
principalvaluesoftheinversefunctionsaredefined.
ProblemsInvolvingInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Whentheinversetrigonometricfunctionistheinnerfunctioninacompositionoffunctions,itwill
usuallybenecessarytodrawatriangletosolvetheproblem.Inthesecases,drawthetriangle
definedbytheinner(inversetrig)function.Thenderivethevalueoftheouter(trig)function.
Example3.3:Calculatethevalueofcot sin .
Recallthattheargumentofthesin function, .Drawthetrianglebasedonthis.
Next,calculatethevalueofthetriangleshorizontalleg:
61 561 661.
Basedonthediagram,then,
561 661 6
cot sin
61 561 5
Example3.4:Calculatethevalueoftan cos .
Recallthattheargumentofthecos function, .Drawthetrianglebasedonthis.
Next,calculatethevalueofthetrianglesverticalleg:
2 2 2.
Basedonthediagram,then,
2 2
tan cos 1
2 2
Example3.5:Calculateanalgebraicexpressionforsin sec .
Recallthattheargumentofthesec function, .Drawthetrianglebasedonthis.
Next,calculatethevalueofthetrianglesverticalleg:
9 3
Basedonthediagram,then,
9 3
sin sec
9
KeyAngleFormulas
AngleAdditionFormulas
sin sin cos cos sin cos cos cos sin sin
sin sin cos cos sin cos cos cos sin sin
tan tan
DoubleAngleFormulas
HalfAngleFormulas
Theuseofa+orsigninthehalfangle
formulasdependsonthequadrantinwhich
sin theangle resides.Seechartbelow.
SignsofTrigFunctions
cos
ByQuadrant
sin+ sin+
tan cos cos+
tan tan+
x
sin sin
cos cos+
tan+ tan
KeyAngleFormulasExamples
Example4.2:Findtheexactvalueof:tan 255 Recall:tan
tan 255 tan 315 60
AnglesinQ4andQ1
ConvertingtoQ1angles
3 2 2 1
2
2 2
2
or
Constructtrianglesforthetwoangles,beingcarefultoconsiderthesignsofthevaluesineach
quadrant:
Then,cos cos cos sin sin
Example4.5:Giventhediagramatright,find:tan 2
tan 2
7 7
2 24 12
2 527
7
1 24 576
Drawthetrianglebelow,thenapplytheappropriateformulas.
15 8
sin 2 2 sin cos 2
17 17
8 15
cos 2 cos sin
17 17
sin 2
tan 2
cos 2
Example4.7:Findtheexactvalueof:cos Recall:cos
5
Notethat isinQ1,sothevalueof cos ispositive.
12
5
5 6
cos cos
12 2
Usingthehalfangleformulaabove
ConvertingtoanangleinQ1
2 3
2
Example4.8:csc 4, liesinquadrantIV.Findsin . Recall:sin
sin so,sin
15
cos 1 sin 1 Note:cosineispositiveinQ4
4
1 cos
sin
2
2
Usingthehalfangleformulaabove
8 215
KeyAngleFormulas
PowerReducingFormulas
sin cos
tan
ProducttoSumFormulas
SumtoProductFormulas
KeyAngleFormulasExamples
Example4.9:Converttoasumformula:sin 8 cos 5
Use:
Example4.10:Converttoasumformula:cos cos
Use:
Example4.11:Converttoaproductformula:sin 8 sin 2
Use:
Example4.12:Converttoaproductformula:cos 8 cos 2
Use:
VerifyingIdentities
AsignificantportionofanytrigonometrycoursedealswithverifyingTrigonometricIdentities,i.e.,
statementsthatarealwaystrue(assumingthetrigonometricvaluesinvolvedexist).Thissection
dealswithhowthestudentmayapproachverificationofidentitiessuchas:
1 tan 1 sin 1
InverifyingaTrigonometricIdentity,thestudentisaskedtoworkwithonlyonesideoftheidentity
and,usingthestandardrulesofmathematicalmanipulation,derivetheotherside.Thestudentmay
workwitheithersideoftheidentity,sogenerallyitisbesttoworkonthesidethatismostcomplex.
Thestepsbelowpresentastrategythatmaybeusefulinverifyingidentities.
VerificationSteps
1. Identifywhichsideyouwanttoworkon.LetscallthisSideA.Letscallthesideyouarenot
workingonSideB.So,youwillbeworkingonSideAtomakeitlooklikeSideB.
a. Ifonesidehasamultipleofanangle(e.g.,tan 3 )andtheothersidedoesnot(e.g.,
cos ),workwiththesidethathasthemultipleofanangle.
b. Ifonesidehasonlysinesandcosinesandtheotherdoesnot,workwiththesidethat
doesnothaveonlysinesandcosines.
c. Ifyougetpartwaythroughtheexerciseandrealizeyoushouldhavestartedwiththe
otherside,startoverandworkwiththeotherside.
2. Ifnecessary,investigateSideBbyworkingonitalittle.Thisisnotaviolationoftherulesas
longas,inyourverification,youcompletelymanipulateSideAtolooklikeSideB.Ifyou
choosetoinvestigateSideB,moveyourworkoffalittletothesidesoitisclearyouare
investigatingandnotactuallyworkingsideB.
3. SimplifySideAasmuchaspossible,butremembertolookattheothersidetomakesureyou
aremovinginthatdirection.Dothisalsoateachstepalongtheway,aslongasitmakesSide
AlookmorelikeSideB.
a. UsethePythagoreanIdentitiestosimplify,e.g.,ifonesidecontains 1 sin and
theothersidecontainscosinesbutnotsines,replace 1 sin withcos .
b. Changeanymultiplesofangles,halfangles,etc.toexpressionswithsingleangles(e.g.,
replacesin 2 with2 sin cos ).
c. Lookfor1s.Oftenchanginga1intosin cos (orviceversa)willbehelpful.
4. RewriteSideAintermsofsinesandcosines.
5. Factorwherepossible.
6. SeparateorcombinefractionstomakeSideAlookmorelikeSideB.
Thefollowingpagesillustrateanumberoftechniquesthatcanbeusedtoverifyidentities.
VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques
Technique:InvestigateOneorBothSides
Often,whenlookingatanidentity,itisnotimmediatelyobvioushowtoproceed.Inmanycases,
investigatingbothsideswillprovidethenecessaryhintstoproceed.
Example5.1:
1 1
sin
cos cot 1
1 1 cot 1
sin cos
Yuk!Thisidentitylooksdifficulttodealwiththerearelotsoffractions.Letsinvestigateitby
convertingtherightsidetosinesandcosines.Notethatontheright,wemovethenewfraction
offtothesidetoindicateweareinvestigatingonly.Wedothisbecausewemustverifyan
identitybyworkingononlyonesideuntilwegettheotherside.
1 1 cos cos
sin cos cot 1 sin cos
cos cos
1 1 cot 1
sin cos
sin cos
Inmanipulatingtherightside,wechangedeach1inthegreenexpressionto becausewe
wantsomethingthatlooksmoreliketheexpressionontheleft.
Noticethattheorangeexpressionlooksalotliketheexpressionontheleft,exceptthatevery
placewehavea1intheexpressionontheleftwehavecos intheorangeexpression.
Whatisournextstep?Weneedtochangeallthe1sintheexpressiononthelefttocos .We
candothisbymultiplyingtheexpressionontheleftby ,asfollows:
1 1
cos sin
cos
cos 1 1
sin cos
Noticethatthismatchestheorangeexpressionabove.
cot 1 cot 1
cot 1 cot 1
VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques(contd)
Technique:BreakaFractionintoPieces
Whenafractioncontainsmultipletermsinthenumerator,itissometimesusefultobreakitinto
separateterms.Thisworksespeciallywellwhentheresultingnumeratorhasthesamenumberof
termsasexistontheothersideoftheequalsign.
Example5.2:
cos
1 tan tan
cos cos
Next,breakthefractionintotwopieces:
Finally,simplifytheexpression:
sin sin
1
cos cos
VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques(contd)
Technique:GetaCommonDenominatoronOneSide
Ifitlookslikeyouwouldbenefitfromgettingacommondenominatorforthetwosidesofanidentity,
tryconvertingonesidesothatithasthatdenominator.Inmanycases,thiswillresultinan
expressionthatwillsimplifyintoamoreusefulform.
Example5.3:
cos 1 sin
1 sin cos
Ifweweretosolvethislikeanequation,wemightcreateacommondenominator.Remember,
however,thatwecanonlyworkononeside,sowewillobtainthecommondenominatorononly
oneside.Inthisexample,thecommondenominatorwouldbe:cos 1 sin .
cos cos
cos 1 sin
cos
cos 1 sin
Oncewehavemanipulatedonesideoftheidentitytohavethecommondenominator,therestof
theexpressionshouldsimplify.Tokeepthecos inthedenominatoroftheexpressiononthe
left,weneedtoworkwiththenumerator.Acommonsubstitutionistoconvertbetweensin
andcos usingthePythagoreanidentitysin cos 1.
1 sin
cos 1 sin
Noticethatthenumeratorisadifferenceofsquares.Letsfactorit.
1 sin 1 sin
cos 1 sin
Finally,wesimplifybyeliminatingthecommonfactorinthenumeratoranddenominator.
1 sin 1 sin
cos cos
SolvingTrigonometricEquations
Solvingtrigonometricequationsinvolvesmanyofthesameskillsassolvingequationsingeneral.
Somespecificthingstowatchforinsolvingtrigonometricequationsarethefollowing:
Arrangement.Itisoftenagoodideatogetarrangetheequationsothatalltermsareonone
sideoftheequalsign,andzeroisontheother.Forexample,tan sin tan canbe
rearrangedtobecometan sin tan 0.
Quadratics.Lookforquadraticequations.AnytimeanequationcontainsasingleTrig
functionwithmultipleexponents,theremaybeawaytofactoritlikeaquadraticequation.
Forexample,cos 2 cos 1 cos 1 .
Factoring.Lookforwaystofactortheequationandsolvetheindividualtermsseparately.For
example,tan sin tan tan sin 1 .
TermswithNoSolution.Afterfactoring,sometermswillhavenosolutionandcanbe
discarded.Forexample,sin 2 0requiressin 2,whichhasnosolutionsincethe
sinefunctionnevertakesonavalueof2.
Replacement.HavingtermswithdifferentTrigfunctionsinthesameequationisnota
problemifyouareabletofactortheequationsothatthedifferentTrigfunctionsarein
differentfactors.Whenthisisnotpossible,lookforwaystoreplaceoneormoreTrig
functionswithothersthatarealsointheequation.ThePythagoreanIdentitiesare
particularlyusefulforthispurpose.Forexample,intheequationcos sin 1 0,
cos canbereplacedby1 sin ,resultinginanequationcontainingonlyoneTrig
function.
ExtraneousSolutions.Checkeachsolutiontomakesureitworksintheoriginalequation.A
solutionofonefactorofanequationmayfailasasolutionoverallbecausetheoriginal
functiondoesnotexistatthatvalue.SeeExample5.6below.
InfiniteNumberofSolutions.Trigonometricequationsoftenhaveaninfinitenumberof
solutionsbecauseoftheirperiodicnature.Insuchcases,weappend 2 oranotherterm
tothesolutionstoindicatethis.SeeExample5.9below.
SolutionsinanInterval.Becarefulwhensolutionsaresoughtinaspecificinterval.Forthe
interval 0, 2 ,therearetypicallytwosolutionsforeachfactorcontainingaTrigfunctionas
longasthevariableinthefunctionhasleadcoefficientof1(e.g., or).Ifthelead
coefficientisotherthan1(e.g.,5 or5),thenumberofsolutionswilltypicallybetwo
multipliedbytheleadcoefficient(e.g.,10solutionsintheinterval 0, 2 foraterminvolving
5 ).SeeExample5.5below,whichhas8solutionsontheinterval 0, 2 .
Anumberofthesetechniquesareillustratedintheexamplesthatfollow.
SolvingTrigonometricEquationsExamples
Thisequationfactorstoget: 1 0
Theonlysolutionforthisontheinterval 0, 2 is:
Example5.5:Solvefor ontheinterval 0, 2 :sin 4
Whenworkingwithaproblemintheinterval 0, 2 thatinvolvesafunctionof ,itisusefulto
expandtheintervalto 0, 2 forthefirststepsofthesolution.
Inthisproblem, 4,sowewantallsolutionstosin where 4 isanangleinthe
interval 0, 8 .Notethat,beyondthetwosolutionssuggestedbythediagram,additional
solutionsareobtainedbyaddingmultiplesof2 tothosetwosolutions.
Usingthediagramatleft,wegetthefollowingsolutions:
2 7 8 13 14 19 20
4 ,
, , , , , ,
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Then,dividingby4,weget:
2 7 8 13 14 19 20
,, , , , , ,
12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
Notethatthereare8solutions Andsimplifying,weget:
becausetheusualnumberof
solutions(i.e.,2)isincreased , , , , , , ,
byafactorof 4.
SolvingTrigonometricEquationsExamples
so isnotasolutiontothisequation.
,
, sin
, , ,
Use:cos cos cos sin sin cos cos cos sin sin
cos cos 1
3 3
2 cos cos 1
3
1
2 cos 1
2
cos 1
SolvingTrigonometricEquationsExamples
Example5.9:Solveforallsolutionsof :2 sin 3 0
2 sin 3 Thedrawingatleftillustratesthetwo
anglesin 0, 2 forwhichsin .To
3
sin getallsolutions,weneedtoaddall
2
integermultiplesof2 tothesesolutions.
So,
0 2 or 2
Collectingthevarioussolutions,
Note:thesolutioninvolvingthetangentfunctionhastwoanswersintheinterval 0, 2 .
However,theyare radiansapart,asmostsolutionsinvolvingthetangentfunctionare.
Therefore,wecansimplifytheanswersbyshowingonlyonebaseanswerandadding ,instead
ofshowingtwobaseanswersthatare apart,andadding2 toeach.
Forexample,thefollowingtwosolutionsfortan 0aretelescopedintothesinglesolution
givenabove:
0 2 , 4 , 2 , 0, 2 , 4 ,
0 , 2 , , 0, , 2 ,
2 , 3 , , ,3 ,5
SolvinganObliqueTriangle
Severalmethodsexisttosolveanobliquetriangle,i.e.,atrianglewithnorightangle.Theappropriate
methoddependsontheinformationavailableforthetriangle.Allmethodsrequirethatthelengthof
atleastonesidebeprovided.Inaddition,oneortwoanglemeasuresmaybeprovided.Notethatif
twoanglemeasuresareprovided,themeasureofthethirdisdetermined(becausethesumofall
threeanglemeasuresmustbe180).Themethodsusedforeachsituationaresummarizedbelow.
GivenThreeSidesandnoAngles(SSS)
Giventhreesegmentlengthsandnoanglemeasures,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofCosinestodeterminethemeasureofoneangle.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethemeasureofoneofthetworemainingangles.
Subtractthesumofthemeasuresofthetwoknownanglesfrom180toobtainthemeasure
oftheremainingangle.
GivenTwoSidesandtheAnglebetweenThem(SAS)
Giventwosegmentlengthsandthemeasureoftheanglethatisbetweenthem,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofCosinestodeterminethelengthoftheremainingleg.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethemeasureofoneofthetworemainingangles.
Subtractthesumofthemeasuresofthetwoknownanglesfrom180toobtainthemeasure
oftheremainingangle.
GivenOneSideandTwoAngles(ASAorAAS)
Givenonesegmentlengthandthemeasuresoftwoangles,dothefollowing:
Subtractthesumofthemeasuresofthetwoknownanglesfrom180toobtainthemeasure
oftheremainingangle.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethelengthsofthetworemaininglegs.
GivenTwoSidesandanAnglenotbetweenThem(SSA)
ThisistheAmbiguousCase.Severalpossibilitiesexist,dependingonthelengthsofthesidesandthe
measureoftheangle.Thepossibilitiesarediscussedonthenextseveralpages.
LawsofSinesandCosines
c b
B a C
Thetriangleabovecanbeorientedinanymanner.Itdoesnotmatterwhichangleis , or .
However,
Side isalwaysopposite(acrossfrom) .
Side isalwaysopposite(acrossfrom) .
Side isalwaysopposite(acrossfrom) .
LawofSines(seeaboveillustration)
LawofCosines(seeaboveillustration)
2 cos
2 cos
2 cos
Thelawofcosinescanbedescribedinwordsasfollow:Thesquareofanysideisthesumof
thesquaresoftheothertwosidesminustwicetheproductofthosetwosidesandthecosine
oftheanglebetweenthem.
ItlooksalotlikethePythagoreanTheorem,withtheminustermappended.
LawsofSinesandCosinesExamples
Tosolve:findthethirdangle,andthenusetheLawofSines.
180 38 32 110
ThenusetheLawofSinestofindthelengthsofthetwo
remainingsides.
First,drawthetrianglefromtheinformationyouaregiven.Thiswillhelpyougetanideaof
whetherthevaluesyoucalculateinthisproblemarereasonable.
Next,findthelengthofthe3rdsideofthetriangleusingthe
LawofCosines: 2 cos
UsetheLawofSinestofindthemeasureofoneoftheremainingangles.
6 16.14075
sin 0.3082
sin sin sin sin 124
sin 0.3082 18
ThemeasureoftheremaininganglecanbecalculatedeitherfromtheLawofSinesorfrom
knowledgethatthesumofthethreeanglesinsideatriangleis180.
180 124 18 38
Version 2.1 Page 53 of 109 April 10, 2017
Chapter6 SolvinganObliqueTriangle
TheAmbiguousCase(SSA)
Giventwosegmentlengthsandananglethatisnotbetweenthem,itisnotclearwhetheratriangleis
defined.Itispossiblethatthegiveninformationwilldefineasingletriangle,twotriangles,orevenno
triangle.Becausetherearemultiplepossibilitiesinthissituation,itiscalledtheambiguouscase.
Herearethepossibilities:
Therearethreecasesinwhich .
Thereisonecaseinwhich .
TheAmbiguousCase(SSA)
SolvingtheAmbiguousCase
Howdoyousolveatriangle(ortwo)intheambiguouscase?Assumetheinformationgivenisthe
lengthsofsides and ,andthemeasureofAngle .Usethefollowingsteps:
Step1:Calculatetheheightofthetriangle(inthisdevelopment, ).
Step2:Compare totheheightofthetriangle, :
If ,thenwehaveCase1thereisnotriangle.Stophere.
If ,then 90,andwehaveCase2arighttriangle.ProceedtoStep4.
If ,thenwehaveCase3orCase4.ProceedtotheStep3todeterminewhich.
Step3:Compare to .
If ,thenwehaveCase3twotriangles.Calculate usingtheLawofSines.Find
thetwoanglesintheinterval 0, 180 withthissinevalue;eachofthese sproducesa
separatetriangle.ProceedtoStep4andcalculatetheremainingvaluesforeach.
If ,thenwehaveCase4onetriangle.Find usingtheLawofSines.Proceedto
Step4.
TheAmbiguousCase(SSA)
SolvingtheAmbiguousCasecontd
AmbiguousCaseFlowchart
Start Here
Compare to Compare
to
Two triangles
AmbiguousCaseExamples
Example6.3:Determinewhetherthefollowingmeasurementsproduceonetriangle,twotriangles,
ornotriangle: 35, a 18.7, c 16.1.Solveanytrianglesthatresult.
Sincewearegiventwosidesandananglethatisnotbetweenthem,thisistheambiguouscase.
Calculatesin usingtheLawofSines:
18.7 16.1
sin 0.6662
sin sin sin sin 35
Sincewewillhavetwotriangles,wemustsolveeach.
Step4: Step4:
180 35 42 103 180 35 138 7
Step5:
Step5:
16.1 16.1
sin sin sin 103 sin 35 sin sin sin 7 sin 35
27.4 3.4
AmbiguousCaseExamples
Example6.4:Determinewhetherthefollowingmeasurementsproduceonetriangle,twotriangles,
ornotriangle: B 88, b 2, a 23.Solveanytrianglesthatresult.
Sincewearegiventwosidesandananglethatisnotbetweenthem,thisistheambiguouscase.
Step2:Compare to . 2 22.986.
Stop.WehaveCase1notriangle.
AlternativeMethod
Calculatethemeasureofangle usingtheLawofSines:
23 2
sin 11.493
sin sin sin sin 88
sin 11.493
11.493isnotavalidsinevalue(recallthatsinevaluesrangefrom 1to1).Therefore,thegiven
valuesdonotdefineatriangle.
Note:TheAlternativeMethodfordealingwiththeambiguouscaseislaidoutindetailin
AppendixB.
Bearings
BearingsaredescribeddifferentlyfromotheranglesinTrigonometry.Abearingisaclockwiseor
counterclockwiseanglewhoseinitialsideiseitherduenorthorduesouth.Thestudentwillneedto
translatetheseintoreferenceanglesand/orpolaranglestosolveproblemsinvolvingbearings.
Somebearings,alongwiththekeyassociatedanglesareshownintheillustrationsbelow.Thebearing
angleisshownas ,thereferenceangleisshownas ,andthepolarangleisshownas .
Bearing: Bearing:
BearingAngle: 50 BearingAngle: 30
ReferenceAngle: 40 ReferenceAngle: 60
PolarAngle: 140 PolarAngle: 60
Bearing: Bearing:
BearingAngle: 60 BearingAngle: 70
ReferenceAngle: 30 ReferenceAngle: 20
PolarAngle: 210 PolarAngle: 340
BearingsExamples
Example6.5:Twotrackingstationsareontheequator127milesapart.Aweatherballoonislocated
onabearingofN 36 EfromthewesternstationandonabearingofN 13 Wfromtheeastern
station.Howfaristheballoonfromthewesternstation?
Thebearinganglesgivenarethoseshowninorangeinthe
diagramatright.Thefirststepistocalculatethereference
anglesshowninmagentainthediagram.
90 36 54
90 13 77
180 54 77 49
Then,usetheLawofSines,asfollows:
127
164.0 miles
sin 49 sin 77
Example6.6:TwosailboatsleaveaharborintheBahamasatthesametime.Thefirstsailsat25mph
inadirectionS 50 E.Thesecondsailsat30mphinadirectionS 70 W.Assumingthatbothboats
maintainspeedandheading,after4hours,howfarapartaretheboats?
Letsdrawadiagramtoillustratethissituation.Thelengthsoftwosidesofatrianglearebased
onthedistancestheboatstravelinfourhours.Thebearinganglesgivenareusedtocalculate
thereferenceshowninorangeinthediagrambelow.
UsingtheLawofCosines,wecancalculate:
100 120 2 100 120 cos 120 36,400 190.8 miles
AreaofaTriangle
AreaofaTriangle
Thereareanumberofformulasfortheareaofatriangle,dependingonwhatinformation
aboutthetriangleisavailable.
GeometryFormula:Thisformula,learnedinElementaryGeometry,isprobablymostfamiliar
tothestudent.Itcanbeusedwhenthebaseandheightofatriangleareeitherknownorcan
bedetermined.
where, isthelengthofthebaseofthetriangle.
istheheightofthetriangle.
Note:Thebasecanbeanysideofthetriangle.Theheightisthelengthofthealtitudeof
whicheversideisselectedasthebase.So,youcanuse:
or or
HeronsFormula:Heronsformulafortheareaofatrianglecanbeusedwhenthelengthsof
allofthesidesareknown.Sometimesthisformula,thoughlessappealing,canbeveryuseful.
where, .
, , arethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.
Note: iscalledthesemiperimeterofthetrianglebecauseitishalfofthetrianglesperimeter.
AreaofaTriangle(contd)
TrigonometricFormulas
ThefollowingformulasfortheareaofatrianglecanbederivedfromtheGeometryformula,
,usingTrigonometry.Whichonetousedependsontheinformationavailable:
Twoanglesandoneside:
Twosidesandtheanglebetweenthem:
CoordinateGeometryFormula
Ifthethreeverticesofatrianglearedisplayedinacoordinateplane,theformulabelow,usinga
determinant,willgivetheareaofatriangle.
Letverticesofatriangleinthecoordinateplanebe: , , , , , .Then,the
areaofthetriangleis:
Example7.1:Forthetriangleinthefigureatright,theareais:
2 4 1
3 2 1
3 1 1
1 2 1 3 1 3 2
2 4 1
2 1 1 3 1 3 1
1 1 27
| 2 3 4 6 1 3 | 27
2 2 2
AreaofaTriangleExamples
Example7.2:Findtheareaofthetriangleif:C=120,a=4yards,b=5yards.
1
sin
2
1 3
4 5 sin 120 10 8.66yards2
2 2
Tosolvethisproblem,wewilluseHeronsformula:
1
2
1
Firstcalculate: 10 11 15 18
2
Then,
18 18 10 18 11 18 15
18 8 7 3 1221 54.99yards2
Example7.4:FindtheareaofthetriangleinthefigurebelowusingCoordinateGeometry:
1 1 1 1
1 1
1 7 1 1
2 1 2
6 5 1
1 1 1 7 1 7 1
1 1 1
2 5 1 6 1 6 5
1 1
| 1 4 1 1 1 29 | 24 12
2 2
Note:Itiseasytoseethatthistrianglehasabaseoflength6andaheightof4,sofrom
ElementaryGeometry,theareaofthetriangleis: 64 12(sameanswer).
Thestudentmaywishtotesttheothermethodsforcalculatingareathatarepresentedin
thischaptertoseeiftheyproducethesameresult.(Hint:theydo.)
PolarCoordinates
PolarcoordinatesareanalternativemethodofdescribingapointinaCartesianplanebasedonthe
distanceofthepointfromtheoriginandthepolaranglewhoseterminalsidecontainsthepoint.
Letstakealookattherelationshipbetweenapointsrectangularcoordinates , anditspolar
coordinates , .
Themagnitude,r, isthedistanceofthepointfromtheorigin:
Theangle,,isthepolaranglewhoseterminalsidecontainsthepoint.Generally,thisangleis
expressedinradians,notdegrees:
Conversionfrompolarcoordinatestorectangularcoordinatesisstraightforward:
cos and sin
Example8.1:Expresstherectangularform 4, 4 inpolar
coordinates:
Given: 4 4
4 4 42
So,thecoordinatesofthepointareasfollows:
Given: 42
cos 42 cos 42 4
sin 42 sin 42 4
So,thecoordinatesofthepointareasfollows:
PolarFormofComplexNumbers
ExpressingComplexNumbersinPolarForm
AcomplexnumbercanberepresentedaspointintheCartesianPlane,usingthehorizontalaxisfor
therealcomponentofthenumberandtheverticalaxisfortheimaginarycomponentofthenumber.
Ifweexpressacomplexnumberinrectangularcoordinatesas ,wecanalsoexpressitin
polarcoordinatesas cos sin ,with 0, 2 .Then,theequivalencesbetweenthe
twoformsfor are:
ConvertRectangulartoPolar ConvertPolartoRectangular
Magnitude:| | xcoordinate: cos
OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
Around1740,LeonhardEulerprovedthat: cos sin .Asaresult,wecanexpressany
complexnumberasanexponentialformof .Thatis:
cos sin
Thinkingofeachcomplexnumberasbeingintheform ,thefollowingrulesregarding
operationsoncomplexnumberscanbeeasilyderivedbasedonthepropertiesofexponents.
Let: cos sin , cos sin .Then,
So,todividecomplexnumbers,youdividetheirmagnitudesandsubtracttheirangles.
OperationsonComplexNumbersExamples
Example8.3:Findtheproduct: .
3 cos sin shorthandis: 3 cis 3
6 cos sin shorthandis: 6 cis 6
Tomultiplytwonumbersinpolarform,multiplythe valuesandaddtheangles.
7 9
3 6 cis
4 4
Note:multiplicationmaybeeasiertounderstandinexponentialform,sinceexponentsareadded
whenvalueswiththesamebasearemultiplied:
3 6 3 6 32 32 32
Example8.4:Findthequotient: .
3 cos sin shorthandis: 3 cis 3
6 cos sin shorthandis: 6 cis 6
Todividetwonumbersinpolarform,dividethe valuesandsubtracttheangles.
3 7 9
cis
6 4 4
1 2 2 3 2 3
cis cis 2 cis because cis i.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Note:divisionmaybeeasiertounderstandinexponentialform,sinceexponentsaresubtracted
whenvalueswiththesamebasearedivided:
3 1 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
6
DeMoivresTheorem
AbrahamdeMoivre(16671754)wasaFrenchmathematicianwhodevelopedaveryusefulTheorem
fordealingwithoperationsoncomplexnumbers.
Ifwelet cos sin ,DeMoivresTheoremgivesusthepowerruleexpressedontheprior
page:
cos sin
Example8.5:Find 3 7
Then, 3 7 4; 4 4,096
And, tan 138.590inQ2
6 831.542 ~ 111.542
So,
3 7 4,096 cis 111.542 4,096 cos 111.542 sin 111.542
1,504.0 3,809.9
Example8.6:Find 5 2
Then, 5 2 3; 3 243
5 1,109.052 ~ 29.052
So,
5 2 243 cis 29.052 243 cos 29.052 sin 29.052
212.4 118.0
DeMoivresTheoremforRoots
2 2 2
cos sin cis
Theformulacouldalsoberestatedwith2 replacedby360ifthishelpsinthecalculation.
Example8.7:Findthefifthrootsof .
First,since ,wehave 2and 3.
Fifthrootsof ~ . .
Angle( )
0 11.262 1.2675 0.2524
1 11.262 72 60.738 0.6317 1.1275
2 60.738 72 132.738 0.8771 0.9492
3 132.738 72 204.738 1.1738 0.5408
4 204.738 72 276.738 0.1516 1.2835
Noticethatifweaddanother72,weget348.738,whichisequivalenttoourfirstangle,
11.262because 348.738 360 11.262.Thisisagoodthingtocheck.Thenext
anglewillalwaysbeequivalenttothefirstangle!Ifitisnt,gobackandcheckyourwork.
Rootsfitonacircle:Noticethat,sincealloftherootsof have
thesamemagnitude,andtheiranglesare72apartfromeachother,
theyoccupyequidistantpositionsonacirclewithcenter 0, 0 and
radius 13 ~ 1.2924.
PolarGraphs
Typically,PolarGraphswillbeplottedonpolargraphpapersuchasthat
illustratedatright.Onthisgraph,apoint , canbeconsideredtobethe
intersectionofthecircleofradius andtheterminalsideoftheangle (see
theillustrationbelow).Note:afreePCappthatcanbeusedtodesignand
printyourownpolargraphpaperisavailableatwww.mathguy.us.
PartsofthePolarGraph
Theillustrationbelowshowsthekeypartsofapolargraph,alongwithapoint, 4, .
ThePoleisthepoint 0, 0 (i.e.,theorigin).
ThePolarAxisisthepositive axis.
TheLine: isthepositive axis.
Manyequationsthatcontainthecosine
functionaresymmetricaboutthe axis.
Manyequationsthatcontainthesine
functionaresymmetricaboutthe axis.
PolarEquationsSymmetry
Followingarethethreemaintypesofsymmetryexhibitedinmanypolarequationgraphs:
GraphsofPolarEquations
GraphingMethods
Method1:Pointplotting
Createatwocolumnchartthatcalculatesvaluesof forselectedvaluesof .Thisisakintoa
twocolumnchartthatcalculatesvaluesof forselectedvaluesof thatcanbeusedtoplota
rectangularcoordinatesequation(e.g., 4 3).
The valuesyouselectforpurposesofpointplottingshouldvarydependingontheequation
youareworkingwith(inparticular,thecoefficientof intheequation).However,asafebet
istostartwithmultiplesof 6(including 0).Ploteachpointonthepolargraphand
seewhatshapeemerges.Ifyouneedmoreorfewerpointstoseewhatcurveisemerging,
adjustasyougo.
Ifyouknowanythingaboutthecurve(typicalshape,symmetry,etc.),useittofacilitate
plottingpoints.
Connectthepointswithasmoothcurve.Admiretheresult;manyofthesecurvesare
aestheticallypleasing.
Method2:Calculator
UsingaTI84PlusCalculatororitsequivalent,dothefollowing:
Makesureyourcalculatorissettoradiansandpolarfunctions.HittheMODE
key;selectRADIANSinrow4andPOLARinrow5.Afteryoudothis,hitting
CLEARwillgetyoubacktothemainscreen.
HitY=andentertheequationintheform .UsetheX,T, ,nkeyto
enterintotheequation.Ifyourequationisoftheform ,youmay
needtoentertwofunctions, and ,andplotboth.
HitGRAPHtoplotthefunctionorfunctionsyouenteredinthepreviousstep.
Ifnecessary,hitWINDOWtoadjusttheparametersoftheplot.
o Ifyoucannotseethewholefunction,adjusttheXandYvariables(oruseZOOM).
o Ifthecurveisnotsmooth,reducethevalueofthe stepvariable.Thiswillplotmore
pointsonthescreen.Notethatsmallervaluesof steprequiremoretimetoplotthe
curve,sochooseavaluethatplotsthecurvewellinareasonableamountoftime.
o Iftheentirecurveisnotplotted,adjustthevaluesofthe minand maxvariablesuntil
youseewhatappearstobetheentireplot.
Note:Youcanviewthetableofpointsusedtographthepolarfunctionbyhitting2NDTABLE.
GraphofPolarEquations
Circle
Equation: sin Equation: cos Equation:
Location: Location: Location:
above axisif 0 rightof axisif 0 CenteredonthePole
below axisif 0 leftof axisif 0
Radius: /2 Radius: /2 Radius:
Symmetry: axis Symmetry: axis Symmetry:Pole, axis,
axis
Rose
Characteristicsofroses:
Equation: sin
o Symmetricaboutthe axis
Equation: cos
o Symmetricaboutthe axis
Containedwithinacircleofradius
If isodd,therosehas petals.
If iseventherosehas2 petals.
Notethatacircleisarosewithonepetal(i.e, 1).
GraphsofPolarEquations
LimaonofPascal
Equation: sin Equation: cos
Location:bulbabove axisif 0 Location:bulbrightof axisif 0
bulbbelow axisif 0 bulbleftof axisif 0
Symmetry: axis Symmetry: axis
FourLimaonShapes
2 2
Innerloop Cardioid Dimple Nodimple
FourLimaonOrientations(usingtheCardioidasanexample)
GraphofPolarEquations
LemniscateofBernoulli
Thelemniscateisthesetofallpoints
forwhichtheproductofthe
distancesfromtwopoints(i.e.,foci)
whichare2 apartis .
Characteristicsoflemniscates:
Equation: sin 2
o Symmetricabouttheline
Equation: cos 2
o Symmetricaboutthe axis
Containedwithinacircleofradius
Spirals
HyperbolicSpiral
ArchimedesSpiralFermatsSpiral
Lituus
Characteristicsofspirals:
Equation: , 0
o DistancefromthePoleincreaseswith
Equation: , 0
o HyperbolicSpiral 1 :asymptotictotheline unitsfromthe axis
o Lituus 2 :asymptotictothe axis
Notcontainedwithinanycircle
GraphingPolarEquationsTheRose
Example9.1:
areeasilydetermined.
/2 0 0
Thevaluesinthetable
generatethepointsinthe Bluepointsonthegraph
twopetalsrightofthe axis. correspondtobluevalues
inthetable.
Knowingthatthecurveisa
roseallowsustographthe Orangepointsonthe
othertwopetalswithout graphcorrespondto
calculatingmorepoints. orangevaluesinthetable.
ThefourRoseforms:
GraphingPolarEquationsTheCardioid
Example9.2:
valuesof in 0, 2 .However,
somefunctionsrequirelarger
0 2
intervals.Thesizeoftheinterval
/6 3 7/6 1 dependslargelyonthenatureofthe
/3 3.732 4/3 0.268 functionandthecoefficientof .
/2 4 3/2 0
2 /3 3.732 5 /3 0.268
Oncesymmetryis
5 /6 3 11 /6 1 established,thesevalues
2 2 2 areeasilydetermined.
Theportionofthegraph
abovethe axisresults
Bluepointsonthegraph
from inQ1andQ2,
correspondtobluevalues
wherethesinefunctionis inthetable.
positive.
Similarly,theportionof Orangepointsonthe
thegraphbelowthexaxis graphcorrespondto
resultsfrom inQ3and orangevaluesinthetable.
Q4,wherethesine
functionisnegative.
ThefourCardioidforms:
ConvertingBetweenPolarandRectangularFormsofEquations
RectangulartoPolar
ToconvertanequationfromRectangularFormtoPolarForm,usethefollowingequivalences:
cos Substitute cos for
sin Substitute sin for
Substitute for
Example9.3:Convert8 3 10 0toapolarequationoftheform .
StartingEquation: 8 3 10 0
Substitute cos and sin : 8 cos 3 sin 10 0
Factorout : 8 cos 3 sin 10
PolartoRectangular
ToconvertanequationfromPolarFormtoRectangularForm,usethefollowingequivalences:
Substitute for
Substitutecos , sin : 8 9
Multiplyby : 8 9
Substitute : 8 9
Subtract8 9 : 8 9 0
Completethesquare: 8 16 9 16
Simplifytostandardformforacircle:
Version 2.1 Page 76 of 109 April 10, 2017
Chapter9 PolarFunctions
ParametricEquations
Example9.5:Arelativelysimpleexampleisacircle,whichwecandefineasfollows:
Circle: cos sin
Asthevariable progressesfrom0to2 ,acircleofradius isborn.
Thecircleintheillustrationatrightcanbedefinedinseveralways:
Cartesianform: 16
Polarform: 4
Parametricform: 4 cos 4 sin
FamiliarCurves
Manycurveswithwhichthestudentmaybefamiliarhaveparametricforms.Amongthosearethe
following:
Parabolawithhorizontal 2
directrix 1 sin
Ellipsewithhorizontal cos
1 1 cos
majoraxis sin
0 1
Hyperbolawithhorizontal sec
1 1 cos
transverseaxis tan
1
Ascanbeseenfromthischart,sometimestheparametricformofafunctionisitssimplest.Infact,
parametricequationsoftenallowustographcurvesthatwouldbeverydifficulttographineither
PolarformorCartesianform.Someoftheseareillustratedonthenextpage.
SomeFunctionsDefinedbyParametricEquations
(StarWarsfans:arethesetheoidsyouarelookingfor?)
Thegraphsbelowareexamplesoffunctionsdefinedbyparametricequations.Theequationsanda
briefdescriptionofthecurveareprovidedforeachfunction.
Cycloid
Parametricequations: Thecycloidisthepathofapointonthecircumferenceofacircleasthe
sin circlerollsalongaflatsurface(think:thepathofapointontheoutside
ofabicycletireasyourideonthesidewalk).Thecycloidisbotha
1 cos
brachistochroneandatautochrone(looktheseupifyouareinterested).
Vectors
Avectorisaquantitythathasbothmagnitudeanddirection.Anexamplewouldbewind
blowingtowardtheeastat30milesperhour.Anotherexamplewouldbetheforceofa10kg
weightbeingpulledtowardtheearth(aforceyoucanfeelifyouareholdingtheweight).
SpecialUnitVectors
Wedefineunitvectorstobevectorsoflength1.Unitvectorshavingthedirectionofthe
positiveaxesareveryuseful.Theyaredescribedinthechartandgraphicbelow.
VectorComponents
Thelengthofavector, ,iscalleditsmagnitudeandisrepresentedbythesymbol .Ifa
vectorsinitialpoint(startingposition)is , , ,anditsterminalpoint(endingposition)is
, , ,thenthevectordisplaces inthe direction, inthe
direction,and inthe direction.Wecan,then,representthevectorasfollows:
Themagnitudeofthevector, ,iscalculatedas:
Ifthislooksfamiliar,itshould.Themagnitudeofavectorinthree
dimesnsionsisdeterminedasthelengthofthespacediagonalofa
rectangularprismwithsides , and .
Intwodimensions,theseconceptscontracttothefollowing:
Intwodimensions,themagnitudeofthevectoristhelengthofthehypotenuseofaright
trianglewithsides and .
VectorProperties
Vectorshaveanumberofnicepropertiesthatmakeworkingwiththembothusefuland
relativelysimple.Let and bescalars,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
If and ,then
If ,then
PropertiesofVectors
AdditiveIdentity
AdditiveInverse
CommutativeProperty
AssociativeProperty
AssociativeProperty
DistributiveProperty
DistributiveProperty
1 MultiplicativeIdentity
Also,notethat:
| | MagnitudeProperty
Unitvectorinthedirectionof
VectorPropertiesExamples
Example10.1:u=3i6j,v=6i+8j;Findu+v.
Analternativenotationforavectorintheform is , .Usingthisalternative
notationmakesmanyvectoroperationsmucheasiertoworkwith.
Toaddvectors,simplylinethemup 3, 6
verticallyandadd: 6, 8
3 6, 6 8
3, 2 3 2
Example10.2:u=2i7jandv=4i21j;Find .
4, 21 Subtracting isthesameasadding .
2, 7 Toget ,simplychangethesignofeach
2, 14 elementof .Ifyoufinditeasiertoadd
thantosubtract,youmaywanttoadopt
2 14 thisapproachtosubtractingvectors.
Example10.3:Findtheunitvectorthathasthesamedirectionasthevectorv=5i12j.
Aunitvectorhasmagnitude1.Togetaunitvectorinthesamedirectionastheoriginal
vector,dividethevectorbyitsmagnitude.
Theunitvectoris:
VectorPropertiesExamples
Example10.4:Writethevectorvintermsofiandjif =10anddirectionangle=120.
Ithelpstographthevectoridentifiedintheproblem.
Theunitvectorinthedirection 120is:
1 3 1 3
cos 120, sin 120 ,
2 2 2 2
Multiplythisby toget :
1 3
10 5 53
2 2
VectorDotProduct
Itisimportanttonotethatthedotproductisascalar(i.e.,anumber),notavector.Itdescribes
somethingabouttherelationshipbetweentwovectors,butisnotavectoritself.Auseful
approachtocalculatingthedotproductoftwovectorsisillustratedhere:
, , alternative
vector
, , notation
General Example
Intheexampleatrightthevectorsarelinedupvertically. , , 4, 3, 2
Thenumbersintheeachcolumnaremultipliedandthe , , 2, 2, 5
resultsareaddedtogetthedotproduct.Intheexample,
8 6 10
4, 3, 2 2, 2, 5 8 6 10 24.
24
PropertiesoftheDotProduct
Let beascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
0 ZeroProperty
0 , and areorthogonaltoeachother.
CommutativeProperty
MagnitudeSquareProperty
DistributiveProperty
MultiplicationbyaScalarProperty
Moreproperties:
VectorDotProductExamples
Example10.5:u=5i+3j,v=5i6j,w=3i+12j;Finduw+vw.
Thealternatenotationforvectorscomesinespeciallyhandyindoingthesetypesof
problems.Also,notethat:(uw)+(vw)=(u+v) w.Letscalculate(u+v)w.
5, 3
5, 6 Usingthedistributivepropertyfordot
productsresultsinaneasierproblem
0, 3
withfewercalculations.
3, 12
u v w 0 3 3 12 0 36 36
Example10.6:Findtheanglebetweenthegivenvectors:u=ij,v=4i+5j.
1, 1
cos
4, 5
0 180 14 1 5 1
1 1 2
4 5 41
cos
1
cos 96.3
82
Example10.7:Arethefollowingvectorsparallel,orthogonal,orneither?v=4i+3j,w=3i4j
Ifvectorsareparallel,oneisamultipleoftheother;also .
Ifvectorsareperpendicular,theirdotproductiszero.
Calculatethedotproduct.
4, 3
3, 4
43 3 4 12 12 0So,thevectorsareorthogonal.
VectorDotProductExamples
Example10.8:Arethevectorsareparallel,orthogonal,orneither.v=3i+4j,w=6i+8j
VectorMultipleApproach
Itisclearlyeasiertocheckwhetherone
3, 4 vectorisamultipleoftheotherthanto
6, 8 usethedotproductmethod.The
Clearly, 2 studentmayuseeither,unlessinstructed
Thevectorsareparallel. touseaparticularmethod.
DotProductApproach
Todetermineiftwovectorsareparallelusingthedotproduct,wechecktoseeif:
3, 4
6, 8
18 32 50
3 4 5
6 8 10
5 10 50
Thevectorsareparallel.
CrossProductApproach(seeCrossProductbelow)
Todetermineiftwovectorsareparallelusingthecrossproduct,wechecktoseeif:
x 0
v v
x w w v w v w
3 4
x 38 46 0
6 8
Thevectorsareparallel.
ApplicationsoftheVectorDotProduct
VectorProjection
Theprojectionofavector, ,ontoanothervector ,isobtainedusingthedotproduct.The
formulausedtodeterminetheprojectionvectoris:
proj
Noticethat isascalar,andthatproj isavector.
Inthediagramatright,v1 proj .
OrthogonalComponentsofaVector(Decomposition)
Avector, ,canbeexpressedasthesumoftwoorthogonalvectors and ,asshowninthe
abovediagram.Theresultingvectorsare:
proj and
isparallelto isorthogonalto
Work
Workisascalarquantityinphysicsthatmeasurestheforceexertedonanobjectovera
particulardistance.Itisdefinedusingvectors,asshownbelow.Let:
Fbetheforcevectoractingonanobject,movingitfrompoint topoint .
bethevectorfrom to .
betheanglebetweenFand .
Then,wedefineworkas:
Bothoftheseformulasareuseful.
Whichonetouseinaparticular
cos situationdependsonwhat
informationisavailable.
ApplicationsofVectorsExamples
Example10.9:Themagnitudeanddirectionoftwoforcesactingonanobjectare60pounds,
N 40 E,and70pounds,N 40 W,respectively.Findthemagnitudeandthedirectionangleof
theresultantforce.
Thisproblemrequirestheadditionoftwovectors.Theapproachusedhereis:
1) Converteachvectorintoits iandjcomponents,callthem and ,
2) Addtheresulting and valuesforthetwovectors,and
3) Convertthesumtoitspolarform.
Keepadditionalaccuracythroughoutandroundattheend.Thiswillpreventerror
compoundingandwillpreservetherequiredaccuracyofyourfinalsolutions.
Step1:Converteachvectorintoits iandjcomponents
Let beaforceof60lbs.atbearing:N 40 E
Fromthediagramatright,
90 40 50
60 cos 50 38.5673
60 sin 50 45.9627
Let beaforceof70lbs.atbearing:N 40 W
Fromthediagramatright,
90 40 50
70 cos 50 44.9951
70 sin 50 53.6231
Step2:Addtheresultsforthetwovectors
38.5673, 45.9627
44.9951, 53.6231
6.4278, 99.5858
Step3:Convertthesumtoitspolarform
.
DirectionAngle tan 93.7
.
ApplicationsofVectorsExamples
Example10.10:Oneropepullsabargedirectlyeastwithaforceof79newtons,andanother
ropepullsthebargedirectlynorthwithaforceof87newtons.Findthemagnitudeand
directionangleoftheresultingforceactingonthebarge.
Theprocessofaddingtwovectorswhoseheadingsarenorth,east,
westorsouth(NEWS)isverysimilartoconvertingasetofrectangular
coordinatestopolarcoordinates.So,ifthisprocessseemsfamiliar,
thatsbecauseitis.
Example10.11:AforceisgivenbythevectorF=5i+2j.Theforcemovesanobjectalonga
straightlinefromthepoint(5,7)tothepoint(18,13).Findtheworkdoneifthedistanceis
measured
infeetandtheforceismeasuredinpounds.
Forthisproblemitissufficienttousetheworkformula,
Wearegiven 5, 2.
Wecancalculate asthedifferencebetweenthetwogivenpoints.
18, 13
5, 7
13, 6 Notethatthedifferencebetweentwopointsisavector.
Then,calculate
5, 2
13, 6
5 13 26 77footpounds
ApplicationsofVectorsExamples
Theformulasforthisare:
proj
Letsdothecalculations.
1, 4
2, 1
12 41 2
2 1 5
Then,
proj 2, 1 ,
And,
1, 4
4 2
,
5 5
9 18
,
5 5
VectorCrossProduct
CrossProduct
Inthreedimensions,
Let: u u u and v v v
Then,theCrossProductisgivenby:
x u u u u v u v u v u v u v u v
v v v
x sin
Explanation:Thecrossproductoftwononzerovectorsinthreedimensionsproducesathird
vectorthatisorthogonaltoeachofthefirsttwo.Thisresultingvector x is,therefore,
normaltotheplanecontainingthefirsttwovectors(assuming and arenotparallel).Inthe
secondformulaabove, istheunitvectornormaltotheplanecontainingthefirsttwovectors.
Itsorientation(direction)isdeterminedusingtherighthandrule.
RightHandRule
Usingyourrighthand: x
Pointyourforefingerinthedirectionof ,and
Pointyourmiddlefingerinthedirectionof .
Then:
Yourthumbwillpointinthedirectionof x .
Intwodimensions,
Let: u u and v v
u u
Then, x v v u v u v whichisascalar(intwodimensions).
Thecrossproductoftwononzerovectorsintwodimensionsiszeroifthevectorsareparallel.
Thatis,vectors and areparallelif x 0.
Theareaofaparallelogramhaving and asadjacentsidesandanglebetweenthem:
sin .
VectorCrossProduct
PropertiesoftheCrossProduct
Let beascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
x x ZeroProperty
x , x , x , and areorthogonaltoeachother
x , x , x Reverseorientationorthogonality
x Everynonzerovectorisparalleltoitself
x x AnticommutativeProperty
x x x DistributiveProperty
x x x DistributiveProperty
m x x m m x ScalarMultiplication
Moreproperties:
AngleBetweenTwoVectors
Noticethesimilaritiesintheformulasfortheanglebetweentwovectorsusingthedotproduct
andthecrossproduct:
cos
sin
VectorTripleProducts
ScalarTripleProduct
Let: u u u , v v v , w w w .
Thenthetripleproduct x givesascalarrepresentingthevolumeofaparallelepiped
(a3Dparallelogram)with , ,and asedges:
u u u
x v v v
w w w
x x
OtherTripleProducts
x x Duplicatingavectorresultsinaproductof
x x
x x
x x x
NoAssociativeProperty
Theassociativepropertyofrealnumbersdoesnottranslatetotripleproducts.Inparticular,
Noassociativepropertyofdotproducts/multiplication
x x x x Noassociativepropertyofcrossproducts
Appendix A
SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
TrigonometricFunctions 1
sin sin
( and axes) csc
1
cos cos
sec
1 sin
tan tan tan
cot cos
1 cos
cot cot cot
tan sin
1
sec sec
cos
1
csc csc
sin
PythagoreanIdentities SineCosineRelationship KeyAngles
(foranyangle) ( )
sin cos
sin cos 1 2
0 0 radians
sec 1 tan sin cos
2
30 radians
csc 1 cot 6
45 radians
4
60 radians
3
Cofunctions(inQuadrantI)
90 radians
sin cos cos sin 2
2 2
tan cot cot tan
2 2
sec csc csc sec
2 2
TrigonometricFunctions(RightTriangle)
SOHCAHTOA
LawsofSinesandCosines(ObliqueTriangle)
LawofSines(seeillustrationbelow) LawofCosines(seeillustrationbelow)
2 cos
2 cos
2 cos
A
c b
B a C
AngleAdditionFormulas
sin sin cos cos sin cos cos cos sin sin
sin sin cos cos sin cos cos cos sin sin
tan tan
DoubleAngleFormulas
HalfAngleFormulas
Theuseofa+orsigninthehalfangle
formulasdependsonthequadrantinwhich
sin theangle resides.Seechartbelow.
SignsofTrigFunctions
cos
ByQuadrant
sin+ sin+
tan cos cos+
tan tan+
x
sin sin
cos cos+
tan+ tan
PowerReducingFormulas
sin
cos
tan
ProducttoSumFormulas
SumtoProductFormulas
TriangleAreaFormulas
Geometry
where, isthelengthofthebaseofthetriangle.
istheheightofthetriangle.
HeronsFormula
where, .
, , arethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.
UsingBothLengthsandAngles
CoordinateGeometry
Letthreeverticesofatriangleinthecoordinateplanebe: , , , , , .
ComplexNumbersinPolarForm
Operations
Let: cos sin
cos sin
2 2
Roots: cos sin ,
variesfrom0to 1
Vectors
, , aretheunitvectorsinthe , , directionsrespectively.
2dimensions 3dimensions
Properties
AdditiveIdentity
AdditiveInverse
CommutativeProperty
AssociativeProperty
AssociativeProperty
DistributiveProperty
DistributiveProperty
1 MultiplicativeIdentity
| | MagnitudeProperty
Unitvectorinthedirectionof
VectorDotProduct
Let: and
Properties
0 ZeroProperty
0 , and areorthogonaltoeachother.
CommutativeProperty
MagnitudeSquareProperty
DistributiveProperty
MultiplicationbyaScalarProperty
cos
istheanglebetween and
VectorProjection
proj
OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
proj and
Work
Fistheforcevectoractingonanobject,movingitfrompoint topoint .
cos isanglebetweenFand .
VectorCrossProduct
2Dimensions
Let: u u and v v
u u
Then, x v v u v u v
3Dimensions
Let: u u u and v v v
x u u u u v u v u v u v u v u v
v v v
x sin
istheunitvectornormaltotheplanecontainingthefirsttwovectorswithorientation
determinedusingtherighthandrule.
Properties
x x ZeroProperty
x , x , x , and areorthogonaltoeachother
x , x , x Reverseorientationorthogonality
x Everynonzerovectorisparalleltoitself
x x AnticommutativeProperty
x x x DistributiveProperty
x x x DistributiveProperty
m x x m m x ScalarMultiplication
sin
istheanglebetween and
VectorTripleProducts
Let: u u u , v v v , w w w .
ScalarTripleProduct
u u u
x v v v
w w w
x x
OtherTripleProducts
x x
x x
x x
x x x
NoAssociativeProperty
x x x x
AppendixB
SolvingtheAmbiguousCaseAlternativeMethod
Howdoyousolveatriangle(ortwo)intheambiguouscase?Assumetheinformationgivenisthe
lengthsofsides and ,andthemeasureofAngle .Usethefollowingsteps:
Step1:Calculatethesineofthemissingangle(inthisdevelopment,angle ). Step1:Use
Step2:Considerthevalueof :
sin sin
If 1,thenwehaveCase1thereisnotriangle.Stophere.
If 1,then 90,andwehaveCase2arighttriangle.ProceedtoStep4.
If 1,thenwehaveCase3orCase4.Proceedtothenextsteptodeterminewhich.
Step3:Compare and .
If ,thenwehaveCase3twotriangles.Calculatethevaluesofeachangle ,usingthe
LawofSines.Then,proceedtoStep4andcalculatetheremainingvaluesforeachtriangle.
If ,thenwehavecase4onetriangle.ProceedtoStep4.
AmbiguousCase(AlternativeMethod)Flowchart
Start Here
yes
1 Value of 1
Is ?
sin
1 no
Two triangles
Appendix C
SummaryofRectangularandPolarForms
RectangularForm PolarForm
Coordinates Form , ,
Conversion cos
sin
tan
Conversion cos
sin
tan
Vectors Form
magnitude
directionangle
Conversion cos
sin
tan
Page Subject
54,103 AmbiguousCaseforObliqueTriangles
56,104 AmbiguousCaseforObliqueTrianglesFlowchart
17 Amplitude
8 Angle
37 AngleAdditionFormulas
14 AngleofDepression
14 AngleofDepression
7 ArcMeasure
AreaofaTriangle
61 GeometryFormula
61 Heron'sFormula
62 TrigonometricFormulas
62 CoordinateGeometryFormula
78 Astroid
72,75 Cardioid
17 CharacteristicsofTrigonometricFunctionGraphs
71 Circles
9 Cofunctions
ComplexNumbers
65,105 ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
65 OperationsinPolarForm
65 PolarForm
79 ComponentsofVectors
ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
65,105 ComplexNumbers
64,105 Coordinates
76 Equations
105 Vectors
11 CosecantFunction
11 CosineFunction
11 CotangentFunction
8 CoterminalAngle
90 CrossProduct
78 Cycloid
Page Subject
11 DefinitionsofTrigFunctions(RightTriangle)
9 DefinitionsofTrigFunctions(xandyaxes)
7 Degrees
78 Deltoid
67 DeMoivre'sTheorem
68 DeMoivre'sTheoremforRoots
14 Depression,Angleof
83 DotProduct
37 DoubleAngleFormulas
77 Ellipse
Equations
76 ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
47 SolvingTrigonometricEquations
17 Frequency
Graphs
15 BasicTrigFunctions
75 Cardioid
30 CosecantFunction
22 CosineFunction
26 CotangentFunction
34 InverseTrigonometricFunctions
72 LimaonofPascal
69 PolarFunctions
74 Rose
28 SecantFunction
20 SineFunction
24 TangentFunction
19 TrigFunctionCharacteristics(Table)
37 HalfAngleFormulas
32 HarmonicMotion
61 Heron'sFormula
77 Hyperbola
IdentitiesVerification
43 Steps
44 Techniques
Page Subject
14 Inclination,Angleof
8 InitialSideofanAngle
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
33 Definitions
34 Graphs
33 PrincipalValues
33 Ranges
52 LawofCosines
52 LawofSines
73 LemniscateofBernoulli
72 LimaonofPascal
78 Nephroid
51 ObliqueTriangleMethodstoSolve
65 OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
86 OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
77 Parabola
17 Period
18 PhaseShift
8 PolarAngle
8,69 PolarAxis
64,105 PolarCoordinates
65,105 PolarFormofComplexNumbers
71 PolarGraphTypes
64,105 PolartoRectangularCoordinateConversion
41 PowerReducingFormulas
33 PrincipalValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
41 ProducttoSumFormulas
86 ProjectionofOneVectorontoAnother
80 PropertiesofVectors
9 PythagoreanIdentities
8 QuadrantalAngle
7,9 Radians
64,80 RectangulartoPolarCoordinateConversion
Page Subject
8 ReferenceAngle
71,74 Rose
11 SecantFunction
32 SimpleHarmonicMotion
11 SineFunction
9 SineCosineRelationship
11 SOHCAHTOA
73 Spirals
8 StandardPosition
41 SumtoProductFormulas
11 TangentFunction
8 TerminalSideofanAngle
12 TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
11 TrigonometricFunctionsofSpecialAngles
92 TripleProducts
10 UnitCircle
79 UnitVectorsiandj
79 Vectors
79 Components
105 ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
90 CrossProduct
83 DotProduct
86 OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
86 Projection
80 Properties
86 SpecialUnitVectorsiandj
92 TripleProducts
8 VertexofanAngle
18 VerticalShift
86 Work