Professional Documents
Culture Documents
C I R C U L.A'R 3 4 7
Revised January 1950
The Water-Culture
Method for Growing
Plants without Soil
D. R. HOAGLAND and
D. I. ARNON
Revised by D. I. ARNON
-U -U -&
If, realizing these limitations, you still wish to experiment with nutri-
culture methods, you will find directions beginning on page 23.
Type of container 23
Nature of bed 24
Aeration of the root system 26
Planting procedures 27
Managing the solutions 27
Selecting the nutrient solution 29
Preparing the nutrient solution 29
Nutrient solutions for demonstrating mineral deficiencies
in plants 31
Foreword
For over three decades, the California production, it became evident that an in-
Agricultural Experiment Station has con- dependent appraisal of this method of
ducted investigations of problems of plant growing crops was highly desirable. I
nutrition with the use of water-culture therefore requested Professors D. R.
technique for growing plants, as one im- Hoagland and D. I. Arnon to conduct cer-
portant method of experimentation. The tain additional investigations and to pre-
objective has been to gain a better under- pare a manuscript for a popular circular
standing of fundamental factors which on the general subject of growing plants
govern plant growth, in order to deal in nutrient solutions.
more effectively with the many complex When this circular was first published
questions of soil and plant interrelations in 1938, neither the California Agricul-
arising in the field. Many workers have tural Experiment Station nor the authors
participated in these investigations. One made any general recommendations as to
of them, Dr. W. F. Gericke, conceived the the use of soilless culture methods for
idea some time ago that the water-culture commercial crop production. The pur-
method, hitherto employed only for scien- pose of the publication was to make avail-
tific studies, might be adapted to commer- able such technical information from the
cial use, and proceeded to devise special researches of the Station to those who
technique for this purpose. wished toexperiment with the water-
In the nineteen thirties, this develop- culture method on their own responsibil-
ment was given widespread publicity in ity. An attitude of caution and a balanced
[3]
THE WATER-CULTURE METHOD
FOR GROWING PLANTS WITHOUT SOIL
D. R. Hoagland and D. I. Arnon
2
Revised by D. I. Arnon
Nutriculture is the term applied to all Widely circulated rumors, claims, and
methods for growing plants in a medium predictions about the water-culture pro-
other than natural soil. It includes water duction of crops often had little more to
culture, aggregate culture,and the "ad- commend them than the author's unre-
sorbed-nutrient" technique, all of which strained imagination. Grossly inaccurate
are discussed briefly in this circular. Spe- in fact and misleading in implication,
cific directions, however, are given for most of these claims betrayed an igno-
water culture only. rance of even the elementary principles of
In the nineteen thirties, the popular plant physiology. For example, there have
press gave an immense amount of pub- been statements that in the future most
licity to the subject of commercial or of the food needed by the occupants of a
amateur growing of crops in "water cul- great apartment building may be grown
ture." This is a method of growing plants on the roof, and that in large cities "sky-
with their roots in a solution containing scraper" farms may supply huge quanti-
the mineral nutrients essential for plant ties of fresh fruit and vegetables. One
growth. The solution takes the place of Sunday-supplement article contained an
soil in supplying water and mineral nu- illustration showing a housewife opening
trients to the plant. "Tray agriculture," a small closet off the kitchen and picking
"tank farming," and "hydroponics," were tomatoes from vines growing in water
other names given to this same process. culture with the aid of electric lights.
Frequently, popular accounts left the im- There has even arisen a rumor that the
pression that a new discovery had been restaurants of a large chain in New York
made which would revolutionize present City are growing their vegetables in base-
methods of crop production. Indeed, some ments. Stories of this kind have gained
predicted that in the future water culture wide currency and have captured the im-
would supplant the use of soils for grow- agination of many persons.
ing many crops and would thus produce Many factors have doubtless contrib-
far-reaching social dislocations. uted to arousing the surprisingly wide
interest in the water-culture method of
Extravagant claims for nutriculture crop production. Current stress upon soil
are unfounded conservation, with attendant emphasis
Promoters have made wholly un- upon needless soil depletion and land
founded claims that a new "profession of erosion, has made the public especially
soilless farming" has been developed, af- receptive to new ideas relating to crop
fording extraordinary opportunities for production. Some people have been im-
investment of time and funds. They have pressed by the assumed social and eco-
attempted to convince the public that a nomic significance of the water-culture
short course of training will give prepara- method. Others, moved by the common
tion for entering this new "profession." 1
Professor of Plant Nutrition and Plant Phys-
The impression has also been given that iologist in the Experiment Station, deceased.
2
Associate Professor of Plant Nutrition and
the water-culture method offers an easy Associate Plant Physiologist in the Experiment
means of raising food for household use. Station.
[4]
delight of mankind in growing plants, Experiment Station, in which the water-
even though the garden space is reduced culture technique is used, have sometimes
to a window sill, have sought directions to been confused in popular discussions.
enable them to try a novel technique of One of these concerns methods of grow-
plant culture. ing plants in water culture under natural
The consequence of the discussion of light; the other, the study of special scien-
this method has been the creation of a tific problems of plant growth in con-
great public demand for more specific trolled chambers artificially illuminated.
information. Should this newly aroused At the present time there is no economic
interest in plant growth lead to a greater possibility of growing commercial crops
diffusion of the knowledge of certain solely under artificial illumination, even
general principles of plant physiology, if there were any reason for doing so.
[5]
a large number of chemical elements, but Modern technique in water culture
they constitute only a very small portion originated about 1860
of the plant. Yet the various elements that
After they were successfully grown in
occur in plants in comparatively small artificial culture media, it was but one
amounts are just as essential to growth as more step to dispense with any solid
those which compose the bulk of plant
medium and attempt to grow plants in
tissues.
water to which were added the chemical
The publication in 1840 of Liebig's elements they were known to require.
book on the application of organic chem- This was successfully accomplished in
3
istry to agriculture and physiology, in
1860 by Sachs and about the same time
which these facts were ably and effec- by Knop. To quote Sachs directly:
tively brought to the attention of plant
In the year 1860, I published the results of
physiologists and chemists of that period,
experiments which demonstrated that land
served as a great stimulus for undertaking plants are capable of absorbing their nutritive
experimental work in plant nutrition. matters out of watery solutions, without the aid
(Liebig, however, failed to understand of soil,and that it is possible in this way not
only to maintain plants alive and growing for a
the role of soil as a source of nitrogen for
long time, as had long been known, but also to
plants; and the fixation of atmospheric bring about a vigorous increase of their organic
nitrogen by bacteria was not then known. substance, and even the production of seed
4
Once it was recognized that the func- capable of germination.
tion of the soil in the economy of the The original technique developed by
plant is to furnish certain chemical ele- Sachs for growing plants in nutrient solu-
ments, as well as water, it was but natural tions is still widely used, essentially un-
to attempt to supply these elements and altered. He germinated the seed in
water independently of soil. The credit well-washed sawdust, until the plants
for initiating exact experimentation in reached a size convenient for transplant-
belongs to the French chemist,
this field ing. After carefully removing and wash-
Jean Boussingault, who is regarded as ing the seedling, he fastened it into a
the founder of modern methods of con- perforated cork, with the roots dipping
ducting experiments in vegetation. into the solution. The complete assembly
Boussingault, who had begun his ex- is shown in figure 1, which is a reproduc-
periments on plants even before 1840, tion of Sachs' illustration.
used insoluble artificial soils: sand, Since the publication of Sachs' stand-
quartz, and sugar charcoal, which he ard solution formula (table 1) for grow-
watered with solutions of known com- ing plants in water culture, many other
position. His results provided experi- formulas have been used with success by
mental verification for the mineral theory investigators in different countries. Knop,
of plant nutrition forward by
as put who undertook water-culture experiments
Liebig, and were at once a demonstration at the same time as Sachs, proposed in
of the feasibility of growing plants in a 1865 a nutrient solution, which became
medium other than a "natural soil." one of the most widely employed in
This method of growing plants in arti- studies of plant nutrition. Other formulas
ficial insoluble soils improved
was later for nutrient solutions have been proposed
by Salm-Horstmar (1856-1860) and has by Tollens in 1882, by Schimper in 1890,
been used since, with technical improve- by Pfeffer in 1900, by Crone in 1902, by
ments, by many investigators. In recent 3
Liebig, Justus von. Chemistry in its applica-
years, large-scale techniques have been tions to agriculture and physiology. [English
devised for growing plants for experi- translation.] 401 pp. John Wiley, New York,
N.Y. 1861.
mental or commercial purposes in beds 4
Sachs, Julius von. Lectures on the physiology
of sand or other inert solid material. of plants. 836 pp. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1887.
[6]
Tottingham in 1914, by Shive in 1915, by Water culture was long used only
Hoagland in 1920, and by many others. as research technique
At the very beginning of the water-
Until recently, the water-culture tech-
culture work, investigators clearly recog-
nique was employed exclusively in small-
nized that no one composition of a
scale, controlled laboratory experiments
nutrient solution is always superior to
intended to solve fundamental problems
of plant nutrition and physiology. These
experiments have led to the determination
of the list of chemical elements essential
for plant life. They have thus profoundly
influenced the practice of soil manage-
ment and fertilization for purposes of
5
crop production. In recent years, great
refinements in water-culture technique
have made possible the discovery of sev-
eral new essential elements. These, al-
[7]
recent development in the technique has pends on the kind of plant. Potatoes, for
been the recognition of the importance, example, require a suitable bed in which
for many plants, of special aeration of tubers can develop. This is usually a
the nutrient solution to supplement the porous one placed just above the level of
oxygen supply normally entering it when the solution. Tomatoes need adequate
surrounding at-
in free contact with the support only for the aerial portion of the
mosphere. stem, assuming that the roots are in a
favorable culture-solution medium, ade-
Present-day commercial water cul- quately aerated, and with light excluded.
ture involves no new principles A porous bed may be convenient as a
The recently publicized use of the means of facilitating aeration of the solu-
water-culture technique for commercial tion, as a heat insulator, or as a support
crop production on the same princi-
rests for the plant, but plays no indispensable
ples of plant nutrition as were discussed role. Aside from such considerations, the
above. It involves the application of a choice of a covering is determined largely
similar to those employed in small-scale that even with the use of a porous bed,
laboratory experiments. bubbling air through the solution may be
The selection of a particular type of advantageous or, under some conditions,
covering for the tanks adapted to large- indispensable.
scale water-culture operations and of As illustrations of some scientific prob-
methods for supporting the plants de- lems of plant nutrition which have been
KN0 3 1.00 Ca(N0 3)2 0.8 Ca(N0 3)2 0.8 KN0 3 1.00
Ca3 (P0 4 ) 2 0.50 KN0 3 0.2 KN0 3 0.2 Ca3 (P0 4 ) 2 0.25
MgS0 4 0.50 KH P0
2 4 0.2 MgS0 4 0.2 MgS0 4 0.25
CaS0 4 0.50 MgS0 4 0.2 KH P02 4 0.2 CaS0 4 0.25
NaCl 0.25 FeP0 4 Trace KC1 0.2 FeP0 4 0.25
FeS0 4 Trace FeCl3 Small
amount
* These and other formulas are given in: Miller, E. C, Plant physiology, p. 195-97. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, N. Y. 1931.
t For best results, these solutions should be supplemented with boron, manganese, zinc, copper, and
molybdenum; see discussion in the text, pp. 29-31.
[8]
medium, the plants are placed in some
solid inert aggregate, periodically irri-
which is bubbled through the nutrient solution. With the coarser aggregates, the nu-
trient solutionis generally supplied by
[9]
No new principles are used in com- Under the sponsorship of the Army
mercial "aggregate" culture Air Forces during World War II, the
As with large-scale water culture, the possibility of using a large-scale nutrient-
techniques for aggregates do not rest on culture technique which would have some
any newly discovered principles of plant of the "fool-proof" aspects of growing
nutrition. They represent an application plants in a fertile soil was explored. In-
of engineering and technical principles stead of supplying the plant nutrients in
to the construction of beds and the cir- repeated applications of nutrient so-
economy and ease in construction and culture, a different principle was used.
operation as objectives. Ingenious as The plant nutrients were not furnished as
these technical devices are, they cannot chemical salts but rather as "adsorbed
assure success in growing plants to any ions" on synthetic ion-exchange mate-
operator who does not have a sound rials, in a manner similar to that in which
knowledge of the physiological and horti- some plant nutrients are bound to col-
cultural principles involved in crop pro- loids in natural soils. The "charged" ion-
duction. These principles, which are the exchange materials were then mixed with
same for water and aggregate culture, sand prior to planting the crop. After the
will be referred to in subsequent sections plants were in, only applications of water
of this circular. would be necessary to make growth pos-
sible.
Adsorbed-nutrient technique does These wartime experiments were prom-
use a different principle ising but were discontinued as the war
With either aggregate or water culture, ended, before the "adsorbed-nutrient"
the plant nutrients are supplied in a technique had passed the experimental
chemical solution. The management of stage. The information derived from these
8
this solution involves the technical prob- experiments has been published, but no
lems of preparing, testing, and adjusting recommendations for commercial appli-
the concentrations of the individual nu- cation can bemade by the Experiment
trients. Station at this time.
[10
the growing of special high-priced crops, health of troops, were deemed important
particularly out of season in greenhouses, enough to justify a determined effort to
in localities where good soil is not avail- provide such items as fresh tomatoes, let-
able, or when maintenance of highly tuce, peppers, radishes, and cucumbers.
favorable soil conditions is found too To supply these from outside sources was
expensive. not practical. To grow them on the island
Soil beds in greenhouses often become by conventional methods in soil was not
infected with disease-producing organ- feasible. An aggregate culture installa-
isms, or toxic substances may accumu- tion, using a local gravel, was therefore
late. Installation of adequate equipment authorized for the soilless production of
for sterilizing soils and operation of the fresh salad crops.
equipment may require considerable ex- A remarkable feature of the Ascension
pense. Also, maintenance of fertility in Island installation was the use of dis-
the soil beds is often laborious and expen- tilled sea water in making the nutrient
sive. On the other hand, a synthetic nutri- solutions. Without this engineering feat
ent medium, expertly supervised, can of providing by distillation the large
serve as a continuously favorable source water requirements of the growing crops,
of nutrientsand water and, especially if the project could not have been under-
combined with automatic devices, can taken. The nutriculture installation on
bring about economies in labor. Ascension Island accomplished its mis-
2. Very favorable climates in some re- sion. It stands out as an example of the
gions may justify growing certain crops successful application of the principles
out of doors in nutriculture. The possi- of plant physiology and engineering tech-
bilities of nutriculture are not confined to niques to the growing of crops in loca-
greenhouses. In regions highly favored tions devoid of natural soils.
[HI
1 Nutriculture is costly and needs expert control of disease and insects in other
supervision. The initial financial invest- words, the same knowledge now needed
ment in nutriculture facilities is high. The for successful crop production in soils.
automatic adjustment of many of the fac-
tors determining the nutrition of the plant
Nutriculture does not solve prob-
isfound in a soil naturally fertile or in lems of sanitation
one capable of being made so by a simple In certain parts of the world, agricul-
treatment but is lacking in nutriculture tural soils are fertilized by human ex-
methods. creta. Fresh vegetables from such areas,
Expert supervision is generally neces- if consumed raw, are sometimes carriers
sary to cope with technical difficulties of pathogenic organisms. It has been sug-
which may be met. Some of these are the gested that such a hazard can be elimi-
character of the water, adjustment of the nated by the use of outdoor nutriculture
acidity of the nutrient solution, toxic sub- techniques. This suggestion does not
stances from tanks or beds, uncertainty seem be supported by enough scientific
to
as to time for replenishing salts in the evidence. It is not clear, for example, that
nutrient solution or for changing it. outdoor installations will be protected
To the average crop pro-
grower, from contamination by particles of soil,
duction in nutriculture is an unfamiliar carried from adjoining infected areas by
undertaking, involving problems not en- wind or other agencies. Rigorous cleans-
countered in soil culture. On the other ing of all vegetables to be consumed raw
hand, growing plants in soil is one of the is a safety measure in any case. It is also
[12]
'- % s^* ^ 5*"* * - r
ferences may be drawn from this com- article cited in footnote 14, on page 19.
[13]
in comparing an average yield from un- culture. In another greenhouse using soil,
slaked tomato plants, grown during a the yields were larger.
limited season under all types of soil and The yield of potatoes grown in a bed of
climatic conditions in the field, with that peat soil in Berkeley was as large as any
from staked plants grown in the protec- heretofore reported as produced by the
tion of a greenhouse for a full year. water-culture method.
Evidence has long been available that Plants cannot be spaced closer than in
yields of tomatoes grown in a greenhouse, a rich soil. The suggestion has sometimes
in soil, can far exceed those obtained in been advanced that plants can be grown
the field. It is true that in one series of more closely spaced in nutrient solutions
outdoor experiments, the yields of toma- than in soil, but no convincing evidence of
toes under water-culture conditions were this has been given. In our experiments,
reported to be much higher than under we were able to grow tomato plants as
ordinary field conditions; but again, the close together in the soil as in the solu-
general cultural treatment of the plants tion (fig. 3) . The density of stand giving
especially with regard to spacing and the highest yields would be determined by
staking was so different that compari- the adequacy of the light received by the
sons of yield do not mean very much. plants, when growth is not limited by
Any real test of the relative capacities the supply of nutrients or water derived
of soil and nutriculture media for crop from either soil or nutrient solution.
production requires that the two types of Closeness of spacing under field condi-
culture be carried on side by side, with tions is, of course, limited by practical
similar spacing of plants and with the considerations involving
of crop cost
same cultural treatment otherwise. The production. This consideration of eco-
soil should be of suitable depth and have nomic factors and of the adequacy of
its nutrient supplying power and physical light does not justify the view that the
condition as favorable for plant growth nutriculture medium is betteradapted
as possible. An experiment of this kind, than soil to growing several different
with the tomato as the test plant, has been crops simultaneously in the same bed.
11
carried out in Berkeley. Several conclu- Plant growth habits are not changed by
sions derived from it warrant emphasis. nutriculture. Some published pictures of
The grown by the usual
yield of tomatoes tomato plants grown in nutriculture show
tank-culture technique was larger than impressive height. This growth in length
any heretofore reported for this method. of vines is frequently the subject of popu-
That from the soil-grown plants, however, lar comment. As a matter of fact, the
was not markedly different (fig. 3) When . ability of tomato vines to extend is char-
the greenhouse yields of tomatoes from acteristic of the plant and is not peculiar
either soil- or nutriculture-grown plants to the nutriculture method. Staked plants
were compared on an acre basis with av- grown for a sufficiently long period in a
erage yields of field-grov;n tomatoes, the fertilesoil, under favorable light and
greenhouse plants gave far greater yields. temperature conditions, can also reach a
Such comparisons, however, can have no great height and bear fruit at the upper
direct practical significance because of levels (fig. 4) In commercial greenhouse
.
the differences in climatic factors, cul- practice, growers usually "top" the vines.
tural practice, and length of season in the Fruit developed at higher level is likely
greenhouse and in the open field. to be of inferior quality and is relatively
[14]
Land plants have become adapted to
growing in soils during their evolutionary
history. It is not reasonable, therefore, to
expect some extraordinary increase in
their potentialities for growth when an
artificial medium is substituted for soil.
mm ^ grown by this
required less water, the
method in desert regions
difficulties in pro-
f
*if ^M
j
viding a somewhat smaller supply for
nutriculture would be essentially the same
as those encountered in providing a
larger amount for irrigation in soil.
when prices become low in the summer cipal use of water in producing a crop is
and to use the greenhouse space to plant through evaporation by the plant a re-
12
another crop for the winter harvest. See footnote 11 on page 14.
[15]
quirement common to both soil and nutri- Caution: No claims of unusual nutri-
culture. The physiological characteristics tional value for food products should be
of each species of plant, the extent of leaf accepted unless they are supported by re-
surface, and the atmospheric conditions sultsobtained in research institutes of
are the determining factors in this re- high standing.
quirement. If a large crop is produced, The similarity in composition and gen-
either in nutriculture or in soil, and if eral quality of the tomatoes grown in soil
climatic conditions favor high evapora- and water culture in the present experi-
tion of water from the plant, the amount ments, may
be explained by the facts that
of water used in either case is necessarily the climate and time of harvest were com-
large. parable and that the supply of mineral
Nutritional quality of the product is the nutrients was adequate in both cases.
same. Modern research on vitamins and Whether plants are grown in soil or nu-
on the role of mineral elements in animal triculture, climate and time of harvest
nutrition has justly aroused great public are, of course, the factors that most affect
interest. Here again much popular dis- quality and composition of plant product.
cussion relating to their effect in diets Nutrient deficiencies, insect attacks, and
and on health has been without scientific diseases present similar problems.
basis. It is, therefore, not unexpected that When plants are grown in solutions
claims have been advanced for the superi- deficient in any of the nutrient ele-
ority of food produced by nutriculture. ments, symptoms appear, usually in the
As part of our investigation, careful leaves. The series of photographs (plates
studies of chemical composition and gen- 2 to 4) shows the general character of
eral quality have been made on tomatoes foliage symptoms developed by the to-
of several varieties grown in a fertile soil, mato plant for each essential element
and in sand- and water-culture media, omitted from experimental solutions.
sideby side in the same greenhouse, with Nutriculture does not protect plants
the same general cultural treatment. No from any diseases except those strictly
significant difference has been discovered soil-borne. In fact, certain other diseases
in the mineral content of the fruit de- peculiar to water culture may sometimes
veloped on plants grown in the several attack them.
media. There is no scientific basis then The same insect pests attack plants
for referring to tomatoes grown in nutri- grown in all media.
culture as "mineralized." Climatic requirements are the same.
Among the minerals most frequently Many inquiries have been received on the
mentioned in this connection was calcium. possibility of growing plants in nutri-
Tomatoes harvested from the soil and bility of a particular location or season
from water cultures could not be consist- for the growth of any kind of plant, a
ently distinguished in a test of flavor and preliminary experiment should be made
13 13
general quality. The quality tests were conducted by Dr.
No Margaret Lee Maxwell Kleiber of the Division
significant difference could be
of Home Economics, and the carotene determi-
found in content of vitamins carotene, nations were made by Dr. Gordon Mackinney of
or provitamin A, and vitamin C, in the the Division of Food Technology, College of
fruit. Agriculture.
[16]
Plate 1. A, B, Effect of forced aeration on asparagus plants grown in culture solutions: A, plants
grown in solution through which air was bubbled continuously; B, plants without forced aeration.
C, Asparagus plants grown in a nutrient solution in which boron, manganese/ zinc, and copper
were present in such small amounts as one part in several million parts of solution; D, plants grown
in solutions to which these elements were not added.
by growing the plant in good garden soil. Sunlight and suitable temperatures are
If the plant fails to make satisfactory essential for green plants, in order that
development in the soil medium because they may carry on one of the fundamental
of unfavorable light or temperature, fail- processes of plant growth, known as
ure may also be expected under water- photosynthesis. In this process, the ele-
culture conditions. ment carbon, which forms so large a
[17]
Plate 2. Symptoms of mineral deficiencies shown by tomato plants: A, complete
nutrient solution; B, solution lacking nitrogen; C, solution lacking phosphorus;
D, solution lacking potassium.
part of all organic matter, is fixed by which provide them with energy and
plants from the carbon dioxide of the enter into the composition of plant sub-
atmosphere. This reaction requires a stance. The mineral nutrients absorbed
large amount of energy, which is ob- by roots are indispensable for plant
tained from sunlight. growth but do not supply energy and, in
Plants depend on photosynthesis for that sense, cannot be regarded as "plant
their food, that is, for organic substances, food."
such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, Animal life is also absolutely dependent
[18]
i,!%-
G H
Plate 3. Symptoms of mineral deficiencies shown by tomato plants: E, solution
lacking calcium; F, solution lacking sulfur; G, solution lacking magnesium;
H, solution lacking boron.
on this ability of the green plant to fix heated except on a few occasions to pre-
the energy of sunlight. vent temperatures from falling below
Favorable air temperatures are just as 50-55 Fahrenheit. Under the climatic
necessary as in soil. An earlier report of conditions studied, the beneficial effects
a preliminary experiment by other in- of heating the nutrient solution (to 70 F
vestigators suggested that under green- in the fall- winter and to 75 F in the
house conditions, heating the nutrient spring-summer period) were not of sig-
[19]
Plate 4. Symptoms of mineral deficiencies shown by tomato plants: A,
right, iron deficiency; left, complete nutrient solution; B, left, manganese
[20]
are maintained, there seems to be no need tation to different nutrient conditions. If
to heat the solution. this were not so, plants would not be
Attempts should not be made to guard growing in varied soils in nature. We
against frost injury or unfavorable have already emphasized that within cer-
low air temperatures merely by heating tain ranges of composition and total con-
the nutrient solution. .Proper provision centration, fairly wide latitude exists in
should be made for direct heating of the the preparation of nutrient solutions suit-
greenhouse. This may be found desirable able for plant growth. Many varied solu-
even when danger from low temperatures tions have been used successfully by
is absent, in order to control humidity different investigators. Even when two
tion should make comparisons of plants trient salts causes not only a decrease in
grown under exactly similar conditions, the total amounts of salts available, but
except for the difference of temperature a qualitative alteration as well, since not
in the solutions. all the nutrient elements are absorbed at
the same rates. One secondary result is
Composition of nutrient solutions that the acid-base balance(pH) of the
may vary solution may undergo changes which in
No one nutrient solution is superior to all turn may lead to the precipitation of
other Thousands of requests
solutions. certain essential chemical elements (par-
have been received by the Station for ticularly, iron and manganese) so that
formulas for nutrient salt solutions. It is they are no longer available to the plant.
often supposed that some remarkable Also to be considered are the effects of
new combination of salts has been de- salts added with the water (discussed
vised and that the prime requisite for later).
growing crops in solutions is to use this Constant control of the solution is neces-
formula. The fact is, there is no one com- sary.For these various reasons, the main-
position of a nutrient solution which is tenance of the most favorable nutrient
always superior to every other composi- medium throughout the life of the plant
tion. Plants have marked powers of adap- involves not merely the selection of an
[21]
appropriate solution at the time of plant- Nutrients cannot take the place of sun-
ing but also continued control, with either shine. As already indicated, the successful
the addition of chemicals when needed growth of a crop is dependent on sunlight
or the replacement of the whole solution and temperature and humidity conditions,
from time Proper control of cul-
to time. as well as on the supply of mineral nutri-
ture solutions is by observa-
best guided ents furnished by the culture medium.
tions of the crop and by chemical analyses Complex interrelations exist between cli-
of samples of the solution taken periodi- matic conditions and the utilization of
cally. these nutrients.The relation of nitrogen,
The objective of controlling the nutri- nutrition,and climatic conditions to fruit-
ent solutions is not to maintain a fixed fulness has often been stressed. In some
composition of some "ideal" nutrient localities, deficient sunshine in winter
solution, but rather to provide the plant months may growth of many
limit the
at each stage of its growth with a sufficient greenhouse crops, no matter what nutri-
quantity of each essential element, within ent conditions are present in the culture
suitable ranges of total concentration and solution.
fairly broad limits of ionic proportions. The same initial composition may supply
Test tap water for salt content. For the nutrient requirements of many kinds of
purpose of exact control in his experi- plants. The question is frequently asked:
ments, the plant physiologist prepares Does each kind of plant require a differ-
his solutions with distilled water. The ent kind of nutrient solution? The answer
commercial grower and the amateur are is that if proper measures are taken to
[22]
cance, since the composition undergoes and zinc. Some plants may be especially
continuous change as the plant grows and prone to yellowing because of difficulty
absorbs nutrients. in absorbing enough iron or manganese.
The rate and nature of this change de- Some may succeed best in a nutrient solu-
pends on many factors, including total tion more employed for
dilute than is
supply of nutrients. An adequate supply most kinds of plants. Unfavorable re-
of nutrients involves (1) volume of solu- sponses by certain plants to high nitrogen
tion in relation to the number of plants supply in relation to fruiting, under cer-
grown, stage of growth of the plant, and tain climatic conditions, may require con-
rate of absorption of nutrients, and (2) sideration.
frequency of changes of solution. Since the adaptation of a nutrient solu-
Apart from the question of adequate tion to thegrowth of any particular kind
supply of nutrients, certain special re- of plant depends on the supply of nutri-
sponses of different species of plants have ents and on climatic conditions, there is
to be taken into account in the manage- no possibility of prescribing a list of
ment of nutrient solutions. Plants vary nutrient solutions, each one best for a
15
in their tolerance to acidity and alkalin- given species of plant. Some general
ity. They also differ in their need for root type of solution, such as one of those
aeration and in susceptibility to injury described in this circular, should be tried
from excessive concentrations of ele- first. It may be modified later by experi-
ments like boron, manganese, copper, ment if found necessary.
[23]
demonstrations, since they may be grown
in the jars without any special arrange-
ments for aeration.
For small-scale cultures. Two or 4-
[24]
the container. This technique was first are: pine excelsior, peat moss, pine shav-
30
suggested by W. F. Gericke. ings or sawdust, rice hulls. Certain mate-
Some suggestions for building the frame. For this reason,
rials are toxic to plants.
1. The wire-netting must be stretched redwood should usually be avoided. In
tightly across the frames and must be experiments carried on in Berkeley with
immediately above the surface of the solu- tomatoes, potatoes, and certain other
tion when the tank is full. plants, a layer of pine excelsior 2 or 3
Wooden frames containing bedding material may also be set over these tanks,
as shown in figure 7.
B, Iron tank of dimensions: 30 in. x 30 x 8 in.
in.
Some porous materials that may be crop production. American Journal of Botany
used. The layer of the porous material is 16: 862. 1929. The general arrangement of this
generally 3 or 4 inches thick thicker type of bed was described by: Gericke, W. F.,
and J. R. Tavernetti. Heating of liquid culture
when tubers or fleshy roots develop in the media for tomato production. Agricultural Engi-
bed. Some inexpensive bedding materials neering 17: 141^12, p. 184. 1936.
[25]
the bed to prevent their falling into the for plants differ greatly in this require-
solution and to effect good contact of the ment. In general, shallow, open tanks
moist material with the seed. In all cases with porous beds facilitate aeration of
the bed must be porous and permit free the root system. It need not be assumed,
access of air. however, that these beds assure the best
Care of the porous material. Seeds may growth for such plants as tomatoes, which
be planted in the moist beds, or young have a high oxygen requirement. In one
plants from flats may be set in them with series of experiments,
17
tomato plants
frame supporting a wire screen fits over the metal tank (fig. 6, A) filled with the
nutrient solution; B, tomato plants are placed with their roots immersed in
the nutrient solution; a layer of excelsior is spread over the netting, as shown
in the far end of the tank; C, the planting is completed by spreading a layer of
rice hulls over the excelsior.
their roots in the nutrient solution. When were grown in large shallow tanks pro-
seeds are planted in the bed, they must vided with porous beds, but without any
of course be kept moist until the roots special provision for aeration. A parallel
grow into the solution below. Occasional culture was aerated by bubbling air
sprinkling will provide enough moisture through the solution. The latter showed a
for the development of tubers, bulbs, and significant improvement in growth and
fleshy roots. Great care should be ob- yield, although the yields from the un-
served to prevent waterlogging of the bed. aerated beds were at least as large as any
This results from immersion of the lower previously reported for this technique.
portion of the bed in the solution and Roots may develop in beds as well as
leads to exclusion of air and to undesir- in the solution, when porous beds are
able bacterial decompositions. used. It has been suggested that for such
plants as tomatoes, the additional roots in
Aeration of the root system the bed may be essential for supplying
In water culture, special attention has certain factors required for the growth
17
to be given to aeration of the root system, See footnote 11 on page 14.
[26]
of stem and for the prevention of chloro- covers. As soon as germination begins,
sis. According to this hypothesis, even the upper layer of moist paper is removed
with adequate aeration, normal growth and the seedlings allowed to grow on the
would be impossible if the roots were con- moist paper bed until they are large
tinuously submerged in the nutrient solu- enough to be placed in corks. An excess
tion. No support for this hypothesis was of water is then added to the paper and
found in an experiment with tomatoes in the seedlings carefully removed without
Berkeley. The plants were grown in metal damage to the roots.
tanks provided with metal covers, so con- Sometimes it is preferable to grow
structed that the level of the nutrient solu- seeds in flats of good loam and then
tion was automatically maintained at the choose the most vigorous seedlings for
top of the tanks. When
adequate aeration transplanting into the bed. Just before
was provided, normal growth and devel- must be thoroughly
transplanting, the soil
opment resulted without a porous bed soaked with water so that the plants may
and with the roots continuously sub- be removed with the least possible injury
merged. to the roots. These should be rinsed free
Bubbling air through the solution. It is of the soil with a light stream of water
sometimes difficult to supply adequate and immediately set either in corks or in
oxygen when plants are grown in small beds with the roots immersed in the solu-
containers and a large root system is to tion. In the latter case, the layer of excel-
be developed. Bubbling air or circulating sior is built up over the wire screen as
the solution is helpful in such cases. Va- the roots are placed in the solution, and
rious devices, such as porous carbon the layer of rice hulls is added last
pipes and glass tubes, can be used for (% 7).
this purpose. In general, too vigorous agi- How to space plants. No general advice
tation of the solution should be avoided can be offered as to the best spacing.
as it may harm tender roots. A continuous This depends on the kind of plant and on
stream of small bubbles of air gives good light conditions. Individual experience
results. Certain methods of circulating must guide the grower. In our experi-
culture solutions not only bring about ments, tomato plants were set close to-
effective aeration but, in addition, equal- gether, in some instances 20 plants to 25
ize the supply of nutrients. Circulation of square feet of solution surface.
the nutrient solution from a central reser-
voir was used successfully in one com- Managing the solutions
mercial greenhouse. For small scale or When to add water to tanks. In starting
experimental installations, special devices the culture, the tank is filled with solution
for bubbling air or circulating the nutri- almost to the level of the wire netting on
ent solution have been described. 18 the bottom of the bed. As they grow, the
plants absorb water, or it evaporates from
Planting procedures
the surface of the solution, thus reducing
How Seeds may be planted
to plant. its level in the tank. After the root system
directly in the moist bed. In that case, is sufficiently developed, this level is
the whole bed must be installed and usually maintained from one to several
moistened before planting is begun. inches below the lower part of the bed
Other seeds cereals, for example- to facilitate aeration. Since the solution
may be germinated between layers of 18
Furnstal, A. F., and S. B. Johnson. Prepara-
moist filter paper or paper toweling. This tion of sintered Pyrex glass aerators for use in
method is recommended if plants are to water-culture experiments with plants. Plant
Physiology 11: 189-94. 1936. Compare also J.
be fixed in corks and grown in jars or W. Shive and W. R. Robbins in the citation
tanks with perforated metal or wooden given in footnote 7, page 9.
[27
level should not be permitted to fall very nutrient solution, no adjustment of its
far, however, water must be added at reg- reaction is necessary. If tap water is used,
ular intervals. a preliminary test of its reaction should
As pointed out earlier, when large be made. Water found alkaline should be
amounts of water have to be added, ex- acidified before adding the nutrient salts.
cessive accumulations of certain salts This should be done when the solution is
contained in the water may occur. This first made up and at each subsequent
partly full (but keep most of the roots neutral reaction blue, an alkaline one.
;
immersed), add the salts, and complete If the original color is green or blue,
the filling to the proper level with a rapid add the dilute sulfuric acid (3 per cent
stream of water, so directed as not to in- or less in strength), slowly with stirring
jure the roots. until the color just changes to yellow
How to test and adjust acidity of water (indicating approximately pH 6). Do
and nutrient solution. Ordinarily some not add more beyond this point, since the
latitude is permissible in the degree of yellow color will also persist when exces-
acidity (pH) of the nutrient solution. For sive amounts of acid are added. Record
most plants, a moderately acid reaction the amount of acid required.
(from pH 5.0 to 6.5) is suitable. If dis- Finally, add a proportionate amount
tilled water is used in the preparation of of the acid to the water or nutrient solu-
[28]
tion in the culture tank or vessel, having Selecting the nutrient solution
first determined how much it holds.
As stated before, there is no one nutri-
Modification of the solution. Since con-
ent solution which is always superior to
siderable latitude is permissible in the every other solution. Many solutions may
composition of nutrient solution, analysis be used with good results. Those de-
of tap water is not indispensable, unless
scribed below have been found satisfac-
the content of mineral matter is very high. tory with various species of plants in
Some waters may contain so much cal-
experiments conducted in Berkeley, with
cium, magnesium or sulfate, however,
a source of good water.
that further additions of these nutrient
The composition of the solutions is
elements are unnecessary, or even un- given in two forms: (A) by rough meas-
As the objective should be to
desirable. urements adapted to the amateur without
approximate the intended composition of special weighing or measuring instru-
the nutrient solution, taking into account ments, and (B) in more exact terms for
the salt already present in the water, those withsome knowledge of chemistry
analysis of it is useful. and the proper facilities for more ac-
Prepared mixtures not recom-
salt curate experimentation. These facilities
mended. Many
amateurs have become in- would include chemical glassware, a
terested in the purchase of mixtures of chemical balance, and a supply of C.P.
nutrient salts ready for use. Various in- (chemically pure) chemicals.
dividuals and firms have offered such
mixtures for sale in small packages.
Preparing the nutrient solution
Clearly a prepared salt mixture does not
obviate the difficulties which may be met Directions for amateurs. Either one of
in growing plants in water culture. Re- the solutions given in table 2 may be
cently, some firms have made highly mis- tried. Solution 2 may often be preferred
leading claims for the salt mixtures they because the ammonium salt delays the
sell. The Station makes no recommenda- development of undesirable alkalinity.
tion with regard to any salt mixture. The The salts are added to the water, prefer-
fact that a mixture is registered with the ably in the order given.
California State Department of Agricul- To either of the solutions, add the ele-
ture, as required by the law governing ments iron, boron, manganese, and in
sale of fertilizers, implies no endorsement some cases, zinc, and copper, which are
for use of the product. The directions required by plants in minute quantities.
given later will, we hope, help the amateur There is danger of toxic effects if much
to prepare his own nutrient solutions. greater quantities of these elements are
Chemically pure salts commonly em- added than those indicated later in the
ployed in making nutrient solutions for text.Molybdenum and possibly other ele-
scientific experiments would be too ex- ments required by plants in minute
pensive for commercial practice. A num- amounts will be furnished by impurities
ber of ordinary fertilizer salts can serve in the nutrient salts or in the water, and
in the production of crops by nutricul- need not be added deliberately.
ture methods. Recent developments in a) Boron and Manganese Solution.
the fertilizer industry have made avail- Dissolve 3 teaspoons of powdered boric
able cheap salts of considerable degree acid and 1 teaspoon of chemically pure
of purity. Some commercial salts, how- manganese chloride (MnCl 2 4H 2 0) in
[29
diluted solution for each 25 gallons of (CuS0 4 5H 2 0)
in a gallon of water.
nutrient solution. Dilute 1 part of this solution with 4 parts
The elements in group a are added of water. Use 1 teaspoon of the diluted
when the nutrient solution is first pre- solution for each 25 gallons of nutrient
pared and at all subsequent changes of solution.
solution. If plants develop symptoms c) Additions of Iron to Nutrient Solu-
characteristic of lack of manganese or need to
tion. Generally, iron solution will
boron (see plate 4, B, and plate 3, H) be added at frequent and regular inter-
solution a, in the amount indicated in the vals, perhaps as often as twice a week. If
preceding paragraph, may be added be- the leaves of the plant tend to become
tween changes of the nutrient solution or yellow (see plate 4, A) even more fre-
between addition of salts needed in large quent additions may be required. A yel-
10
quantities. But care is needed, for injury lowing or mottling of leaves, however,
may easily be produced by adding too can also arise from many other causes.
much of these elements. The iron solution is prepared as fol-
b) Zinc and Copper Solution. Ordi- lows: Dissolve 1 level teaspoon of iron
narily this solution may be omitted, be- tartrate (iron citrate or iron sulfate can
cause these elements will almost certainly be substituted, but the tartrate or citrate
be supplied as impurities in water or is often more effective than the sulfate)
chemicals, or from the containers. When in 1 quart of water. Add %
cup of this
needed, (plate 4, C) additions are made solution to 25 gallons of nutrient solution
as for solution a. To prepare solution b, each time iron is needed.
dissolve 4 teaspoons of chemically pure 10
The University is not prepared to diagnose
zinc sulfate (ZnS0 4 7H 2 0) and 1 tea-
symptoms on samples of plant tissues sent in
spoon of chemically pure copper sulfate for examination.
Approximate Approximate
Salt
Grade amount, amount, in
of salt
in ounces level tablespoons
Solution 1 f
Solution 2f
* The University does not sell or give away any salts for growing plants in water culture. Chemicals may be
purchased from local chemical supply houses, or possibly may be obtained through fertilizer dealers. Some of
the chemicals may be obtained from druggists. If purchased in fairly large lots, the present price of the in-
gredients contained in 1 pound of a complete mixture of nutrient salts is approximately 5 to 10 cents for either
solution described above.
f To either of these solutions, supplements of elements required in minute quantity must be added; see
directions in the text.
[30]
Directions for schools or technical lab- The reaction of the solution is adjusted
oratories. For experimental purposes, the to approximately pH 6 by adding 0.1 N
use of distilled water and chemically pure H S0 2 4some other suitable dilution)
(or
salts is recommended. Molar stock solu- Molar Solutions. The concentrations
tions (except when otherwise indicated) of stock solutions of nutrient salts used
are prepared for each salt, and the in preparation of nutrient solutions are
amounts indicated below are used. conveniently expressed in terms of mo-
larity. A molar solution is one containing
Solution 1 ...
cc in a liter of
,
1 gram-molecule (mol) of dissolved sub-
nutrient solution
M KH2PO4, potassium acid stance in 1 liter of solution. (In all
phosphate 1 nutrient-solution work, the solvent is
M KNO3, potassium nitrate 5
water.) A gram-molecule or mol of a
M Ca(NOs) calcium nitrate 2, .. . 5
compound number grams
M MgSCX, magnesium sulfate. . . 2 is the of cor-
responding to the molecular weight.
Solution 2 ... .
Example 1, how to make a molar
.
cc in a liter of
nutrient solution
M NH4H2PO4, ammonium acid solution ofmagnesium sulfate: The mo-
phosphate 1 lecular of magnesium sulfate,
weight
M KNOs, potassium nitrate 6 MgS0 4 -7H 2 is 246.50. One mol of
M Ca(N0 calcium nitrate ...
3 )2, 4 magnesium sulfate consists of 246.50
M MgSCX, magnesium sulfate. . 2
grams. Hence, to make a molar solution
To add solu-
either of these solutions, of magnesium sulfate, dissolve 246.50
tions aand b below. grams of MgS0 4 7H 2 in water and
a) Prepare a supplementary solution make to 1 liter volume.
which will supply boron, manganese, Example 2, how to make a one-twentieth
zinc, copper, and molybdenum, as fol- molar (0.05 M) solution of monocalcium
lows: phosphate, Ca(H 2 P0 4 ) 2 H 2 (used in
Grams dissolved
Compound in 1 liter of 2
H deficiency studies, below) : The molec-
H3BO3, boric acid 2.86 ular weight of monocalcium phosphate,
MnCl 2 4H 2 0, manganese
Ca(H 2 P0 4
H is 252.17. Hence 0.05
) 2 2
chloride 1.81
ZnS0 4 7H2O, zinc sulfate 0.22
252.17 grams
molofCa(H 2 P0 4 ) 2 -H 2 Ois-
CuSCX 5H 0, copper sulfate.
2 0.08 20
H2M0O4 H 2 0, molybdic acid
= 12.61 grams. Therefore, to make a 0.05
(assaying 85 per cent M0O3) 0.02
M solution of monocalcium phosphate,
Add 1 cc of this solution for each liter dissolve 12.61 grams of Ca(H 2 P0 4 ) 2 #
of nutrient solution, when solution is first H 2 in water and make to 1 liter volume.
prepared or subsequently changed, or at
Nutrient solutions for use in dem-
more frequent intervals if necessary.
onstrating mineral deficiencies
This will give the following concen-
in plants
trations :
[31
Distilled water should be used in mak- To any of these solutions, add iron and
ing these solutions. the supplementary solution supplying
cc in a liter of
nutrient solution fjoron, manganese, zinc, copper, and
a, Solution lacking nitrogen molybdenum as previously described (p.
M K S0
0.5 2 4 5 29-31). For use with solution lacking
M MgS0 4 2
/,
0.05MCa(H PO 2 4) 2 10
sulfur, a special supplementary solution
0.01MCaSO 4 200 should be prepared in which chlorides
replace the sulfates. Also, sulfuric acid
b, Solution lacking potassium
MCa(N03) 2 5
should not be used in adjusting the re-
M MgS0 4 2 action of the nutrient solution.
0.05MCa(H PO 2 4) 2 10 In order to produce iron-deficiency
c, Solution lacking phosphorus symptoms, plants should be grown in
MCa(N0 3) 2 4 glass containers; no iron should be added
M KN0 3 6 to the otherwise complete nutrient solu-
M MgS0 4 2
tion. it may be possible to
Similarly,
d, Solution lacking calcium produce boron- or manganese-deficiency
M KNO3 5
symptoms with certain plants (tomatoes,
M MgS0 4 2
M KH P0 for example) by omitting either one of
2 4 1
these elements from the supplementary
e, Solution lacking magnesium solution. Zinc-, copper-, and molybdenum-
MCa(N0 3) 2 4
deficiency symptoms can usually be pro-
M KNO3 6
M KH P0
2 4 1 duced only by the use of a special
0.5 M K S02 4 3 technique, the description of which was
20
25m-l,'50(B7321)
[32]