Leslie Bethell - The Cambridge History of Latin America (Vol XI)

THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF
LATIN AMERICA
VOLUME XI
Bibliographical Essays
Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF
LATIN AMERICA
VOLUME i Colonial Latin America
VOLUME II Colonial Latin America
VOLUME in From Independence to c. i8yo
VOLUME iv c. 18jo to 1930
VOLUME V C. 18JO to 1930
V O L U M E VI Latin America since 1930: Economy, society and politics
VOLUME VII Latin America since 1930: Mexico, Central America

and the Caribbean
V O L U M E VIII Latin America since 1930: Spanish South America
VOLUME i x Latin America since 1930: Brazil; International

relations
VOLUME x Latin America since 1930: Ideas, culture and society
VOLUME x i Bibliographical essays

THE CAMBRIDGE
HISTORY OF
LATIN AMERICA
VOLUME XI
Bibliographical Essays
edited by
LESLIE BETHELL
Emeritus Professor of Latin American History
University of London
and
Senior Research Fellow
St. Antony's College, Oxford
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS

Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 i RP
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY IOOII 421 I , USA
10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia
Cambridge University Press 1995
First published 1995
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

(Revision for vol. 11)
The Cambridge history of Latin America.
Includes bibliographies and indexes.
Contents: v. 1-2. Colonial Latin America -
{etc.] v. 8. Latin America since 1930. Spanish
South America v. 11
Bibliographical essays.
1. Latin America - History. 2. Latin America -
History - Bibliography. I. Bet hell, Leslie.
F1410.C1834 1984 980 83-19036
ISBN 0521-39525-9
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN 052139525-9 hardback

CONTENTS
Preface page xv
hist of contributors xxi
hist of abbreviations xxvii
I. THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF MIDDLE AND

SOUTH AMERICA ON THE EVE OF THE CONQUEST
1 Mesoamerica before 1519 1
MIGUEL LE6N-PORTILLA and KENNETH MILLS
2 The Caribbean and circum-Caribbean at the end of the
fifteenth century 8
MARY W. HELMS
3 The Andes before 1532 13
JOHN MURRA
4 Southern South America in the middle of the sixteenth
century 19
JORGE HIDALGO
5 Brazil in 1500 24
JOHN HEMMING
II. COLONIAL SPANISH AMERICA

1 The Spanish conquest and settlement of America 29
J. H. ELLIOTT and KENNETH MILLS
2 Indian societies and the Spanish conquest 37
NATHAN WACHTEL a n d KENNETH MILLS
3 Spain and America in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries 42
J. H. ELLIOTT and KENNETH MILLS

vi Contents
4 Spain and America: The Atlantic trade, 1492-c. 1720 50
MURDO J. MACLEOD
5 Spain and America in the eighteenth century 56
D. A. BRADING
6 Population 59
NICOLAS SANCHEZ-ALBORNOZ
7 Urban development 66
RICHARD M. MORSE
8 Mining 78
PETER BAKEWELL
9 The formation and economic structure of the hacienda in
New Spain 82
ENRIQUE FLORESCANO
10 The rural economy and society of Spanish South America 89
MAGNUS MORNER
11 Aspects of the internal economy: Labour, taxation,
distribution and exchange 93
MURDO J. MACLEOD a n d KENNETH MILLS
12 Social organization and social change 100
JAMES LOCKHART
13 Indian societies under Spanish rule 104
CHARLES GIBSON and KENNETH MILLS
14 Africans in Spanish American colonial society 112
FREDERICK P. BOWSER
15 Women in Spanish American colonial society 127
ASUNCI6N LAVRIN
16 The Catholic church 142
JOSEP M. BARNADAS and KENNETH MILLS
17 Literature and intellectual life 150
JACQUES LAFAYE
18 Architecture and art 153
DAMIAN BAY6N
19 Music 160
ROBERT STEVENSON
III. COLONIAL BRAZIL

1 The Portuguese settlement of Brazil, 15001580 163
HAROLD B. JOHNSON

Contents vii
2 Portugal and Brazil, 1580-1750 170
FREDERIC MAURO
3 Portugal and Brazil, 1750-1808 174
ANDREE MANSUY-DINIZ SILVA
4 Population 180
MARIA LUIZA MARCfLIO
5 Plantations and peripheries, c. 1580c. 1750 183
STUART B. SCHWARTZ
6 Indians and the frontier 192
JOHN HEMMING
7 The gold cycle, c.i690-1750 197
A. J. R. RUSSELL-WOOD
8 Late colonial Brazil, 17501808 206
DAURIL ALDEN
EDUARDO HOORNAERT
10 Architecture and art 215
J. B. BURY
IV. THE INDEPENDENCE OF LATIN AMERICA

1 The origins of Spanish American independence 219
JOHN LYNCH
2 The independence of Mexico and Central America 224
TIMOTHY ANNA
3 The independence of Spanish South America 228
DAVID BUSHNELL
4 The independence of Haiti and the Dominican Republic 234
FRANK MOYA PONS
5 The independence of Brazil 238
LESLIE BETHELL
6 International politics and Latin American independence 242
D. A. G. WADDELL
V. LATIN AMERICA: ECONOMY, SOCIETY,

POLITICS, c. 1820 to c. 1870
1 Post-independence Spanish America: Economy and society 247
TULIO HALPERfN DONGHI

viii Contents
2 Post-independence Spanish America: Society and politics 252

FRANK SAFFORD
3 Mexico 259
JAN BAZANT
4 Central America 264
RALPH LEE WOODWARD JR
5 Haiti and the Dominican Republic 270
FRANK MOYA PONS
6 Cuba, c. 1760c. i860 272
HUGH THOMAS
7 Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador 274
MALCOLM DEAS
8 Peru and Bolivia 283
HERACLIO BONILLA
9 Chile 288
SIMON COLLIER
10 The River Plate republics 299
JOHN LYNCH
11 Brazil, 18221850 305
LESLIE BETHELL and JOSE MURILO DE CARVALHO
12 Brazil, 18501870 311
RICHARD GRAHAM
VI. LATIN AMERICA: ECONOMY, SOCIETY,

POLITICS, c. 1870 to 1930
1 Latin America and the international economy, 1870-1914 321
WILLIAM GLADE
2 Latin America and the international economy, 1914-1929 326
ROSEMARY THORP
3 Population 331
NICOLAS SANCHEZ-ALBORNOZ
4 Rural Spanish America 336
ARNOLD BAUER
5 The growth of cities 341
JAMES R. SCOBIE a n d MARK D. SZUCHMAN
6 Industry 349
COLIN M. LEWIS
7 The urban working class and early labour movements 359
MICHAEL M. HALL a n d HOBART A. SPALDING JR

Contents ix
JOHN LYNCH
9 Mexico: Restored republic and Porfiriato, 1867-1910 380
FRIEDRICH KATZ
10 The Mexican Revolution, 19101920 385
JOHN WOMACK JR
11 Mexico: Revolution and reconstruction in the 1920s 406
JEAN MEYER
CIRO F. S. CARDOSO
13 Cuba 413
LUIS E. AGUILAR
14 Puerto Rico 419
ANGEL QUINTERO-RIVERA
15 The Dominican Republic 423
H. HOETINK
16 Haiti 426
DAVID NICHOLLS
17 Argentina: Economy, 18701914 431
ROBERTO CORTES CONDE
18 Argentina: Society and politics, 18801916 436
EZEQUIEL GALLO
19 Argentina, 19141930 442
DAVID ROCK
20 Uruguay 445
JUAN A. ODDONE
21 Paraguay 448
PAUL H. LEWIS
22 Chile 451
HAROLD BLAKEMORE and SIMON COLLIER
23 Bolivia 455
HERBERT S. KLEIN
24 Peru 462
PETER F. KLAREN
25 Colombia 470
MALCOLM DEAS
26 Ecuador 474
MALCOLM DEAS
27 Venezuela 476
MALCOLM DEAS

x Contents
28 Brazil: Economy 480
WARREN DEAN
29 Brazil: Society and politics, 18701889 488
EMlLIA VIOTTI DA COSTA
30 Brazil: Society and politics, 1889-1930 498
BORIS FAUSTO
VII. LATIN AMERICA: ECONOMY, SOCIETY,

POLITICS, 1930 to c. 1990
1 Population 509
THOMAS W. MERRICK
2 The Latin American economies, 19291939 518
VICTOR BULMER-THOMAS
3 The Latin American economies, 1939^1950 525
ROSEMARY THORP
4 The Latin American economies, 19501990 529
JOSE GABRIEL PALMA
5 Urban growth and urban social structure 541
ORLANDINA DE OLIVEIRA and BRYAN ROBERTS
6 Agrarian structures 556
NORMAN LONG and BRYAN ROBERTS
7 State organization 568
LAURENCE WHITEHEAD
8 Democracy 573
JONATHAN HARTLYN and ARTURO VALENZUELA
9 The Left 585
ALAN ANGELL
10 The military in politics 596
VARUN SAHNI
11 The urban working class and labour movements 617
IAN ROXBOROUGH
12 Rural mobilizations 634
GUILLERMO DE LA PENA
13 Women in twentieth-century Latin America 647
ASUNCI6N LAVRIN
CHRISTOPHER ABEL
15 The Protestant churches 667
JOSE MIGUEZ BONINO

Contents xi
16 Mexico, c. 19301946 671

ALAN KNIGHT
17 Mexico since 1946 679
PETER H. SMITH
EDELBERTO TORRES-RIVAS
19 Guatemala 687
JAMES DUNKERLEY
20 El Salvador 690
JAMES DUNKERLEY
21 Honduras 693
22 Nicaragua 697
23 Costa Rica 703
RODOLFO CERDAS CRUZ
24 Panama 712
MICHAEL L. CONNIFF
25 The Panama Canal Zone, 1904-1979 715
JOHN MAJOR
26 Cuba, c. 1930-1959 723
LOUIS A. PEREZ JR
27 Cuba since 1959 728
JORGE DOMfNGUEZ
28 The Dominican Republic 734
FRANK MOYA PONS
29 Haiti 741
DAVID NICHOLLS
30 Puerto Rico 744
ROBERT W. ANDERSON
31 Argentina, 19301946 747
DAVID ROCK
32 Argentina since 1946 752
JUAN CARLOS TORRE and LILIANA DE RIZ
33 Uruguay 763
HENRY FINCH
34 Paraguay 768
PAUL H. LEWIS
35 Chile, c. 1930c. i960
PAUL W. DRAKE

xii Contents
36 Chile since c. i960 775
ALAN ANGELL
37 Peru, 19304-. i 9 6 0 788
GEOFFREY BERTRAM
38 Peru since c. i960 799
JULIO COTLER
39 Bolivia 806
LAURENCE WHITEHEAD
40 Colombia 810
CHRISTOPHER ABEL and MARCO PALACIOS
41 Ecuador 826
ENRIQUE AYALA MORA
42 Venezuela 832
JUDITH EWELL
43 Brazil 840
LESLIE BETHELL
VIII. IDEAS IN LATIN AMERICA SINCE

INDEPENDENCE
1 Political and social ideas, 18301930 863

CHARLES A. HALE
2 The multiverse of Latin American identity, c. 1920c. 1970 869
RICHARD M. MORSE
3 Economic ideas and ideologies since 1930 873
JOSEPH L. LOVE
4 Science in twentieth-century Latin America 878
THOMAS F. GLICK
IX. LATIN AMERICAN CULTURE SINCE

INDEPENDENCE
1 Art and literature, c. 1820c. 1870 887

GERALD MARTIN
2 Art and literature, c. 1870-1930 893
GERALD MARTIN
3 Narrative since c. 1920 907
GERALD MARTIN

Contents xiii
4 Poetry since c. 1920 916

JASON WILSON
5 Indigenous literatures and cultures in the twentieth
century 925
GORDON BROTHERSTON
6 Art and architecture since c. 1920 933
DAMIAN BAY6N
7 Music since c. 1920 939
GERARD H. BEHAGUE
8 Cinema 943
JOHN KING
9 The mass media 951
ELIZABETH FOX
X. THE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS OF LATIN

AMERICA SINCE INDEPENDENCE
1 Latin America, Europe and the United States, 1830-1930 955
ROBERT FREEMAN SMITH
2 Latin America, Europe and the United States, 1930-1960 959
LESLIE BETHELL
3 Latin America, the United States and the world,
1960-1990 969
JORGE DOMfNGUEZ
Author index 975

PREFACE
The first five volumes of the Cambridge History of Latin America, on the
history of Latin America from the first contacts between native Americans
and Europeans in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries to 1930,
were published in the mid-1980s: Volumes I and II, Colonial Latin America
(with an introductory section on native American societies and civiliza-
tions on the eve of the conquest), in 1984; Volume III, From Independence to
c. I8JO, in 1985; and Volumes IV and V, From c. 1870 to 1930, in 1986.
Three of the five volumes to be devoted to the history of Latin America
since 1930 have now been published: Volume VII, Latin America since
1930: Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean, in 1990; Volume VIII,
Latin America since 1930: Spanish South America, in 1991; and Volume VI,
Latin America since 1930: Economy, Society and Politics (Part 1, Economy and
Society, and Part 2, Politics and Society), in 1994. Volume X, Latin America
since 1930: Ideas, Culture and Society, is in press and will be published in
1995 or 1996, leaving only Volume IX, Latin America since 1930:I Brazil;
II International relations, still in progress. (Cambridge University Press is to
publish separately a three-volume Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of
the Americas - North, Middle and South - which will give proper consid-
eration to the evolution of the region's peoples, societies and civilizations,
in isolation from the rest of the world, during the several millennia before
the arrival of the Europeans. It will also include a fuller treatment of
indigenous peoples under European colonial rule and during the national
period to the present day than that found in the Cambridge History of Latin
America.)
Each volume or set of volumes of the Cambridge History of Latin America
examines a period in the region's economic, social, political, intellectual
and cultural history, Latin America being understood as comprising the
predominantly Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking areas of continental
XV

xvi Preface
America south of the United States (Mexico, Central America and South
America) together with the Spanish-speaking Caribbean (Cuba, Puerto
Rico and the Dominican Republic) and Haiti. Neither the British, French
and Dutch islands in the Caribbean nor the Guianas are included despite
the Hispanic antecedents of, for example, Jamaica and Trinidad. And the
vast territories of North America lost to the United States by treaty and by
war, first by Spain, then by Mexico, during the first half of the nineteenth
century are for the most part excluded. (For an excellent recent overview of
the history of the 'Spanish borderlands', see David J. Weber, The Spanish
Frontier in North America, New Haven and London, 1992.) The History's
emphasis is clearly on the modern period, that is to say, on the period from
the establishment of all but two (Cuba and Panama) of the twenty indepen-
dent Latin American states during the first decades of the nineteenth
century to the present day.
The Cambridge History of Latin America, planned and edited by a single
editor, is a work of collaborative international scholarship. Each of the ten
volumes consists of between ten and twenty chapters written by leading
specialists in their fields from Europe (especially Britain), the United
States and Latin America. The aim has been to produce a high-level
synthesis of existing knowledge which will provide historians of Latin
America with a solid base for future research, which students of Latin
American history will find helpful, and which will be of interest to
historians of other parts of the world. It is also hoped that the history will
contribute more generally to a deeper understanding of Latin America
through its history in the United States, Europe and elsewhere and, not
least, to a greater awareness of its own history in Latin America.
An important feature of the History has been the bibliographical essays
accompanying each chapter which, with only two exceptions, were con-
tributed by the authors of the chapters. These essays primarily survey the
secondary literature on the history of Latin America: books, chapters in
books, articles in a wide range of scholarly journals and noteworthy
unpublished Ph.D. theses - mainly in English, Spanish and Portuguese
but to a lesser extent also in French and German. They have been gener-
ally welcomed as valuable aids to both teaching and research. However,
the essays in Volumes I to V (more than half the total) are already over ten
and those in Volumes VII and VIII at least five years out of date. With the
History nearing completion it was decided to bring together in a separate
volume all these bibliographical essays - revised, updated and in most
cases expanded - together with several previously unpublished essays:

Preface xvii
those to be published more or less simultaneously in Volume VI, Parts i
and 2, those awaiting publication in Volume X, two essays on interna-
tional relations since 1930 that will eventually be published in Volume
IX and one on Brazil since 1930 written especially for this volume by the
editor in advance of the completion of the chapters on Brazil for Volume
IX. The result is undoubtedly the most comprehensive scholarly survey of
the historical literature on Latin America available in any language.
For the most part, bibliographical essays were revised and updated for
inclusion in this volume by the original contributors, and I am most
grateful to them for their cooperation. Some contributors, however, for a
variety of reasons, were unable or unwilling to review their original essays.
I myself revised a number of these, as did two of my colleagues at the time
at the Institute of Latin American Studies in London, Victor Bulmer-
Thomas and Eduardo Posada Carbo. I am particularly grateful to them
and, above all, to Kenneth Mills, then in Oxford, now at Princeton, who
reviewed all the essays on the Americas on the eve of the conquest and on
colonial Spanish America and did so in such a thorough manner that in
half a dozen cases I felt he deserved to be credited with co-authorship of
the essays as now published. The essays by Harold Blakemore, Charles
Gibson and James Scobie, all of whom had sadly died, were revised by
Simon Collier, Kenneth Mills and Mark Szuchman respectively. Every
effort was made to update all the essays at least to 1990 and if possible to
1992. Inevitably some titles published in 1991 and 1992 will have been
overlooked. On the other hand, some published in 1993 and even 1994
have been included. As a general rule the updated bibliographical essays
do not refer to individual chapters published in the several volumes of the
Cambridge History of Latin America itself.
The original guidelines for the History requested that the contributors
give special emphasis in their bibliographical essays to the period since the
publication of Howard F. Cline (ed.), Latin American History: Essays on Its
Study and Teaching, 18981965, 2 vols. (published for the Conference on
Latin American History of the American Historical Association by the
University of Texas Press, Austin, 1967), and, more particularly, Charles
C. Griffin (ed.), Latin America: A Guide to the Historical Literature (also
published for the Conference on Latin American History by the University
of Texas Press, Austin, 1971). Griffin's indispensable and unsurpassed
Guide, with its 7,000 annotated entries, had its origins in a meeting in the
Library of Congress in 1962 jointly sponsored by the Hispanic Foundation
and the Joint Committee on Latin American Studies of the American

xviii Preface
Council of Learned Societies and the Social Science Research Council; it

was completed in 1969 and included few works published after 1966.
Since the mid-1960s there has been an unprecedented expansion of re-
search and publication on Latin American history - in the United States
(by U.S. historians in particular but also by British, European and Latin
American historians resident in the United States), in Britain and continen-
tal Europe (especially France, Spain, Germany and, to a lesser extent,
Holland and Italy) and increasingly in Latin America itself, where a new
generation of professional historians, many of them trained in the United
Sates, Britain and France, has emerged. At the same time, methodological
innovations and new conceptual models drawn from the social sciences
(economics, political science, sociology, historical demography, anthropol-
ogy) as well as from other fields of historical research have been increas-
ingly adopted by historians of Latin America. It is mainly, though by no
means exclusively, the secondary literature of the last 25-30 years that is
surveyed more or less selectively, with varying levels of critical annota-
tion and, despite a certain amount of editing and cross-referencing, with a
good deal of duplication - in the 141 bibliographical essays by 119 au-
thors from 24 countries that make up this final volume of the Cambridge
History of Latin America. However, although the volume is endorsed by the
Conference on Latin American History it should be emphasized that it is
not the supplement to, or replacement for, Griffin's Guide which is, in my
view, still very much needed.
Not all the authors of the essays in the volume confine themselves to the
secondary literature on Latin American history of the post-Griffin period,
nor to the secondary literature alone. But, in general, for published pri-
mary sources, contemporary histories and memoirs, official publications,
guides to archive and library collections, aides to research, bibliographies,
etc., the reader needs to consult Cline (ed.), Latin American History: Essays
on Its Study and Teaching; Griffin (ed.), Latin America: A Guide to the
Historical Literature, and, more particularly, two valuable recent publica-
tions: Robert A. McNeil (ed.), Latin American Studies: A Basic Guide to
Sources, 2nd ed., revised and enlarged (Metuchen, N.J., and London,
1990), and Paula H. Covington (ed.), Latin America and the Caribbean: A
Critical Guide to Research Sources (Westport, Conn., 1992). The most impor-
tant single bibliographical tool in the field remains the Handbook of Latin
American Studies (1936- ), a more or less annual selective and annotated
guide to new publications, currently edited for the Hispanic Division of
the Library of Congress by Dolores Moyano Martin and published by the

Preface xix
University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas. Since Volume 27 (1965), it has
appeared as separate volumes on the Social Sciences and Humanities (in-
cluding history) in alternate years.
The bibliographical essays in this volume do not appear in the order in
which they appeared in the ten volumes of the Cambridge History of Latin
America. They have been somewhat re-arranged for more convenient refer-
ence, although coincidentally they are divided into ten sections: I, The
indigenous peoples of Middle and South America on the eve of the conquest
(5 essays); II, Colonial Spanish America (19 essays); III, Colonial Brazil (10
essays); IV, The independence of Latin America (6 essays); V, Latin America:
economy, society, politics, c. 1820-c. 1870 (12 essays); VI, Latin Amer-
ica: economy, society, politics, c. 1870-1930 (30 essays); VII, Latin
America: economy, society, politics, 1930-c. 1990 (43 essays); VIII, Ideas
in Latin America since independence (4 essays); IX, Latin American culture
since independence (9 essays); X, The international relations of Latin Amer-
ica since independence (3 essays).
The New York office of Cambridge University Press was responsible for
the production of this volume. Katharita Lamoza was production editor and
Anita Kugler copyeditor. A preliminary draft of the author index (secon-
dary literature only) was prepared by Edmundo Lamoza. Tom Passananti
and Tim Girven, graduate students in Latin American history at the Univer-
sity of Chicago and the University of London respectively, assisted with the
checking of titles during the final stages of the editing in 1993. Tim Girven
also assisted the editor in the completion of the index. Secretarial assistance
was provided by Hazel Aitken at the Institute of Latin American Studies,
University of London, in 1991-2 and Linnea Cameron at the Department of
History, University of Chicago, in 1992-3.

CONTRIBUTORS
CHRISTOPHER ABEL Senior Lecturer in Latin American History, Univer-

sity College London
Luis E. AGUILAR Miami
DAURIL ALDEN Professor of History, University of Washington, Seattle
ROBERT W. ANDERSON Hato Rey, Puerto Rico
ALAN ANGELL University Lecturer in Latin American Politics and Fel-
low, St Antony's College, Oxford
TIMOTHY A N N A Professor of History, University of Manitoba
ENRIQUE AYALA MORA Director, Universidad Andina Simon Bolivar,
Quito
PETER BAKEWELL Professor of History, Emory University, Atlanta
JOSEP M. BARNADAS Cochabamba, Bolivia
ARNOLD BAUER Professor of History, University of California at Davis
DAMIAN BAY6N Paris
JAN BAZANT El Colegio de Mexico, Mexico, D.F.
GERARD H. BEHAGUE Professor of Music and Fine Arts, University of
Texas at Austin
LESLIE BETHELL Emeritus Professor of Latin American History, Univer-
sity of London, and Senior Research Fellow, St Antony's College, Oxford
GEOFFREY BERTRAM Senior Lecturer in Economics, Victoria University
of Wellington, New Zealand
HAROLD BLAKEMORE (deceased)
HERACLIO BONILLA Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales
(FLACSO), Quito

xxii Contributors
FREDERICK P. BOWSER Associate Professor of History, Stanford Uni-

versity
D. A. BRADING Reader in Latin American History, University of
Cambridge
G O R D O N BROTHERSTON Professor of Spanish and Portuguese, Indiana
University at Bloomington, and Research Professor of Literature, Univer-
sity of Essex, England
VICTOR BULMER-THOMAS Professor of Economics, Queen Mary and
Westfield College, and Director, Institute of Latin American Studies,
University of London
J. B. BURY London
DAVID BUSHNELL Professor Emeritus, University of Florida at Gainesville
CiRO F. S. CARDOSO Professor of History, Universidade Federal Flumi-
nense, Niter6i, Brazil
J O S E MURILO DE CARVALHO Professor of Political Science, Instituto
Universitario de Pesquisas do Rio de Janeiro (IUPERJ)
RODOLFO CERDAS CRUZ Professor of Political Science, Universidad de
Costa Rica
SIMON COLLIER Professor of History, Vanderbilt University
MICHAEL L. CONNIFF Professor of History, Auburn University, Alabama
ROBERTO CORTES CONDE Professor of Economic History, Universidad
de San Andres, Buenos Aires
JULIO COTLER Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Lima
WARREN D E A N (deceased)
MALCOLM DEAS University Lecturer in the Politics and Government of
Latin America and Fellow, St Antony's College, Oxford
JORGE DOMINGUEZ Professor of Government, Harvard University
PAUL W. DRAKE Professor of Political Science and History, University of
California at San Diego
JAMES DUNKERLEY Professor of Politics, Queen Mary and Westfield
College and Institute of Latin American Studies, University of London
J. H. ELLIOTT Regius Professor of History, University of Oxford
J U D I T H EWELLProfessor of History, College of William and Mary, Wil-
liamsburg, Virginia

Contributors xxiii
BORIS FAUSTO Professor of History, Universidade de Sao Paulo

HENRY FINCH Senior Lecturer in Economic and Social History, Univer-
sity of Liverpool
ENRIQUE FLORESCANO Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia,
Mexico D.F.
ELIZABETH FOX Washington D.C.
EZEQUIEL GALLO Instituto Torcuato Di Telia, Buenos Aires
CHARLES GIBSON (deceased)
WILLIAM GLADE Professor of Economics, University of Texas at Austin
THOMAS F. GLICK Professor of History, Boston University
RICHARD GRAHAM Professor of History, University of Texas at Austin
CHARLES A. HALE Professor of History, University of Iowa
MICHAEL M. HALL Professor of History, Universidade Estadual de
Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil
TULIO HALPERIN D O N G H I Professor of History, University of California
at Berkeley
JONATHAN HARTLYN Associate Professor of Political Science, University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
MARY W. HELMS Professor of Anthropology, University of North Caro-
lina at Greensboro
J O H N HEMMING Director, Royal Geographical Society, London
JORGE HIDALGO Santiago, Chile
H. HOETINK Professor of Anthropology, University of Utrecht
EDUARDO HOORNAERT Fortaleza, Brazil
HAROLD B. J O H N S O N Scholar in Residence, University of Virginia
FRIEDRICH KATZ Professor of History, University of Chicago
J O H N KING Reader in Latin American Cultural History, University of
Warwick
PETER F. KLAREN Professor of History, George Washington University,
Washington D.C.
HERBERT S. KLEIN Professor of History, Columbia University
ALAN K N I G H T Professor of the History of Latin America, University of
Oxford

xxiv Contributors
JACQUES LAFAYE Professor of History, Universite de Paris IH-Sorbonne

ASUNCI6N LAVRIN Professor of History, Howard University, Washing-
ton D.C.
MIGUEL LE6N-PORTILLA Research Professor, Instituto de Investiga-
ciones Historicas, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM),
Mexico, D.F.
COLIN M. LEWIS Lecturer in Latin American Economic History, London
School of Economics and Political Science
PAUL H. LEWIS Professor of Political Science, Newcomb College, Tu-
lane University
JAMES LOCKHART Professor of History, University of California at Los
Angeles
NORMAN LONG Professor of Sociology, University of Bath, England,
and Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
JOSEPHL. LOVE Professor of History, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign
JOHN LYNCH Emeritus Professor of Latin American History, University
of London
MURDO J. MACLEOD Graduate Research Professor, University of Florida
at Gainesville
J O H N MAJOR Senior Lecturer in History, University of Hull
ANDREE MANSUY-DINIZ SILVA Professor of the History and Literature of
Brazil, Universite de Paris IH-Sorbonne
MARIA LUIZA MARCfLio Professor of History, Universidade de Sao Paulo
GERALD MARTIN Professor of Modern Languages, University of Pitts-
burgh
FREDERIC MAURO Emeritus Professor of History, Universite de Paris X,
Nanterre
THOMAS W. MERRICK Senior Population Adviser, World Bank, Wash-
ington D.C.
JEAN MEYER Director, Centro de Estudios Mexicanos y Centroameri-
canos, Embassy of France, Mexico D.F.
JOSE MIGUEZ BONINO Instituto Superior Evangelico de Estudios Teol6-
gicos (ISEDET), Buenos Aires

Contributors xxv
K E N N E T H MILLS Assistant Professor of History, Princeton University

MAGNUS MORNER Professor of History, Goteborg University, Sweden
RICHARD M. MORSE Washington D.C.
FRANK MOYA PONS Fondo para el Avance de las Sciencias Sociales, Santo
Domingo, Dominican Republic
J O H N MURRA Professor of Anthropology, Cornell University and Insti-
tute of Andean Research, New York
DAVID NICHOLLS Oxford
JUAN A. O D D O N E Professor of History, Universidad de la Republica,
Montevideo
ORLANDINA DE OLIVFIRA Director, Centra de Estudios Sociol6gicos, El
Colegio de Mexico, Mexico, D.F.
MARCO PALACIOS Professor of Economic History, Universidad Aut6-
noma de Barcelona
JOSE GABRIEL PALMA Faculty of Economics and Politics, University of
Cambridge
GUILLERMO DE LA PENA Centra de Investigaciones y Estudios Su-
periores en Antropologia Social de Occidente (CIESAS), Guadalajara,
Mexico
Louis A. PEREZ J R Professor of History, University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill
ANGEL QUINTERO-RIVERA Social Science Research Center, University
of Puerto Rico
LILIANA DE Riz Centra de Estudios de Estado y Sociedad (CEDES),
Buenos Aires
BRYAN ROBERTS Professor of U.S.-Mexico Relations, University of
Texas at Austin
DAVID ROCK Professor of History, University of California at Santa
Barbara
IAN ROXBOROUGH Professor of Sociology and Professor of History, State
University of New York at Stony Brook
A. J. R. RUSSELL-WOOD Professor of History, Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity
FRANK SAFFORD Professor of History, Northwestern University

xxvi Contributors
VARUN SAHNI Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies, New

Delhi, India
NICOLAS SANCHEZ-ALBORNOZ Madrid
STUART B. SCHWARTZ Professor of History, University of Minnesota
JAMES R. SCOBIE (deceased)
PETER H. SMITH Professor of Political Science and Professor of Latin
American Studies, University of California at San Diego
ROBERT FREEMAN SMITH Distinguished University Professor, Univer-
sity of Toledo, Ohio
HOBART A. SPALDING J R Professor of History, City University of New
York
ROBERT STEVENSON Professor of Musicology, University of California at
Los Angeles
MARK D. SZUCHMAN Professor of History, Florida International Univer-
sity
H U G H THOMAS London
ROSEMARY T H O R P University Lecturer in the Economics of Latin Amer-
ica, and Fellow, St Antony's College, Oxford
J U A N CARLOS TORRE Instituto Torcuato Di Telia, Buenos Aires
EDELBERTO TORRES-RIVAS Secretary-General, Facultad Latinoameri-
cana de Sciencias Sociales (FLACSO), San Jose, Costa Rica
ARTURO VALENZUELA Professor of Government, Georgetown University
EMfuA VIOTTI DA COSTA Professor of History, Yale University
NATHAN WACHTEL Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris
D. A. G. WADDELL (deceased)
LAURENCE W H I T E H E A D Official Fellow in Politics, Nuffield College,
Oxford
JASON W I L S O N Senior Lecturer in Latin American Literature, University
College London
J O H N WOMACK J R Professor of History, Harvard University
RALPH LEE WOODWARD J R Professor of History, Tulane University

ABBREVIATIONS
ABNRJ Anais da Biblioteca National do Rio de Janeiro

AESC Annales: Economies, Societes, Civilisations
AHR American Historical Review
BCHIE Boletin del Centro de Investigaciones Historicas y Esteticas
BELC Boletin de Estudios Latinoamericanos y del Caribe
BHR Business History Review
BLAR Bulletin of Latin American Research
CEPAL see ECLA
CHLA Cambridge History of Latin America
CSSH Comparative Studies in Society and History
DE Desarrollo Economico
ECLA United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America
(CEPAL in Spanish)
ESC Estudios Sociales Centroamericanos
HAHR Hispanic American Historical Review
HGIAL Historia General de la Iglesia en America Latina
HM Historia Mexicana
I-AA Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv
JGSWGL Jahrbuchfur Geschichte von Stoat, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft
Lateinamerika
JIAS Journal of Inter-American Studies and World Affairs
JLAS Journal of Latin American Studies
LAP Latin American Perspectives
LARR Latin American Research Review
L-BR Luso-Brazilian Review
RBE Revista Brasileira de Economia
RHA Revista de Historia de America

xxviii Abbreviations
RIB Revista Interamericana de Bibliografiallnter-American Review

of Bibliography
RIHGB Revista do Instituto Historico e Geogrdfico Brasileiro
RMS Revista Mexicana de Sociologia
SALA Statistical Abstract of Latin America
TA The Americas
TE El Trimestre Economico

I
THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF
MIDDLE AND SOUTH AMERICA
ON THE EVE OF THE CONQUEST
i. M E S O A M E R I C A B E F O R E 15 19
A comprehensive bibliography dealing with the archaeology and ethno-

history of Mesoamerica and the north of Mexico has been prepared by
Ignacio Bernal, Bibliografia de arqueologia y etnografia de Mesoamerica y norte
de Mexico, 1514-1960 (Mexico, D.F., 1962). Descriptions of many of the
extant indigenous sources, i.e. pictorial manuscripts and others in the
native historical tradition, are provided by John B. Glass, Donald Robert-
son, Charles Gibson and Henry B. Nicholson in a series of articles in
volumes 14 and 15 (1975), edited by Howard F. Cline, of the Handbook of
Middle American Indians, ed. Robert Wauchope, 16 vols. (Austin, Tex.,
1964-76). An invaluable reference work, giving a chronology of Nahuatl
scholarship from 1546 to 1980 and a catalogue of Nahuatl printed works
(some 2,961 items), has been assembled by Ascension H. de Le6n-
Portilla, Tepuztlahcuilolli: Impresos en nahuatl: Historiay bibliografia, 2 vols.
(Mexico, D.F., 1988). An indispensable guide to Nahuatl manuscripts in
the Newberry Library, Chicago, the Latin American Library of Tulane
University and the Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley,
is provided by John Frederick Schwaller in Estudios de cultura nahuatl, 18
(1986), 3 1 5 - 8 3 . On Nahuatl manuscripts in the John Carter Brown
Library, Providence, Rhode Island, and the Nettie Lee Benson Latin
American Collection at the University of Texas at Austin, see Estudios de
cultura nahuatl, 21 (1991), 31138.
The works of the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Spanish, mestizo
and Indian chroniclers containing basic references to the pre-Columbian
epoch have been the subject of various analyses and critical appraisals,
although there is no comprehensive study which examines them all system-
atically. A general survey can be found in Historiografia Indiana, by Fran-

2 / . Indigenous peoples on the eve of conquest
cisco Esteve Barba (Madrid, 1964). A number of studies about the works
of authors like Bernardino de Sahagun, Antonio de Herrera and Juan de
Torquemada are included in 'The guide to ethnohistorical sources', Hand-
book of Middle American Indians, vol. 12 (Austin, Tex., 1973). The Na-
tional University of Mexico has published critical editions of some of the
indigenous sources and of the sixteenth-century chronicles: Textos de los
informants indigenas de Sahagun, Codices Matritenses, edited by Angel Maria
Garibay and Miguel Leon-Portilla, 4 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1958-69);
Poesia ndhuatl, edited by A. M. Garibay, 3 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1964,
1965, and 1968); Apologetica historia sumaria, by Bartolome de Las Casas, 2
vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1967); Memoriales, by Toribio de Benavente Moto-
linia (Mexico, D.F., 1971); Obras historicas, by Fernando de Alva Ixtlil-
xochitl, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1975-7), edited by Edmundo O'Gorman
et al.; and Monarquia indiana, by Juan de Torquemada, edited by M.
Leon-Portilla et al., 7 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 197580). Also important on
Sahagun are Mauricio J. Mixco's line English translation and revision of
Luis Nicolau d'Olwer's classic 1952 study, Fray Bernardino de Sahagun,
I
499~I59 (Salt Lake City, 1987), and a set of stimulating essays in
J. Jorge Klor de Alva, H. B. Nicholson and Eloise Quiriones Keber
(eds.), The Work of Bernardino de Sahagun: Pioneer Ethnographer of Sixteenth-
Century Aztec Mexico (Austin, Tex., 1988). A valuable edition of Moto-
linia's Historia de los indios de la Nueva Espana was prepared by Georges
Baudot (Madrid, 1985). Important, too, is a facsimile edition of a major
NahuatlSpanish confession manual, with an introductory essay by Ro-
berto Moreno, Alonso de Molina's Confesionario mayor en la lengua mexicana
y castellana (Mexico, D.F., 1984).
A contribution deserving particular attention is the edition and transla-
tion into English prepared by Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles E.
Dibble of the encyclopedia source for the study of the cultures of central
Mexico, Florentine Codex, 12 vols. (Santa Fe, N.Mex., 195082). Impor-
tant contributions include the publication of two bilingual editions
(EnglishNahuatl and SpanishNahuatl) of the early colonial record of the
Indian municipality of Tlaxcala: see James Lockhart, Frances Berdan and
Arthur J. O. Anderson (trans, and eds.), The Tlaxcalan Adas: A Compen-
dium of the Records of the Cabildo of Tlaxcala, 15451627 (Salt Lake City,
1986); and Eustaqio Celestino Solis et al. (trans, and eds.), Adas de Cabildo
deTlaxcala, 15471567 (Mexico, D.F., 1985). The former selects twenty-
five sessions, while the latter represents the complete minutes of 184

i. Mesoamerica before 1519 3
meetings of the Indian council. Both editions include historical essays. In

the case of the Maya, no later edition has surpassed the work of Alfred M.
Tozzer as editor, translator and commentator of the chronicle by Diego de
Landa, Relacion de las cosas de Yucatan (Cambridge, Mass., 1941), although
Anthony R. Pagden's English edition and translation, The Maya: Diego de
Landa's Account of the Affairs of Yucatan (Chicago, 1975), is worthy of note.
The achievements of archaeological research in Mesoamerica are re-
corded and described by Gordon R. Willey and Jeremy A. Sabloff in A
History of American Archaeology (San Francisco, 1974), and by Ignacio
Bernal, Historia de la arqueologia en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1979). A volume
edited by Norman Hammond includes various papers dealing with some
of the research programmes: Mesoamerican Archaeology: New Approaches (Aus-
tin, Tex., 1974). Vols. 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 of Handbook of Middle American
Indians (1965, 1966, and 1971) include several excellent syntheses about
the archaeology of the various areas of northern and southern Mesoamer-
ica. The first volume of a series entitled Supplement to the Handbook of
Middle American Indians covers research in the area during the 1970s:
Archaeology, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff, assisted by Patricia A. Andrews
(Austin, Tex., 1981).
A few reliable surveys of the cultural evolution of Mesoamerica in its
entirety have appeared during recent decades. Wigberto Jimenez Moreno
revised a previously published work that throws considerable light on the
subject: 'Mesoamerica before the Toltecs', in Ancient Oaxaca, edited by
John Paddock (Stanford, Calif., 1968). The joint effort of several special-
ists coordinated by Jose Luis Lorenzo, Alberto Ruz, Ignacio Bernal and
Miguel Leon-Portilla has resulted in an ample section devoted to the
Mesoamerican past in the first three volumes of Historia de Mexico, 11 vols.
(Mexico, D.F., 1974). Amongst the countributions made in terms of
theory may be mentioned the small volume edited by William T. Sanders
and Barbara J. Price to demonstrate that civilization can be understood as
a result of ecological adaptation: Mesoamerica: The Evolution of a Civilization
(New York, 1968). In the same vein, see Angel Palerm, Mexico pre-
hispdnico: Ensayos sobre evolucion ecologica (Mexico, D.F., 1990).
During recent decades, publications about particular areas, periods or
aspects within the cultural evolution of Mesoamerica have been extremely
abundant but of uneven quality. For the origins, development and diffu-
sion of Olmec culture, see Michael D. Coe, America's First Civilization
(New York, 1968), Ignacio Bernal, The Olmec World (Berkeley, 1969),

4 /. Indigenous peoples on the eve of conquest
Robert J. Sharer and David C. Grove, Regional Perspectives on the Olmec

(Cambridge, Eng., 1989) and Jacques Soustelle, The Olmecs: The Oldest
Civilization in Mexico (Norman, Okla., 1985). Michael D. Coe has pub-
lished a well-documented synthesis, The Maya (London, 1966; rev. ed.
1980). See also the classic contributions of J. Eric S. Thompson: The Rise
and Fall of Maya Civilization (1954; 2nd ed. Norman, Okla., 1967);
Maya Hieroglyphic Writing: An Introduction (Norman, Okla., 1970); A
Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs (Norman, Okla., 1962); and Maya History
and Religion (Norman, Okla., 1970). Among more recent works, see
John S. Henderson, The World of the Ancient Maya (Ithaca, N.Y., 1981);
Norman Hammond, Ancient Maya Civilization (Cambridge, Eng., 1982);
T. Patrick Culbert and Don S. Rice, Precolumbian Population History in the
Maya Lowlands (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1990); and William F. Hanks
and Don S. Rice, Word and Image in Maya Culture: Explorations in Lan-
guage, Writing and Representations (Salt Lake City, 1990). Ancient Oaxaca,
edited by John Paddock (Stanford, Calif., 1968), includes important
contributions about the Zapotec and Mixtec cultures. Also by John Pad-
dock, see 'Tezcatlipoca in Oaxaca", Ethnohistory, 32/4 (1985), 309-25.
Ronald Spores's expanded study (from the 1967 original) of the Mixteca
Alta, The Mixtecs in Ancient and Colonial Times (Norman, Okla., 1984) is
also useful. Other peoples are examined in Shirley Gorenstein and Helen
Perlstein Pollard, The Tarascan Civilization: A Late Prehispanic Cultural
System (Nashville, Tenn., 1983); Elio Masferrer Kan, 'Las condiciones
historicas de la etnicidad entre los totonacos', Amirica Indigena 46/4,
(1986), 73349; William R. Fowler, Jr., The Cultural Evolution of Ancient
Nahua Civilizations: The Pipil-Nicarao of Central America (Norman, Okla.,
1989); and Miguel Le6n-Portilla, The Aztec Image of Self and Society: An
Introduction to Nahua Culture, edited and with an introduction by J. Jorge
Klor de Alva (Salt Lake City, 1992).
Several excellent facsimile reproductions of indigenous books or 'cod-
ices', both pre-Columbian and early colonial of native Mesoamerican ori-
gin, facilitate the study of these primary sources: Codex Cospi, Codex
Borbonicus, Codex Borgia, with a commentary by K. A. Nowotny (Graz,
1968, 1974, 1978); Codex Egerton, Codex Land, Codex Fejervary Mayer,
with an introduction by C. A. Burland (Graz, 1965, 1966, 1971); Codice
Xolotl, with an introductory study by Charles E. Dibble, 2 vols. (Mexico,
D.F., 1980).
The cultures of Central Mexico, in particular those which succeeded in
building the metropoli of Teotihuacan, Tula and Mexico-Tenochtitlan,

i . Mesoamerica before 1519 5
have been the object of increasing attention. The proceedings of the XI

Round Table of the Sociedad Mexicana de Antropologia include various
important papers about the classic metropolis, Teotihuacdn, 2 vols. (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1966-72). Concerning the development of urbanism in the
Teotihuacan period, the mapping project headed by Rene Millon has
resulted in several contributions. See, for instance, his 'Teotihuacan: Com-
pletion of map of giant ancient city in the Valley of Mexico', Science, 170
(1970), 197782, and 'The study of urbanism in Teotihuacan', in Nor-
man Hammond (ed.), Mesoamerican Archaeology: New Approaches (London,
1974), 31334. For comprehensive ethnohistorical studies on the Toltecs,
see Nigel Davies, The Toltecs: Until the Fall of Tula (Norman, Okla., 1977)
and The ToltecHeritage (Norman, Okla., 1980). A substantial archaeologi-
cal contribution is Richard A. Diehl, Tula: The Toltec Capital of Ancient
Mexico (New York, 1983), while Janice Dewey, 'Huemac: El fiero de
Cincalco', Estudios de Cultura Ndhuatl, 16 (1983), 18392, is a treatment
of mythical sources on this Toltec king.
On the socio-economic and political structures prevalent in central
Mesoamerica at the time of the contact with the Spainards, see Manuel M.
Moreno, La organization poli'tica y social de los Aztecas (Mexico, D.F., 1962);
Friedrich Katz, Situation socialy economica de los Aztecas durante los siglos XVy
XVI (Mexico, D.F., 1966); Pedro Carrasco, 'Social organisation in Ancient
Mexico', Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol.10 (1972), 349-75;
Johanna Broda, Pedro Carrasco, et al., Estratificacion social en la Mesoamerica
prehispdnica (Mexico, D.F., 1976); Pedro Carrasco and Johanna Broda
(eds.), Economia politica e ideologia en el Mexico prehispdnico (Mexico, D.F.,
1978); Pedro Carrasco, 'La economia prehispanica de Mexico', in Enrique
Florescano (ed.), Ensayos sobre el desarrollo economico de Mexico y America
Latina (15001950) (Mexico, D.F., 1979). On the formation of the state
among the Toltecs, Chichimecs and Mexica, see Brigitte Boehm de
Lameiras, Formation del estado en Mexico prehispdnico (Zamora, Mex., 1986).
Angel Palerm, in Obras hidrdulicas prehispdnicas (Mexico, D.F., 1973),
stresses the role of irrigation in Mesoamerican development, making use of
the ideas expressed by Karl A. Wittfogel. See also Warwick Bray, 'Land
use, settlement patterns and politics in Prehispanic Middle America, a
review', in Peter J. Ucko, Ruth Tringham and G.W. Dimbleby (eds.),
Man, Settlement and Urbanism (London, 1972).
Alfonso Caso, in addition to his archaeological research in the Oaxaca
area and his facsimile editions with the 'lecture' of several Mixtec codices,
has written many studies on the Aztecs and on the calendric systems of

central Mesoamerica, including Los calendarios prehispdnicos (Mexico, D.F.,

1967). The culmination of many years' work on the Aztec calendar and
religious foundations is Michel Graulich, Mythes et rituels du Mexique ancien
prehispanique (Brussels, 1987). A useful synthesis of Mesoamerican ca-
lendrics is Gordon Brotherston, A Key to the Mesoamerican Reckoning of Time:
The Chronology Recorded in Native Texts, British Museum Occasional Paper
(London, 1982). Eduardo Noguera's many pioneering contributions in the
field of ceramics culminated in a basic work of reference, La cerdmica
arqueologica de Mesoamerica (Mexico, D.F., 1975). Ignacio Marquina's vol-
ume, Arquitectura prehispdnica (Mexico, D.F., 1960), provides the classic
treatment of this subject.
The literary creations of the Nahuatl-speaking groups have been re-
searched by Angel Maria Garibay, whose Historia de la literatura nahuatl, 2
vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1953-4) remains a landmark in these studies. A
selection of Garibay's writings appears in his Sabiduria de Andhuac, se-
lected and presented by Gonzalo Perez Gomez (Toluca, Mex., 1986). A
general guide to the indigenous literary productions of the Maya, Nahua
and Mixtec peoples is provided by M. Leon-Portilla, Precolumbian Litera-
tures of Mexico (Norman, Okla., 1969; 2nd ed. 1986). See also Gordon
Brotherston, Book of the Fourth World: Reading the Native Americans through
their Literature (Cambridge, Eng., 1992). Also of interest are a complete
transcription and translation into English of the so-called Huehuetlatolli,
a NahuatlSpanish text housed in the Bancroft Library at Berkeley;
Frances Karttunen and James Lockhart (eds.), The Art of Nahuatl Speech:
The Bancroft Dialogues (Los Angeles, 1987); James M. Taggart, Nahuatl
Myth and Social Structure (Austin, Tex., 1983); and Gary H. Gossen (ed.),
Symbol and Meaning Beyond the Closed Community: Essays in Mesoamerican
Ideas (Albany, N.Y., 1986). A collection of texts of the native Mesoamer-
ican tradition, translated from Nahuatl, Maya, Quiche and Mixtec, includ-
ing creation myths, examples of the 'ancient word', poetry and the saga of
Quetzalcoatl, has been edited by Miguel Le6n-Portilla, J. O. Arthur
Anderson, Charles E. Dibble and Munro S. Edmonson, Native Mesoamer-
ican Spirituality (New York, 1980).
Religion and world view in Mesoamerica have been better approached
during the last two decades through the analysis of the indigenous manu-
scripts and the findings of archaeology. A pioneering paper in this field is
that of J. Eric S. Thompson, Sky Bearers, Colors and Directions in Maya and
Mexican Religion (Washington, D.C., 1934). Alfonso Caso's The Aztecs:
People of the Sun (Norman, Okla., 1958) keeps its value as an introduction

i . Mesoamerica before 1519 7
to the religion of the Aztecs. For its challenging thesis on the role of
'ideology' in human societies, see the comparative work of Geoffrey W.
Conrad and Arthur A. Demarest, Religion and Empire: The Dynamics of
Aztec and Inca Expansionism (Cambridge, Eng., 1984). An indispensable
volume of eighteen essays, also with comparative aspirations, is George A.
Collier, Renato I. Rosaldo and John D. Wirth (eds.), The Inca and Aztec
States, 14001800: Anthropology and History (New York, 1982). Several
writings of the great Mexicanist, Eduard Seler, included in his Gesammelte
Abhandlungen, 5 vols. (Berlin, 1902-23), are also of considerable impor-
tance for the study of Mesoamerican religion and world view. Aztec
Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient Nahuatl Mind (Norman, Okla.,
1963), and Time and Reality in the Thought of the Maya (Boston, 1972), by
Miguel Leon-Portilla, provide analysis of texts considered of primary im-
portance to approach the world view of these two peoples. Additional
works which are worthy of mention on different aspects of the Mexica
civilisation include Jerome A. Offner, Law and Politics in Aztec Texcoco
(Cambridge, Eng., 1983); Susan D. Gillespie, The Aztec Kings: The Con-
struction ofRulership in Mexican History (Tucson, Ariz., 1988); Ross Hassig,
Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control (Norman, Okla.,
1988); Alfredo Lopez Austin's 1980 synthesis of Nahua political culture
and medicine, translated into English as The Human Body and Ideology:
Concepts of the Ancient Nahuas, 2 vols. (Salt Lake City, 1988); Bernard R.
Ortiz de Montellano, Aztec Medicine, Health and Nutrition (New Bruns-
wick, N.J., 1990); and the three essays in Johanna Broda, David Carrasco
and Eduardo Matos Moctezuma (eds.), The Great Temple of Tenochtitlan:
Center and Periphery in the Aztec World (Berkeley, 1988). Papers rich in new
insights are those of Thomas S. Barthel, 'Algunos principios de ordenacion
en el panteon azteca', Traducciones Mesoamericanistas, 2, 4578 (1968), and
the classificatory attempt of the various deities prepared by Henry B.
Nicholson, 'Religion in pre-Hispanic Central Mexico', in Handbook of
Middle American Indians, vol. 10(1972), 305446.
An excellent survey of the culture of the inhabitants of Central Mexico
before the arrival of the Spaniards is available in Warwick Bray, Everyday
Life of the Aztecs (London, 1968). For a fine general synthesis, see Nigel
Davies, The Aztecs (London, 1973) and the same author's The Aztec Em-
pire: The Toltec Resurgence (Norman, Okla., 1987). A well-written and
speculative account is Inga Clendinnen, Aztecs: An Interpretation (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1991). Finally, James Lockhart's much-awaited The Nahuas
after the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central

Mexico (Stanford, Calif., 1992) charts the Indian peoples into the colonial
era in interesting ways.
2. THE CARIBBEAN AND

CIRCUM-CARIBBEAN AT THE END
OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY
Several of the major sixteenth-century European chroniclers of Spanish

exploration and settlement in the New World provide primary material
concerning the native customs of the Greater Antilles, northern Venezuela,
the northern half of Colombia and lower Central America. The following
sources are, therefore, fundamental to any ethnohistorical research concern-
ing the Caribbean and circum-Caribbean: Pietro Martire d'Anghiera, De
Orbe Novo, available in two volumes in English translation by Francis Augus-
tus MacNutt under the title De Orbe Novo, The Eight Decades of Peter Martyr
d'Anghera (New York, 1912); Bartolome de Las Casas, Historia de las Indias,
edited in three volumes by Agusti'n Millares Carlo (Mexico, D.F., 1951);
Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdez, Historia general y natural de las
Indias, 5 vols. (18515; Madrid, 1959), and, by the same author, Sumario
de la naturalhistoria de las Indias (i526;Mexico, D.F., 1950), translated into
English and edited by Sterling A. Stoudemire as Natural History of the West
Indies (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1959). HistoriedelS.D. Fernando Colombo (Venice,
1571), also published by Ramon Iglesia as Vida del Almirante Don Cristobal
Colon (Mexico, D.F., 1947), should also be consulted, particularly for the
Greater Antilles and lower Central America. This record of Columbus's
voyages has been translated into English by Benjamin Keen as The Life of the
Admiral Christopher Columbus by his Son, Ferdinand (New Brunswick, N.J.,
1959)-
Luis Duque Gomez's two-volume work on Colombian prehistory pro-
vides a basic introduction to that country's indigenous peoples at the time
of the conquest. Both volumes, Prehistoria, vol. 1: Etnohistoria y arqueologia
(1965) and vol. 2: Tribus indigenas y sitios arqueologicos (1967), have been
published as vol. 1 of Historia extensa de Colombia (Bogota, 1965, 1967).
Prehistoria, vol. 2, chap. 1 contains a useful discussion of the various
chroniclers whose works provide much primary data. Of these, Pedro de
Aquado's Recopilacion historial is particularly significant, for many well-
known later writers rested heavily on this source. The four-volume edition
by Juan Friede (Bogota, 19567) is definitive. Another exceptional

2. The Caribbean and circum-Caribbean 9
sixteenth-century observer, Pedro de Cieza de Leon, left an excellent

description of his travels through the Cauca Valley. This material is con-
tained in the first part of his well-known chronicle of Peru (1554) and was
translated into English by Clements R. Markham as The Travels of Pedro de
Cieza de Leon, 1532-1550 (London, 1864).
Turning to contemporary scholars, much data concerning Cauca Valley
peoples has been compiled by Hermann Trimborn in Vergessene Kbnigreiche
(Brunswick, 1948). This work, however, is seriously flawed by outmoded
theories and questionable generalizations, and must be used with care.
More recently Luis Duque Gomez has focused specifically on the indige-
nous peoples of the Quindio region in Los Quimbayas (Bogota, 1970). An
excellent discussion of traditional settlements and agricultural adaptations
is provided by Thomas S. Schorr, 'Cauca Valley settlements, a culture
ecological interpretation', in Adas y Memorias, 1, 37th Congreso In-
ternational de Americanistas (Buenos Aires, 1968), 44966.
On the Cenu region of the north Colombian lowlands, two studies
merit particular mention. B. LeRoy Gordon's Human Geography and Ecol-
ogy in the Sinu Country of Colombia (Berkeley, 1957) includes a reconstruc-
tion of native cultures at the time of contact. James J. Parsons and
William A. Bowen discuss evidence for intensive agricultural techniques
in 'Ancient ridged fields of the San Jorge river floodplain, Colombia',
The Geographical Review, 56(1966), 31743.
The traditional cultures of the Santa Marta region have been discussed
in detail by Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff, Datos historicos-culturales sobre las
tribus de la antigua gobernacion de Santa Marta (Bogota, 1951). Henning
Bischof's excellent work, Die Spanischlndianische Auseinandersetzung in der
nbrdlichen Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (IJOI1600) (Bonn, 1971), builds
on Reichel-Dolmatoff's earlier volume.
Much has been written on the Muisca or Chibcha. From among the
numerous studies the following provide good introductions, particularly
to questions of pre-Columbian ecology and socio-political organization:
Robert C. Eidt, 'Aboriginal Chibcha settlement in Colombia', Annals of
the Association of American Geographers, 49 (1959), 37492; Sylvia M.
Broadbent, 'A prehistoric field system in Chibcha territory, Colombia',
Nawpa Pacha, 6 (1968), 13547, and Los Chibchas: Organizacidn socio-
politica (Bogota, 1964); Juan A. and Judith E. Villamarin, 'Kinship and
inheritance among the Sabana de Bogota Chibcha at the time of Spanish
conquest', Ethnology, 14 (1975), 1739- On a broader note, Gerardo
Reichel-Dolmatoff presents a general survey of pre-conquest agricultural

io /. Indigenous peoples on the eve of conquest
features in 'The agricultural basis of the sub-Andean chiefdoms of Colom-

bia', in The Evolution of Horticultural Systems in Native South America: Causes
and Consequences, edited by Johannes Wilbert (Caracas, 1961), 83100.
Regional and long-distance exchange in native Colombia is discussed by S.
Henry Wassen, 'Algunos datos del comercio preColombino [sic] en Colom-
bia', Revista Colombiana de Antropologia, 4 (1955), 87-110.
Although the fullest accounts of the indigenous cultures of Panama are
contained in Oviedo y Valdez's Historia general and his Sumario, valuable
data concerning eastern Panama and north-western Colombia are to be
found in the letter of 1513 to King Ferdinand written by Vasco Nunez de
Balboa. This missive has been published with others by Martin Fernandez
de Navarrete in his Coleccion de los viajes y descubrimientos que hicieron por mar
los Espanoles, vol. 3 (Madrid, 1829), 35876. An English translation can
be found in the report by Pascual de Andagoya translated as Narrative of the
Proceedings ofPedrarias Davila in the Provinces ofTierra Firme by Clements R.
Markham (London, 1865), ixix. Andagoya's narrative is itself another
important source.
Using these and other records, Samuel Lothrop presents a general sum-
mary of the pre-Columbian societies of western Panama in Cocli: An
Archaeological Study of Central Panama (Cambridge, Mass., 1937), part 1,
148. An earlier and little known history by C. L. G. Anderson, Old
Panama and Castilla del Oro (Boston, 1914), is also useful. More recently
Carl Sauer has discussed such topics as subsistence, settlement pattern and
metallurgy in The Early Spanish Main (Berkeley, 1966). Mary W. Helms
has analysed procedures for succession to chiefship in 'Competition,
power, and succession to office in pre-Columbian Panama', in Frontier
Adaptations in Lower Central America, edited by Mary W. Helms and
Franklin O. Loveland (Philadelphia, 1976), 25-35. 1 another study
entitled Ancient Panama: Chiefs in Search of Power (Austin, Tex., 1979),
Helms has offered a general anthropological interpretation of the operation
of Panamanian polities at the time of conquest with particular emphasis on
long-distance contacts.
The standard introduction to Costa Rican materials has been Ricardo
Fernandez Guardia, Historia de Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1905), also
available in an English translation by Harry Weston Van Dyke as History of
the Discovery and Conquest of Costa Rica (New York, 1913). Considerable
ethnohistoric data are also found in the Cartas dejuan Vazquez de Coronado,
also published by Fernandez Guardia (Barcelona, 1908). The first chapter
of his Resena histdrica de Talamanca (San Jose, C.R., 1918) provides informa-

2. The Caribbean and circum-Caribbean 11
tion from early missionary reports regarding this isolated region. Of this
genre, the memorial written by Fray Agustin de Zevallos in 1610 regard-
ing the Talamancan natives is particularly informative. It appears in vol. 5
of Coleccidn de documentos para la historia de Costa Rica, published by Leon
Fernandez (Paris, 1886), 156-61.
All this material, and more, has informed the very comprehensive
ethnohistorical reconstruction of Costa Rican chiefdoms undertaken by
Eugenia Ibarra Rojas in Las sociedades cacicales de Costa Rica {sigh XVI) (San
Jose, C.R., 1990). See also Luis Ferrero A., 'Ethnohistory and ethnogra-
phy in the Central Highlands: Atlantic watershed and Diquis', in Between
Continents!Between Seas: Precolumbian Art of Costa Rica, by Suzanne Abel-
Vidor et al. (New York, 1981), 9 3 - 1 0 3 .
Turning to north-western Venezuela, Federico Brito Figueroa's Poblacidn
y economia en elpasado indigena venezolano (Caracas, 1962) provides an excel-
lent reconstruction and overview of late fifteenth-century indigenous demo-
graphic patterns and socio-economic characteristics. It is particularly useful
for the northern mountain and coastal regions. The ethnographically com-
plex region surrounding Lake Maracaibo has been analysed by Mario Sanoja
Obediente in 'Datos etnohistoricos del Lago de Maracaibo', Economia y
Ciencias Sociales, 2nd ser., 8 (1966), 22151. See also Mario Sanoja Obedi-
ente and Iraida Vargas Arenas, 'La sociedad cacical del Valle de Quibor
(Estado Lara, Venezuela)', in Chiefdoms in the Americas, edited by Robert D.
Drennan and Carlos A. Uribe (Lanham, Md., 1987), 201-12, and 'Ele-
mentos para la definicion arqueologica de los cacicazgos prehispanicos del
noroeste de Venezuela' by Maria I. Toledo and Luis E. Molina, also in
Chiefdoms in the Americas, 187200. Erika Wagner's 'The Mucuchies phase:
An extension of the Andean cultural pattern into western Venezuela', Ameri-
can Anthropologist, 75 (1973), 195213, reconstructs with archaeological
evidence aspects of the culture pattern characteristic of the tierrafria region
of the nearby Venezuelan Andes. This discussion is continued by Roberto
Lleras P6rez and Carl Langebaek Rueda, 'Producci6n agricola y desarrollo
sociopolitico entre los Chibchas de la Cordillera Oriental y Serrania de
MSrida', in Chiefdoms in the Americas, 251-70.
The most detailed primary account of the indigenous customs of the
Greater Antilles is found in Bartolome de Las Casas, Apologetica historia de
las Indias, published as vol. 1 of Historiadores de Indias, by M. Serrano y Sanz
(Madrid, 1909). Additional information on the ideology and religious
practices of the natives of Hispaniola can be found in the report of Friar
Ramon Pane. An English translation of this account appears in Edward

Gaylord Bourne, 'Columbus, Ramon Pane and the beginnings of American

anthropology', Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, N . S . 17
(1907), 31048, and in Keen's Life of the Admiral, 15369. Turning to
secondary sources, a valuable contribution to demographic studies has been
made by Angel Rosenblat, 'The population of Hispaniola at the time of
Columbus', in The Native Population of the Americas in 1492, edited by
William M. Denevan (Madison, Wis., 1976), 4366. Indigenous agricul-
tural practices in the Greater Antilles are discussed in 'Taino agriculture',
by William C. Sturtevant, i n j . Wilbert (ed.), The Evolution ofHorticultural
Systems, 6982. Insights into the association of plant and animal forms
with art and ritual are offered by Adolfo de Hostos in his Anthropological
Papers (San Juan, P.R., 1941). See also Mary W. Helms, 'Art styles and
interaction spheres in Central America and the Caribbean: Polished black
wood in the Greater Antilles', in Chiefdoms in the Americas, 6783.
On a more general level, the extensive compilation by Sven Loven,
Origins of the Tainan Culture, West Indies (Goteborg, 1935) contains much
information, but must be used carefully because of a tendency for unreli-
ability in quotes and in interpretations. Although written more than a
century ago, the paper by Hy. Ling Roth, 'The aborigines of Hispaniola',
Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 16
(1887), 24786, remains an excellent summary of, and introduction to,
the subject. Another basic work concerned with Cuba is Felipe Pichardo
Moya's Los Indios de Cuba en sus tiempos historicos (Havana, 1945). Sauer's
Spanish Main devotes considerable space to discussion of indigenous main-
land relationships in the Greater Antilles. Samuel M. Wilson has inter-
preted and reconstructed important aspects of economic, social and politi-
cal organization of the Taino chiefdoms in Hispaniola: Caribbean Chiefdoms
in the Age of Columbus (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1990).
The most authoritative observations concerning the native population
of the Lesser Antilles were made by the seventeenth-century missionary,
Father Raymond Breton. Although Breton's own ethnographic record is
apparently lost, much information is contained in his Dictionnaire Caraibe
Frangais (Leipzig, 1892). Breton also provided material for a report writ-
ten by his superior, Armand de La Paix, entitled Relation de I'lsle de la
Guadeloupe, which appears in Les Caraibes, la Guadeloupe: 16351656,
edited by Joseph Rennard (Paris, 1929), 23-127.
Douglas Taylor, the foremost ethnohistorian of the Island Carib, has
written many articles, including 'Kinship and social structure of the Is-
land Carib', Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 2 (1946), 180-212, 'The

3- The Andes 13
meaning of dietary and occupational restrictions among the Island Carib',
American Anthropologist, 52 (1950), 3439, and 'Diachronic note on the
Carib contribution to Island Carib', International Journal of American Lin-
guistics, 20(1954), 2833. See also Douglas Taylor and Walter H. Hodge,
'The ethnobotany of the Island Carib of Dominica', Webbia, 12 (1957),
513644. Richard Moore has presented a reasoned, if somewhat impas-
sioned, critique of Island Carib cannibalism in his 'Carib "cannibalism": A
study in anthropological stereotyping', Caribbean Studies, 13 (1973), 117
35. Jacques Petitjean-Roget has published an ethnographic reconstruction
of Island Carib culture based on Breton's works. The English version is
titled 'The Caribs as seen through the dictionary of the Reverend Father
Breton', First International Convention for the Study of Pre-Columbian Culture
in the Lesser Antilles, Part 1 (Fort-de-France, Martinique, 1961), 4368.
The same report is published in French in the same source, 1642. On
political organization, see Simone Dreyfus, 'Historical and political anthro-
pological inter-connections: The multilinguistic indigenous polity of the
"Carib" Islands and Mainland Coast from the 16th to the 18th century',
Antropologica, 59-62 (1983-4), 39~55-
For the cultures of the coastal mountains and interior llanos of north-
eastern Venezuela, see Paul Kirchhoff, 'The tribes north of the Orinoco
River', in Handbook of South American Indians, ed. Julian H. Steward, 6
vols. (Washington, D.C., 194650), vol. 4, 48193. Kirchhoff relies on
a notable late seventeenth-century work, Conversion en Piritu de Indios
Cumanagotas y Palenques (Madrid, 1892), by Fray Matias Ruiz Blanco.
Another missionary, Padre Jose Gumilla, produced a major ethnographic
report on the central and western Venezuelan llanos, El Orinoco ilustrado y
defendido (Caracas, 1963). Utilizing Gumilla's data and information from
numerous other sources, ethnohistorians Nancy and Robert Morey have
described and analysed the culture patterns of the llanos in Relaciones
comerciales en el pasado en los llanos de Colombia y Venezuela (Caracas, 1975)
and 'Foragers and farmers: Differential consequences of Spanish contact',
Ethnohistory, 20 (1973), 22946.
3. THE ANDES BEFORE 1532
An early inventory of the sources for Andean ethnohistory is Phillip A.

Means, Biblioteca Andina (1928), Transactions of the Connecticut Acad-
emy of Arts and Sciences, vol. 29, 271-525. It is still a useful discussion

14 I- Indigenous peoples on the eve of conquest
of the eyewitness accounts of the European invasion. More recent compila-

tions by Peruvian historians are Ruben Vargas Ugarte, Manual de estudios
Peruanistas, 5th ed. (Lima, 1959) and Raul Porras Barrenechea, Los
cronistas del Peru (Lima, 1986).
Beginning in 1956, the Biblioteca de Autores Espanoles, published in
Madrid by the Real Academia through its Ediciones Atlas, undertook new
editions of many of the European chroniclers: for example, Bernabe Cobo's
Historia del Nuevo Mundo, (1653; Madrid, 1956). Each work has a new
introduction, although they are of unequal value; the texts themselves are
carefully reproduced. Two very early titles, whose existence was suspected
but which had remained inaccessible, have finally surfaced: the missing
second half of Juan de Betanzos's account of events at the Inka court
during the last years before Pizarro was located by Maria Martin Rubio in
a private collection in the Balearics: Suma y narration de los Incas (1551;
Madrid, 1987); the Jesuit historian Carmelo Saenz de Santa Maria repro-
duced the last missing part of Pedro Cieza de Leon's Guerras civiles peruanas
(1552; Madrid, 1985).
In some cases the familiar texts are based on copies of the original
manuscripts, presumed lost; the copyists were frequently unfamiliar with
the Andean languages, so the names of places and individuals are mis-
spelled and sometimes unrecognizable. The search for the original has led
to new, much improved editions of, for example, Juan de Matienzo's
Gobierno del Peru, published by the Institut Franc,ais d'Etudes Andines
(1567; Lima, 1967). The second section of Bernabe Cobo's Historia del
Nuevo Mundo, located in Seville, has been translated and edited by Roland
Hamilton as Inca Religion and Customs (Austin, Tex., 1990).
Texts in the Andean languages are catalogued in Paul Rivet and G. de
Crequi-Montfort, Bibliographie Aymara et Kichua, 4 vols. (Travaux et Mem-
oires, Institut d'Ethnologie, Paris, 195156). Most of these texts are
quite late. So far, many fewer have been located for Quechua and Aymara
than we have in Mexico for Nahuatl. One significant exception is the oral
tradition of the Yauyu people of Huarochiri, published in a bilingual
edition by Hermann Trimborn, Quellen und Porschungen zur Geschichte der
Geographie und Volkerkunde, vol. 4 (Leipzig, 1939). Since this edition was
almost completely destroyed during the war, Trimborn, in collaboration
with Antje Kelm, brought out a re-translation, Francisco de Avila, an
annotated bilingual edition of the Quechua text, Quellenwerke zur alten
Geschichte Amerikas aufgezeichnet in der Sprache der Eingeborenen, vol. 8 (Ber-
lin, 1967). The earliest translation into Spanish, by Toribio Mejia Xesspe,

3. The Andes 15
remains unpublished; another, undertaken by Jose Maria Argiiedas, Dloses

y hombres de Huarochiri (Lima, 1966), has been reprinted commercially
several times omitting the Quechua original. George I. Urioste has pre-
pared a new translation into Spanish, Hijos de Pariya Qaqa: La tradition oral
de Waru Chiri (Syracuse, N.Y., 1983). A French edition by Gerald Taylor,
Rites et traditions de Huarochiri (Paris, 1980) was followed by a Peruvian,
enlarged edition by the same author: Ritos y tradiciones de Huarochiri del
siglo XVII (Lima, 1987). A new translation into English has been prepared
by Frank Salomon and George I. Urioste: The Huarochiri Manuscript: A
Testament of Antient and Colonial Andean Religion (Austin, Tex., 1991),
which includes an informative introductory essay by Salomon.
We also owe to Paul Rivet the first facsimile edition of the first book
known to have been written by an Andean author, Felipe Guaman Poma
de Ayala, Nueva coronicay buen gobierno (1615; Paris, 1936; reprinted 1968
and 1988). A critical edition, with indexes, translations of the material in
Quechua and a transcription of the entire manuscript, edited by J. V.
Murra and Rolena Adorno, was published in 3 volumes in Mexico in 1980
(repr. 1987). This has since been reproduced in Spain by Historia 16
(1986). Two interpretative studies of this 'letter' have been published:
Guaman Poma: Writing and Resistance in Colonial Peru, by Rolena Adorno
(Austin, Tex., 1986) and Icono y conquista: Guaman Poma de Ayala, by
Mercedes Lopez-Baralt (Madrid, 1988), which stresses the importance of
the 400 drawings included in the 'letter.'
Maria Rostworowski de Diez Canseco has pioneered the publication and
interpretation of administrative and litigation records from the sixteenth
century (for example, studies of weights and measures, of land tenure, the
coastal ethnic lords). In recent years she has stressed the accessibility of
Andean materials from coastal regions which have been published by the
Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Lima: Senorios indigenas de Lima y Canta,
(Lima, 1978); Recursos naturales renovables y pesca, siglos XVI y XVII (Lima,
1981); Estructuras andinas del poder: Ideologia religiosa y politica (Lima,
1986). These are crowned by an ambitious Historia del Tahuantinsuyu
(Lima, 1988) which was a best-seller in Peru.
Waldemar Espinoza Soriano has edited a series of useful regional texts
which he had culled from the Archivo de Indias, Seville; for example, 'Los
Huancas, aliados de la conquista: Tres informaciones ineditas sobre la
participation indigena en la conquista del Peni (1558-61),' in Anales
Cientificos of the University of Huancayo, Peni, 1971-2. See also his La
destruction del imperio de los incas (Lima, 1973).

Early administrative records, useful for both ethnographic and histori-

cal purposes, have been published by journals in Lima which include
Revista del Museo National, the Bulletin of the Institut Franc,ais d'Etudes
Andines, Historia y Cultura and Historica. J. V. Murra has edited three
sixteenth-century inspections of Andean ethnic groups, two published in
Peru and a third in Spain. These texts have been analysed in his collection
Formaciones economicas y politicas del mundo andino (Lima, 1975); a revised
edition is being prepared for publication by the Instituto Indigenista
Interamericano in Mexico.
Sources for the northern Andes have been selected and published for the
Coleccion Pendoneros of Otavalo, Ecuador (edited by Segundo Moreno):
for example, Udo Oberem, Los Quips (Otavalo, 1980) and Frank Salomon's
earlier version in Spanish of what became Native Lords of Quito in the Age of
the Incas (Cambridge, Eng., 1986). For the south, the former Audiencia de
Charcas, see Xavier Albo's edited collection dealing with the Aymara,
Raices de America (Madrid, 1988); Therese Bouysse-Cassagne, La identidad
aymara: Aproximacion historica (La Paz, 1987); and several publications by
Thierry Saignes, who stresses relations between highland populations and
the Amazonian lowlands: Los Andes orientates: Historia de un olvido (Cocha-
bamba, 1985) and L'Inca, I'espagnol et les sauvages, written in collaboration
with F. M. Renard-Casewitz and A. C. Taylor-Descola (Paris, 1986).
Structural analyses of symbolic and religious materials from the Andes
have been offered by R. T. Zuidema, The Ceque System ofCuzco: The Social
Organization of the Capital of the Incas (Leiden, 1964). An update of this
influential work is La civilisation inca au Cuzco (Paris, 1985) and in English
translation, Inca Civilization in Cuzco (Austin, Tex., 1990). A recent an-
thology of Zuidema's ideas is Reyes y guerreros: Ensayos de cultura andina,
compiled by Manuel Burga (Lima, 1989). J. V. Murra and N. Wachtel
edited a special issue of AESC, 33/5-6 (1978) on the 'historical anthropol-
ogy' of the Andes; Eng. trans., Anthropological History of Andean Polities
(Cambridge, Eng., 1986).
Beyond the older analyses of Inka society such as Heinrich Cunow, 'Das
Peruanische Verwandschaftsystem und die Geschlectsverbaende der Inka',
in Das Ausland (Berlin, 1891), Clements Markham, The Incas of Peru (Lon-
don, 1912), Louis Baudin, L'Empire socialiste des Incas (Paris, 1928), JohnH.
Rowe, 'Inca culture at the time of the Spanish conquest', in Julian H.
Steward (ed.), Handbook of South American Indians, vol. 2 (Washington,
D.C., i 9 4 6 ) o r j . V. Murra, The EconomicOrganization ofthe Inka State (1955;

3 . The Andes 17
Greenwich, Conn., 1980), there are studies using new sources or asking
new questions. See, for example, Franklin Pease Garcia Yrigoyen, El dios
creador andino (Lima, 197 3), Juergen Golte, La racionalidadde la organization
andina (Lima, 1980) and Irene Silverblatt, Moon, Sun and Witches: Gender
Ideologies and Class in Inca and Colonial Peru (Princeton, N.J., 1987).
Waldemar Espinoza has edited a collection of many, diverse points of view
in Modos de production en el imperio de los incas (Lima, 1978), among them
Emilio Choy's view that it was a slave system, and Virgilio Roel's argument
that there was a separate Inka mode of production. An interpretation of the
Inka myth of origins is Gary Urton, The History ofa Myth: Pacariqtambo and
the Origin of the Inkas (Austin, Tex., 1990). See also Henrique Urbano and
Pierre Duviols(eds.), C. deMolina, C. de Albornoz: Fdbulasy mitos de los Incas
(Madrid, 1989). A special issue of Ethnohistory 34/1 (1987) was devoted to
the diversity in the Inka dominion.
The archaeology of the Andean area is summarized by Luis G.
Lumbreras, The People and Cultures of Ancient Peru (Washington, D.C.,
1974). See also Lumbreras, Chavin de Huantar en el nacimiento de la civiliza-
tion andina (Lima, 1989). An earlier anthology in English is still useful:
Peruvian Archaeology (Palo Alto, Calif, 1967), a comprehensive reader
edited by John H. Rowe and Dorothy Menzel. It includes Rowe's impor-
tant essay on Chavin art. Rowe has devoted most of his time to unravelling
the position of Cusco, both in time and as an urban center. He edits
Nawpa Pacha, the journal of the Institute of Andean Studies at the Univer-
sity of California at Berkeley.
Architects have recently made major advances in the description, mea-
surement and interpretation of Andean urbanism. Jorge Hardoy, Ciudades
Precolombinas (Buenos Aires, 1964) has gone through several editions in
various languages. Graziano Gasparini and Louise Margolies, Arquitectura
Inka (Caracas, 1977); Eng. trans., Inca Architecture by Patricia J. Lyon
(Bloomington, Ind., 1980) is a major survey of the monuments and cities,
based on new plans and photographs. Santiago Agurto has conducted a
new and prolonged study of the architecture of Cusco: La traza urbana de la
ciudad inca (Cuzco, 1980).
The best preserved of the Inka administrative centers, Huanuco Pampa,
was studied intensively by a team led by Craig Morris. For a preliminary
report, in collaboration with Donald E. Thompson, see Huanuco Pampa:
An Inca City and its Hinterland (London, 1985). Close to 5,000 buildings,
497 of them warehouses, were mapped. John Hyslop has specialized in the

study of Inka public works. After field surveys in the five Andean repub-
lics, Hyslop estimates that the highway covered at least 20,000 kilome-
ters; he thinks it was the largest public works in the pre-industrial world:
see his The Inka Road System (London, 1984). See also his Inka Settlement
Planning (Austin, Tex., 1990). Heather Lechtman and Ana Maria Soldi
have published the first volume of a reader on Andean technology:
Runakunap Kawsayninkupaq Rurasqankunaqa [La tecnologia en el mundo
andino] (Mexico, D.F., 1981).
A special feature of Andean historiography is the search for explanations
of the rapid collapse of the Inka state after 1532. See John Hemming, The
Conquest of the Incas (London, 1970) and Nathan Wachtel, Vision des vaincus
(Paris, 1971), translated as The Vision of the Vanquished (Hassocks, Sussex,
1977). See also N. Wachtel's most recent work, Le retourdes ancetres (Paris,
1990). In Peru, the stress has been on the assistance the Europeans had
received from Andean polities rebelling against the Inka. Waldemar
Espinoza, La destruction del imperio de los incas (Lima, 1973) and Edmundo
Guillen Guillen, Version inca de la conquista (Lima, 1974) raise issues that
deserve further attention. James Lockhart, The Men of Cajamarca: A Social
and Biographical Study of the First Conquerors of Peru (Austin, Tex., 1972)
remains the best introduction to the encounter of the two worlds.
Early colonial institutions and their effect on the Andean population were
surveyed in 1946 by George Kubler, 'The Quechua in the colonial world,'
in Handbook of South American Indians, vol. 2 (Washington, D.C., 1946).
James Lockhart, Spanish Peru (153260): A Colonial Society (Madison, Wis.,
1968) and Josep Barnadas, Charcas (1531-65) (La Paz, 1972) are modern
introductions to early European rule. Later surveys that centre on narrower
regions include: Steve J. Stern, Peru's Indian Peoples and the Challenge of
Spanish Conquest: Huamanga to 1640 (Madison, Wis., 1982); Steve J. Stern
(ed.), Resistance, Rebellion and Consciousness in the Andean Peasant World (18th
to 20th centuries) (Madison, Wis., 1987); and Karen Spalding, Huarochiri:
An Andean Society under Inca and Spanish Rule (Stanford, Calif., 1984).
There is relatively little to report on comparisons of the peoples of the
Andes with those of Mesoamerica: preliminary efforts in this direction
include George A. Collier, Renato I. Rosaldo and John D. Wirth (eds.),
The Inca and Aztec States: 14001800: Anthropology and History (New
York, 1982) and Geoffrey W. Conrad and Arthur A. Demarest, Religion
and Empire: The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism (Cambridge,
Eng., 1984).
The economic processes affecting the Andean population are analyzed

4. Southern South America 19
by C. Sempat Assadourian, 'La production de la mercancia dinero en la

formation del mercado interno colonial', in Enrique Florescano, (ed.),
Ensayos sobre el desarrollo economico de Mexico y America Latina (15001975)
(Mexico, D.F., 1979). Assadourian has also contributed an essay to La
participation indigena en los mercados surandinos, edited by Olivia Harris,
Brooke Larson and Enrique Tandeter (La Paz, 1987). The colonial demog-
raphy of Andean populations has been studied by Nicolas Sanchez-
Albornoz in Indios y tributos en el Alto Peru (Lima, 1978).
Notable primary sources on changes in the Andes are the records of the
seventeenth-century campaigns to 'extirpate idolatry', analyzed by Pierre
Duviols, La lutte contre les religions autochtones dans le Perdu colonial (Lima-
Paris, 1971), which has been translated into Spanish (Lima, 1977). A
remarkable set of inquisitorial records dealing with events in Cajatambo,
Peru, appeared in Cultura andina y represion - procesos y visitas de idolatrias y
hechicerias: Cajatambo, siglo XVII, edited and commented on by Duviols
(Cuzco, 1986).
Incorporating the Andean millennia into the national histories of Ecua-
dor, Bolivia and Peru was a task that did not seem so alien in the 1920s to
scholars like Domingo Angulo, Romeo Ciineo-Vidal, Jacinto Jijon y
Caamano or Luis E. Valcarcel. In later decades the continuities before and
after 1532 became less obvious. More recently, the idea of an Andean
historiography which would encompass both pre-Columbian civilizations
and the post-European centuries has been surfacing in the work of Jorge
Basadre, Ramiro Condarco and Silvia Rivera. The Andean dimension of
national history is the subject of Franklin Pease, Del Tawantinsuyu a la
historia del Peru (Lima, 1978).
4. SOUTHERN SOUTH AMERICA IN THE

MIDDLE OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
The quantity and the quality of early material on the southern cone of
South America varies from area to area according to the period. First
observers rarely confined their writings to a single ethnic group, but
chroniclers, military poets and priests were attracted at once by Mapuche
resistance to the conquest. However, similarly worthwhile accounts about
other places on either side of the Andes are scarce, and our knowledge of
some sixteenth- and seventeenth-century documents is based entirely on
references to them in eighteenth-century chronicles.

20 I. Indigenous peoples on the eve of conquest
There is useful information on the northern section of the southern

Andes in the region's earliest chronicle, Cronicay relacion copiosay verdadera
de los reinos de Chile, completed in 1558 by Geronimo de Bibar. Bibar not
only accompanied Pedro de Valdivia on his conquest of Chile but also
ventured from the northern deserts to the southern archipelago, besides
further travels east of the Andes. His account, which has chapters on the
geography and ethnography of the provinces he visited, has been widely
used by ethnohistorians since its rediscovery and publication in Santiago
in 1966. Other interesting works on the northern section include the
Relacion del descubrimiento y conquista de los reinos del Peru (1571) by Pedro
Pizarro, an encomendero of Tarapaca; and the collection of chronicles
which document Diego de Almagro's 1535 expedition to Chile, including
Fernandez de Oviedo's Historia general y natural de las Indias, an anony-
mous Relacion attributed to the 'Almagrist' Cristobal de Molina, and
Marino de Lovera's Cronica del Reino de Chile (1595). Moreover, the three
volumes of Father Barriga's Documentos para la historia de Arequipa, 1534
1580 are an abundantly rich source of information. Three interesting
historical studies concerning the prehispanic indigenous population and
the effects of the Conquest in this sub-region are: Sergio Villalobos, La
economia de un desierto Tarapaca durante la Colonia (Santiago, Chile, 1979),
Efrain Trelles Arestegui, Lucas Martinez Vegazo: Funcionamiento de una
encomienda peruana inicial (Lima, 1982) and J. J. M. M. van Kessel, Holo-
causto alprogreso: Los Aymards de Tarapaca (Amsterdam, 1980).
Brief but useful accounts of north-west Argentina, compiled by Marcos
Jimenez de la Espada in the Relaciones geogrdficas de Indias: Peru, 3 vols.
(188197; Madrid, 1965) are those of Diego Pacheco (1569), Geronimo
Luis de Cabrera (1573) and Pedro Sotelo Narvaez (1583), as well as the
letters of Juan de Matienzo (1566), Juan Lozano Machuca (1581), and
Father Alonso de Barzana (1594). Both Friar Reginaldo de Lizarraga's
Descripcion breve de toda la tierra del Peru, Tucumdn, Rio de la Plata y Chile
(16039; Madrid, 1968), and Antonio Vazquez de Espinoza's Compendio y
descripcion de las Indias Occidentales (1629; Washington, D.C., 1948) reflect
the social changes which were taking place as a result of the conquest.
Carlos J. Diaz Rementeria, 'Fundacion de pueblos de indios en la gober-
nacion de Tucuman, siglos XVIIXVIII', Revista de Historia del Derecho, 8
(1980), 81 121, discusses the fact that Indian towns were not deemed as
important in this region as in most of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Cayetano
Bruno examines conversion efforts in La evangelizacion del aborigen ameri-
cano, con especial referenda a la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1988). See also

Miguel Alberto Bartolome, 'La desindianizacion de la Argentina', Boletin

de Antropologia Americana, 11 (Mexico, D.F., 1985), 39-50.
Documentary collections such as those edited by Roberto Levillier, La
Audiencia de Charcas: Correspondent depresidentes y oidores (1561-J9) (Ma-
drid, 1918), Gobernacion del Tucumdn: Probanzas de meritos y servicios de los
conquistadores (Madrid, 1919), and Gobernantes del Peru: Cartas y papeles,
siglo XVI: Documentos del Archivo de Indias, 14 vols. (Madrid, 19216);
Pedro de Angelis, Coleccion de obras y documentos relativos a la historia antigua
y moderna de las provincias del Rio de la Plata, 5 vols. (2nd ed., Buenos
Aires, 1910); and, especially, Jose Toribio Medina, Coleccion de documentos
ineditos para la historia de Chile desde el viaje de Magallanes hasta la batalia de
Maipu, 15181818, 30 vols. (Santiago, 18881902) to cite but three
historians in this field are indispensable for studies in the historical
reconstruction of the peoples of the southern cone.
Although published documentary evidence is limited, there are vast
resources in European and New World archives, which must be given the
specialist attention which they deserve. At the same time, there is no
doubt that ethnohistorical research in the area must go hand in hand with
the contributions of archaeology and social anthropology. As regards the
study of the central southern Andes, in particular, the Handbook of South
American Indians, edited by Julian H. Steward, 6 vols. (Washington,
D.C., 1946-50), has been surpassed to a large extent by research which
has been done in the last two decades. For new information on the
prehispanic peoples of present-day Chile, see Jorge Hidalgo, Virgilio
Schiappacasse, Hans Niemeyer, Carlos Aldunate and Ivan Solimano (eds.),
Culturas de Chile prehistorica desde sus origenes hasta los albores de la conquista
(Santiago, Chile, 1989).
There is greater wealth of documentary material on Mapuche history
than there is for other societies, but the Mapuche material is itself a source
of information about adjacent groups - notably, the letters of Pedro de
Valdivia (1545-52); Alonso de Ercilla's epic poem La Araucana (1569);
chronicles by Bibar (1558); Gongora Marmolejo (1575) and Marino de
Lovera (1595), in addition to Miguel de Olavarria's Informe (1594). We
have seventeenth-century grammars and vocabularies of the Huarpe and
Mapuche languages written by Father Luis de Valdivia, Arte, vocabulario y
confesionario de la lengua de Chile (Lima, 1606; Leipzig, 1887), and Diego
de Rosales, Historia general del reino de Chile, 3 vols. (1674; Valparaiso,
1877). As regards Spanish policy towards the Indians, Alonso Gonzalez de
Najera, Desengano y reparo de la guerra de Chile (1614; Santiago, Chile,

22 Z. Indigenous peoples on the eve of conquest
1889) and Francisco Nunez de Pineda y Bascufian, Cautiverio feliz . . . y

razon de las guerras dilatadas de Chile (1673; Santiago, Chile, 1863)
soldiers who had direct experience of frontier life and of the Araucanian
War reflect opposite attitudes. Nunez de Pineda y Bascufian, who had
been the Mapuche's captive as a youth in 1629, abandoned an early
ethnocentric attitude towards their way of life and adopted a position of
understanding and sympathy.
The Araucanian War continued to motivate lengthy annals of events in
Chile in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, including among others
those by Pietas (1729), Sors (1765), Olivares (1767), Febres (1767),
Havestadt (1777), Bueno (1777), Usauro Martinez de Bernabe (1782),
Molina (1787), Gomez de Vidaurre (1789), Gonzalez de Agiieros (1791),
Carvallo y Goyeneche (1796), Martinez (1806) and P6rez Garcia (1810).
Nineteenth-century travellers from Europe and North America Azara
(1809), Stevenson (1825), Poepping (1826-9), Darwin (1832), Dessalines
D'Orbigny (1835), Domeyko (1845), Smith (1853), Treutler (1861),
etc. extend the list, to which can be added Chilean authors writing before
and after the pacification of Araucania. For a commentary on the ethno-
graphic value of the writings of these authors, see Horacio Zapater, Los
aborigenes chilenos a travis de cronistas y viajeros (Santiago, Chile, 1973).
Among revisionist interpretations of the Araucanian War the following are
outstanding: Sergio Villalobos, Carlos Aldunate, Horacio Zapater, Luz
Maria Mendez and Carlos Bascufian, Relaciones fronterizas en la Araucania
(Santiago, Chile, 1982) and Sergio Villalobos and Jorge Pinto (eds.),
Araucania: Temas de historia fronteriza (Temuco, Chile, 1986). On the
Mapuches later in the colonial period, see Leonardo Leon, Maloqueros y
conchavadores en Araucania y las pampas, ijoo-1800 (Temuco, Chile, 1991)
and Jose Bengoa, Historia del pueblo Mapuche: Siglos XIX y XX (Santiago,
Chile, 1985). Sergio Villalobos, Los Pehuenches en la vida fronteriza (Santiago,
Chile, 1989) is a history of an ethnic group closely linked to the Mapuches
on the 'frontier'. Ethical aspects of the conquest are dealt with in Horacio
Zapater, La busqueda de la paz en la guerra de Arauco: Padre Luis de Valdivia
The basin of the Rio de la Plata lacks the documentation which is typical
of Spanish exploration in other parts of the Americas in the sixteenth
century. First-hand observations on the regional population are available,
nevertheless, both in Pedro Hernandez, 'Los Comentarios' de Alvar Nunez
Cabeza de Vaca (1545; Madrid, 1852) and in the chronicle of a journey to the
La Plata and Paraguay rivers by the German soldier Ulrich Schmidt, pub-

lished in German in Frankfurt in 1567. In the seventeenth century, the

Cartas anuas de la Provincia del Paraguay, Chile y Tucumdn of the Society of
Jesus are a valuable source of ethnographic information, and were used as
such by Father Nicolas del Techo in his Historia provincial paraquariae
(1673). By far the most important contribution to the ethnography of the
area, however, are works written by Jesuits who, through their missionary
activities in the eighteenth century, had become familiar with a number of
autochthonous societies. Outstanding are the works of Father Pedro
Lozano, Description corogrdfica del Gran Chaco Gualamba (1736; Tucuman,
1941), Historia de la Compania de Jesus en la Provincia del Paraguay, 2 vols.
(Madrid, 1754-5), a n d Historia de la conquista del Paraguay, Rio de la Plata y
Tucuman, 5 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1873-5). Further essential sources for the
study of the peoples of the Chaco are Frangois Xavier de Charlevoix, Histoire
du Paraguay, 6 vols. (Paris, 1757) and Martin Dobritzhoffer, Historia de
Abiponibus (Vienna, 1784). To the south, Father Sanchez Labrador, El Para-
guay Catolico (1770) and Father Thomas Falkner, A Description of Patagonia,
and the Adjoining Parts of South America (Hereford, Eng., 1774) return us to
the Mapuche, this time in connection with their eastward expansion. The
early nineteenth century is characterized by travellers' accounts: Jose
Guevara, Historia del Paraguay, Rio de la Plata y Tucumdn, and Felix de
Azara, Voyages dans I'Amerique Meridionale (1809), which, according to Al-
fred Metraux, is marked by an attitude of hostility towards the Indians. For
the twentieth century, the works of Metraux in Handbook of South American
Indians - his 'Ethnography of the Chaco' (vol. 1, 1946), in particular - and
Branislava Susnik, El Indio colonial del Paraguay (Asuncion, 1971), the third
volume of which draws both on published and on unpublished documents
to show the operation of economic and political relations among Chaco
societies in the sixteenth century, deserve mention.
Only at a late stage did the societies of the Pampa, Patagonia and the
southern archipelago receive ethnographic attention, since the sixteenth-
century references to them had arisen from attempts to conquer and colonize
the Rio de la Plata, from maritime expeditions to the Strait of Magellan and
from expeditions across the Andes (expeditions which initially set out to
explore, and thereafter went in search of the legendary City of the Caesars).
Juan Schobinger, in 'Conquistadores, misioneros y exploradores en el
Neuquen: Antecedentes para el conocimiento etnografico del noroeste
Patagonico', Runa (Buenos Aires), 9/1-2 (1958-9), 107-23, reviews the
available ethnographic material on north-west Patagonia between the six-
teenth and nineteenth centuries; John M. Cooper, 'The Patagonian and

Pampean hunters', in Handbook of South American Indians, vol. i (1946),

12768, gives a general bibliography for the whole of the Pampa and
Patagonia; but the ethnohistorical account of these areas in this chapter has
been guided mainly by Rodolfo M. Casamiquela's ethnological reinterpreta-
tion of the sources, Un nuevo panorama etnoldgico del area Pampeana y
Patagonica adyacente: Pruebas etnohistdricas de lafiliacion Tehuelche septentrional
de los Querandies (Santiago, Chile, 1969). A clever piece of research into the
influence of a colonial picture of "Patagonian giants' on some early
nineteenth-century sketches in North America is William C. Sturtevant's
'Patagonian giants and the Baroness Hyde de Neuville's Iroquois drawings',
Ethnohistory, 27/4 (1980), 331-48. For historical information on the
Aonikenk or Ona and Tehuelches, see the works of Mateo Martinic, Historia
del Estrecho de Magallanes (Santiago, Chile, 1977), Patagonia de ayery de hoy
(Punta Arenas, 1980) and La Tierra de los Fuegos (Provenir, 1982).
The southern fishing societies are mentioned by countless sailors who
made the passage up the Strait of Magellan and into the archipelago. See
also John M. Cooper's reviews of the Ona and Yagan sources in Handbook of
South American Indians, vol. 1 (1946). The Alacaluf are the subject of
Joseph Emperaire, Los nomades del mar (Santiago, Chile, 1963), but, over-
all, the greatest contribution to the historical and anthropological study of
the peoples of the southern archipelago is to be found in Martin Gusinde,
Hombres primitivos en la Tierra del Fuego: De investigador a companero de tribu,
translated from the German by Diego Bemiidez Camacho (Seville, 1951).
For the complete version of his work, see Die Feuerland lndianer, 4 vols.
(Modling, 193174); Sp. trans., Los Indios de Tierra del Fuego (Buenos
Aires, 198291): the volumes study the Selk'nam or Onas, the inhabit-
ants of Tierra del Fuego; the Yamana or Yaganes; physical anthropology;
and the Halakwulup or Alacalufes.
5. BRAZIL IN 1500
The first Portuguese to write on Brazil was Pero Vaz de Caminha in his
famous letter to King Manoel, 1 May 1500 (translated in The Voyages of
Pedro Alvares Cabral to Brazil and India, Hakluyt Society, 2nd ser., vol. 81,
London, 1937, 333)- Later in the sixteenth century we have the valuable
chronicles of Gabriel Soares de Sousa, Tratado descriptivo do Brasil em 158J
(Sao Paulo, 1938), and Pero de Magalhaes de Gandavo's Tratado da terra do
Brasil and Historia da provincia de Santa Cruz (1576), translated by John B.

3- Brazil 25
Stetson, Jr., The Histories of Brazil, 2 vols. (New York, 1922). Essential
material is in letters from Nobrega, Anchieta and other Jesuits, best
consulted in Serafim Leite's excellent collection Cartas dos primeiros Jesuitas
do Brasil, 3 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1954-8), or, with a fourth volume, Monu-
menta Brasiliae (Monumenta Historica Societatis Jesu, 7 9 - 8 1 , 87; Rome,
195660); for the entire period, the same author's monumental ten-
volume Historia da Companhia de Jesus no Brasil (LisbonRio de Janeiro,
193850) is of fundamental importance, and he published a good sum-
mary of this in Suma historica da Companhia deJesus no Brasil (Lisbon, 1965);
there are also anthologies of Jose de Anchieta's writings, of which the best
is edited by Antonio de Alcantara Machado (Rio de Janeiro, 1933). A good
Jesuit chronicler is Fernao Cardim, whose Do clima e terra do Brasil and
Do principio e origem dos Indios do Brasil (c. 1584) survived only in Rich-
ard Hakluyt's English translation of the captured originals, in Samuel
Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus or Purchas His Pilgrimes (London, 1625). For
a modern edition, see Tratados do terra a gente do Brasil, ed. Capistrano de
Abreu (Rio de Janeiro, 1925). An anonymous Jesuit wrote a good account
of Portuguese campaigns to extend their frontier north from Pernambuco,
Sumdrio das armadas que sofizeram . . . na conquista do Rio Paraiba (c. 1587),
in RIHGB, 36/1 (1873). The two most important early histories of Brazil
are by the Franciscan Vicente do Salvador's Historia do Brasil (1627, various
modern editions since that in Anais da Biblioteca Nacional do Rio de Janeiro,
13, 18856), which is particularly good for the north and Para; and by the
Jesuit Simao de Vasconcellos, Chronica das cousas do Brasil and Chronica da
Companhia de Jesus do Estado do Brasil (Lisbon, 1663), which is marred by
being somewhat too hagiographic. Mem de Sa's letters and record of
service are also important: in ABNRJ, 27 (1905).
It has often been said that other Europeans were more perceptive observ-
ers of Brazilian Indians than were the Portuguese. Outstanding are two
French missionaries and a German mercenary, all of whom were with the
Tupinamba or Tamoio of Rio de Janeiro in mid-sixteenth century: the
Franciscan Andre Thevet, Les singularitez de la France Antarctique (Paris,
1558) and La Cosmographieuniverse/le (1575), both in Suzanne Lussagnet, Les
Francais en Amerique pendant la deuxieme moitie du XVle siecle: Le Bresil et les
bresiliens (Paris, 1953); Jean de Lery, Histoire d'un voyage fait en la Terre du
Bresil (La Rochelle, 1578, and modern editions and translations); Hans
Staden, Wahrhaftige Historie und Beschriebung eyner Landtschafft der wilden,
nacketen, grimmigen, menschfresserLeuten, in dernewen Welt America gelegen . . .
(Marburg, 1557, and modern editions and translations, including two into

English: Hakluyt Society, ist ser., vol. 51, 1874, and London, 1928).
Another German provided interesting information on tribes of southern
Brazil: Ulrich Schmidt, Wahrhaftige Historic einer wunderbaren Schiffart
(Frankfurt-am-Main, 1567 and recent editions of which the best is Graz,
1962, and translation in Hakluyt Society, ist ser., vol. 8 1 , 1889). The
English corsair, Anthonie Knivet, gives much information on tribes and
slaving at the end of the century: his Admirable Adventures and Strange
Fortunes . . . are in Purchas His Pilgrims, part 2, book 6, chap. 7. The Irish
nobleman's son Bernard O'Brien tells about newly contacted tribes of the
lower Amazon in the early seventeenth century, in his report to the King of
Spain, trans T. G. Mathews, in Caribbean Studies, 10/1 (1970), 89106.
The Spanish Dominican friar, Gaspar de Carvajal, provides essential infor-
mation on the tribes encountered on the Amazon during Francisco de
Orellana's first descent in 1542: Descubrimiento del Rio de las Amazonas (many
modern editions, and the best English translation in the New York, 1934
edition); Spaniards such as Toribio de Ortigiiera and Francisco Vazquez,
Custodio Hernandez, Lopez Vaz and many others gave some information in
their accounts of the Ursiia-Aguirre descent of 1561; and Cristobal de
Acuria complements this earlier information in his Nuevo descubrimiento del
gran rio de las Amazonas (1641, many modern editions and English transla-
tion in Hakluyt Society, ist ser., vol. 24, 1859). Two other admirable
French observers described the Indians of Maranhao during the brief French
colony there (161215): Claude d'Abbeville, Histoire de la mission des Peres
Capucin en I'lsle de Maragnan . . . (Paris, 1614); and Yves d'Evreux, Voyage
dans le nord du Bresil (1614; Paris, 1864).
There are relatively few modern interpretations of Indians on the eve of
the conquest. The most important are the books by Alfred Metraux, La
civilisation materielle des tribus Tupi-Guarani (Paris, 1928) and La religion des
Tupinambd et ses rapports avec celle des autres tribus Tupi-Guarani (Paris,
1928), together with his papers on the Tupi and other tribes in the Journal
de la Societe des Americanistes de Paris and his contributions to the Handbook
of South American Indians, vols. 1 and 3, and, more particularly, Florestan
Fernandes's studies of Tupinamba society and the role of warfare in it,
Organizagdo social dos Tupinambd (1948; Sao Paulo, 1963) and A fungdo
social de guerra na sociedade Tupinambd (Sao Paulo, 1952). For the archaeol-
ogy of the Amazon, the outstanding scholars are Betty J. Meggers, Clif-
ford Evans, Anna Curtenius Roosevelt and Curt Nimuendaju. More re-
cently, some challenging theories have been put forward in Donald W.
Lathrap, The Upper Amazon (London, 1970). On the Indian population of

$. Brazil 27
Brazil around 1500, see William M. Denevan, 'The aboriginal population

of Amazonia', in W. M. Denevan (ed.), The Native Population of the Ameri-
cas in 1492 (Madison, Wis., 1977; 2nd ed. 1992), and John Hemming,
Red Gold: The Conquest of the Brazilian Indians (London, 1978), appendix.
The history of Indians during the period immediately after the conquest
appears to some extent in the classic works of Robert Southey (181019),
Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen, Joao Capistrano de Abreu, Sergio Buarque
de Holanda, Caio Prado Junior and Joao Fernando de Almeida Prado. More
particularly, see Alexander Marchant, From Barter to Slavery (Baltimore,
Md., 1942); Georg Thomas, Die Portugiesische lndianerpolitik in Brasilien,
15001640 (Berlin, 1968), Port, trans., Politica indigenista dosPortugueses
no Brasil, 15001640 (Sao Paulo, 1984); and a fine analysis of Indian
slavery in the sixteenth century in Urs Honer, Die Versklavung der brasi-
lianischen Indianer: Der Arbeitsmarkt in PortugiesischAmerika im XVI.
Jahrhundert (Freiburg im Braunsgau, 1980). Hemming, Red Gold, seeks to
present a coherent and comprehensive history of the treatment of the Bra-
zilian Indians from 1500 to 1760. The Historia dos indios no Brasil, edited
by Manuela Carneiro da Cunha (Sao Paulo, 1992), is an important recent
work of collaborative scholarship. The chapters most relevant to the Indi-
ans on the eve of the conquest are by Carlos Fausto on the Tupinamba, John
Manuel Monteiro on the Guarani of southern Brazil, Maria Hilda Paraiso
on the Botocudo and Beatriz Dantas and others on tribes of the northeast.
The social anthropology of the tribes of Brazil before the European
conquest should be deduced by reference to studies of modern tribes.
There is an immense literature of such studies, with monographs on the
ethnography of all the important surviving tribes. The Handbook of South
American Indians, ed. Julian Steward, 6 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1946-
50) is still useful though published in the 1940s. The most relevant
volumes are vol. 1, on 'Marginal tribes', vol. 3, on tropical forest tribes
and vol. 6, on such topics as linguistics and social geography. There are
important essays or listings of tribes in Indians of Brazil in the Twentieth
Century, edited by Janice H. Hopper (Washington, D.C., 1967). Artur
Ramos, Introducdo a antropologia brasileira: As culturas indigenas (Rio de
Janeiro, 1971) and Julio Cesar Melatti, Indios do Brasil (Brasilia, 1970),
provide good introductions to Brazil's tribes, and the problem of accultura-
tion and assimilation is tackled by Egon Schaden, Aculturacdo indigena (Sao
Paulo, 1969) and Darcy Ribeiro, Os indios e a civilizacao (Rio de Janeiro,
1970). Herbert Baldus's Bibliografia critica da etnologia brasileira, 2 vols.
(Sao Paulo, 1954; Hanover, Ger., 1968) is useful although now out of

date. There is some early historical information in the excellent series,

Povos indigenas no Brasil, being published by the Centro Ecumenico de
Documentagao e Informagao in Sao Paulo, although only a few regional
volumes have so far appeared.
Among the many anthropological monographs on modern tribes shed-
ding light on pre-conquest conditions, the works of Curt (Unkel)
Nimuendaju are outstanding because of his long practical experience of liv-
ing with tribes and his knowledge of their history and archaeology: for exam-
ple, The Apinaye, translated by Robert H. Lowie (Washington, D.C.,
X
939); The Serente, translated by Lowie (Los Angeles, 1942); The Eastern
Timbira, translated by Lowie (Berkeley, 1946); The Tukuna, translated by
William D. Hohenthal (Berkeley, 1952) and his contributions to vol. 3 of
Handbook of South American Indians. A few other scholars might be men-
tioned: on the Bororo, Cesar Albisetti and Angelo Jayme Venturelli,
Encyclopedia Bororo, 2 vols. (Campo Grande, 1962); on the tribes of the
Tocantins, Roberto da Mata and Roque de Barros Laraia, Indios e castanheiros:
A empresa extrativa e os indios no Medio Tocantins (Sao Paulo, 1967); on the
Terena and Tukuna, Roberto Cardoso de Oliveira, 0 Processo de assimilizacdo
dos Terena (Rio de Janeiro, i960) and 0 indio e 0 mundo dos brancos: A situacao
dos Tukuna do Alto Solimoes (Sao Paulo, 1964); various articles in the Boletim
do Museo Paraense Emilio Goeldi (Belem), in which William H. Crocker
writes about the Canela, Protasio Frickel about the Tirio and Expedito Ar-
naud and Eduardo Galvao about the tribes of the Rio Negro; on the
Chavante, David Maybury-Lewis, Akwe-Shavante Society (Oxford, 1967),
and G. Giaccaria and A. Heide, Auwe uptabi uomine veri vita Xavante
(Turin, 1971; Port, trans., Sao Paulo, 1972); on the Kaingang, Jules
Henry, Jungle People: A Kaingang Tribe of the Highlands of Brazil (New York,
1941); on the Indians of the north-east, Estevao Pinto, Os indigenas do
Nordeste (Sao Paulo, 1935); on the Urubu, Francis Huxley, Affable Savages:
An Anthropologist among the Urubu Indians of Brazil (New York, 1957); on the
Mundurucu, Robert Francis Murphy, Headhunter's Heritage: Social and Eco-
nomic Change among the Mundurucu Indians (Berkeley, i960); on the
Tapirape, Charles Wagley, Welcome of Tears: The Tapirape Indians of Central
Brazil (New York, 1978). See also Thomas Gregor, Mehinaku (Chicago,
1977); Betty Mindlin, Nos paiter: Os Surui de Rondonia (Petrdpolis, 1985);
Ellen Basso, The Kalapalo Indians of Central Brazil (New York, 1973). Euro-
pean travellers in nineteenth-century Amazonia, notably the Germans J. B.
von Spix, C. F. P. von Martius, Karl von den Steinen and Theodor Koch-
Griinberg, also give clues about the region's pre-contact tribal societies.

II
COLONIAL SPANISH AMERICA
i. THE SPANISH CONQUEST A N D

SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA
Charles Julian Bishko, 'The Iberian background of Latin American his-

tory: Recent progress and continuing problems', HAHR, 36 (1956), 50
80, is an admirable introduction to the essential bibliographical tools and
identifies the areas in which more research is needed, as well as those in
which valuable work has been done. The Indice historico espanol (Barcelona,
1953 ), which may be regarded as a sequel to Benito Sanchez Alonso's
indispensable Fuentes de la historia espanola e hispanoamerkana, 3 vols., 3rd
ed. (Madrid, 1952), with the additional advantage of including brief
comments on the books and articles which it lists, has unfortunately
shown signs of flagging in recent years.
There is now a good selection of general books on the Iberian peninsula
in the later Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, although Spain is
much better served in this respect than Portugal. The classic work of
Roger B. Merriman, The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and the
New, 4 vols. (New York, 191834, reprinted 1962) is still useful, particu-
larly for political and institutional history, but has at many points been
superseded by more recent work. It is weakest in the areas of economic and
social history, where it should be supplemented by Jaime Vicens Vives, An
Economic History of Spain (Princeton, N.J., 1969), and vols. 2 and 3 of
Historia socialy economica de Espanay America (Barcelona, 1957), a collabora-
tive enterprise edited by Vicens Vives. A more recent work is V. Vazquez
de Prada, Historia economica y social de Espana, vol. 3 (Los siglos XVI y XVII)
(Madrid, 1978). Medieval Spain as a frontier society is surveyed by A.
MacKay, Spain in the Middle Ages (London, 1977), and later medieval
Spain is examined in much greater detail by J. N. Hillgarth, The Spanish
29

30 //. Colonial Spanish America
Kingdoms, 1250-1516, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1976-8). A stimulating work

which traces medieval peninsular influences to New Spain is Luis Week-
man, La herencia medieval de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1984). For the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries, see Antonio Dominguez Ortiz, The
Golden Age of Spain, 15161659 (London, 1971); J. H. Elliott, Imperial
Spain, 14691716 (London, 1963); and the recently revised studies by
John Lynch, Spain, 1516-1598 (Oxford, 1991) and The Hispanic World in
Crisis and Change, 15981700 (Oxford, 1992). J. H. Elliott (ed.), The
Hispanic World (London, 1991), published in the United States as The
Spanish World (New York, 1991) offers a useful introduction to Spanish
history and civilisation.
There exist a number of good surveys of the colonial period in Spanish
America which begin with the conquest and early settlement and which
offer helpful bibliographical guidance: C. H. Haring, The Spanish Empire
in America (New York, 1947); J. H. Parry, The Spanish Seaborne Empire
(London, 1966); Charles Gibson, Spain in America (New York, 1966);
Richard Konetzke, S'ud- und Mittelamarika, 1. Die Indianerkulturen Alt-
amerikas und die spanischportugiesische Kolonialherrschaft (Fischer Welt-
geschichte, vol. 22, Frankfurt, 1965); Francisco Morales Padr6n, Historia
general de America, 2nd ed. (Madrid, 1975); Guillermo Cespedes, Latin
America: The Early Years (New York, 1974). Valuable more recent synthe-
ses in English include James Lockhart and Stuart B. Schwartz (eds.), Early
Latin America: A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil (Cambridge,
Eng., 1983); and Lyle N. McAlister; Spain and Portugal in the New World,
14921700 (Minneapolis, Minn., 1984). In Spanish, see particularly
Guillermo Cespedes del Castillo, Historia de Espana; Vol. VI: Amirica
Hispdnica (14921898) (Barcelona, 1983).
To these general works should be added more specialized studies of
particular aspects of the relationship between Spain and America. In the
area of law and institutions, J. M. Ots Capdequi, El estado espanol en las
Indias, 3rd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1957), and Silvio Zavala, Las instituciones
juridicas en la conquista de America (Madrid, 1935), remain very useful
investigations of the juridical foundations of Spanish rule. The same
theme is explored with great richness of detail by Mario G6ngora, El estado
en el derecho indiano (Santiago, Chile, 1951). G6ngora's Studies in the Colo-
nial History of Spanish America (Cambridge, Eng., 1975) brings together a
number of his essays on different aspects of Spain in the Indies and reveals
how much the understanding of Spanish society and institutions can add
to the understanding of the historical development of Spanish America.

i. Spanish conquest and settlement of America 31
Numerous essays on administrative and institutional themes can also be

found in Alfonso Garcia Gallo et al., Estructuras, gobierno, y agentes de
administration en la America Espanola: siglos XVI, XVII, y XVIII: Trabajos
del VI Congreso del Instituto Internacional de Historia del Derecho Indiano
(Valladolid, 1984). For many years, Earl J. Hamilton, American Treasure
and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501-1650 (Cambridge, Mass., 1934)
was the starting point for all discussion of the economic relationship
between Spain and America, and, in spite of criticisms which reflect
changing trends in the study of economic history, it remains a work of
fundamental importance. Its theme, however, has been amplified and in
many respects transformed by the massive study of Pierre and Huguette
Chaunu on Seville's Atlantic trade, Seville et I'Atlantique, 15041650, 8
vols. (Paris, 19559). Different aspects of the relationship between Spain
and the Indies are briefly examined and summarized in J. H. Elliott, The
Old World and the New, 14921650 (Cambridge, Eng., 1970; reprinted in
1992 with a new foreword and an updated bibliography), which pays
particular attention to the cultural interplay between the two. Some of the
themes discussed in this book, along with many others, were explored at
an international conference held at the University of California in Los
Angeles in 1975. The conference papers, which include some important
pioneering essays, were published under the title of First Images of America,
edited by F. Chiappelli, 2 vols. (Los Angeles, 1976).
The literature on the discovery and conquest of America is enormous.
One possible way of approaching it is through two volumes in the
Nouvelle Clio series by Pierre Chaunu, L'expansion europeenne du Xllle au
XVe siecle, and Conquete et exploitation des Nouveaux Mondes (Paris, 1969).
These not only contain long bibliographies, but also discuss some of the
problems which have dominated recent historical debate. The Iberian
maritime empires are set into the general context of European overseas
expansion in G. V. Scammell, The World Encompassed (London and Berke-
ley, 1980). See also the works of J. H. Parry, notably The Discovery of
South America (London, 1979).
A great deal of time and energy was invested, especially in the nine-
teenth century, in the publication of documentary collections of material
on the discovery, conquest and colonization of America. A great corpus of
documentation is therefore available in print, although the editing of it
often leaves much to be desired. Major collections include Coleccion de
documentos ineditos relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y organization de las
antiguas posesiones espanolas de America y Oceania, 42 vols. (Madrid, 1 8 6 3 -

84), and its sequel, Coleccidn de documentos ineditos relativos al descubrimiento,

conquista y organization de las antiguas posesiones espanolas de Ultramar, 25
vols. (Madrid, 1885-1932). For both of these series, Ernst Schafer, Indice
de la coleccidn de documentos ineditos de Indias . . . (Madrid, 1946), is an
indispensable guide. Another great Spanish series, the Coleccidn de docu-
mentos ineditos para la bistoria de Espana, 112 vols. (Madrid, 184295), also
contains important American material, which is best located through
Julian Paz, Catdlogo de la coleccion de documentos ineditos para la historia de
Espana, 2 vols. (Madrid, 19301). Richard Konetzke, Coleccion de docu-
mentos para la historia de la formation social de Hispanoamerica, 14931810, 3
vols. (Madrid, 195362), is an extremely valuable selection of documents
relating to the theme of government and society in the Spanish colonial
world. Most recently, John H. Parry and Robert G. Keith have labori-
ously prepared an accessible collection for English readers. New Iberian
World: A Documentary History of the Discovery and Settlement of Latin America
to the Early Seventeenth Century (New York, 1984), consists of five volumes
(2,600 pages) of documents and excerpts from printed sources. Contextual
introductions precede both sections and selections.
The discovery, conquest and colonization of the New World can also be
approached through printed contemporary accounts. An important new
bibliographical guide to this material is now being prepared at the John
Carter Brown Library of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island,
which contains extensive holdings of early works on the Americas: Euro-
pean Americana: A Chronological Guide to Works Printed in Europe Relating to
the Americas, 1493-1776, ed. John Alden. Vol. 1, covering the period
1493-1600, was published in 1980, and vol. 2, covering 1600-1650, in
1982. Many of the early histories and descriptions of the Americas are
discussed in Francisco Esteve Barba, Historiografia Indiana (Madrid,
1964), while Colin Steele, English Interpreters of the Iberian New World from
Purchas to Stevens, 16051726 (Oxford, 1975) is a bibliographical study
which lists and describes English translations of Spanish and Portuguese
books on the New World.
During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries a great deal of
scholarly effort was devoted to narrative and descriptive accounts of the
discovery and conquest of America and to biographical studies of individ-
ual explorers and conquistadores. In the second half of the twentieth century
interest has tended to shift towards such questions as the social back-
ground of the conquistadores as a collective group, and the organization and
financing of voyages of discovery and colonization. But the old tradition

was maintained in particular by Samuel Eliot Morison, both in his classic

biography of Columbus, Admiral of the Ocean Sea, 2 vols. (Boston, 1942),
and his The European Discovery of America, of which the volume dealing
with the southern voyages (New York and Oxford, 1974) is concerned
with the Iberian New World. The deluge of new Columbian studies
prepared to greet the Quincentennial will take some time to digest, but
worthy of early mention are certainly the transcription and translation of
Oliver Dunn and James E. Kelley, Jr., The Diario of Christopher Columbus's
First Voyage to America, 1492-1493: Abstracted by Fray Bartolome de Las
Casas (Norman, Okla., 1991); B. W. Ife (ed. and trans.), Christopher
Columbus: Journal of the First Voyage, 1492 (Warminster, 1991); and David
Henige, In Search of Columbus: The Sources for the First Voyage (Tucson,
Ariz., 1991). A lively new biography is Columbus, by Felipe Fernandez-
Armesto (Oxford, 1991). Delno C. West and August Kling's The Libro de
las profecias of Christopher Columbus: An En Face Edition (Gainesville, Fla.,
1991), concentrates on an interesting tome from Columbus's library,
while Juan Manzano Manzano's Los Pinzones y el descubrimiento de America
(Madrid, 1989), concentrates on the role of the brothers from Palos who
sailed on Columbus's first voyage. J. H. Parry, The Age of Reconnaissance
(London, 1963) is a comprehensive survey of the history of European
overseas discovery and colonization, and the collection of essays by Charles
Verlinden, The Beginnings of Modern Colonization (Ithaca, N.Y., and Lon-
don, 1970) contains important information on the transfer of colonial
techniques from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, and on the role of the
Genoese in the early stages of colonization. Further useful information on
the role of the entrepreneur in colonial enterprises can be found in
Guillermo Lohmann Villena, Les Espinosa: Unefamille d'hommes d'affaires en
Espagne et aux Indes a I'epoque de la colonisation (Paris, 1968). In a similar
vein, see the study of an important early encomendero of the Quito region by
Javier Ortiz de la Tabla Ducasse, 'De hidalgo castellano a empresario
colonial: Rodrigo Salazar, encomendero y obrajero de Quito, 15101584,'
Anuario de Estudios Americanos, 42 (1985), 43126.
Wilcomb E. Washburn, 'The meaning of "Discovery" in the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries', HAHR, 68/1 (1962), 1-21, is a suggestive
exploration of what discovery meant to contemporary Europeans. A some-
what similar inquiry was undertaken by Edmundo O'Gorman in his con-
troversial work, The Invention of America (Bloomington, Ind., 1961),
which, as its title suggests, replaces the concept of'discovery' with that of
'invention'. Tzvetan Todorov's The Conquest of America (New York, 1984),

34 II - Colonial Spanish America
creates yet more controversy with a bold semiotic interpretation of the

conquest, focusing primarily on Mesoamerica. John C. Super, Food, Con-
quest and Colonization in Sixteenth-Century Spanish America (Albuquerque,
N.Mex., 1988) is an offbeat, pioneering work which concentrates on food-
and agriculture-related themes.
The best introduction to the 'island' period of discovery is Carl O.
Sauer, The Early Spanish Main (Berkeley, 1966). Ursula Lamb, Frey Nicolas
de Ovando, gobernador de las Indias, 1501-1509 (Madrid, 1956), is an
important study of trial and error in the first Spanish attempts at settle-
ment in the New World. Manuel Ballesteros's reedition of Gonzalo Fernan-
dez de Oviedo y Valdes, Sumario de la natural historia de las Indias (Madrid,
1986) is welcome and includes a biographical introduction on this impor-
tant author. Also of interest is Antonello Gerbi, Nature in the New World:
From Christopher Columbus to Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo (Pittsburgh, Pa.,
1985). The later story of the Caribbean is admirably told by Kenneth R.
Andrews, The Spanish Caribbean: Trade and Plunder, 15301630 (New
Haven, Conn., and London, 1978); and, as always, much fascinating
information can be gleaned from Pierre and Huguette Chaunu, Seville et
I'Atlantique, cited above.
For the Spanish movement into mainland America, Mario Gongora, Los
grupos de conquistadores en Tierra Firme, 1509-1530 (Santiago, Chile, 1962)
is an important examination of the background and composition of bands
of conquistadores. Juan Friede, Los Welser en la conquista de Venezuela (Caracas
and Madrid, 1961) looks at the role of commercial considerations in the
process of conquest and colonization, as also does Enrique Otte, Las perlas
del Caribe: Nueva Cadiz de Cubagua (Caracas, 1977). Murdo J. MacLeod,
Spanish Central America: A Socioeconomic History, 1520-1720 (Berkeley,
1973), traces similar themes far into the colonial period. The first English
edition of Jose de Oviedo y Bafios, The Conquest and Settlement of Venezuela,
translated and edited by Jeanette Johnson Varner (Berkeley, 1987) has
been widely acclaimed for the early period. Jose Ignacio Avellaneda's 'The
men of Nikolaus Federmann: Conquerors of the New Kingdom of Gra-
nada', TA, 43/4 (1987), 385-94, is a prosopographic study of the 106
men who co-founded Bogota before becoming encomenderos and local offi-
cials in early New Granada. Juan Rodriguez Freyle, Conquista y descubri-
miento del Nuevo Reino de Granada: El Camera, edited by Jaime Delgado
(Madrid, 1986), is a curious, almost picaresque, account from the seven-
teenth century.
Richard Konetzke, Descubridores y conquistadores de America (Madrid,

1968), leads up to the conquest of Mexico by way of the Caribbean and the
first probing of the mainland. For the conquest of Mexico itself the letters
of Cortes, and Bernal Diaz del Castillo's Conquest of New Spain, provide a
superb record of events from the Spanish point of view, but need to be read
with caution. Hernan Cortes, Cartas y documentos, ed. Mario Hernandez
Sanchez-Barba (Mexico, D.F., 1963), is a convenient compilation of Cor-
tes's letters and papers, Letters from Mexico, trans, and ed. by A. R. Pagden
(Oxford, 1972; repr., New Haven, Conn., 1986), a modern unabridged
English translation, with the advantage of notes and commentary, Cartas de
relacion, ed. Angel Delgado Gomez (Madrid, 1993), an indispensable criti-
cal edition. Weighing in at 1,501 pages is a detailed biography of Cortes by
Jose Luis Martinez, Hernan Cortes (Mexico, D.F., 1990), which promises
four volumes of accompanying documents. For a new regional account of
conquest and settlement see J. Benedict Warren, The Conquest of Michoacdn:
The Spanish Domination of the Tarascan Kingdom in Western Mexico, 1521
1530 (Norman, Okla., 1985). In recent years there has been a growing
interest in the conquest from the standpoint of the conquered, stimulated
by Miguel Leon-Portilla's anthology of texts compiled from indigenous
sources, Vision de los vencidos (Mexico, D.F., 1959; translated as The Broken
Spears, London, 1962). As yet, there is no comprehensive study of the
conquest of Mexico from this standpoint comparable to Nathan Wachtel's
La Vision des vaincus: Les Indiens du Perou devant la conquete espagnole, 1530
1570 (Paris, 1971; translated as The Vision of the Vanquished, Hassocks,
Sussex, Eng., 1977). For a full discussion of this theme, see essay 1:2.
As far as the military aspects of conquest are concerned, Alberto Mario
Salas, Las armas de la conquista (Buenos Aires, 1950) provides a detailed
discussion of the weapons and methods of warfare of conquerors and con-
quered, while C. H. Gardiner examines the important theme of Naval
Power in the Conquest of Mexico (Austin, Tex., 1956). Juan Marchena Fernan-
dez, 'Flandes en la instituci6n militar de Espafia en Indias', Revista de
Historia Militar, 29/58 (1985), 59-104, is an interesting discussion of how
knowledge of naval designs, military organisation and fortifications devel-
oped in the Low Countries influenced Spanish practices in the New World.
For warfare and conquest in other parts of Mexico and Central America,
the following works are particularly useful: Robert S. Chamberlain, The
Conquest and Colonization of Yucatan (Washington, D.C., 1948), and, by
the same author, The Conquest and Colonization of Honduras (Washington,
D.C., 1953). The first section of Inga Clendinnen, Ambivalent Conquests:
Maya and Spaniard in Yucatan, 1517-1570 (Cambridge, Eng., 1987)

provides a readable new synthesis on the subject. A useful departure point

for the study of the conquest of the Guatemala region is Jesus Maria
Afioveros, 'Don Pedro de Alvarado: Las fuentes historicas, documentation,
cronicas, y bibliografia existente,' Mesoamerica, 6/13 (1987), 24382. For
northern and north-western New Spain, see Philip Wayne Powell, Soldiers,
Indians and Silver: The NorthwardAdvance ojNewSpain, 15501600 (Berke-
ley and Los Angeles, 1952), and Edward H. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest: The
Impact of Spain, Mexico and the United States on the Indians of the South-west,
15331960 (Tucson, Ariz., 1962). An important work on a lesser known
band of conquistadores is Ignacio Avellaneda, Los sobrevivientes de la Florida:
The Survivors of the DeSoto Expedition (Gainesville, Fla., 1990). And look-
ing similarly northward is Marc Simmons, The Last Conquistador: Juan de
Onate and the Settling of the Far Southwest (Norman, Okla., 1991). Ram6n
A. Gutierrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage,
Sexuality and Power in New Mexico, 15001846 (Stanford, Calif, 1991)
examines the conquest and its impact on the Pueblo Indians.
The literature on the conquest of Peru is on the whole less satisfactory
than that on the conquest of Mexico, but two contributions to vol. 2 of the
Handbook of South American Indians (Washington, D.C., 1946) provide an
admirable starting point: J. H. Rowe, 'Inca culture at the time of the
Spanish Conquest', and G. Kubler, 'The Quechua in the colonial world'.
John Hemming, The Conquest of the Incas (London, 1970) is a splendid
narrative in the tradition of Prescott, and is particularly good on the
continuation of Inca resistance once the 'conquest' was over. James Lock-
hart provides a prosopography of the conquerors in The Men of Cajamarca
(Austin, Tex., 1972), which may be regarded as a prelude to his Spanish
Peru, 1532-1560 (Madison, Wis., 1968). A somewhat dated but still
invaluable reference tool for Andean research, Raul Porras Barrenechea's
Los cronistas del Peru, 15281650, y otros ensayos, edited by Franklin Pease
has seen welcome revision by Oswaldo Holguin Callo (Lima, 1986). Also
welcome are new scholarly editions, with useful introductory essays, of
some of the most important chronicles of conquest in publications by
Historia 16 of Madrid: three by Pedro Cieza de Leon, La cronica del Peru,
edited by Manuel Ballesteros (Madrid, 1984), Elsenorio de las Incas, edited
by Manuel Ballesteros (Madrid, 1985) and Descubrimiento y conquista del
Peru, edited by Carmelo Saenz de Santa Maria (Madrid, 1986); as well as
Francisco de Xerex's eyewitness Verdadera relacion de la conquista del Peru,
edited by Conception Bravo (Madrid, 1985). An important discovery of a
full manuscript of the 1551 Cuzco chronicle of Juan de Betanzos (only 18

2. Indian societies and the Spanish conquest 37
of 82 chapters were previously known) has been published as Suma y

narration de los incas, transcribed and edited by Maria del Carmen Martin
Rubio (Madrid, 1987). The work is based on the testimony of Betanzos's
Inca wife, Cuxirimay Ocllo (baptised Angelina Yupanqui). For the Arau-
canian wars in Chile, see Alvaro Jara, Guerre et societe au Chili: Essai de
sociologie coloniale (Paris, 1961). See also essays L4 and 11:2. Three of our
earliest sources on the Amazon region have been collected in Rafael Diaz's
edition of the accounts of Gaspar de Carvajal, Pedro Arias de Almesto and
Alonso de Rojas, La aventura del Amazonas (Madrid, 1986).
George M. Foster, Culture and Conquest (Chicago, i960) is a suggestive
anthropological study of problems of acculturation in the Spanish colonial
world, a theme which is impressively pursued for the Indian population of
Mexico by Charles Gibson in The Aztecs under Spanish Rule (Stanford, Calif.,
1964) and by James Lockhart in The Nahuas after the Conquest (Stanford,
1992). Jose Durand studies the transformation of conqueror into colonist
in La transformation social del conquistador, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1953).
The hopes, fears and concerns of the early colonists are vividly revealed in
their letters, selected, edited and translated by James Lockhart and En-
rique Otte, Letters and People of the Spanish Indies: The Sixteenth Century
(Cambridge, Eng., 1976). Enrique Otte has recently transcribed and ed-
ited an even larger collection in his Cartas privadas de emigrantes a Indias,
15401616 (Seville, 1988). Richard Konetzke, 'La formacion de la no-
bleza de Indias', Estudios Americanos, 3 (1951), 32937, is fundamental.
On population, land and towns in the immediate post-conquest period,
see essays 11:6, IL7, IL9 and II: 10, and on the church, see essay II: 16. For
the theme of'spiritual conquest', Robert Ricard, La 'Conquete spirituelle' du
Mexique (Paris, 1933) and John L. Phelan, The Millennial Kingdom of the
Franciscans in the New World, 2nd ed. (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1970),
deserve special mention.
2. INDIAN SOCIETIES AND THE SPANISH

CONQUEST
Western historiography, for a long time dominated by a Eurocentric view

of historical development, has devoted considerable attention to the ex-
ploits of the conquistadores, but has only recently begun to examine the
'vision of the vanquished'. Still useful, however, in spite of being more
than a century old, are the works of William H. Prescott, History of the

Conquest of Mexico, 3 vols. (New York, 1843) and History of the Conquest of
Peru, 2 vols. (London, 1847). The same is true of other classic works by
Georg Friederici, Der Charakter der Entdeckung und Eroberung Amerikas
durch die Vb'lker der alien Welt, 3 vols. (Stuttgart, 1925-36) and by Robert
Ricard, La Conquete spirituelle du Mexique: Essai sur I'apostolat et les methodes
missionnaires des ordres mendiants en Nouvelle-Espagne de 152324 a 1572
(Paris, 1933). For a full discussion of work published on the conquest, see
essay II: 1. An important revisionist work might be mentioned here:
Ruggiero Romano, Les Mecanismes de la conquete coloniale: Les conquistadores
(Paris, 1972). See also Tzvetan Todorov's The Conquest of America (New
York, 1984), a bold semiotic interpretation of the conquest in Mesoamer-
ica, and S. L. Cline's interesting reevaluation of a key source, 'Revisionist
Conquest history: Sahagun's Revised Book XII' in The Work of Bernardino
de Sahagun: Pioneer Ethnographer of Sixteenth-Century Mexico, edited by J.
Jorge Klor de Alva, H. B. Nicholson and Eloise Quifiones Keber (Albany,
N.Y., 1988), 9 3 - 1 0 6 .
In recent decades ethnohistorical research has made remarkable progress
both on Mesoamerica and the Andes. The work of Angel M. Garibay,
Miguel Le6n-Portilla, Gonzalo Aguirre Beltran, Pedro Carrasco and others
on the one hand, and of John V. Murra, Maria Rostworowski de Diez
Canseco, Tom Zuidema and others on the other hand has transformed our
knowledge of American societies before and after the conquest: we now
have completely new perspectives on the Indian reaction to the European
invasion. The two anthologies of Miguel Le6n-Portilla, in particular,
Vision de los vencidos: Relaciones indigenas de la conquista (Mexico, D.F.,
1959, translated as The Broken Spears, London, 1962), and El reverso de la
conquista: Relaciones aztecas, mayas e incas (Mexico, D.F., 1964), have been
complete revelations. Add to these Miguel Le6n-Portilla, Los franciscanos
vistospor el hombre ndhuatl: Testimonios indigenas del sig'o XVI (Mexico, D.F.,
1985) and David Damrosch, 'The aesthetics of conquest: Aztec poetry
before and after the conquest', Representations, 33 (Winter 1991), 101-20.
Nathan Wachtel's La vision des vaincus: Les Indiens du Perou devant la conquete
espagnole, 1530-15J0 (Paris, 1971, translated as The Vision of the Van-
quished, Hassocks, Sussex, Eng., 1977), has continued in the same vein.
Works of synthesis, with a comparative perspective, such as Alberto
Mario Salas, Las armas de la conquista (Buenos Aires, 1950), or Friedrich
Katz, The Ancient American Civilizations (New York, 1972), are unfortu-
nately only too rare. Most current research is restricted to limited areas,
usually at the regional level. What follows is only a selective survey; see

also bibliographical essay II: 13. To the well-known works of Charles

Gibson, Tlaxcala in the Sixteenth Century (New Haven, Conn., 1952) and
The Aztecs under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico,
1519-1810 (Stanford, Calif., 1964), Juan Friede, Los Quimbayas bajo la
dominacion espanola, 1539-1810 (Bogota, 1963) and Jean Borde and Mario
Gongora, Evolucion de la propiedad rural en el valle de Puanque (Santiago,
Chile, 1956), can now be added, for Mexico, William B. Taylor, Landlord
and Peasant in Colonial Oaxaca (Stanford, Calif., 1972), John K. Chance,
Race and Class in Colonial Oaxaca (Stanford, Calif., 1978) and Conquest of
the Sierra: Spaniards and Indians in Colonial Oaxaca (Norman, Okla., 1989),
and Ida Altman and James Lockhart (eds.), Provinces of Early Mexico (Los
Angeles, 1976). Among many other more recent notable works on Meso-
america, see Louise M. Burkhart, The Slippery Earth: NahuaChristian
Moral Dialogue (Tucson, Ariz., 1989) and James Lockhart, The Nahuas
after the Conquest (Stanford, Calif., 1992). Also deserving mention is Serge
Gruzinski, La colonisation de I'imaginaire: Sociites indigenes et occidentalisation
dans le Mexique Espagnol, XVle-XVllle siecle (Paris, 1988); Eng. trans.,
The Conquest of Mexico (Cambridge, Eng., 1993). Both Nancy M. Farriss,
Maya Society Under Colonial Rule: The Collective Enterprise of Survival (Prince-
ton, N.J., 1984) and Inga Clendinnen, Ambivalent Conquests: Maya and
Spaniard in Yucatan, 151J-15J0 (Cambridge, Eng., 1987) are essential
works and highly recommended. W. George Lovell's Conquest and Survival
in Colonial Guatemala: A Historical Geography of the Cuchumatdn High-
lands, 15001821 (Montreal, 1985) and Grant D. Jones, Maya Resistance
to Spanish Rule: Time and History on a Colonial Frontier (Albuquerque,
N.Mex., 1989) add some breadth.
For the Andes the numerous articles of Waldemar Espinoza Soriano,
especially on the mita, his publication of the Memorial de Charcas:
'Chrdnica' inidita de 1582 (Lima, 1969), and his study of the alliance of the
Huancas with the Spanish invaders, La destruccion del Imperio de los Incas: La
rivalidad politica y senorial de los curacazgos andinos (Lima, 1973) deserve
mention. For the Ecuadorian region, see the excellent works of Udo
Oberem: 'Don Sancho Hacho, ein cacique mayor des 16. Jahrhunderts',
JGSWGL, 4 (1967), 199-225; 'Trade and trade goods in the Ecuadorian
montafia'; in Patricia J. Lyon (ed.), Native South Americans (Boston, 1974);
Los Quijos: Historia de la transculturacion de un grupo indigena en el oriente
ecuatoriano, 1538-1958, 2 vols. (Madrid, 1971); and Notas y documentos
sobre miembros de la familia del Inca Atahuallpa en el siglo XVI: Estudios
etnohistoricos del Ecuador (Guayaquil, 1976); and the path-breaking study of

Frank Salomon, Los seiiores etnicos de Quito en la epoca de los Incas (Otavalo,
1980). For the southern Andes, see Josep M. Barnadas, Charcas: Origenes
historicos de una sociedad colonial (La Paz, 1973). On Chile, see Leonardo
Leon, Lonkos, Curakas and Zupais: The Collapse and Re-making of Tribal
Society in Central Chile, 1536-1560 (London: Institute of Latin American
Studies research paper, 29, 1992). At a more general level, there are
important contributions from Franklin Pease, Los ultimos incas del Cuzco
(Lima, 1972), and Del Tawantinsuyu a la historia del Peru (Lima, 1978);
from Karen Spalding, De indio a campesino: Cambios en la estructura social del
Peru colonial (Lima, 1978), and Nicolas Sanchez-Albornoz, Indios y tributo
en el Alto Peru (Lima, 1978). Two important and influential ethnohistorical
monographs are Karen Spalding, Huarochiri: An Andean Society Under Inca
and Spanish Rule (Stanford, Calif., 1984), and Steve J. Stern, Peru's Indian
Peoples and the Challenge of Spanish Conquest: Huamanga to 1640 (Madison,
Wis., 1982). A brief but insightful examination of key events at Caja-
marca in 1532 is Sabine MacCormack, 'Atahualpa y el libro', Revista de
Indias, 48 (1988), 693-714. Rolena Adorno, Guaman Poma: Writing and
Resistance in Colonial Peru (Austin, Tex., 1986) traces this important chroni-
cler's influences. A collection of essays of Kenneth J. Andrien and Rolena
Adorno (eds.), Transatlantic Encounters: Europeans and Andeans in the Six-
teenth Century (Berkeley, 1991) explores both old and new themes. The
remarkable work by Teresa Gisbert, Iconografia y mitos indigenas en el arte
(La Paz, 1980), which links iconographical material, both pre-Columbian
and colonial with an examination of indigenous myths and beliefs also
deserves mention: It opens up completely new perspectives on the histori-
cal anthropology of art. Finally, a special issue of AESC (September-
December 1978) edited by John V. Murra and Nathan Wachtel, is devoted
to Tanthropologie historique des societes andines'; Eng. trans. John V.
Murra, and Nathan Wachtel (eds.), Anthropological History of Andean Poli-
ties (Cambridge, Eng., 1986).
This flowering of ethnohistorical research has stimulated, both for Meso-
america and the Andes, numerous publications of sources, with full schol-
arly apparatus: for example, Beyond the Codices, edited by Arthur J. O.
Anderson, Frances Berdan and James Lockhart (Berkeley and Los Angeles,
1976); and the publication of two bilingual editions (English-Nahuatl,
and Spanish-Nahuatl) of the early colonial records of the Indian municipal-
ity of Tlaxcala: James Lockhart, Frances Berdan and Arthur J. O. Anderson
(trans, and eds.), The Tlaxcalan Actas: A Compendium of the Records of the
Cabildo of Tlaxcala, 1545-1627 (Salt Lake City, 1986) and Eustaqio

Celestino Soli's et al. (trans, and eds.), Actas de Cabildo de Tlaxcala, 1547-
1567 (Mexico, D.F., 1985). See also a useful new edition of Diego Munoz
Camargo's apologetic late sixteenth-century work, Historia de Tlaxcala,
edited by German Vazquez (Madrid, 1986). On the Andes, see Garci Diez
de San Miguel, Visita hecha a laprovincia de Chucuito (1567), edited by John
V. Murra and Waldemar Espinosa Soriano (Lima, 1964); Iiiigo Ortiz de
Zuriiga, Visita a la Provincia de Leon de Hudnuco (1562), edited by John V.
Murra, 2 vols. (Huanuco, 1967-72); Tasa de la visita general Francisco de
Toledo, edited by Noble D. Cook (Lima, 1975); Visita general de Peru por el
virrey don Francisco de Toledo: Arequipa, 15701575, edited by Alejandro
Malaga Medina (Arequipa, 1974); Collaguas I, edited by Franklin Pease
(Lima, 1977). See also critical editions of Rites et traditions de Huarochiri:
Manuscrit quechua du debut du 17e siecle, edited by Gerald Taylor (Paris,
1980), published in Spanish as Ritos y tradiciones de Huarochiri: Manuscrito
quechua de comienzos delsiglo XVII (Lima, 1987), and including an important
biographical study of the most famous extirpator of idolatry, Francisco de
Avila, by Antonio Acosta. A recent English version has been exquisitely
edited and translated by Frank Salomon and George L. Urioste: The
Huarochiri Manuscript: A Testament of Ancient and Colonial Andean Religion
(Austin, Tex., 1991). Salomon prefaces the latter with an informative and
substantial contextual essay. Another essential primary source for the Andes
is Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, El primer nueva coronica y buen gobierno,
edited by John V. Murra and Rolena Adorno, 3 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1980,
reprinted in paperback, Madrid, 1987). Under the same rubric can be
classified an admirable publication by Silvio Zavala, El serviciopersonal de los
indios en el Peru (extractos del siglo XVI), vol. 1 (Mexico, D.F., 1978). Luis
Millones has collected a number of important documents and studies on the
Taki Onqoy movement in south-central Peru in the 1560s: El retorno de las
huacas: Estudios y documentos sobre el Taki Onqoy, siglo XVI (Lima, 1990).
Finally, of immense importance for students of Peruvian religious history is
an extraordinary group of seventeenth-century idolatry trials from one prov-
ince in the Archbishopric of Lima compiled by Pierre Duviols (ed.), Cultura
andina y represidn: Procesos y visitas de idolatrias y hechicerias Cajatambo, siglo
XVII (Cuzco, 1986).
On the 'frontiers', besides the comparative study of Edward H. Spicer,

Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico and the United States on the
Indians of the Southwest, 1533i960 (Tucson, Ariz., 1962), there are a
number of more specific studies: Philip Wayne Powell, Soldiers, Indians
and Silver: The Northward Advance of New Spain, 15501600 (Berkeley,

I
9 5 2 ) ; J a c k D. Forbes, Apache, Navaho, and Spaniards (Norman, Okla.,
i960); a recent work on the conquest and the Pueblo Indians, Ramon A.
Gutierrez's When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexual-
ity and Power in New Mexico, 15001846 (Stanford, Calif., 1991); R. E.
Latcham, La capacidadguerrera de los Araucanos: Sus armas y metodos militares
(Santiago, Chile, 1915) and La organizacion social y las creencias religiosas de
los antiguos Araucanos (Santiago, Chile, 1922); Robert C. Padden, 'Cul-
tural change and military resistance in Araucanian Chile, 1550-1730',
South-Western Journal of Anthropology (1957), 103-21; Alvaro Jara, Guerre et
societi au Chili: Essai de sociologie coloniale: La transformation de la guerre
d'Araucanie et I'esclavage des Indiens du debut de la Conquete espagnole aux debuts
de I'esclavage legal (1612) (Paris, 1961). Further works on the southern
frontier can be found in essay 1:4.
3. SPAIN AND AMERICA IN THE SIXTEENTH

AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES
In addition to the general studies by Dominguez Ortiz, Elliott and Lynch,
listed in essay II: 1, there are a number of more specialized studies of
Spanish government and society which ought to be taken into account by
anyone interested in following the relationship between Spain and its
American possessions in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The best
brief account of the reign of Charles V is by H. G. Koenigsberger, 'The
empire of Charles V in Europe', in vol. 2 of The New Cambridge Modern
History (Cambridge, Eng., 1958). There are two biographies of Philip II:
Peter Pierson, Philip II of Spain (London, 1975) and Geoffrey Parker,
Philip II (Boston and Toronto, 1978). But incomparably the most impor-
tant study of the age of Philip II is by Fernand Braudel, La Miditerranee et
le monde mediterranean a I'epoquede Philippe II, 2 vols., 2nd ed. (Paris, 1966);
translated as The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of
Philip II, 2 vols. (London, 19723), which is especially useful for tracing
the shift in the centre of gravity of Spanish power from the Mediterranean
to the Atlantic during the course of Philip's reign. I. A. A. Thompson,
War and Government in Habsburg Spain, 15601620 (London, 1976), is a
pioneering piece of research into Spain's organization for war and the
strains imposed by warfare on the Spanish administrative system. For a
study of the general who personified the 'black legend' for most of Protes-
tant Europe, see William S. Maltby, Alba: A Biography of Fernando Alvarez

3- Spain and America in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries 43
de Toledo, Third Duke of Alba, 1307-1382 (Berkeley, 1983). The period is

surveyed in Henry Kamen, Spain 14691714: A Society of Conflict (London
and New York, 1983).
A good introduction to Castilian agriculture and property ownership in
the sixteenth century is David E. Vassberg, Land and Society in Golden Age
Castile (Cambridge, Eng., 1984). On the religious and social climate in
Spanish lands, good starting points are a number of the essays in Stephen
Haliczer (ed.), Inquisition and Society in Early Modern Europe (London and
Sydney, 1987) and Henry Kamen, Inquisition and Society in Spain (London,
1984). Marcel Bataillon, Erasme et L'Espagne, (Paris, 1937; revised, Ge-
neva, 1991), with two Spanish editions, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1950 and
1966) remains important for the pre-Tridentine period despite its age,
while William A. Christian, Local Religion in Sixteenth-Century Spain
(Princeton, N.J., 1982) is indispensable as an introduction to popular
regional practices. A difficult book which is nonetheless packed with
information on the church in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth
centuries is A. D. Wright, Catholicism and Spanish Society Under the Reign of
Philip II and Philip HI (Lampeter, Wales, 1991). On the social expecta-
tions for women and the reality of women's lives, Mary Elizabeth Perry,
Gender and Disorder in Early Modern Seville (Princeton, N.J., 1990) offers a
beginning.
Problems relating to the decline of Spain are discussed by J. H. Elliott
in Spain and Its World, 1500-1700 (New Haven, Conn., and London,
1989). Spain's position in the first half of the seventeenth century is
treated in considerably more detail in J. H. Elliott's work on the principal
minister of Philip IV, The Count-Duke ofOlivares: The Statesman in an Age of
Decline (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1986). A political biography is
R. A. Stradling, Philip IV and the Government of Spain, 1621-1665 (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1988). There is a brilliant treatment of the theme of decline
by Pierre Vilar, 'Le temps du Quichotte', Europe, 34 (1956). The reign of
Charles II, the least-known period in the history of Habsburg Spain, is
discussed in Henry Kamen, Spain in the Later Seventeenth Century (London,
1980), while R. A. Stradling surveys the vicissitudes of Spanish power in
Europe and the Decline of Spain (London, 1981).
John Lynch, The Hispanic World in Crisis and Change, 1598IJOO (Ox-
ford, 1992), has the great merit of relating the history of seventeenth-
century Spain to that of Spanish America, but there is a crying need for a
systematic and comprehensive study of this relationship over the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries as a whole. Pierre and Huguette Chaunu's Seville

44 II - Colonial Spanish America
et I'Atlantique, 8 vols. (Paris, 1958-9), does this on a massive scale for the
commercial relationship, but many other aspects of the relationship, at
both the institutional and the personal level, have scarcely begun to be
explored. Vivid portraits of different colonial personages appear in parts 1
and 2 of David A. Brading's ambitious The First America: The Spanish
Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492-1867 (Cambridge,
Eng., 1991). A useful study of emigrants is Ida Altman, Emigrants and
Society: Extremadura and Spanish America in the Sixteenth Century (Berkeley,
1989). And a major contribution, the culmination of many years' work, is
Enrique Otte (transcr. and ed.), Cartas privadas de emigrantes a Indias,
15401616 (Seville, 1988). Some 650 letters, the majority from the last
quarter of sixteenth century, build upon the smaller selection of letters
published previously in English by Otte and James Lockhart, Letters and
People of the Spanish Indies (Cambridge, Eng., 1970). Some ground-
breaking essays on the emergence of identities in America which were, in
many ways, distinct from those of the mother country appear in Nicholas
Canny and Anthony Pagden (eds.), Colonial Identity in the Atlantic World,
15001800 (Princeton, N.J., 1987). Some indication of other possibili-
ties is suggested by the uncompleted, and in many respects flawed, work
of Manuel Gimenez Fernandez, Bartolome de Las Casas, 2 vols. (Seville,
195360), which places under a microscope the crown's policies towards
the Indies between 1516 and 1523 and the role of its advisers and officials
in formulating and implementing those policies, but which is distorted by
its obsessive hatred of Ferdinand the Catholic and his men. For the reign
of Philip II, the title of Jose Miranda's Espana y Nueva Espana en la epoca de
Felipe II (Mexico, D.F., 1962) promises well, but the book consists of two
separate sections, one on Spain and the other on New Spain, and while
each constitutes an excellent essay in itself, the connection between the
two is never developed.
In view of the dearth of studies examining simultaneous developments
in the metropolis and the colonies, the bibliographical suggestions which
follow will include works on both Spain and Spanish America.
J. H. Parry, The Spanish Theory of Empire in the Sixteenth Century (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1940) and Silvio Zavala, Lafilosofiapolitica en la conquista de
America (Mexico, D.F., 1947) are helpful introductions to the Spanish
theory of empire, as is chap. 2 of Mario Gongora's Studies in the Colonial
History of Spanish America (Cambridge, Eng., 1975). J. A. Fernandez-
Santamaria, The State, War and Peace (Cambridge, Eng., 1977) is a close
examination of Spanish political theory in the first half of the sixteenth

century, which includes discussions of attitudes toward the Indies, while

Venancio Carro, La teologia y los teologo-juristas espanoles ante la conquista de
Indias (Seville, 1945), directly addresses the problem of the conquest of
America in scholastic thought.
Spanish theories of empire are discussed by Colin M. MacLachlan in
Spain's Empire in the New World: The Role of Ideas in Institutional and Social
Change (Berkeley, 1988). H. G. Koenigsberger, The Practice of Empire (Ith-
aca, N. Y., 1969), although concerned with the government of Sicily under
Philip II, raises issues of general importance for the understanding of Span-
ish administrative practice. Also of interest is Horst Pietschmann, Elestado
y su evolucion alprincipio de la colonizacion espahola de America (Mexico, D.F.,
1989). The most important organ for the administration of the Spanish
New World was the Council of the Indies, and the composition and institu-
tional history of this council are examined in detail in the classic work by
Ernst Schafer, El Consejo Realy Supremo de las Indias, 2 vols. (Seville, 1935
47), to which should be added the volume of essays by D. Ramos and others,
El Consejo de las Indias en elsiglo XVI (Valladolid, 1970). Aspects of financial
administration are discussed by Ismael Sanchez-Bella, La organizacion finan-
ciera de las Indias, siglo XVI (Seville, 1968).
A splendid mass of documentation for the study of the viceroys of
Mexico and Peru during the Habsburg period has now been made avail-
able by Lewis Hanke, in Los virreyes espanoles en America durante el gobierno de
la casa de Austria, Biblioteca de Autores Espanoles, vols. 2337 (Madrid,
1976-8) for Mexico, and vols. 280-5 (Madrid, 1978-80) for Peru. A
number of viceroys have received individual studies, of which the follow-
ing are especially noteworthy: Arthur S. Aiton, Antonio de Mendoza: First
Viceroy of New Spain (Durham, N.C., 1927); Roberto Levillier, Don Fran-
cisco de Toledo: Supremo organizador del Peru, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1935
40); Maria Justina Sarabia Viejo, Don Luis de Velasco: Virrey de Nueva
Espana, 15501564 (Seville, 1978). The challenges and concerns of an
important mid-seventeenth-century viceroy of Peru, Luis Enriquez de
Guzman, are surveyed briefly in Peter T. Bradley, Society, Economy and
Defence in Seventeenth-Century Peru: The Administration of the Count of Alba de
Liste {1655-1661) (Liverpool, 1992).
The best study of an audiencia is J. H. Parry, The Audiencia of New
Galicia in the Sixteenth Century (Cambridge, Eng., 1948), and Woodrow
Borah has written a rich study of the General Indian Court of the audiencia
of Mexico, Justice by Insurance: The General Indian Court of Colonial Mexico
and the Legal Aides of the Half-Real (Berkeley, 1983), but in general far too

little is known about Spanish judges and officials in the Indies. Peggy K.
Liss, Mexico under Spain, 15211556 (Chicago, 1975), besides synthesiz-
ing a complicated period in the history of Mexico, shows how the crown
gradually imposed its authority on conquistador society. Richard L. Kagan,
Students and Society in Early Modern Spain (Baltimore, 1974) is a pioneering
study of the educational background of the men who administered Spain
and America, but too few of these men are yet known as individual
personalities. This makes all the more valuable John Leddy Phelan's The
Kingdom of Quito in the Seventeenth Century (Madison, Wis., 1967), which
examines the contrasts between the ideals and the practice of the Spanish
bureaucracy through a study of the career of Dr. Antonio de Morga,
president of the audiencia of Quito from 1615 to 1636. Another approach
to these judges and officials is by way of their own writings, of which
Alonso de Zorita's The Lords of New Spain, translated and edited by Benja-
min Keen (London, 1965) and Juan de Matienzo's Gobierno del Peru, edited
by Guillermo Lohmann Villena (Paris and Lima, 1967) are especially
revealing.
Other useful studies of different aspects of Spanish colonial administra-
tion are Guillermo Lohmann Villena, El corregidor de lndios en el Peru bajo los
Austrias (Madrid, 1957), and J. H. Parry's examination of The Sale of
Public Office in the Spanish Indies under the Hapsburgs (Berkeley, 1953), a
theme which is also considered in Mark A. Burkholder and D. S. Chan-
dler, From Impotence to Authority: The Spanish Crown and the American
Audiencias, 1687-1808 (Columbia, Mo., 1977). For a fuller discussion of
the literature on urban development and municipal administration, see
essay 11:7, an<J> o n t n e church, see essay II: 16.
The Spanish treatment of the Indians was a source of controversy to
contemporaries and has remained so ever since. As Sverker Arnoldsson
showed in his La leyenda negra: Estudios sobre sus origenes (Goteborg, i960),
the 'black legend' of Spanish cruelty pre-dated the conquest of America,
but the reports of the massacres and maltreatment of the Indians did much
to determine the image of Spain in the European consciousness. This in
turn called forth from Spain and its defenders a 'white legend'. Charles
Gibson examines both in his anthology, The Black Legend: Anti-Spanish
Attitudes in the Old World and the New (New York, 1971). For a visual
depiction of the 'black legend' see the engravings by Theodore deBry,
recently collected in a splendid volume, America deBry, 15901634 (Ber-
lin, 1990; Spanish edition, Madrid, 1992).
Spanish theory and practice as regards the treatment of the indigenous

peoples of America has been the source of intense study and heated debate in
the historiography of the past 50 years, a debate focused particularly, al-
though not exclusively, on the controversial figure of Bartolome de Las
Casas. The bibliography on Las Casas is now enormous, as can be seen from
the selection of titles at the end of Juan Friede and Benjamin Keen, Barto-
lome de Las Casas in History (DeKalb, 111., 1971), a selection of essays on
different aspects of his career and reputation. A central figure in the Las
Casas controversy has been Lewis Hanke, who has done more than anyone
else to bring the aspirations and achievements of Las Casas to the attention
of the English-speaking world, and whose The Spanish Struggle for Justice in
the Conquest of America (Philadelphia, 1949), and Aristotle and the American
Indians (London, 1959) have breathed new life into the sixteenth-century
debate for twentieth-century readers. The great French Hispanist, Marcel
Bataillon, whose monumental study of the influence of Erasmus in Spain,
Erasmo y Espana, mentioned above, also has important implications for
sixteenth-century America, wrote a number of carefully argued essays on
Las Casas and his writings, which were collected under a single cover in his
Etudes sur Bartolome de Las Casas (Paris, 1965). Out of a massive bibliogra-
phy, besides Manuel Gimenez Fernandez, Bartolome de Las Casas, cited
above, two books deserve special mention: Juan Friede, Bartolome de Las
Casas: Precursor delanticolonialismo (Mexico, D.F., 1974), and Angel Losada,
Fray Bartolome de Las Casas a la luz de la moderna critica histdrica (Madrid,
1970). A more recent biography which takes account of modern research is
Philippe-Ignace Andre-Vicent, Bartolome de Las Casas: Prophete du Nouveau
Monde (Paris, 1980). Also helpful among recent work is Marianne Mahn-
Lot, Bartolome de Las Casas et le droit des Indiens (Paris, 1982) and Anthony
Pagden's 'Ius et Factum: Text and experience in the writings of Bartolom
deLas Casas', Representations, 33 (Winter 1991), 147-62. Angel Losada also
devoted himself to studying and editing the works of Las Casas's rival,
Sepulveda.
Las Casas and Sepulveda, however, are only two of the many sixteenth-
century Spaniards, some well known and others scarcely known at all, who
discussed the capacities and status of the Indians and the treatment they
deserved. The works of some of these figures are only now becoming
accessible for study, thanks to the efforts of scholars like Ernest J. Burrus,
whose The Writings of Alonso de la Vera Cruz, 5 vols. (Rome, St. Louis,
Mo., and Tucson, Ariz., 1968-76) shows the possibilities. Other contem-
porary documents of great interest are published by Jose A. Llaguno in La
personalidad juridica del indio y el 111 Concilio Provincial Mexicano

(Mexico, D.F., 1963). Joseph Hoffner, Christentum undMenschenwiirde: Das
Anliegen der Spanischen Kolonialethik im goldenen Zeitalter (Trier, 1947), re-
mains a useful survey of sixteenth-century Spanish theories about the
Indians. The best general account of Spanish scholastic attitudes toward
Indians is Anthony Pagden's The Fall of Natural Man: The American Indian
and the Origins of Comparative Ethnology, (Cambridge, Eng., 1982). An
interesting focus on sixteenth-century missionary resistance to any exten-
sion of royal authority in the Indies which did not highlight and support
intensive evangelisation by the friars is given by Demetrio Ramos in 'La
crisis indiana y la Junta Magna de 1568', JGSWGL, 23 (1986), 1 61.
One of the major problems in the study of the controversy over the
Indians is to determine what effects, if any, the theorizing had on colonial
practice; and here a work like that by Juan A. and Judith E. Villamarin,
Indian Labor in Mainland Colonial Spanish America (Newark, Del., 1975)
serves as a salutary reminder of the gulf that separated ideals from reality.
The effectiveness, or otherwise, of theory and legislation on behaviour in
the Indies and the general question of the relationship between settler
society and the republica de los indios still requires much study at the local
level, of the type undertaken by Juan Friede in his Vida y luchas de don Juan
del Valle, primer obispo de Popaydn y protector de indios (Popayan, 1961), or
Eugene E. Korth, Spanish Policy in Colonial Chile: The Struggle for Social
Justice, 13351700 (Stanford, Calif., 1968). A number of the excellent
essays in Kenneth J. Andrien and Rolena Adorno (eds.), Transatlantic
Encounters: Europeans and Andeans in the Sixteenth Century (Berkeley, 1991)
focus on both old and new themes in the Andean region.
On the sea link between Spain and the Indies, the carrera de Indias, and
colonial trade, see essay 11:4.
Problems of war, defence and taxation must loom large in any attempt
to chart the changing relationship between metropolitan Spain and the
Indies in the later sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. A. P. Newton, The
European Nations in the West Indies, 1493-1688 (London, 1933; reprinted
1966), remains a useful outline survey of the incursions of North Europe-
ans into the Spanish colonial world. This should be supplemented by
Kenneth R. Andrews, The Spanish Caribbean: Trade and Plunder, 1580-
1630 (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1978) and by the same author's
excellent re-assessment of Drake's Voyages (London, 1967). Paul E. Hoff-
man, The Spanish Crown and the Defense of the Caribbean, 1535-1585:
Precedent, Patrimonialism and Royal Parsimony (Baton Rouge, La., and Lon-
don, 1980) and Carla Rahn Phillips, Six Galleons for the King of Spain:

Imperial Defence in the Early Seventeenth Century (Baltimore, 1987) are also
recommended. Peter Gerhard, Pirates on the West Coast ofNew Spain, 1575
1742 (Glendale, Calif., i960) examines the growing threat posed by
piracy in the Pacific. For reactions to these attacks, Roland D. Hussey,
'Spanish reaction to foreign aggression in the Caribbean to about 1680',
HAHR, 9 (1929), 286-302, is still of value. The defence of the Panama
isthmus is examined by Guillermo Cespedes del Castillo, 'La defensa
militar del istmo de Panama a fines del siglo XVII y comienzos del
XVIII', Anuario de Estudios Americanos, 9 (1952), 2 3 5 - 7 5 , while Giinter
Kahle, 'Die Encomienda als militarische Institution im kolonialen His-
panoamerika', JGSWGL, 2 (1965), 8 8 - 1 0 5 , traces the decline and fall of
the military role of the encomendero. Detailed examinations of defence
problems at a local level, and also of the consequences of enemy attack,
may be found in J. A. Calderon Quijano, Historia de las fortificaciones en
Nueva Espana (Seville, 1957); Enriqueta Vila Vilar, Historia de Puerto Rico,
16001650 (Seville, 1974); Frank Moya Pons, Historia colonial de Santo
Domingo, 3rd ed. (Santiago, D.R., 1977); Peter T. Bradley, The Lure of
Peru: Maritime Intrusion into the South Sea (15981701) (London, 1989),
and C. R. Boxer, Salvador de Sd and the Struggle for Brazil and Angola,
16021688 (London, 1952). Olivares's scheme for the Union of Arms is
briefly discussed in J. H. Elliott, The Revolt of the Catalans (Cambridge,
Eng., 1963), chapter 7, while Fred Bronner examines attempts to intro-
duce it in Peru in 'La Uni6n de Armas en el Peru: Aspectos politico-
legales', Anuario de Estudios Americanos, 24 (1967), 113371, but the
scheme still requires a comprehensive treatment. For the introduction of
the alcabala into the Indies, Robert S. Smith, 'Sales taxes in New Spain,
1575-1770', HAHR, 28 (1948), 2 - 3 7 , is fundamental.
The seventeenth century is the least well known, and the least studied,
of any century of Spanish-American history. Thanks to the pioneering
work of Woodrow Borah, New Spain's Century of Depression (Berkeley and
Los Angeles, 1951), the more sombre aspects of the century have tended
to be emphasized, at the expense of its more creative and formative charac-
teristics. The Borah thesis is examined in the light of more recent research
by P. J. Bakewell in his introduction to the Spanish translation, El siglo de
la depresidn en Nueva Espana (Mexico, D.F., 1975). An important study on
Peru from the perspective of the imperial system and mindset is Kenneth
J. Andrien's Crisis and Decline: The Viceroyalty of Peru in the Seventeenth
Century (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1985).^ I. Israel, Race, Class and Politics
in Colonial Mexico, 1610-1670 (Oxford, 1975), discusses some of the

processes at work in seventeenth-century Mexican society, as does Jose F.
de la Pefia, Oligarquia y propiedad en Nueva Espana, 1550-1624 (Mexico,
D.F., 1983), which examines the theme of the consolidation of an elite,
on the basis of rich new documentation. An important aspect of the Creole
question is analysed by A. Tibesar in 'The Alternativa: A study in
SpanishCreole relations in seventeenth-century Peru', TA, 11 (1955),
22983, but in general more work has been done for New Spain than for
Peru on the formation of a settler society with its own growing sense of
identity. Irving A. Leonard, Baroque Times in Old Mexico (Ann Arbor,
Mich., 1959), Jacques Lafaye, QuetzalcoatlandGuadalupe: The Formation of
Mexican'NationalConsciousness, 15311813 (Chicago, 1976) and D. A.
Brading, The First America, mentioned above, are the outstanding recent
contributions to a subject of fundamental importance for understanding
the eventual break with Spain.
4. SPAIN AND AMERICA: THE ATLANTIC

T R A D E , 1 4 9 2 - f . 1720
In spite of a great quantity of recent literature the history of Spanish and

Spanish American oceanic navigation and trade before 1720 is very uneven
in its availability and level of sophistication. Some aspects, eras and epi-
sodes are well known; others, such as the connections between certain
specific areas and the carrera, have been studied hardly at all. Yet others,
such as the dimensions and significance of smuggling, can never be known
accurately. The subject has also suffered from a tug-of-war between ro-
mance and statistics. Some writers have emphasized treasure, pirates,
hurricanes, galleons and derring-do on the Spanish Main. The other school
has counted the ships, the crews, the crossings, the prices, the cargoes,
until the graphs and tables reduce the whole epic to banality.
The literature on the expansion of Europe is immense and there are
many approaches. One of the most imaginative and comprehensive surveys
is Pierre Chaunu, L'expansion europeenne du XIHe au XVe siecle (Paris, 1969),
a fine example of the author's emphasis on economics and geography.
Another general survey, more closely tied to men and events, is Boies
Penrose, Travel and Discovery in the Renaissance, 14201620 (Cambridge,
Mass., 1952). Carlo Cipolla in his entertaining Guns, Sails and Empires:
Technological Innovation and the Early Phases of European Expansion, 1400
IJOO (New York, 1966), summarizes what we know about the role of

4. Spain and America: the Atlantic trade, 1492C.1720 51
material advantages in Europe's advance overseas. John H. Parry, Europe

and a Wider World, 1415-IJ15 (London, 1959), explains early routes,
ships, navigation and trade.
The Portuguese explorations have produced an enormous amount of
scholarship, as can be appreciated by scrutinizing the bibliography in
Bailey W. Diffie and George D. Winius's excellent survey, Foundations of
the Portuguese Empire, 14151580 (Minneapolis, Minn., 1977). The Portu-
guese writings of the age are listed and briefly discussed in Joaquim
Barradas de Carvalho, 'A literatura portuguesa de viagems (seculo XV,
XVI, XVII)', Revista de Historia, 40/81 (1970), 51-74.
Perhaps the best of the recent crop of books on Columbus is Felipe
Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus (London, 1991). Also useful for its descrip-
tion of the age is William D. Phillips and Carla Rahn Phillips, The Worlds
of Christopher Columbus (Cambridge, Eng., 1992). Samuel Eliot Morison's
The European Discovery of America, 2 vols. (New York, 1971, 1974), espe-
cially vol. 2 on the southern voyages, contains a wealth of material on
early voyages, ships, crews, navigational methods, and life at sea (see
especially chap. 8, 'The mariner's day'). For a brief survey of the new
research on Columbus, see essay II: 1.
Two manuals of navigation of the period have been published: Pedro de
Medina, Libro de cosmographia, first published in 1538, translated into
many languages, and superbly edited and translated in a modern and
facsimile edition as A Navigator's Universe: The Libro de Cosmographia of
1538, by Ursula Lamb (Chicago, 1972); and Diego Garcia de Palacio,
Instruccion nduticapara navegar, which first appeared in Mexico in 1587 and
in Madrid in facsimile in 1944. See also Jose Maria Lopez Pinero, El arte de
navegar en la Espana del Renacimiento (Barcelona, 1979).
For the sixteenth-century Spanish background, see essay II:3 and, espe-
cially, the works of Fernand Braudel, John H. Elliott and John Lynch.
The best succinct analysis of the pre-eminence of Iberia's south-west
corner, and of the role played by the stepping-stone islands, is by Pierre
Chaunu, in his Conquete et exploitation des nouveaux mondes (XVIe siecle)
(Paris, 1969). John H. Parry, The Spanish Seaborne Empire (New York,
1966), is a convenient, clearly explained account of the same determi-
nants. The map on page 40 is eloquent. Chap. 2 explains how Seville came
to dominate as the American port, both in the Spanish and the Andalusian
contexts. It also contains the early history of the Casa de Contratacidn, and
much else on the history of the Indies. The early and continuing impor-
tance of the Canaries is covered in Francisco Morales Padron, El comercio

canarioamericano {sighs XVI, XVII y XVIII) (Seville, 1955). A more

recent work is Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, The Canary Islands after the
Conquest: The Making of a Colonial Society in the Early Sixteenth Century (New
York, 1982). There are many accounts of voyages. Tomas de la Torre's
amusing yet harrowing account has been published several times, most
recently as, Desde Salamanca, Espana, hasta Ciudad Real, Chiapas: Diario de
viaje, 1544-1545 (Mexico, D.F., 1945).
The Atlantic sea link between Spain and the New World up to the
middle of the seventeenth century has been examined at length and in
overwhelming detail by Pierre and Huguette Chaunu. Their massive Se-
ville et I'Atlantique, 1504-1650, 13 vols. in 8 (Paris, 1955-60) is the one
indispensable source for the carrera. Vol. 7, Construction Graphique, is
enormously informative in its visual impact as it discusses winds, cur-
rents, voyages, distances in time, ships, gross movements of ships, car-
goes, and origins and destinations of cargoes. Volume 8:1 studies the
evolution of ship types; navigation; once again and at length the reasons
for the AndalusianGuadalquivir ports complex and its predominance;
the stepping-stone islands; and the role of the carrera in the development
of each part of Spanish America. Vol. 8:2, which is in fact two volumes,
discusses macro-movements, the great cycles of Spanish Atlantic com-
merce, and the inflation in prices. Throughout, and in a variety of ways,
the authors discuss the determinants of ship size and speed, the length of
voyages, and the weight, bulk and profitability of cargoes.
These determinants are discussed more compactly by L. Denoix in
'Oaracteristiques des navires de 1'epoque des grandes decouvertes', in V"
Colloque d'Histoire Maritime (Paris, 1966). Another basic text on Spain, the
carrera and Spanish America is Clarence H. Haring's Trade and Navigation
between Spain and the Indies in the Time of the Hapsburgs (Cambridge, Mass.,
1918; reprinted Gloucester, Mass., 1964). Works by J. Everaert, Antonio
Garcia-Baquero Gonzalez, Lutgardo Garcia Fuentes, Henry Kamen and
Michel Morineau, which continue the story of the carrera beyond 1650
until its demise in the late eighteenth century, are discussed in context
below.
Other aspects of Seville and the carrera may be found in Ruth Pike,
Enterprise and Adventure: The Genoese in Seville and the Opening of the New
World (Ithaca, N.Y., 1966), which may overstate its case, and in the work
of a contemporary, Joseph de Veitia Linaje, Norte de la contratacion de las
Indias Occidentales, first published in Seville in 1672 and reprinted in
Buenos Aires in 1945. An English translation was published by Captain

4- Spain and America: the Atlantic trade, 1492-C.IJ20 53
John Stevens in 1702, republished in facsimile in 1977. The laws govern-
ing the early flota system are to be found in Volume IV of Diego Encinas,
Cedulario Indiano, 4 vols. (first published in 1596; facsimile, Madrid,
1945)-
On the island period of discovery and settlement and the gold cycle,
see, beside the Chaunus, the works of Carl O. Sauer and Kenneth R.
Andrews cited in essay II: 1.
On early Spanish migration to the New World, see the work of Peter
Boyd-Bowman and Magnus Morner cited in essay 11:6.
The slave trade in Nicaraguan Indians is discussed by David R. Radell
in 'The Indian slave trade and population of Nicaragua during the six-
teenth century', in The Native Population of the Americas in 1492, William
M. Denevan (ed.) (Madison, Wis., 1976), 6776. William L. Sherman in
Forced Native Labor in Sixteenth-Century Central America (Lincoln, Nebr.,
1979), would disagree with Radell, and with the author of this essay, on
the extent of the trade and the numbers involved.
The following give a general account of the encomienda and the tribute:
Lesley Byrd Simpson, Exploitation of Land in Central Mexico in the Sixteenth
Century (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1952); Silvio Zavala, La encomienda
indiana (Madrid, 1945); and Jose Miranda, El tributo indigena en la Nueva
Espana (Mexico, D.F., 1951). See also essays IL9 and II: 10. On the
collapse of the Indian population, see essay 11:6 and, on silver mining,
essay 11:8.
Woodrow Borah and Sherburne Cook began the study of price inflation
in Mexico in their Price Trends of Some Basic Commodities in Central Mexico,
15311570 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1958), while Earl J. Hamilton's
classic American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501-1650
(Cambridge, Mass., 1934), did the same for Spain. A modern study of
American bullion and the price revolution is by Pierre Vilar, Oro y moneda
en la historia (1450-1900) (Barcelona, 1969; English translation, London,
1976).
Cochineal as a product in Atlantic commerce is the subject of Raymond
L. Lee, 'American cochineal in European commerce, 1526-1625', Journal
of Modern History, 23 (1951), 205-24. For indigo, see Manuel Rubio
Sanchez, Historia del anil 0 xiquilite en Centro America, 2 vols. (San Salvador,
1976, 1978). For pearling, see Enrique Otte, Las perlas del Caribe (Cara-
cas, 1977). The work of the Chaunus has much information on these and
the lesser Atlantic cargoes.
Woodrow Borah studied the first links between Mexico and Peru in

54 H- Colonial Spanish America
Early Colonial Trade between Mexico and Peru (Berkeley and Los Angeles,
1954). For Venezuela's small trades with Cartagena and much larger cacao
trade with Veracruz, see the two books by Eduardo Arcila Farias, Economia
colonial de Venezuela (Mexico, D.F., 1956), and Comercio entre Venezuela y
Mexico en los siglos xviy xvii (Mexico, D.F., 1950) and several articles and a
forthcoming book by Eugenio Piiiero. Havana's trade patterns are de-
scribed in detail in Levi Marrero, Cuba, economia y sociedad, 13 vols. to date
(San Juan, P.R., and Madrid, 1972-80). William Lytle Schurz, The
Manila Galleon (New York, 1959), is a classic story of the Philippine link.
Pierre Chaunu, Les Philippines et le Pacifique des Iberiques (xvi', xvii', xviii'
siecles): Introduction methodologique et indices (Paris, i960), emphasizes the
economic and the quantifiable in this trade.
On the defence of the Indies against the incursions of North Europeans,
see essay 11:3.
For the literature on the slave trade to Spanish America, see essay II: 14.
The classic work is Georges Scelle, La traite negriere aux Indes de Castille, 2
vols. (Paris, 1906), but on the formal structures of the trade, see Jean-
Pierre Tardieu, Le destin de noirs aux Indies de Castille: XVIeXVIIIe siecles
(Paris, 1984) and, on the administrative and commercial side, Marisa
Vega Franco, El trdfico de esclavos con America: Asientos de Grillo y Lomelin,
16631674 (Seville, 1984). A comprehensive volume is Herbert S. Klein,
African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (Oxford, 1986).
The rise of smuggling in its various aspects can be followed in Curtis
Nettels, 'England and the Spanish American trade, 16801715', Journal
of Modern History, 3 (1931), 132; A. P. Thornton, 'Spanish slave-ships in
the English West Indies, 1660-85', HAHR, 35 (1955), 374-85; Sergio
Villalobos R., 'Contrabando frances en el Pacifico, 17001724', RHA, 51
(1961), 4980; and Vera Lee Brown, 'Contraband trade as a factor in the
decline of Spain's empire in America', HAHR, 8 (1928), 17889. A
recent flurry of books on contraband includes: Celestino Andres Arauz
Monfante, El contrabando holandes en el Caribe durante la primera mitad del
siglo XVIII, 2 vols. (Caracas, 1984); Hector R. Feliciano Ramos, El contra-
bando ingles en el Caribe y el Golfo de Mexico (Seville, 1990); Zacarias
Moutoukias, Contrabando y control colonial en el siglo XVII: Buenos Aires, el
Atldntico, y el espacioperuano (Buenos Aires, 1988); and a previously unpub-
lished essay by a Creole merchant, Jose Ignacio de Pombo's Comercio y
contrabando en Cartagena de Indias, 2 dejunio de 1800 (Bogota, 1986). Other
trends of that period in the Caribbean have been skilfully summarized in

4- Spain and America: the Atlantic trade, 1492-C.1720 55
the early chapters of Geoffrey J. Walker, Spanish Politics and Imperial Trade,
17001789 (London, 1979).
John H. Elliott examines the decline of Spain in a series of insightful
essays in Spain and its World, 15001700: Selected Essays (New Haven,
Conn., and London, 1989), and in even more detail in his study of the
first minister and favourite of Philip IV, The Count-Duke of Olivares: The
Statesman in an Age of Decline (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1986).
Whether there was a coincidental or related decline in the colonies, or any
decline at all, has been the subject of debate. For opposite views, see, for
example, Woodrow Borah, New Spain's Century of Depression (Berkeley and
Los Angeles, 1951), and John Lynch, The Hispanic World in Crisis and
Change, 1598 1700 (Oxford, 1992). Pierre and Huguette Chaunu, Seville
et I'Atlantique, show conclusively that the carrera declined from the 1620s
to mid-century and perhaps beyond.
Two authors, using different consular reports and interpretations, have
found a dramatic rise in Spanish imports of American bullion after about
1670 until the end of the century. They are J. Everaert, De Internationale en
koloniale Handel der Vlaamse Firma's te Cadiz, 1670-1700 (Bruges, 1973),
especially p. 395, and Michel Morineau, Incroyables gazettes et fabuleux
mitaux: Les retours de tresors americaines d'apres les gazettes hollandaises (XVI'
XVIII' siecles) (Paris and London, 1985). Henry Kamen discusses these
findings and the stages of Spain's demographic, economic and commercial
recovery in Spain in the Later Seventeenth Century, 1665-1700 (London and
New York, 1980). The official carrera's decline to even lower levels, 1650-
1700, and its ephemeral slight revivals, are traced in Lutgardo Garcia
Fuentes, El comercio espanol con America, 1650-1700 (Seville, 1980). Those
who wish to follow Spain's Atlantic career still further in time should read
Maria del Carmen Borrego Pla, 'Trafico comercial de Espana con Indias
(1700-1714) 1 in La burguesia mercantil gaditana (1650-1868) (Cadiz,
1976), 145-50; Antonio Garcia-Baquero Gonzalez, Cadiz y el Atlantico,
17171778: El comercio colonial espanol bajo el monopolio gaditano, 2 vols.
(Seville, 1976); and John Fisher's valuable study of legal trade with the
Indies, Commercial Relations between Spain and Spanish America in the Era of
FreeTrade, 17781796 (Liverpool, 1985).
Changes in English shipping and trading patterns can be followed in
Ralph Davis, The Rise of the English Shipping Industry in the 17th and 18th
Centuries (London, 1962), in the same author's The Rise of the Atlantic
Economies (Ithaca, N.Y., 1973), and in his two articles on English foreign

trade between 1660 and 1775, in W. E. Minchington (ed.), The Growth of

English Overseas Trade in the iyth and 18th Centuries (London, 1969). A
good book on the other main rivals is Jonathan I. Israel, Dutch Primacy in
World Trade, 1585-1740 (Oxford, 1989). See also more generally, James
D. Tracy (ed.), The Rise of Merchant Empires: Long-Distance Trade in the Early
Modern World (Cambridge, Eng., 1990).
Theories on the role of the Spanish carrera in European and American
history are numerous, and all cannot be listed here. For some of these
long-term impacts the following are suggestive: Stanley J. and Barbara H.
Stein, The Colonial Heritage of Latin America: Essays in Economic Dependence in
Perspective (New York, 1970) and the provocative Immanuel Wallerstein,
The Modern World System, 3 vols. to date (New York and London, 1976
89). Fernand Braudel's massive opus, Civilisation materielle, economie et
capitalisme, XVeXVIIIe siecle, 3 vols. (Paris, 1979), is long, repetitious
and disorganized, but it has many brilliant passages, including several
discussions of the larger, worldwide implications of the carrera and of
American colonial bullion.
5. SPAIN AND AMERICA IN THE

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
On Spain in the eighteenth century, see John Lynch, Bourbon Spain IJOO
1808 (Oxford, 1989), Gonzalo Anes, El antiguo regimen: Los Borbones (Ma-
drid, 1975), and Antonio Dominguez Ortiz, Sociedad y estado en el siglo
XVlll espanol (Madrid, 1976). Henry Kamen, The War of Succession in
Spain 110015 (London, 1969) is still valuable. The impact of the En-
lightenment and Enlightened Despotism is discussed in Richard Herr,
The Eighteenth-Century Revolution in Spain (Princeton, N.J., 1958), Jean
Sarrailh, L'Espagne eclaire de la seconde moitie du XVIIIe siecle (Paris, 1954)
and Antonio Mestre, llustracidn y reforma de la iglesia: Pensamiento politico-
religioso de don Gregorio Mayans y Siscar (1699-1781) (Valencia, 1968). On
Jansenism, see Joel Saugnieux, Le Jansenisme espagnol du XVIIIe siecle: Ses
composantes et ses sources (Oviedo, 1975). The classic work of Marcelino
Menendez Pelayo, Historia de los heterodoxos espanoles, 3rd ed., 2 vols.
(Madrid, 1976) is still worth consulting. On the economy there is Jordi
Nadal and Gabriel Tortella (eds.), Agricultura, comercio colonial y crecimiento
economico en la Espana contempordnea (Barcelona, 1974), Gonzalo Anes,

5. Spain and America in the eighteenth century 57
Las crisis agrarias en la Espana moderna (Madrid, 1970), and David R.

Ringrose, Transportation and Economic Stagnation in Spain 17501850 (Dur-
ham, N.C., 1970) and Madrid and the Spanish Economy 15601850 (Berke-
ley and Los Angeles, 1983).
For the revolution in government, see the first part of D. A. Brading,
Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico 17631810 (Cambridge, Eng.,
1971), John Lynch, Spanish Colonial Administration 17821810: The Inten-
dant System in the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata (London, 1958), Luis
Navarro Garcia, Intendencias de Indias (Seville, 1959), J. R. Fisher, Govern-
ment and Society in Colonial Peru: The Intendant System, 1764-1814 (London,
1970) and Jacques A. Barbier, Reform and Politics in Bourbon Chile, 1755-
1796 (Ottawa, 1980). For its impact in New Granada, see John Leddy
Phelan, The People and the King: The Comunero Revolution in Colombia, 1781
(Madison, Wis., 1978). For Peru, see Scarlett O'Phelan Godoy, Rebellions
and Revolts in Eighteenth-Century Peru and Upper Peru (Cologne, 1985). On
the bureaucracy and Creole participation, see Mark A. Burkholder and D.
S. Chandler, From Impotence to Authority: The Spanish Crown and the American
Audiencias 16871821 (Columbia, Miss., 1977), Susan Migden Socolow,
The Bureaucrats of Buenos Aires, 17691810: Amor al Real Servicio (Durham,
N . C , 1987), and the indispensable Biographical Dictionary of Audiencia
Ministers in the Americas, 16871821, ed. Mark A. Burkholder and D. S.
Chandler (Westport, Conn., 1982). The campaign against the Church is
dealt with by Nancy M. Farriss, Crown andClergy in Colonial Mexico 17.59-
1821: The Crisis of Ecclesiastical Privilege (London, 1968) and D. A.
Brading, 'Tridentine Catholicism and Enlightened Despotism in Bourbon
Mexico', JLAS, 15/1 (1983), 1-22. Several books deal with the army:
Juan Marchena Fernandez, Oficiales y soldados en el ejercito de America (Seville,
1983), Christon I. Archer, The Army in Bourbon Mexico 1760-1810 (Albu-
querque, N.Mex., 1977), Leon G. Campbell, The Military and Society in
Colonial Peru 1750-1810 (Philadelphia, 1978), and Military Reform and So-
ciety in New Granada 1773-1808 (Gainesville, Fla., 1978) and Cuba,
1753-1815: Crown, Military and Society (Knoxville, Tenn., 1986), both by
Allan J. Kuethe. For the impact of the Bourbon reforms on the Creole elite,
see D. A. Brading, The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots
andthe Liberal State 1492-1867 (Cambridge, Eng., 1991) and his 'Govern-
ment and Elite in Late Colonial Mexico', HAHR, 53/3 (1973), 389-414.
Trade with America is dealt with by Geoffrey J. Walker, Spanish Politics
and Imperial Trade 17071789 (London, 1979) and by Antonio Garcia-

58 77. Colonial Spanish America
Baquero Gonzalez, Cadizy elAtldntico 1717-1778, 2 vols. (Seville, 1976)

and Comercio colonial y guerras revolucionarias (Seville, 1972). But see also J.
R. Fisher, Commercial Relations between Spain and Spanish America in the Era
of Free Trade, 1778-1796 (Liverpool, 1985), Javier Ortiz de la Tabla
Ducasse, Comercio exterior de Veracruz 1778-1821 (Seville, 1978), Carlos
Daniel Malamud, Cadiz y Saint Malo en el comercio colonialperuano (1668
1725) (Cadiz, 1986), Barbara H. and Stanley J. Stein, 'Concepts and
realities of Spanish economic growth 1759-1789', Historia Iberica, 1
(1973), 10319, and Josep M. Delgado et al., El comerc entre Catalunya i
America (segles XVIII i XIX) (Barcelona, 1986).
On the late colonial economy the starting point must be Alexander von
Humboldt, Essai politique sur le Royaume de la Nouvelle Espagne, 2 vols.
(Paris, 1807-11), a master-work available also in English and Spanish.
On colonial mining, see D. A. Brading, Miners and Merchants in Bourbon
Mexico, mentioned above; J. R. Fisher, Silver Mines and Silver Miners in
Colonial Peru 17761824 (Liverpool, 1977); Rose Marie Buechler, The
Mining Society of Potosi, 17761810 (Syracuse, N.Y., 1981), Enrique
Tandeter, 'Forced and free labour in late colonial Potosi', Past and Present,
93 (1981), 9 8 - 1 3 6 , and D. A. Brading and Harry E. Cross, 'Colonial
Silver mining: Mexico and Peru', HAHR, 52/4(1972), 545-79. For Cuba
there is Manuel Moreno Fraginals, The Sugar Mill: The Socioeconomic Com-
plex of Sugar in Cuba 1760-1860 (New York, 1976). On Central America,
see Troy S. Floyd, 'Bourbon palliatives and the Central American mining
industry 1765-1800', TA, 18 (1961), 103-25, and 'The indigo mer-
chant: promotor of Central American economic development 1700-
1800', BHR, 39 (1965), 46688. On Venezuela, see E. Arcila Farias,
Comercio entre Venezuela y Mexico en los siglos XVII y XVIII (Mexico, D.F.,
1950) and P. Michael McKinley, Pre-revolutionary Caracas: Politics, Economy
and Society 1777-1811 (Cambridge, Eng., 1985). On Colombia, see A.
D. McFarlane, 'Economic change in the viceroyalty of New Granada with
special reference to overseas trade 1739-1810' (Ph.D. dissertation, Lon-
don University, 1977) and Ann Twinam's important analysis of the prov-
ince of Antioquia, Miners, Merchants and Farmers in Colonial Colombia
(Austin, Tex., 1982). For Peru there is W. Kendall Brown, Bourbons and
Brandy: Imperial Reform in Eighteenth-Century Arequipa (Albuquerque,
N.Mex., 1986) and a general synthesis of the economies of Lower and
Upper Peru by Jaime R. Rios Burga, Ciclos productivos en el espacio peruano
colonial, siglos XVIXIX: Una aproximacidn a una sintesis cuantitativa (Lima,
1986). For Chile, see Marcello Carmagnani, Les mecanismes de la vie

6. Population 59
economique dans une societe coloniale: Le Chili, 16801830 (Paris, 1973);

Sergio Villalobos, El comercio y la crisis colonial (Santiago, Chile, 1968);
Mario Gongora, Origen de los 'inquilinos' de Chile central (Santiago, Chile,
i960) and Armando de Ramon and Jose Manuel Larrafn, Origenes de la vida
economica chilena, 16591808 (Santiago, Chile, 1982). For the Rio de la
Plata area, see the introductory chapter of Tulio Halperin-Donghi, Politics,
Economics and Society in Argentina in the Revolutionary Period (Cambridge,
Eng., 1975); Susan Migden Socolow, The Merchants of Buenos Aires IJJ8
1810: Family and Commerce (Cambridge, Eng., 1978) and Jerry W.
Cooney, Economia y sociedaden la intendencia del Paraguay (Asuncion, 1990).
For Mexico there is Brian R. Hamnett, Politics and Trade in Southern Mexico
1750-1821 (Cambridge, Eng., 1971) and Guy P. C. Thomson, Puebla de
los Angeles: Industry and Society in a Mexican City, ijoo1850 (Boulder,
Colo., 1989). For Ecuador, see Robson B. Tyrer, Historia demogrdfka y
economica de la audiencia de Quito: Poblacion indigena e industria textil 1600
1800 (Quito, 1988); Michael T. Hammerly, Historia socialy economica de la
antigua provincia de Guayaquil 17631842 (Guayaquil, 1973); and Maria
Luisa Laviana Cuetos, Guayaquil en el siglo XVIII: Recursos naturales y
desarrollo economico (Seville, 1987).
The fiscal profit of empire can be assessed from John J. Tepaske and
Herbert S. Klein, The Royal Treasuries of the Spanish Empire in America, 3
vols. (Durham, N.C., 1982) and their Ingresos y egresos de la Real Hacienda
de Nueva Espana, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1986). But see also D. A.
Brading, 'Facts and figments in Bourbon Mexico', BLAR, 4 (1985), 61
4, Nils Jacobsen and Hans-Jiirgen Puhle (eds.), The Economies of Mexico and
Peru during the Late Colonial Period, 1760-1810 (Berlin, 1986), and Michel
Morineau, Incroyables gazettes et fabuleux metaux: Les retours des tresors amer-
icains d'apres les gazettes hollandaises (XVI'XVIII' siecles) (Paris and London,
1985).
6. POPULATION
Nicolas Sanchez-Albornoz, The Population of Latin America: A History

(Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1974), traces the general evolution of Latin
America's population: chapters 3 and 4 deal with the changes that oc-
curred during the period of Spanish rule. The work contains an extensive
bibliography, and has undergone revision in its second Spanish edition, La
poblacion de America latina: Desde los tiempos pre-colombinos al ano 2000 (Ma-

6o //. Colonial Spanish America
drid, 1977). The classic work of Angel Rosenblat, Lapoblacion indigenay el

mestizaje en America, vol. i, La poblacion indigena, 1492-1950, and vol. 2,
El mestizajey las castas coloniales (Buenos Aires, 1954), while obviously now /
out of date, nevertheless contains information that is still useful relating to
the native American population.
The sources for population history tributary counts, parish registers,
etc. are abundant in Spanish America. The types of statistics, their
quality, and the techniques their analysis requires have been examined, in
general terms, in Woodrow Borah, 'The historical demography of Latin
America: Sources, techniques, controversies, yields', in P. Deprez (ed.),
Population and Economics (Winnipeg, 1970), 173205. A preliminary
checklisting of sources has been carried out in several countries, under the
auspices of the Centro Latinoamericano de Demografia (CELADE), in
collaboration with the Consejo Latinoamericano de Ciencias Sociales
(CLACSO), and is entitled Fuentes para la demografia histdrica de America
latina (Mexico, D.F., 1975). See also C. Arretx et al., Demografia histdrica
en America Latina: Fuentes y metodos (San Jose, C.R., 1983). Within the
field of the joint OxfordSyracuse project, see Keith Peachy, 'The Revilla-
gigedo census of Mexico, 17901794: A background study', Bulletin of the
Society for Latin American Studies, 25 (1976), 6380, David J. Robinson
and David G. Browning, 'The origin and comparability of Peruvian popu-
lation data, 17761815', JGSWGL, 14 (1977), 199-222, and D. J.
Robinson (ed.), Studies in Spanish American Population History (Boulder,
Colo., 1981). N. Sanchez-Albornoz, 'LesregistresparoissiauxenAmerique
latine: Quelques considerations sur leur exploitation pour la demographie
historique', RevueSuissed'Histoire, 17 (1967), 6 0 - 7 1 , discusses the histori-
cal value of parish registers, a question which has undergone reconsidera-
tion in Claude Morin, Santa Ines Zacatelco (1646-1812): Contribution a la
demografia del Mexico colonial (Mexico, D.F., 1973), and in Rosemary D. F.
Bromley, 'Parish registers as a source in Latin American demographic and
historical research', Bulletin of the Society for Latin American Studies, 19
(1974), 1 4 - 2 1 .
The demographic research so far carried out for colonial Spanish Amer-
ica as a whole is assessed in Borah, 'Historical demography', focusing on
the first century after the conquest. Woodrow Borah and Sherburne F.
Cook, 'La demografia hist6rica de America latina: Necesidades y perspec-
tivas', in La historia economica en America latina (Mexico, D.F., 1972), vol.
2, 8 2 - 9 9 , S o n t o suggest directions for further investigations. Mention

6. Population 61
should also be made of B. H. Slicher van Bath, 'De historische demografie

van Latijns Amerika: Problemen en resultaten van onderzoek', Tijdschrift
voor Geschiedenis, 92 (1979), 52756. Ciro F. S. Cardoso, 'La historia
demografica: Su penetracion en Latinoamerica y en America central', ESC
9 (1973), 11528, reviews modern developments in population history
with special reference to Central America. H. Tovar Pinzon, 'Estado actual
de los estudios de demografia historica en Colombia', Anuario Colombiano
de Historia Socialy de la Cultura, 5 (1970), 65140, carried out a compara-
ble task for Colombia. As for bibliographies covering particular areas, for
Mexico there is Enrique Florescano, 'Bibliografia de la historia demograf-
ica de Mexico (epoca prehispana-1910)', HM, 21 (1971-2), 525-37, and
for the Andean region, Michael T. Hamerly, 'La demografia historica de
Ecuador, Peru y Bolivia: Una bibliografia preliminar', Revista del Archivo
Histdrico del Guayas, 3 (1974), 2463. On Spanish migration to America
see Magnus Morner, 'A bibliography on Spanish migration', in F. Chia-
ppelli (ed.), First Images of America: The Impact of the New World on the Old, 2
vols. (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976), vol. 2, 797804. Latin American
Population History Newsletter appears twice a year with information on work
published, research in progress and professional meetings.
The debate on the ill effects that the conquest had on the native Ameri-
can population on the eve of the European invasion focused initially on
Mexico, because of the important contributions made by the Berkeley
school. In particular, see S. F. Cook and W. Borah, 'The rate of population
change in Central Mexico, 1550-1579', HAHR, 37 (1957), 4 6 3 - 7 0 , and
The Indian Population of Central Mexico, 1531-1610 (Berkeley and Los
Angeles, i960); and W. Borah and S. F. Cook, The Aboriginal Population of
Central Mexico on the Eve of the Spanish Conquest (Berkeley and Los Angeles,
1963), and 'Conquest and population: A Demographic approach to Mexi-
can history', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 113 (1969),
177-83. It gave rise at once to a lively controversy: see A. Rosenblat, La
poblacion de America en 1492 (Mexico, D.F., 1967), which has been re-
vived. See William T. Sanders, 'The population of the Central Mexican
symbiotic region, the basin of Mexico, and the Teotihuacan valley in the
sixteenth century', in William M. Denevan (ed.), The Native Population of
the Americas in 1492 (Madison, Wis., 1976; 2nd ed., 1992), 85-150; B.
H. Slicher van Bath, 'The calculation of the population of New Spain,
especially for the period before 1570', BELC, 24 (1978), 6 7 - 9 5 ; Rudolph
A. Zambardino, 'Mexico's population in the sixteenth century: Demo-

graphic anomaly or mathematical illusion?', Journal ofInterdisciplinary His-

tory, I I (1980), 127, and it has been extended to other regions of
Spanish America, once again partly through the initiative of S. F. Cook
and W. Borah, in Essays in Population History: Mexico and the Caribbean (3
vols., Berkeley and Los Angeles, 197179). Denevan, Native Population,
recapitulates the debate and opens up fresh perspectives. On Central Amer-
ica, see R. M. Carmack et al., The Historical Demography of Highland
Guatemala (Albany, N.Y., 1982); L. Newson, The Cost of the Conquest:
Indian Decline in Honduras under Spanish Rule (Boulder, Colo., 1986) and
Indian Survival in Colonial Nicaragua (Norman, Okla., 1987); W. R.
Fowler, Jr., 'La poblacion nativa de El Salvador al momento de la
conquista espafiola', Mesoamerica, 15 (1988), 79116. Also useful on
demographic change is W. G. Lovell, Conquest and Survival in Colonial
Guatemala: A Historical Geography of the Cuchumatdn Highlands, 1500
1821 (Montreal, 1985; rev. ed. 1992). On the northern Andes, see Su-
zanne Austin Alchon, Native Society and Disease in Colonial Ecuador (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1991). On the population of the central Andes there has
been some important modern work. See N. Sanchez-Albornoz, Indios y
tributos en el Alto Peru (Lima, 1978), and, above all, N. David Cook,
Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1620 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981).
For a comparison of Peru and New Spain, see Carlos Sempat Assadourian,
'La despoblacion indigena en el Peru y Nueva Espana: La formacion de la
economia colonial', HM, 38 (1989), 4 1 9 - 5 3 .
The role that epidemics played in bringing about demographic catastro-
phe has been highlighted in W. Borah, '<;America como modelo? El impacto
demografico de la expansion europea sobre el mundo no europeo', Cuadernos
Americanos, 6 (1962), 176-85; Henry F. Dobyns, 'An outline of Andean
epidemic history to 1720', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 37 (1963),
493515; Alfred W. Crosby, Jr., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and>
Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, Conn., 1972). F. Guerra, 'The
earliest American epidemic: The influenza of 1493', Social Science History, 12
(1988), 3 0 5 - 2 5 ; and E. Florescano and E. Malvido (eds.), Ensayos sobre la
historia de las epidemias en Mexico, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1982). As yet there
are no specific evaluations of the impact of the other contributory factors.
For immigration into America from other continents there are several
works of synthesis. Spanish migration has been minutely inventoried by
Peter Boyd-Bowman, Indice geobiografico de cuarenta mil pobladores espanoles
de America en el siglo XVI, vol. 1 1493-1519 (Bogota, 1964), vol. 2:
15201539 (Mexico, D.F., 1968); Patterns of Spanish Emigration to the New

6. Population 63
World (1493-1380) (Buffalo, N.Y., 1973); 'Patterns of Spanish emigra-

tion to the Indies until 1600', HAHR, 56/4 (1976), 580-604, and (as-
sessed by M. Morner), 'Spanish migration to the New World prior to
1810: A report on the state of research', in Chiappelli, First Images of
America, vol. 2, 737-82. See alsoj. L. Martinez, Pasajeros a Indias; Viajes
transatldnticos en el siglo XVI (Madrid, 1983) and I. Altman, Emigrants and
Society: Extremadura and Spanish America in the Sixteenth Century (Berkeley,
1989). Two specific groups of migrants are studied in P. Borges Moran, El
envio de misioneros a America durante la epoca espanola (Salamanca, 1977) and
J. Marchena Fernandez, Oficiales y soldados en el ejercito de America (Seville,
1983). Eighteenth-century immigration to Mexico has been analysed by
Charles F. Nunn, Foreign Immigrants in Early Bourbon Mexico, 17001760
(Cambridge, Eng., 1979). David A. Brading, 'Grupos etnicos, clases y
estructura ocupacional en Guanajuato (1792)', HM, 21 (19712), 460
80, calculates the proportion of Spaniards who were there around 1792.
African migration is examined in Philip Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade:
A Census (Madison, Wis., 1969).
The widespread internal movements of population have been recently
discussed in D. J. Robinson (ed.), Migration in Colonial Spanish America
(Cambridge, Eng., 1990) and A. M. Wightman, Indigenous Migration and
Social Change: The Forasteros of Cuzco, 1570-1720 (Durham, N.C., 1990).
See also T. Calvo and G. Lopez, Movimientos de poblacion en el Occidente de
Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1988). Previous studies emphasizing Indian congre-
gations are H. F. Cline, 'Civil congregations of the Indians in New Spain,
1598-1606', HAHR, 29/3 (1949), 349-69, A. Malaga Medina, 'Las
reducciones en el virreinato del Peru (1532-1580)', RHA, 80 (1975), 9
45, Peter Gerhard, 'Congregaciones de indios en la Nueva Espafia antes de
1570', HM, 26 (1977), 347-95, B. Garcia Martinez, Los pueblos de la
sierra: El poder y el espacio entre los indios del norte de Puebla hasta 1700
(Mexico, D.F., 1987) and Nancy M. Farriss, 'Nucleation versus dispersal:
The dynamics of population movement in colonial Yucatan', HAHR, 58/2
(1978), 187-216. For a later period, see M. M. Swann, Migrants in the
Mexican North: Mobility, Economy and Society in a Colonial World (Boulder,
Colo., 1989). A late Caribbean migration is discussed in C. E. Deive, Las
emigraciones dominicanas a Cuba, 1793-1808 (Santo Domingo, 1989). For
urbanization, see essay II: 7.
Even though the first century after the conquest continues to attract
most of the research in population history, a recent shift has begun to
favour the late colonial period. This new trend is due, in part, to the

64 // Colonial Spanish America
higher quality of the sources for that period. Parish registers of baptisms,
burials and marriages from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries have
begun to be investigated. Claude Morin, Thomas Calvo and Elsa Malvido
published simultaneously three wide-ranging studies on the Puebla area:
Santa Ines Zacatelco, mentioned above, Acatzingo: Demografia de una parro-
quia mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1973), and 'Factores de despoblacion y
reposicion de la poblaci6n de Cholula (1641-1810)', HM, 23 (1973-4),
52110. See also M. A. Cuenya Mateos, 'Evolution demografica de una
parroquia de la Puebla de los Angeles, 1660-1800', HM, 36 (1987)
4 4 3 - 6 4 and S. L. Brinckmann, 'Natalidad y mortalidad en Tecali
(Puebla), 1701-1801', Siglo XIX, 4/7 (1989), 219-69. Northern Mexico
in a later period is discussed in David A. Brading, Haciendas andranchos in
the Mexican Bajio: Leon, IJOOIJ8O (Cambridge, Eng., 1978) and in M.
M. Swann, Tierra Adentro: Settlement and Society in Colonial Durango (Boul-
der, Colo., 1982). Work based on the registers of urban parishes has so far
achieved only partial coverage: Lima has received attention from Claude
Mazet, 'Population et societe a Lime aux xvi e et xvn e siecles', Cahiers des
Ameriques Latines, 1314 (1976), 53100, Valparaiso from R. Salinas,
'Caracteres generales de la evolucion demografica de un centro urbano
chileno: Valparaiso, 1685-1830', Historia, 10 (1971), 177-204, and a
rural community in Chile from R. Mellafe and R. Salinas, Sociedad y
poblacion rural en la formation de Chile actual: La Ligua, 17501850 (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1987). Lima's register begins as early as 1562. N. D. Cook is
busy analysing a number of country parishes in the Collaguas region,
where it was the custom to enter the various racial groups in different
books. Even small subdivisions within the dual organization of this
Andean community had separate registers. See N. D. Cook, The People of
the Colca Valley: A Population Study (Boulder, Colo., 1982). H. Aranguiz
Donoso, 'Notas para el estudio de una parroquia rural del siglo xvm:
Pelarco, 17861796', Anales de la Facultad de Filosofia y Ciencias de la
Education, 1969, 3742, E. F. Love, 'Marriage patterns of persons of
African descent in a colonial Mexico City parish', HAHR, 51/1 (1971),
7991, and Marcello Carmagnani, 'Demografia y sociedad: La estructura
social de los centros mineros del norte de Mexico, 16001720', HM, 21
(19712), 41959, compare differential behaviours by ethnic group.
From tax assessments and civil or ecclesiastical censuses the spatial and
social distribution of the population and its increase or decrease have been
studied. We cannot give details here of the many local histories of varying
importance, but only of those studies which cover wide areas. Using late

6. Population 65
colonial censuses, G. Vollmer, Bevblkerungspolitik und Bevb'lkerungsstruktur

im Vizekonigreich Peru zu Ende der Kolonialzeit 17411821 (Bad Homburg,
1967) analyses the ethnic composition of Peru's population and its distri-
bution; John V. Lombardi, People and Places in Colonial Venezuela (Blooming-
ton, Ind., 1976), does likewise for Venezuela, using the ecclesiastical
censuses of the diocese of Caracas. S. F. Cook and W. Borah, The Population
of the Mixteca Alta, 15201960 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1968), M.
Carmagnani, 'Colonial Latin American demography: Growth of Chilean
population, 17001830', Journal of Social History, 1(1967), 17991, R.
B. Tyrer, Historia demogrdfica y economica de la Audiencia de Quito (Quito,
1988), M. T. Hamerly, Historia social y economica de la antigua provincia de
Guayaquil, 17631842 (Guayaquil, 1973), and C. Morin, Michoacdn en la
Nueva Espana del siglo XVIII: Crecimiento y desigualdad en una economia
colonial (Mexico, D.F., 1979), trace the development of the population in
the Mixteca Alta, Chile, Quito, the coastland of Guayaquil, and Michoa-
can, respectively. See also D. J. Robinson (ed.), Social Fabric and Spatial
Structure in Colonial Latin America (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1979).
Census materials also make it possible to dissect the demographic struc-
ture of groups (family, fertility, mortality and migratory movements). E.
Gonzalez and R. Mellafe, 'La funcion de la familia en la historia social
hispanoamericana colonial', Anuario del Instituto de Investigaciones Historicas,
8 (1965), 5771, started a general debate on the family in Hispanic
America, which has to be supplemented by more recent, more specific
studies. Cook and Borah, Essays in Population History, vol. 1, explore the
transformation of the family in Mexico, from the time of the conquest
onwards. There are data on the evolution of endogamy in Oaxaca in J. K.
Chance, Race and Class in Colonial Oaxaca (Stanford, Calif., 1978). Related
issues are discussed in P. Seed, 'The Church and the patriarchal family:
Marriage conflicts in sixteenth and seventeenth-century New Spain,'Jour-
nal of Family History 10 (1985), 28493; T. Calvo, La Nueva Galicia en los
siglos XVI y XVII (Guadalajara, 1989); C. Castaneda, Violacion, estupro y
sexualidad: Nueva Galicia 17901821 (Guadalajara, 1989); E. Malvido,
'El abandono de los hijos: Una forma de control del tamano de la familia y
del trabajo indigena: Tula (16831730)', HM, 116 (1980), 52161. A
general survey concerning Mexico is P. Perez Herrero, 'Estructura familiar
y evolution economica en Mexico (17001850): Antiguas y nuevas hipo-
teses de investigation', Boletin de la Asociacidn de Demografia Historica, 8
(1990), 76109. Late colonial families are discussed by S. M. Socolow,
The Merchants of Buenos Aires, 17781820: Family and Commerce (Cam-

bridge, Eng., 1978) and by Silvia M. Arrom, The Women of Mexico City,
17901857 (Stanford, Calif., 1985). Variations in fecundity are discussed
by Cook and Borah, Essays in Population history, vol. 2. Nicholas P. Cush-
ner, 'Slave mortality and reproduction on Jesuit haciendas in Colonial
Peru', HAHR, 55/2 (1975), 177-99, deals with one particular group, the
slaves, but has only a thin data base. On population and labour generally,
see N. Sanchez-Albornoz (ed.), Poblacidn y mano de obra en America Latina
(Madrid, 1985).
A sophisticated statistical elaboration of censuses and of vital records
has been undertaken experimentally by the group of demographers in
CELADE as mentioned earlier (C. Arretx et al., 1983). See also C. A.
Rabell, 'Evaluation del registro de defunciones infantiles: Una critica a los
registros parroquiales de San Luis Potosi, Mexico (17351799)', RMS, 38
(1976), 171-85, and C. A. Rabell and N. Necochea, 'La mortalidad
adulta en una parroquia rural novohispana durante el siglo XVIH', HM,
36(1987), 405-42.
Efforts to reduce mortality rates in the eighteenth century have been
analysed by Donald B. Cooper, Epidemic Disease in Mexico City, IJ6I
1813: An Administrative, Social and MedicalStudy (Austin, Tex., 1965). M.
M. Smith, 'The "Real expedition maritima de la vacuna" in New Spain
and Guatemala', Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 64
(1974), 174, traces the spread of vaccination of New Spain and in
Guatemala.
7. URBAN DEVELOPMENT
COLLECTIONS AND GUIDES
Proceedings of the nine Symposia on Latin American Urbanization from

Its Origins to Our Time held since 1966, originally at meetings of the
International Congress of Americanists, yield a broad view of contempo-
rary research on Latin American urban history. They include almost 200
papers from many disciplines, ranging from pre-Columbian times to the
present and from case studies to broad conceptual statements and biblio-
graphic reviews. About one-third deal with colonial Spanish America. The
published proceedings are: J. E. Hardoy and R. P. Schaedel (eds.), El
proceso de urbanization en America desde sus origenes hasta nuestros dias (Buenos
Aires, 1969); J. E. Hardoy, E. W. Palm and R. P. Schaedel (eds.), 'The

7. Urban development 67
process of urbanization in America since its origins to the present time' in

Verhandlungen des XXXVIII: Internationalen Amerikanistenkongresses, 4 (Stutt-
gart and Munich, 1972), 9318; R. P. Schaedel et al., Urbanizacion y
proceso social en America (Lima, 1972); J. E. Hardoy and R. P. Schaedel
(eds.), Las ciudades de America Latina y sus areas de influencia a traves de la
historia (Buenos Aires, 1975); J. E. Hardoy and R. P. Schaedel (eds.),
Asentamientos urbanos y organizacion socioproductiva en la historia de America
Latina (Buenos Aires, 1977); J. E. Hardoy, R. M. Morse and R. P.
Schaedel (eds.), Ensayos historico-sociales sobre la urbanizacion en America
Latina (Buenos Aires, 1978); W. Borah, J. Hardoy and G. A. Stelter
(eds.), Urbanization in the Americas: The Background in Comparative Perspec-
tive, special issue, Urban History Review (Ottawa, 1980); R. M. Morse and
J. E. Hardoy (eds.), Cultura urbana latinoamericana (Buenos Aires, 1985);
J. E. Hardoy and R. M. Morse (eds.), Nuevasperspectivas en los estudios sobre
historia urbana latinoamericana (Buenos Aires, 1989). English versions of
21 papers from the first four Symposia were published in R. P. Schaedel,
J. E. Hardoy and N. S. Kinzer (eds.), Urbanization in the Americas from Its
Beginnings to the Present (The Hague, 1978). Six papers from the Sixth
Symposium appeared in Comparative Urban Research, 8/1 (1980).
Other collections include: R. Altamira y Crevea et al., Contribuciones a
la historia municipal de America (Mexico, D.F., 1951); F. de Solano (ed.),
Estudios sobre la ciudadiberoamericana (Madrid, 1975); D. J. Robinson (ed.),
Social Fabric and Spatial Structure in Colonial Latin America (Ann Arbor,
Mich., 1979) and the documentary collections in F. Dominguez Com-
pany, La vida en las pequenas ciudades hispanoamericanas de la conquista,
14941549 (Madrid, 1978), Ordenanzas municipales hispanoamericanas (Ma-
drid and Caracas, 1982), and Politica depoblamiento de Espaha en America: La
fundacion de ciudades (Madrid, 1984).
The basic bibliography for urbanization is F. de Solano et al., El proceso
urbano iberoamericano desdesus origenes hasta los principios del siglo XIX: Estudio
bibliogrdfico (Madrid, 19734), listing over 1,800 items for the pre-
Columbian and colonial periods (also in Solano, Estudios, 727866). J. E.
Hardoy et al., Urbanizacion en America Latina: Una bibliografia sobre su histo-
ria, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1975 and 1977), also covers pre-Columbian
urbanization and the colonial period. For municipal sources, see A. Millares
Carlo, Los archivos municipales de Latinoamerica: Libros de actas y colecciones
documentales, apuntes bibliogrdficos (Maracaibo, 1961). Research reviews in-
clude: S. M. Socolow and L. L. Johnson, 'Urbanisation in colonial Latin
America', Journal of Urban History, 8/1 (1981), 27-59; W. Borah, 'Trends in

recent studies of colonial Latin American cities', HAHR, 64/3 (1984), 535
54; and F. Bronner, Urban society in colonial Spanish America: Research
trends', LARR, 21/1 (1986), 7-72.
BACKGROUNDS
The volumes by Solano et al., El proceso urbano, and Hardoy et al. (Ur-
banization) cover pre-Columbian research. J. E. Hardoy, Pre-Columbian
Cities (New York, 1973) is a good conspectus with extensive references.
For the Spanish background: E. A. Gutkind, International History of City
Development, vol. 3: Urban Development in Southern Europe: Spain and Portugal
(New York, 1967); A. Garcia y Bellido et al., Resumen histdrico del urban-
ismo en Espana, 2nd ed. (Madrid, 1968); L. Garcia de Valdeavellano, Sobre
los burgos y los burgueses de la Espana medieval (Madrid, i960); J. M. Font y
Rius, 'Les villes dans l'Espagne du Moyen Age' in Societe Jean Bodin, La
ville 1 (Brussels, 1954), 263-95; J. Vicens Vives, An Economic History of
Spain (Princeton, N.J., 1969), section on 'urban economy'; J. A. Mara-
vall, Las comunidades de Castilla, 2nd ed. (Madrid, 1970); A. Alvarez de
Morales, Las hermandades: expresion del movimiento comunero en Espana (Valla-
dolid, 1974); R. Ricard, 'La Plaza Mayor en Espagne et en Amerique
Espagnole', AESC, 2/4 (1947), 4 3 3 - 8 ; R. Pike, Aristocrats and Traders:
Sevillian Society in the Sixteenth Century (Ithaca, N.Y., 1972). Some of the
themes introduced in the first section of this chapter are expanded in R.
M. Morse, 'A prolegomenon to Latin American urban history', HAHR,
52/3 (1972), 359-94-
CARTOGRAPHY AND ICONOGRAPHY
J. E. Hardoy surveys published and manuscript sources in 'La cartografia

urbana en America Latina durante el periodo colonial: Un analisis de
fuentes', in Hardoy, Morse and Schaedel (eds.), Ensayos, 19-58. See also,
Diego Angulo Iniguez, Pianos de monumentos arquitectonicos de America y
Filipinas existentes en el Archivo de Indias, 3 vols. (Seville, 1933); F. Chueca
Goitia and L. Torres Balbas, Pianos de ciudades iberoamericanas y filipinas
existentes en el Archivo de Indias, 2 vols. (Madrid, 1951). Spain's Comision
de Estudios Historicos de Obras Publicas y Urbanismo presents a hand-
somely illustrated record in Puertos y fortificaciones en America y Filipinas
(Madrid, 1985).

j. Urban development 69
GENERAL STUDIES
If urban history is construed to include 'settlement patterns', if the central

role of towns in Spanish colonization is accepted and if urban centres are
viewed as linked to regional and transatlantic economies, then the sources
for urban history become almost coextensive with those for Spanish Ameri-
can history in general. The bibliographies cited above list some of this
material.
Two broad humanistic studies that stress the importance of colonial
origins are J. L. Romero, Latinoamerica: Las ciudades y las ideas (Buenos
Aires, 1976) and A. Rama, La ciudad letrada (Hanover, N . H . , 1984).
Various general issues are mapped out in R. M. Morse, 'Some characteris-
tics of Latin American urban history', AHR, 67/2 (1962), 317-38; G. A.
Kubler, 'Cities and culture in the colonial period in Latin America',
Diogenes, 47 (1964), 53-62; C. Sempat Assadourian, El sistema de la
economia colonial (Mexico, D.F., 1983); and J. K. Chance, 'The colonial
Latin American city: Preindustrial or capitalist', Urban Anthropology, 4/3
(1975), 21128. Louisa Schell Hoberman and Susan M. Socolow (eds.),
Cities and Society in Colonial Latin America (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1986),
focuses on social history. The urbanization process to 1630 can be followed
in J. M. Houston, 'The foundation of colonial towns in Hispanic Amer-
ica', in R. P. Beckinsale and J. M. Houston (eds.), Urbanization and Its
Problems (Oxford, 1968), 35290; and J. E. Hardoy and C. Aranovich,
'Urbanization en America Hispana entre 1580 y 1630', BCHIE, 11
(1969), 989. G. Cespedes del Castillo traces the LimaBuenos Aires
rivalry in Lima y Buenos Aires (Seville, 1947). K. Davis takes a comparative
hemispheric view in 'Colonial expansion and urban diffusion in the Ameri-
cas', InternationalJournal of Comparative Sociology, ill (i960), 4 3 - 6 6 , while
R. R. Reed shows how Spain's New World experience influenced urbaniza-
tion in the Philippines in Colonial Manila: The Context of Hispanic Urbanism
and Process of Morphogenesis (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1978).
C. Bayle gives an informed survey of municipal life and institutions in
Los cabildos seculares en la America Espanola (Madrid, 1952), as does F.
Dominguez Company in Estudios sobre las instituciones locales hispano-
americanas (Caracas, 1981). M. G6ngora examines the legal context of
municipal government in El estado en el derecho indiano (Santiago, Chile,
1951) and, more succinctly, in Studies in the Colonial History of Spanish
America (Cambridge, Eng., 1975), 98-119. J. M. Ots Capdequf, Espana
en America: El regimen de tierras en la epoca colonial (Mexico, D.F., 1959)

shows the importance of the municipality in controlling land distribu-

tion. For cabildos, see also A. Muro Orejon, 'El ayuntamiento de Sevilla:
Modelo de los municipios americanos', Anales de la Universidad Hispalense,
21/1 (i960), 6 9 - 8 5 , and F. X. Tapia, El cabildo abierto colonial (Madrid,
1966).
W. Borah reviews the voluminous literature bearing on the accommoda-
tion of Indians to urban life under Spain in 'Aspectos demograficos y
fisicos de la transici6n del mundo aborigen al mundo colonial', in Hardoy,
Morse and Schaedel (eds.), Ensayos, 59-89. See also, C. Bayle, 'Cabildos
de indios en America Espafiola', Missionalia Hispanica, 8/22 (1951), 5-35;
M . Morner, La corona espafiola y los fordneos en los pueblos de indios de America
(Stockholm, 1970); F. de Solano, 'Urbanizacion y municipalizacion de la
poblacion indfgena', in Solano (ed.), Estudios, 24168.
W. Borah also assesses the often controversial literature on Spanish
American urban design in 'European cultural influence in the formation of
the first plan for urban centers that has lasted to our time', in Schaedel et
al., Urbanizacion, 157-90. See also G. M. Foster's chapter, 'Cities, towns,
and villages: The grid-plan puzzle', in his Culture and Conquest (Chicago,
i960), 3449; G. Guarda, Santo Tomds de Aquino y las fuentes del urbanismo
indiano (Santiago, Chile, 1965); E. W. Palm, 'La ville espagnole au nou-
veau monde dans la premiere moitie du XVIC siecle', La decouverte de
I'Amerique, 10' Stage International d'Etudes Humanistes (Paris, 1968); L.
Benevolo, 'Las nuevas ciudades fundadas en el siglo XVI en America La-
tina', BCIHE, 9 (1969), 11736; L. M. Zawiska, 'Fundaci6n de las
ciudades hispanoamericanas', BCIHE, 13 (1972), 88-128; D. P. Crouch,
D. J. Carr and A. I. Mundigo, Spanish City Planning in North America
(Cambridge, Mass., 1982), which analyzes the city-planning ordinances of
the Laws of the Indies; G. Kubler, 'Open-grid town plans in Europe and
America', in Schaedel, Hardoy and Kinzer (eds.), Urbanization, 32742.
For other topics see F. Dominguez Company, 'Actas de fundacion de
ciudades hispanoamericanas', RHA, 83 (1977), 1951; R. Archila, 'La
medicina y la higiene en la ciudad' in Solano, Estudios, 65585; F. de
Solano, 'An introduction to the study of provisioning in the colonial city'
and G. Gasparini, 'The colonial city as a center for the spread of architec-
tural and pictorial schools', both in Schaedel, Hardoy and Kinzer (eds.),
Urbanization, 9 9 - 1 2 9 and 2 6 9 - 8 1 . F. W. Knight and P. K. Liss (eds.),
Atlantic Port Cities: Economy, Culture and Society in the Atlantic World, 1650-
1850 (Knoxville, Tenn., 1991), includes chapters on Havana, Vera Cruz,
Cartagena and Buenos Aires.

REGIONAL STUDIES
Antilles
C. O. Sauer presents a coherent account, with good maps, of Spanish
town-founding in the Antilles and Tierra Firme to 1519 in The Early
Spanish Main (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1966). J. M. F. de Arrate y
Acosta, Have del Nuevo Mundo (Mexico, D.F., 1949) is a descriptive and
historical account of Havana by a town councillor, written in the 1750s
and first published in 1830. E. W. Palm, Los monumentos arquitectonicos de
la Espaiiola, con una introduccion a America, 2 vols. (Ciudad Trujillo, 1955)
is near-definitive for the topic and deals broadly with the origins of New
World urbanization. See also J. Perez de Tudela, 'La quiebra de la factorfa
y el nuevo poblamiento de la Espaiiola', Revista de Indias, 60 (1955), 197
252; J. Artiles, La Habana de Velazquez (Havana, 1946); I. A. Wright,
Historia documentada de San Cristobal de la Habana en el siglo XVI, 2 vols.
(Havana, 1927), Historia documentada de San Cristobal de la Habana en la
primera mitad del siglo XVII (Havana, 1930), and Santiago de Cuba and Its
District (1607-1640) (Madrid, 1918); F. Moya Pons, Historia colonial de
Santo Domingo, 3rd ed. (Santiago, D.R., 1977); C. Dobal, Santiago en los
albores del siglo XVI: El solar dejacagua (Santiago, D.R., 1985); Adolfo de
Hostos, Ciudad murada, ensayo acerca del proceso de la civilizacion en la ciudad
espaiiola de San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico (Havana, 1948); A. Sepulveda
Rivera, San Juan: Historia ilustrada de su desarrollo urbano, 1508-1898 (San
Juan, P.R., 1989); M. A. Castro de Davila, 'The place of San Juan de
Puerto Rico among Hispanic American cities', Revista Interamericana, 6/2
(1976), 156-73.
Mesoamerica
C. Gibson treats the reorientation of pre-Columbian cities and settlement

patterns under Spanish rule in Mexico in Tlaxcala in the Sixteenth Century
(New Haven, Conn., 1952), The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule (Stanford,
Calif., 1964), especially the chapters 'Towns' and 'The city', and 'Spanish-
Indian institutions and colonial urbanism in New Spain', in Hardoy and
Schaedel (eds.), El proceso, 22539. This theme also features in studies of
Mexico's three main regions in I. Altman and J. Lockhart (eds.), Provinces
of Early Mexico (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976). On continuities and
transformations of Nahua political structures into the urban environments

of the colonial era, see also Robert S. Haskett, 'Indian town government
in colonial Cuernavaca: Persistence, adaptation and change', HAHR, 67/2
(1987), 2 0 3 - 3 1 , and Susan Kellogg, 'Aztec inheritance in sixteenth-
century Mexico City: Colonial patterns, prehispanic influences', Ethno-
history, 33/3 (1986), 313-30. Sidney David Markman, 'Extincion, fosiliza-
cion y transformacion de los 'pueblos de indios' del Reino de Guatemala',
Mesoamerica, 8/14 (1987), 40727, provides an historical overview of
Indian towns in colonial Central America. A careful examination and
application of a major early census is Herbert R. Harvey, 'Household and
family structure in colonial Tepetlaoztoc: An analysis of the Codice Santa
Maria Asuncion', Estudios de Cultura Ndhuatl, 18 (1986), 275-94. A.
Moreno Toscano and E. Florescano, 'El sector externo y la organization
espacial y regional de Mexico (1521-1910)', in J. W. Wilkie, M. C.
Meyer and E. Monzon de Wilkie (eds.), Contemporary Mexico (Berkeley and
Los Angeles, 1976), 62-96, relates changing urban systems to economics,
public policy and transportation. G. Kubler, Mexican Architecture of the
Sixteenth Century, 2 vols. (New Haven, Conn., 1948) has much to say on
demography and urban form. Also highly recommended is Sidney David
Markman, Architecture and Urbanization in Colonial Chiapas, Mexico (Phila-
delphia, 1984). M. Gimenez Fernandez, Herndn Cortes y su revolucion com-
munera (Seville, 1948) shows Cortes's strategic use of municipal organiza-
tion. P. W. Powell studies the special challenge of urban settlement on the
Chichimeca frontier in Soldiers, Indians, and Silver: The Northward Advance
of Spain, 15501600 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1952). Central American
urbanization is treated in M. J. MacLeod, Spanish Central America: A
Socioeconomic History 1520-1720 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1973) and,
more explicitly, by S. D. Markman, Colonial Architecture of Antigua Guate-
mala (Philadelphia, 1966), and several of his papers for the Symposia on
Latin American urbanization, cited above. On the borderlands, see Gil-
bert R. Cruz, Let There Be Towns: Spanish Municipal Origins in the American
Southwest, 1610-1810 (College Station, Tex., 1989).
On Mexico City, see M. Toussaint, F. G6mez de Orozco and J. Fernan-
dez, Pianos de la ciudadde Mexico, siglos XVI y XVII (Mexico, D.F., 1938);
E. W. Palm, 'Tenochtitlan y la ciudad ideal de Durero', Journal de la Societe
des Americanistes, N . S . 40 (1951), 59-66; S. B. Schwartz, 'Cities of em-
pire: Mexico and Bahia in the sixteenth century', JIAS 11/4 (1969), 6 1 6 -
37; E. Poulain, Vie economique et sociale a Mexico d'apres les 'Adas del cabildo
de la ciudad de Mexico', 1594-1616 (Caen, 1966); R. E. Boyer, La gran
inundacion: Vida y sociedad en la ciudad de Mexico (16291638) (Mexico,

D.F., 1975); L. S. Hoberman, 'Merchants in seventeenth-century Mexico

City: A preliminary portrait', HAHR, 57/3 (1977), 479503; R- Feij6o,
'El tumulto de 1624' and 'El tumulto de 1692', HM, 14/1 (1964), 4270
and 14/4 (1965), 65679; M. Alvarado Morales, 'El cabildo y regimiento
de la ciudad de Mexico en el siglo XVII: Un ejemplo de oligarquia criolla',
HM, 28 (1979), 489514; G. Porras Munoz, El gobierno de la ciudad de
Mexico en el siglo XVI (Mexico, D.F., 1982).
On other towns and cities, see J. MacAndrew, The Open-air Churches of
Sixteenth-Century Mexico (Cambridge, Mass., 1965); F. Chevalier, 'Signifi-
cation sociale de la fondation de Puebla de los Angeles', RHA, 23 (1947),
105-30; J. Hirschberg, 'La fundacion de Puebla de los Angeles: Mito e
realidad', HM, 28/2 (1978), 185-223; F. Marfn-Tamayo, La division
racial en Puebla de los Angeles bajo el regimen colonial (Puebla, i960); J.
Bazant, 'Evolution of the textile industry of Puebla, 1544-1845', CSSH,
7/1 (1964), 5669; M. Carmagnani, 'Demograffa y sociedad: La estrutura
social de los centros mineros del none de Mexico', HM, 21 (1970-1),
41959; P. J. Bakewell, Silver Mining and Society in Colonial Mexico:
Zacatecas 1546IJOO (Cambridge, Eng., 1971); J. K. Chance, Race and
Class in Colonial Oaxaca (Stanford, Calif., 1978); E. Chinchilla Aguilar, El
ayuntamiento colonial de la ciudad de Guatemala (Guatemala, 1961); C. Lutz,
Historia sociodemogrdfica de Santiago de Guatemala, 15411773 (Antigua,
1982); S. Webre, "Water and Society in a SpanishAmerican City: Santi-
ago de Guatemala, 1555-1773', HAHR, 70/1 (1990), 57-84.
Northern South America

J. A. and J. E. Villamarin trace the reworking of native settlement patterns
on the sabana of Bogota in 'Chibcha settlement under Spanish rule: 1537-
1810' in Robinson (ed.), Social Fabric, 25-84. Other regional studies
include: A. Castillero, Politicas depoblamiento en Castilla del Oro y Veragua en
los origenes de la colonization (Panama, 1972); C. Martinez, Apuntes sobre el
urbanismo en el Nuevo Reino de Granada (Bogota, 1967); Damian Ramirez
Gomez, Descubrimiento, fundacion, historia de Departamento de Antioquia
(Medellin, 1984); G. Gasparini, 'Formation de ciudades coloniales en
Venezuela, siglo xvi', BCIHE, 10 (1968), 9 - 4 3 ; A. Perera, Historia de la
organization de pueblos antiguos en Venezuela, 3 vols. (Madrid, 1964). On one
founder's exploits, see Diego Garces Giraldo, Sebastian de Belalcdzar,
fundador de ciudades, 14901551: Estudio biogrdfico (Cali, 1986). Jose Igna-
cio Avellaneda, 'The men of Nikolaus Federmann: Conquerors of the New

Kingdom of Granada', TA, 43/4 (1987), 385-94, is a prosopographic

study of the 106 men who co-founded Bogota.
On particular towns and cities, see C. Verlinden, 'Santa Maria la
Antigua del Darien, premiere "ville" coloniale de la Tierra Firme amer-
icaine', RHA, 45 (1958), 1-48; A. Rubio, Esquema para un andlisis de
geografia urbana de la primitiva ciudad de Panama, Panama la Vieja, 1519
I6JI (Panama, 1947); G. Gasparini, Caracas colonial (Buenos Aires,
1969); P. M. Arcaya, El cabildo de Caracas (Caracas, 1965); J. V. Lom-
bardi, 'The rise of Caracas as a primate city' in Robinson (ed.), Social
Fabric, ^^-/2; S. Blank, 'Patrons, clients, and kin in seventeenth-
century Caracas', HAHR, 54/2 (1974), 26083; E. Marco Dorta, Cart-
agena de Indias: Puerto y plaza fuerte (Madrid, i960); G. Arboleda, Historia
de Cali, 2nd ed., 3 vols. (Cali, 1956); G. Colmenares, Cali: Terratenientes,
mineros y comerciantes (Bogota, 1980); V. Cortes Alonso, Tunja y sus
vecinos', Revista de Indias, 25/99100(1965), 155207; P. Marzahl, Town
in the Empire: Government, Politics, and Society in Seventeenth Century Popaydn
(Austin, Tex., 1978); Nestor Madrid-Malo, Barranquilla, el alba de una
ciudad (Bogota, 1986); Virgilio Tosta, Historia de Barinas, Vol. I: 1.577
1800 (Caracas, 1986).
South America: West Coast and Andes

J. Basadre made a classic analysis of changing settlement patterns and
their political implications from Incan to modern times in La multitud, la
ciudad y el campo en la historia del Peru (Lima, 1929). A provocative new
study on the consolidation of architectural forms in the church-building
and town foundation of early colonial Peru is Valerie Fraser, The Architec-
ture of Conquest: Building in the Viceroyalty of Peru, 1535-1635 (Cambridge,
Eng., 1990). G. Lohmann Villena studies the corregidor's key role in El
corregidor de indios en el Peru bajo los Austrias (Madrid, 1957). Newer scholar-
ship offers further clues in J. V. Murra, Formaciones economicas y politicas del
mundo andino (Lima, 1975), especially the chapter entitled 'El control
vertical de un maximo de pisos ecol6gicos en la economia de las sociedades
andinas'; N. Wachtel, Sociedad e ideologia (Lima, 1973); K. Spalding, De
indio a campesino (Lima, 1974); M. A. Duran Montero, Fundacion de
ciudades en el Peru durante el siglo XVI: Estudio urbanistico (Seville, 1979);
Keith A. Davies, Landowners in Colonial Peru (Austin, Tex., 1984), deal-
ing with Arequipa and its region. T. Gisbert treats pre-Columbian and
colonial settlement patterns in her well-illustrated Historia de la vivienda y

los asentamientos humanos en Bolivia (Mexico, D.F., 1988). Administrative

studies include J. P. Moore, The Cabildo in Peru under the Hapsburgs (Dur-
ham, N.C., 1954) and J. Alemparte, El cabildo en Chile colonial, 2nd ed.
(Santiago, Chile, 1966). G. Guarda stresses military determinants for
Chile in Influencia militar en las ciudades del Reino de Chile (Santiago, Chile,
1967); M. Carmagnani features economic factors in 'Formacion de un
mercado compulsivo y el papel de los mercaderes: La region de Santiago de
Chile (15591600)', JGSWGL, 12 (1975), 10433, a n d La mecanismes de
la vie economique dans une societe coloniale: Le Chile, 15801830 (Paris,
1973); and M. Gongora treats social structure in 'Urban social stratifica-
tion in colonial Chile', HAHR, 55/3 (1975), 4 2 1 - 4 8 .
On particular cities, see J. C. Super, 'Partnership and profit in the early
Andean trade: The experiences of Quito merchants, 1580-1610', JLAS,
11/2 (1979), 2 6 5 - 8 1 ; M. L. Conniff, 'Guayaquil through independence:
Urban development in a colonial system', TA, 33/3 (1977), 385-410; J.
Bromley and J. Barbagelata, Evolucion urbana de la ciudad de Lima (Lima,
1945); M. Colin, Le Cuzco a la fin du XVII' et au dibut du XVIII' siecle
(Paris, 1966); G. Lohmann Villena's excellent edition of the corregidor
Miguel Feij6o de Sosa's Relacion descriptiva de la ciudad'y provincia de Truxillo
del Peru, 2 vols. (1763; Lima, 1984); B. Arzans de Orsiia y Vela, Historia
de la Villa Imperial de Potosi, 3 vols. (Providence, R.I., 1965); L. Hanke,
The Imperial City of Potosi (The Hague, 1956); A. Crespo R., Historia de la
ciudad de La Paz, siglo XVII (Lima, 1961); J. M. Barnadas, Charcas, 1535
1565: Origenes historicos de una sociedad colonial (La Paz, 1973); M. Beltran
Avila, Capitulos de la historia colonial de Oruro (La Paz, 1925); J. Urquidi
Zambrano, La urbanizacion de la ciudad de Cochabamba (Cochabamba,
1967); R. Martinez Lemoine, 'Desarrollo urbano de Santiago (1541
1941)', Revista Paraguaya de Sociologia, 15/423 (1978), 5790; A. de
Ramon, La ciudad de Santiago entre 1650 y ijoo (Santiago, Chile, 1975).
The Rio de la Plata Region

J. E. Hardoy and L. A. Romero provide a synthesis of Argentine urban
history and a critique of sources in 'La ciudad argentina en el periodo
precensal (15161869)', Revista de la Sociedad Interamericana de Planifica-
cidn, 5/17 (1971), 1639. J- Comadran Ruiz supplies demographic con-
text in Evolucion demogrdfica argentina en el periodo hispano (15351810)
(Buenos Aires, 1969). A classic study of colonial Buenos Aires, first
published in 1900 and influenced by Le Play's sociology, is J. A. Garcia,

76 U Colonial Spanish America
La ciudadIndiana, in his Obras completas, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1955), vol.

1, 2 8 3 - 4 7 5 . See also A. Razori, Historia de la ciudad argentina, 3 vols.
(Buenos Aires, 1945); R. Levillier, Descubrimiento y poblacion del norte de
Argentina por espanoles del Peru (Buenos Aires, 1943); R. Zorraquin Becu,
'Los cabildos argentinos', Revista de la Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Sociales,
11/47 (1956), 95-156; R. Zabala and E. de Gandia, Historia de la ciudad
de Buenos Aires, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1936-7); N. Besio Moreno, Buenos
Aires, puerto del Rio de la Plata: Estudio critico de su poblacion 1536-1936
(Buenos Aires, 1939); J. Comadran Ruiz, 'Nacimiento y desarrollo de los
nucleos urbanos y del poblamiento de la campana del pais de Cuyo durante
la epoca hispana (1551-1810)', Anuario de Estudios Americanos, 19 (1952),
145-246; J. Alvarez, Historia de Rosario {1689-1939) (Buenos Aires,
1943); L. E. Azarola Gil, Los origenes de Montevideo, 1607-1749 (Buenos
Aires, 1933); F. R. Moreno, La ciudad de Asuncion (Buenos Aires, 1926);
R. Gutierrez, 'Estructura urbana de las misiones jesuiticas del Paraguay',
in Hardoy and Schaedel (eds.), Asentamientos, 129-53, a n d Alfredo Viola,
Origen de algunos pueblos del Paraguay (Asunci6n, 1986).
LATE COLONIAL PERIOD
In general, two concise syntheses are W. Borah, 'Latin American cities in

the eighteenth century: A sketch', in Borah, Hardoy and Stelter (eds.),
Urbanization, 7 - 1 4 , and D. A. Brading, 'The city in Bourbon Spanish
America: Elite and masses', Comparative Urban Research, 8/1 (1980), 7 1 -
85. Surveys and statistics for Latin America and for eight countries from
1750 to 1920 are found in R. M. Morse, Las ciudades latinoamericanas, 2
vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1973), vol. 2; urban statistics are also given in
Borah's paper just cited and in R. E. Boyer and K. A. Davies, Urbaniza-
tion in 19th-century Latin America: Statistics and Sources (Los Angeles,
1973). E. M. Lahmeyer Lobo studies urban merchant guilds in Aspectos da
atuacdo dos consulados de Sevilha, Cadiz e da America Hispanica na evoluqao
economica do seculo xviii (Rio de Janeiro, 1965). C. Esteva Fabregat quanti-
fies urban and rural racial composition in 'Poblacion y mestizaje en las
ciudades de Iberoamerica: Siglo XVIII', in Solano (ed.), Estudios, 551-604.
For the Antilles and Mexico, see M. Nunes Dias, 0 comercio livre entre
Havana e os portos de Espanha (1778-1789), 2 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1965); A.
R. Caro de Delgado, El cabildo 0 regimen municipal puertorriqueno en el siglo
XVIII (San Juan, P.R., 1965); Jean Saint-Vil, 'Villes et bourgs de Saint

Domingue au xvin"11' siecle', Conjonction, 138 (1978), 532; A. Moreno

Toscano, 'Regional economy and urbanization: Three examples of the
relationship between cities and regions in New Spain at the end of the
eighteenth century', in Schaedel, Hardoy and Kinzer (eds.), Urbanization,
399424; D. A. Brading, Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico 1763
1810 (Cambridge, Eng., 1971); F. de la Maza, La ciudad de Mexico en el
siglo XVIII (Mexico, D.F., 1968); J. E. Kicza, Colonial Entrepreneurs: Fami-
lies and Business in Bourbon Mexico City (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1983); M.
D. Morales, 'Estructura urbana y distribution de la propiedad en la
Ciudad de Mexico en 1813', HM, 25 (1976), 363-402; E. Baez Macias,
'Pianos y censos de la ciudad de Mexico 1753', Boletin del Archivo General
de la Nacidn 7/1-2 (1966), 407-84; A. Moreno Toscano and J. Gonzalez
Angulo, 'Cambios en la estructura interna de la ciudad de Mexico (1753
1882)', in Hardoy and Schaedel (eds.), Asentamientos, 17195; D. B.
Cooper, Epidemic Disease in Mexico City 17611813 (Austin, Tex., 1965);
R. Liehr, Ayuntamiento y oligarquia en Puebla, 17871810, 2 vols. (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1971); L. L. Greenow, 'Spatial dimensions of the credit market
in eighteenth-century Nueva Galicia', in Robinson (ed.), Social Fabric,
22779; E. Van Young, 'Urban market and hinterland: Guadalajara and
its region in the eighteenth century', HAHR, 59/4 (1979), 593635; R.
D. Anderson, 'Race and social stratification: A comparison of working-
class Spaniards, Indians, and Castas in Guadalajara, Mexico in 1821',
HAHR, 68/2 (1988), 209-43; D. E. Lopez Sarrelangue, Una villa mexi-
cana en el siglo XVIII (Mexico, D.F., 1966); M. L. Moorhead, The Presidio
(Norman, Okla., 1975).
For South America, see A. Twinam, 'Enterprise and elites: Eighteenth-
century Medellin', HAHR, 59/3 (1979), 444-75; A. McFarlane, 'The
'Rebellion of the Barrios': Urban insurrection in Bourbon Quito', HAHR,
69/2 (1989), 283-330; J. P. Moore, The cabildo in Peru under the Bourbons
(Durham, N.C., 1966); V. A. Barriga (ed.), Memorias para la historia de
Arequipa, 17861796, 3 vols. (Arequipa, 1941-8); A. Moreno Cebrian
'Cuarteles, barrios y calles de Lima a fines del siglo XVIII', JGSWGL, 18
(1981), 9 7 - 1 6 1 ; L. Durand Florez, Criollos en conflicto: Cuzco despues de
Tupac Amaru (Lima, 1985); J. de Mesa and T. Gisbert, 'La Paz en el siglo
XVIII", BCIHE, 20 (1975), 2 2 - 9 2 ; Enrique Tandeter, 'Trabajo forzado y
trabajo libre en el Potosi colonial tardio,' Estudios CEDES, 3/6 (1980); G.
Guarda, La ciudad chilena del siglo XVIII (Buenos Aires, 1968); Santiago
Lorenzo, Origen de las ciudades chilenas: Las fundaciones del siglo XVIII (Santi-

ago, Chile, 1983); G. Guarda, Conjuntos urbanos historico-arquitectonicos de

Valdivia, siglos xviii-xix (Santiago, Chile, 1980); G. O. Tjarks, El con-
sulado de Buenos Aires y susproyecciones en la historia del Rio de la Plata, 2 vols.
(Buenos Aires, 1962); J. L. Moreno, 'La estructura social y demografica de
la ciudad de Buenos Aires en el afio de 1778', Anuario del Instituto de Investi-
gaciones Historicas (Universidad Nacional del Litoral) 8 (1965), 15170; S.
M. Socolow, The Merchants of Buenos Aires, IJJ8-I8IO (Cambridge, Eng.,
1978) and The Bureaucrats of Buenos Aires, IJ69-1810 (Durham, N.C.,
1988); L. L. Johnson and S. M. Socolow, 'Population and space in eigh-
teenth century Buenos Aires', in Robinson (ed.), Social Fabric, 33968; F.
J. Cervera and M. Gallardo, 'Santa Fe, 17651830: Historia y demo-
grafia', Anuario del Instituto de Investigaciones Historicas, 9 (19667), 39
66; P. S. Martinez Constanzo, Historia economica de Mendoza durante el
virreinato, IJJ6I8IO (Madrid, 1961); D. J. Robinson and T. Thomas,
'New towns in eighteenth century Argentina', JLAS, 6/1 (1974), 1-33;
R. Gutierrez, Estructura socio-politica, sistemaproductivo y resultante espacial en
las misiones jesuiticas del Paraguay durante el siglo XVIII (Resistencia, 1974);
three articles in Revista Paraguaya de Sociologia, 15/42-3 (1978): R. E.
Velazquez, 'Poblamiento del Paraguay en el siglo XVIII' (175-89), M.
Lombardi, 'El proceso de urbanization en el Uruguay en los siglos XVIII y
xix' (945), and J. Rial, A. M. Cocchi and J. Klaczko, 'Proceso de
asentamientos urbanos en el Uruguay: Siglos XVIII y Xix' (91-114).
Much information on late colonial urban conditions in northern South
America and Mexico is found in: F. Depons, Voyage a lapartie orientale de la
Terre-firme dans I'Amerique Meridionale(i8oi-1804), 3 vols. (Paris, 1806),
A. von Humboldt and A. Bonpland, Personal Narrative of Travels to the
Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent during the Years 1799-1804, 7 vols.
(London, 181429), and Humboldt's Political Essay on the Kingdom of New
Spain, 4 vols. (London, 1811).
8. MINING
No good general book on colonial Spanish American mining yet exists.

Carlos Prieto's Mining in the New World (New York, 1973) is slight.
Perceptive observations abound, however, in D. A. Brading and Harry E.
Cross, 'Colonial silver mining: Mexico and Peru', HAHR, 52/4 (1972),
54579, and in Alvaro Jara, Tres ensayos sobre economia minera hispano-
americana (Santiago, Chile, 1966). For silver production over the entire

8. Mining 79
colonial period, see Richard L. Garner, 'Long-term silver mining trends in

Spanish America: A comparative analysis of Peru and Mexico', AHR, 93/4
(1988), 898935. Adam Szaszdi, 'Preliminary estimates of gold and silver
production in America, 1501 1610', in Hermann Kellenbenz, Precious
Metals in the Age of Expansion (Stuttgart, 1981), gives more detailed esti-
mates for the first century. Modesto Bargallo, La mineria y la metalurgia en
la America espanola durante la epoca colonial (Mexico, D.F., 1955) concen-
trates on technical aspects of mining and refining, on which it is still the
best study available. For the Spanish background to colonial mining, see
Julio Sanchez Gomez's impressively thorough De mineria, metalurgica y
comercio de metales: La mineria noferrica en el Reino de Castilla, 14501610, 2
vols. (Salamanca, 1989).
The fundamental bibliography is Eugenio Maffei and Ram6n Riia
Figueroa, Apuntes para una biblioteca espanola de libros, folletos y articulos,
impresos y manuscritos, relativos al conocimiento y explotacidn de las riquezas
minerales y a las ciencias auxiliares, 2 vols. (Madrid, 1871), reprinted in VI
Congreso Internacional de Mineria, vols. 2 and 3 (Leon, 1970). This is
supplemented by Justo Garcia Morales, Apuntes para una bibliografia minera
espanola e iberoamericana (18701969), VI Congreso Internacional de
Mineria, vol. 4 (Le6n, 1970). A valuable recent updating is Frederique
Langue, 'Bibliografia minera colonial', Suplemento de Anuario de Estudios
Americanos, 45/1 (Seville, 1988), 137-62.
Only one significant collection of colonial documents specifically on
mining exists: Modesto Bargallo, La amalgamacion de los minerales de plata
en Hispanoamerica colonial (Mexico, D.F., 1969). Various colonial treatises
and histories on, or dealing with, mining are available. Among these are,
for New Spain: Francisco Xavier de Gamboa, Comentarios a las Ordenanzas
de Minos (Madrid, 1761), translated as Commentaries on the Mining Ordi-
nances of Spain, 2 vols. (London, 1830), good on technical as well as legal
questions; Fausto de Elhiiyar, Memoria sobre el influjo de la mineria en . . . la
Nueva Espana (Madrid, 1825) and Indagaciones sobre la amonedacidn en la
Nueva Espana (Madrid, 1816); Jose Garces y Eguia, Nueva tedrica y prdctica
del beneficio de los metales (Mexico, D.F., 1802, reprinted 1977); Alexander
von Humboldt, Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain, 4 vols. (Lon-
don, 181122), translated into Spanish as Ensayo politico sobre el Reino de la
Nueva Espana (Mexico D.F., 1966). For South America, see Luis Capoche,
Relacion general de la Villa Imperial de Potosi (Madrid, 1959), which is
fundamental for Potosi up to c. 1585; also for Potosi, see Garcia de Llanos,
Diccionario y maneras de hablar que se usan en las minas y sus labores, en los

8o //. Colonial Spanish America
ingenios y beneficios de los metales (1609) (La Paz, 1983); Alvaro Alonso
Barba, Arte de metales (Madrid, 1640; Eng. trans. London, 1923), a re-
markable seventeenth-century refining treatise by a priest of Charcas;
Bartolome Arzans de Orsiia y Vela (1676-1738), Historia de la Villa
Imperial de Potosi, 3 vols. (Providence, R.I., 1965); Pedro Vicente Cafiete y
Domfnguez, Guia historica, fisica, politica, civil y legal del Gobierno e In-
tendencia de la Provincia de Potosi (1787; Potosi, 1952). Also important is
Georgius Agricola, De re metallica (Basle, 1556; Eng. trans. London,
1912, repr. New York, 1950), an influential work in Spanish America.
Of all regions of Spanish America, New Spain has most attracted the
attention of modern mining historians. Henry R. Wagner, 'Early silver
mining in New Spain', RHA, 14 (1942), 4 9 - 7 1 , studies the early decades.
The beginnings of amalgamation are traced in Alan Probert, 'Bartolome de
Medina: The patio process and the sixteenth-century silver crisis', Journal of
the West, 8 (1969), 90-124. Several individual districts have been exam-
ined, in: Robert C. West, The Mining Community of Northern New Spain: The
Parral Mining District (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1949); Oscar Alatriste,
Desarrollo de la industria y la comunidad minera de Hidalgo del Parral durante la
segunda mitad del siglo XVIII (1765-1810) (Mexico D.F., 1983); P. J.
Bakewell, Silver Mining and Society in Colonial Mexico: Zacatecas 1546ijoo
(Cambridge, Eng., 1971); Philip L. Hadley, Mineria y sociedaden el centro
minero de Santa Eulalia, Chihuahua (1709-1750) (Mexico, D.F., 1975); D.
A. Brading, Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 17631810 (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1971), which deals particularly with Guanajuato but also
embraces other centres and multifarious topics related to mining. John H.
Coatsworth surveys silver production with an economist's eye in 'The Mexi-
can mining industry in the eighteenth century', in Nils Jacobsen and Hans-
Jiirgen Puhle (eds.), The Economies of Mexico and Peru During the Late Colonial
Period, 17601810 (Berlin, 1986), 2645. Doris M. Ladd presents innova-
tive labour history in The Making of a Strike: Mexican Silver Workers in Real del
Monte, 17661775 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1988); and ElinoreM. Barrett makes a
welcome break with silver in The Mexican Colonial Copper Industry (Albuquer-
que, N.Mex., 1987). Walter Howe, The Mining Guild of New Spain and Its
Tribunal General, 17701810 (Cambridge, Mass., 1949), is thorough.
Humboldt's Political Essay is indispensable still for the eighteenth century.
See also Miguel Leon-Portilla et al., La mineria en Mexico (Mexico, D.F.,
1978).
Central American mining is treated by Murdo J. MacLeod in Spanish
Central America: A Socioeconomic History, 15201720 (Berkeley and Los

8. Mining 81
Angeles, 1973); and by Linda A. Newson in The Cost of Conquest: Indian

Decline in Honduras under Spanish Rule (Boulder, Colo., 1986), and Indian
Survival in Colonial Nicaragua (Norman, Okla., 1987). For New Granada,
see especially Robert C. West, Colonial Placer Mining in Colombia (Baton
Rouge, La., 1952); German Colmenares, Historia economica y social de
Colombia, 15371719 (Medellin, 1976), and Cali: Terratenientes, mineros y
comerciantes, siglo XVIII (Cali, 1975); William F. Sharp, Slavery on the
Spanish Frontier: The Colombian Choco, 16801810 (Norman, Okla.,
1976); and Ann Twinam, Miners, Merchants and Farmers in Colonial Colom-
bia (Austin, Tex., 1982). On Quito little is to be had, but Aquiles R.
Perez, Las mitas en la Real Audiencia de Quito (Quito, 1947) has information
on mining as well as labour. See also Alfonso Anda Aguirre, Zaruma en la
colonia (Quito, i960).
The most thorough work for silver mining in Peru (within its present
boundaries) is John R. Fisher, Silver Mines and Silver Miners in Colonial
Peru, 1776-1824 (Liverpool, 1977). Theoretical questions and approaches
are laid out in Carlos Sempat Assadourian et al., Miner/a y espacio economico
en los Andes, siglos XVIXX (Lima, 1980). Miguel Molina Martinez, El
Real Tribunal de Mineria de Lima (.1785-1821) (Seville, 1986), deals
mainly with the administration of late colonial mining in Peru, but also
brings in operational aspects of silver production.
Potosi has attracted much attention in recent years, though a compre-
hensive work drawing together the many threads that have been followed
by researchers is still lacking. Josep Maria Barnadas, Charcas, 1535-1565:
Origenes historicos de una sociedad colonial (La Paz, 1973), is informative on
early mining both in Charcas generally and in Potosi in particular. The
introduction by Lewis Hanke and Gunnar Mendoza L. to Arzans's Historia
is the closest approach yet made to a general history of the town. An older
general treatment now available in Spanish translation is Gwendolin B.
Cobb, Potosiy Huancavelica: Bases econdmicas del Peru, 1545-1640 (La Paz,
1977). Indian mine labour is the subject of Jeffrey A. Cole, The Potosi
Mita, 1573-1700: Compulsory Indian Labor in the Andes (Stanford, Calif.,
1985); Peter Bakewell, Miners of the Red Mountain: Indian Labor in Potosi,
1
545-1650 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1984); Jorge Basadre, 'El regimen de
la mita', Letras (Lima, 1937), 32563; and various works by Enrique
Tandeter, among them 'Forced and free labour in late colonial Potosi', Past
and Present, 93 (November 1981), 98-136, and 'La produccidn como
actividad popular: "Ladrones de minas" en Potosi', Nova Americana, 4
(1981), 4 3 - 6 5 . Questions of production, technology and capital are to

some extent treated in Gaston Arduz Eguia, Ensayos sobre la historia de la

mineria altoperuana (Madrid, 1985) and in Peter Bakewell, Silver and Entre-
preneur ship in Seventeenth-Century Potosi: The Life and Times of Antonio Lopez de
Quiroga (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1988). For late colonial Potosi, see Rose
Marie Buechler, The Mining Society of Potosi, IJJ6-I8IO (Ann Arbor,
Mich., 1981).
For Chile, Ernesto Greve, 'Historia de la amalgamacion de la plata',
Revista Chilena de Historia y Geografia, 102 (1943), 158-259, is broader
than it sounds. Marcello Carmagnani, in El salariado minero en Chile colo-
nial: Su desarrollo en una sociedad provincial: El Norte Chico, 16901800
(Santiago, Chile, 1963) describes mining and labour in an important gold
district. The same author's Les mecanismes de la vie economique dans une societe
coloniale: Le Chili, 1680-1830 (Paris, 1973), also brings in mining. Orga-
nisation, finance and technology in late colonial mining in Chile are
treated in Luz Maria Mendez Beltran, Instituciones y problemas de la mineria
en Chile, IJ8J-1826 (Santiago, Chile, 1979).
For mercury mining, see above all M. F. Lang, El monopolio estatal del
mercurio en el Mexico colonial (1550-ijio) (Mexico, D.F., 1977) and
Guillermo Lohmann Villena, Las minas de Huancavelica en los siglos XVI y
XVII (Seville, 1949). For the social history of Huancavelica, the brief
treatment of Carlos Contreras, La ciudad del mercurio: Huancavelica, 1570-
1700 (Lima, 1982), is valuable. For the eighteenth century, see Arthur P.
Whitaker, The Huancavelica Mercury Mine (Cambridge, Mass., 1941), and
Antonia Heredia Herrera, La renta del azdgue en Nueva Espana: 1709-1751
(Seville, 1978). For Almaden, see the study by A. Matilla Tasc6n, Historia
de las minas de Almaden, 2 vols. (Madrid, 1958, 1987).
9. T H E FORMATION A N D ECONOMIC
S T R U C T U R E OF T H E H A C I E N D A IN N E W
SPAIN
The study of the hacienda as a productive unit in the creation of new forms of
exploitation of the soil and of labour is a relatively recent phenomenon in
Mexico. Lesley B. Simpson, Exploitation of Land in Central Mexico in the
Sixteenth Century (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1952) illustrates with quantita-
tive data the impressive, early conversion of Indian lands into agricultural
and stock-raising enterprises owned and run by Spaniards. Francois Cheva-
lier, La formation des grands domaines au Mexique (Paris, i952;Sp. ed., 1956;

9. The hacienda in New Spain 83
Eng. ed., Land and Society in Colonial Mexico: The Great Hacienda, Berkeley
and Los Angeles, 1966) continued the traditional interest in forms of land
tenure for example Helen Phipps, Some Aspects of the Agrarian Question in
Mexico (Austin, Tex., 1925); George McCutchen McBride, The Land Systems
of Mexico (New York, 1923); Silvio Zavala, De encomienda y propiedad territo-
rial en algunas regiones de la America espanola (Mexico, D.F., 1940; reprinted
in Estudios Indianos, Mexico, D.F., 1948; 2nd ed., 1984); Jesus Amaya
Tapete, Ameca: Protofundacidn mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1951) and gave a
new dimension to studies on land ownership and agriculture. Using a wide
variety of private and official archives, Chevalier reconstructed the main
processes which influenced the formation of the latifundia, traced their
development over time, and related the expansion of the hacienda to the
general development of the colony and in particular to the establishment of
a new economic structure.
Although the dominant theme is still that of land ownership, most
recent studies include an analysis of production and productivity, systems
of labour, technology, administration, the market, and other micro- and
macro-economic aspects. A detailed exposition of the themes and stand-
points of such studies may be found in Magnus Morner, 'The Spanish
American hacienda: A survey of recent research and debate', HAHR, 53/1
(1973), 183-216; Reinhard Liehr, 'Origenes, evolucion y estructura socio-
economica de la hacienda hispanoamericana', Anuario de Estudios Ameri-
canos, 33 (1976), 52777; and Eric Van Young, 'Mexican rural history
since Chevalier', LARR, 18/3 (1983), 5 - 6 1 , a review of thirty years'
historical literature on the rural history of colonial Mexico. See also Eric
Van Young, 'The age of paradox: Mexican agriculture at the end of the
colonial period, 17501810', in Nils Jacobsen and Hans-Jiirgen Puhle
(eds.), The Economies of Mexico and Peru during the Late Colonial Period,
1760-1810 (Berlin, 1986), an excellent overview. Equally recent is the
attempt to define more precisely the economic characteristics of the haci-
enda and to pinpoint the differences between it and the latifundium, the
plantation and other institutions. This attempt to arrive at a more rigorous
definition was begun by Eric R. Wolf and Sidney W. Mintz in 'Haciendas
and plantations in Middle America and the Antilles', Social and Economic
Studies, 6 (1957), 380-412. This has been followed up, albeit irregularly,
in later years. See, for example, James Lockhart, 'Encomienda and haci-
enda: The evolution of the great estate in the Spanish Indies', HAHR, 49/3
(1969), 411-29; Robert G. Keith, 'Encomienda, hacienda and corregi-
miento in Spanish America: A structural analysis', HAHR, 51/3 (1971),

43146, and his introduction to the collective work he edited, Haciendas

and Plantations in Latin American History (NewYork, 1977), 135.
Since 1970, the analysis of agricultural problems during the colonial
period has taken the form of regional studies, and in particular of mono-
graphs devoted to one or more haciendas. Over these years, a number of
monographs have appeared which, apart from describing the formation of
this type of landed estate, have tackled more deeply the problems of pro-
duction, labour, the market and the influence of landowners on the social
and political life of the region. Charles Gibson, The Aztecs under Spanish
Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 15191810 (Stanford,
Calif., 1964) created a model for scholarly analysis at a regional level which
has been adopted by many researchers interested in agricultural issues. The
collective work, Haciendas, latifundios y plantaciones en America Latina (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1975), edited by Enrique Florescano, brought together a series
of essays which consider issues of property, production, labour and market
outlets in various privately owned estates and in Jesuit haciendas, the latter
being preferred for the richness and accessibility of their archives. Ward
Barrett published one of the best studies on the economy of the sugar
hacienda, The Sugar Hacienda of the Marqueses del Valle (Minneapolis, 1970),
in which he paid special attention to the technical and administrative
aspects of the hacienda, as well as to labour costs and productivity. See also
Gisela von Wobeser, La hacienda azucarera en la epoca colonial (Mexico, D.F.,
1988). However, the vast majority of studies have concentrated on the
Jesuit-owned haciendas: Ursula Edwald, Estudios sobre la hacienda colonial en
Mexico: Las propiedades rurales del Colegio Espiritu Santo en Puebla (Wiesba-
den, 1970); James D. Riley, Hacendados jesuitas en Mexico (Mexico, D.F.,
1976); Herman K. Konrad, A Jesuit Hacienda in Colonial Mexico: Santa
Lucia, 1576-1767 (Stanford, Calif., 1980).
Also numerous are studies which examine the formation and develop-
ment of one or more haciendas over extended periods. See, for example,
Jan Bazant, Cinco haciendas mexicanas (Mexico, D.F., 1974); Edith Boor-
stein Couturier, La hacienda de Hueyapan, 1559-1936 (Mexico, D.F.,
1976); Enrique Semo (ed.), Siete ensayos sobre la hacienda mexicana, 1780-
1880 (Mexico, D.F., 1977). These monographs and other economic stud-
ies have stimulated the analysis of agrarian problems region by region.
William B. Taylor, Landlord and Peasant in Colonial Oaxaca (Stanford,
Calif., 1972) is an important study which points to a sharp contrast
between the development of Indian and Spanish properties in this region
and the findings of Chevalier, Gibson and other authors with regard to the

centre and north of Mexico. On the vast northern cattle-raising region,

Charles H. Harris has written a fundamental work which traces the eco-
nomic, social and political history of a large family-owned latifundium: A
Mexican Family Empire: The Latifundio of the Sanchez Navarro Family, 1765-
1867 (Austin, Tex., 1975). The Puebla-Tlaxcalaarea has been the subject
of continuing scrutiny by a group of German scholars, who have published
such studies as that of Ursula Edwald, already cited, and Hans J. Prem,
Milpa y hacienda: Tenencia de la tierra indigena y espanola en la cuertca del Alto
Atoyac, Puebla, Mexico 1520-1650 (Wiesbaden, 1978). Among these,
particularly worthy of note is Herbert J. Nickel, Soziale Morphologie der
Mexikanischen Hacienda (Wiesbaden, 1978; Sp. trans., Morfologia social de
la hacienda mexicana, Mexico, D.F., 1988), which gives a general model of
the Mexican hacienda and compares this with that of the Puebla-Tlaxcala
area. See also his Relaciones de trabajo en las haciendas de Puebla y Tlaxcala,
(17401914) (Mexico, D.F., 1987). One of the best analyses of the origin
and development of the hacienda in a particular region is Robert Patch,
'La formacion de estancias y haciendas en Yucatan durante la colonia',
Boletin de la Escuela de Ciencias Antropologicas de la Universidad de Yucatan
(July-August 1976).
On the Bajio, the main grain-producing region in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries, David A. Brading's Haciendas and ranchos in the
Mexican Bajio: Leon 17001860 (Cambridge, Eng., 1978), is one of the
first studies on the formation of the ranches. In his unpublished doctoral
thesis, 'Creole Mexico: Spanish elites, haciendas and Indian towns, 1750-
1810' (University of Texas, 1976), John Tutino examines the social stratifi-
cation of landowners and the relationship between haciendas and villages
in Central Mexico. Claude Morin examines these relationships, agricul-
tural production and the situation of Indian workers in Michoacdn en la
Nueva Espana del siglo XVIII (Mexico, D.F., 1979). One of the best studies
on the regional agricultural economy is Eric Van Young, Hacienda and
Market in Eighteenth-Century Mexico: The Rural Economy of the Guadalajara
Region, 1675-1820 (Los Angeles, 1981), which considers production,
labour, the market and the hacienda system in the region of Guadalajara.
Ida Altman and James Lockhart (eds.), Provinces of Early Mexico (Berkeley
and Los Angeles, 1976), brings together a series of regional essays describ-
ing agrarian processes, the formation of haciendas and the relations be-
tween them and the Indian villages in Yucatan, Oaxaca, Toluca, Tlaxcala,
the Valley of Mexico, Queretaro, Zacatecas and Coahuila.
The books of Chevalier and Simpson mentioned above provide the best

information on the expansion of cattle raising and the formation of cattle
estancias and haciendas in the sixteenth century. William H. Dusenberry,
The Mexican Meseta: The Administration of Ranching in Colonial Mexico (Ur-
bana, 111., 1963), provides an overall analysis of the organization created
by cattle breeders in order to regulate seasonal migration, grazing rights,
legal matters and the slaughter of cattle. Ramon Ma. Serrera, Guadala-
jara, ciudad ganadera: Estudio regional novohispano, 17601805 (Seville,
I
977). contains an analysis of the breeding of cattle, horses, mules and
sheep, of the economic function of these activities in the region, and of the
great ranching families. See also Cuauhtemoc Esparza Sanchez, Historia de
la ganaderia en Zacatecas, 1532-1911 (Zacatecas, 1988).
Changes in the agrarian landscape brought about by the development of
the haciendas and ranches and by the introduction of new crops and
animals are treated in some of the works already mentioned. Alejandra
Moreno Toscano offers us a general panorama of these changes in her
Geografia economica de Mexico: Siglo XVI (Mexico, D.F., 1968). Peter Ger-
hard has studied in some detail the effects of policies which obliged Indian
villages to merge into larger units: see 'Congregaciones de indios en la
Nueva Espana antes de 1570', HM, 26 (1976-7), 347-95, and 'La
evolucion del pueblo rural mexicano: 1519-1975', HM, 24 (1974-5),
566-78.
The transformation of large tracts of Indian land into private estates
owned by Spaniards gave rise to new forms of soil exploitation based on
new systems of labour, which in turn created a new pattern of relations
between workers and landowners. Between 1929 and 1950, several studies
presented an initial view of the chronological development of the systems
of agricultural labour and some of their principal characteristics: Lesley B.
Simpson, The Encomienda: Forced Native Labor in the Spanish Colonia, 1492
1550 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1929), Studies in the Administration of the
Indians in New Spain (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1938 and 1940), and The
Encomienda of New Spain (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1950); Silvio Zavala,
'Los origenes coloniales del peonaje en Mexico', El Trimestre Econdmico, 10
(19434), 71148, reprinted in Estudios Indianos, 1984; S. Zavala and
Maria Castelo (eds.), Fuentes para la historia del trabajo en Nueva Espana,
15521805, 8 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 193946; 2nd ed. 1980). See also
Silvio Zavala, El serviciopersonal de los indios en la Nueva Espana, siglo XVI, 4
vols. (Mexico, D.F., 19849), which contains important documentary
material on indigenous labour in Spanish agriculture and cattle-raising.
Based on these studies and on those of Gonzalo Aguirre Beltran on the

importation of black slaves (La poblacion negra de Mexico, 15191810,
Mexico, D.F., 1940), of George Kubler on the effects of the demographic
crisis on the supply of Indian labour (Mexican Architecture in the Sixteenth
Century 2 vols., New Haven, Conn., 1948), and on the research into the
epidemics and demographic catastrophes of the sixteenth century he him-
self had carried out with S. F. Cook, W. Borah's important study, New
Spain's Century of Depression (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1951) showed how
the decline of the Indian population, together with the increase in the
Spanish population, was decisive in the structural transformation of the
colonial economy in the sixteenth century from one essentially based on
tribute to one based on the hacienda and peonage. According to Borah,
the loss of the labour force which was one of the props of colonial society
caused a general economic crisis, the organization of labour along different
lines, namely the creation of a landless peasantry, and new forms of
production and circulation of agricultural produce.
In The Aztecs under Spanish Rule, Charles Gibson produced the most
comprehensive study currently available on Indian labour in any one re-
gion. The analysis of systems of agricultural labour in the Valley of Mexico
led him to suggest that debt peonage was no longer predominant in this
region at the end of the eighteenth century, and that the methods of
coercion used initially to retain workers had changed owing to the transfor-
mation of the hacienda into an institution which offered regular wages
throughout the year and attractive living and social conditions for the
Indians who had lost their lands or had cut their links with their commu-
nity of origin. This hypothesis has been raised in almost all recent studies
on the haciendas and agricultural labour, but none has proved convinc-
ingly that debt peonage and political coercion ceased to be important as
methods of retaining labourers on the haciendas. The studies mentioned
above on the haciendas rather confirm that the practice of retaining wages
persisted, and prove that the worker did not usually receive payment in
cash, but in credit facilities and goods, all of which demonstrates the
presence of political and social pressures which curtailed the worker's
freedom of movement and employment.
More recent studies - see, for example, John Tutino, 'Life and labor on
north Mexican haciendas: The Queretaro-San Luis Potosi region: 1775-
1810', and E. Florescano, 'Evaluaci6n y sintesis de las ponencias sobre el
trabajo colonial', in El trabajo y los trabajadores en la historia de Mexico
(Mexico, D.F., 1979), 339-77 and 756-97 - show that the permanent
labourers on the haciendas, the peons, constituted a new social grouping,

a product of racial mixture, acculturation and the economic changes of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. On the other hand, the majority of
seasonal labourers were from Indian villages (see E. Florescano, Isabel
Gonzalez Sanchez et al., La clase obrera en la historia de Mexico: De la colonia
al imperio, Mexico, D.F., 1980). On labour coercion, see also an article by
Susan M. Deeds, 'Rural work in Nueva Vizcaya: Forms of labor coercion
on the periphery', HAHR, 63/3 (1989), 425-49.
Until the 1960s the predominant assumption in agrarian studies was
that the hacienda was a self-sufficient unit of a feudal rather than commer-
cial type. This thesis has been replaced by new interpretations which show
that the hacienda originated in the introduction of the mercantile econ-
omy and that its development ran parallel to the growth of mercantile
exchange and market outlets. In Precios del maiz y crisis agrt'colas en Mexico,
IJO8I8IO (Mexico, D.F., 1969), E. Florescano examined the principal
mechanisms which regulated the demand for and availability of grain on
the urban market, and related fluctuations in the price of maize to agricul-
tural crisis and seasonal shortages. Later studies have confirmed the pres-
ence of such mechanisms in various regions; see the works by D. A.
Brading on Leon and Eric Van Young on Guadalajara cited above, and in
the mining area, see Richard L. Garner, 'Zacatecas, 17501821: The
study of a late colonial Mexican city' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Univer-
sity of Michigan, 1970).
The theoretical basis which permitted a deeper economic interpreta-
tion of the relationship between agriculture and the market and the
dominant economic system was provided by Marxist studies, in particu-
lar the work of Witold Kula, An Economic Theory of the Feudal System
(original Polish edition, 1962; Buenos Aires, 1974; London, 1976).
Inspired by this and other Marxist studies, Carlos Sempat Assadourian,
Angel Palerm and Marcello Carmagnani, among others, have treated in a
different way the problem of the articulation of the colonial economy
with the world system, the characteristics which forged the development
of the mercantile colonial economy and the subordinate role played in
this by agriculture compared with mineral production. On this issue, see
the studies by these authors in E. Florescano (ed.), Ensayos sobre el
desarrollo economico de Mexico y America Latina, 15001975 (Mexico, D.F.,
1979). See also Arij Ouweneel, 'The agrarian cycle as a catalyst of
economic development in eighteenth-century central Mexico: The arable
estate, Indian villages and proto-industrialisation in the central highland
valleys', l-AA, 15/3 (1989), 399-417-

io. Rural economy and society of Spanish South America 89
The dependence of primary producers in the face of the seasonal and cycli-
cal fluctuations of the market (see Florescano, Precios; Brading, Haciendas
and Ranchos; Van Young, Hacienda and Market; Garner, 'Zacatecas, 1750
1821') produced an even greater dependence among farmers and cattle
raisers on commercial capital. During the eighteenth century this expressed
itself, in the main urban and mining centres, through the domination of the
mechanisms of circulation of agricultural produce and the control of market
outlets by the merchant sector; for this, see the already mentioned study by
Van Young; Harris, A Mexican Family Empire; Tutino, 'Creole Mexico', and
Marco Bellingeri, Las haciendas en Mexico: El caso de San Antonio Tochatlaco,
1800-1920 (Mexico, D.F., 1980). The studies by Asuncion Lavrin on the
credit extended by religious institutions to producers and merchants ('El
capital eclesiastico y las elites sociales en Nueva Espana a fines del siglo
xviii', paper presented at the V Simposio de Historia Econ6mica de Amer-
ica Latina, Lima, 1978); Linda Greenow (Credit and Socio-economic Change in
Colonial Mexico: Loans and Mortgages in Guadalajara, 17201820, Boulder,
Colo., 1983); R. B. Lindley (Haciendas and Economic Development: Guadala-
jara, Mexico, at Independence, Austin, Tex., 1983; Sp. trans., 1987) on credit
and family relations within the colonial elite of eighteenth- and early
nineteenth-century Guadalajara; Gisela von Wobeser on the contraction of
debts among the owners of haciendas (San Carlos Borromeo: Endeudamiento de
una hacienda colonial, 16081729, Mexico, D.F., 1980); J. Tutino on the
concentration of wealth and land within the commercial sector ('Creole
Mexico'); and Doris Ladd on the colonial aristocracy (The Mexican Nobility at
Independence, Austin, Tex., 1976), all demonstrate the gradual erosion of the
power of primary producers in the face of the credit and capital accumulated
by merchants, and the formation of a small but powerful oligarchy of great
families, predominant among which were merchants.
John Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico: Social Bases of
Agrarian Violence, 1750-1940 (Princeton, N.J., 1986), examines the agrar-
ian roots of Indian and peasant rebellions in Mexico during the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries.
10. T H E RURAL E C O N O M Y A N D SOCIETY

OF SPANISH S O U T H AMERICA
The rural history of Spanish South America finally began to receive some
attention from scholars during the 1970s. Even now, far more research is

devoted to the large estates than to smallholders and comunidades. See Mag-
nus Morner, 'The Spanish American hacienda: A survey of recent research
and debate', HAHR, 53/2 (1973), 183216; articles by Reinhard Liehr in
H. J. Puhle(ed.), Lateinamerika:HistorischeRealitdtundDependencia-Theorien
(Hamburg, 1976), 10546, and H. Pietschmann in G. Siebenmann (ed.),
Die lateinamerikanische Hacienda: Ihre Rolle in der Geschichte von Wirtschaft und
Gesellschaft (Diessenhofen, 1979), 37-48. Interesting perspectives are
provided by Cristobal Kay, 'Desarrollo comparativo del sistema sefiorial
europeo y del sistema de hacienda latinoamericano', Anuario de Estudios
Americanos, 31 (1976), 681-723. Agricultural productivity and technology
during the colonial period have until now received very little attention. An
old but still important study of the legal aspects is J. M. Ots Capdequi, El
regimen de la tierra en la America espanola durante el periodo colonial (Ciudad
Trujillo, 1946).
A general survey of Peruvian rural history is provided by V. Roel
Pineda, Historia social y economica de la Colonia (Lima, 1970). More recent
monographs include R. G. Keith, Conquest and Agrarian Change: The
Emergence of the Hacienda System on the Peruvian Coast (Cambridge, Mass.,
1976); M. Burga, De la encomienda a la hacienda capitalista: El Valle de
Jequetepeque del sigh XVI al XX (Lima, 1976); Keith A. Davies, Landowners
in Colonial Peru (Austin, Tex., 1984), which deals with Arequipa; S. E.
Ramirez-Horton, Provincial Patriarchs: Land Tenure and the Economies of
Power in Colonial Peru (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1986), which deals with
Lambayeque province; and M. Morner, Perfil de la sociedad rural del Cuzco a
fines de la colonia (Lima, 1978). On the local level, Nils Jacobsen, 'Land
tenure and society in the Peruvian Altiplano: Azangaro, 1770-1820' (un-
published Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1982)
and Luis Miguel Glave and Isabel Remy, Estructura agraria y vida rural en
una region andina: Ollantaitambo entre los siglos XVH-XIX (Cuzco, 1983) are
admirable. See also Isabel Remy, 'Historia agraria cusquefia: Balance y per-
spectivas', in Alberto Chirif, Nelson Manrique and Benjamin Quijandria
(eds.), Peru: Elproblema agrario en debate (Lima, 1990), 63-85. A pioneer-
ing work on coastal production is Maria Rostworowski de Diez Canseco,
Recursos naturales renovables y pesca: Siglos XVI y XVII (Lima, 1981). The
valley of Chancay has been studied in several contributions by J. Matos Mar
and others. In vol. 2 of Trabajos de historia, 4 vols. (Lima, 1977) Pablo
Macera studied Jesuit haciendas and the history of sugar production. See
also Nicholas P. Cushner, Lords of the Land: Sugar, Wine andJesuit Estates of
Coastal Peru 1600-1767 (Albany, N.Y., 1980). For labour, see Frederick

io. Rural economy and society of Spanish South America 91
P. Bowser, The African Slave in Colonial Peru, 1524-1650 (Stanford, Calif.,

1974); for the role of the Indians as labour and in trade, K. Spalding, De
indio a campesino: Cambios en la estructura social del Peru colonial (Lima, 1974).
Food supply is discussed in O. Febres Villaroel, 'La crisis agricola en el
Peru en el ultimo tercio del siglo XVIII', Revista Historica, 27 (Lima,
1964), 10299, a n d Demetrio Ramos, Trigo chileno, navieros del Callao y
hacendados limenos entre la crisis agricola del siglo XVllI y la comercial de la
primera mitad del siglo XVIII (Madrid, 1967). For the trade in cocoa and
wine see also L. M. Glave, Trajines: Un capitulo en la formacion del
mercado interno colonial', Revista Andina, 1/1 (Cuzco, 1983), 976. Irriga-
tion is studied by H. Villanueva U. and J. Sherbondy (eds.), Cuzco: Aguay
poder (Cuzco, 1979).
The most serious work so far on the rural history of Upper Peru (Bo-
livia) is B. Larson, Colonialism and Agrarian Transformation in Bolivia:
Cochabamba, 1550-1900 (Princeton, N.J., 1988). Labour aspects are dealt
with by N. Sanchez-Albornoz, Indios y tributos en el Alto Peru (Lima, 1978).
Aspects of the marketing of rural produce are taken up in Olivia Harris,
B. Larson and E. Tandeter (eds.), La participation indigena en los mercados
surandinos: Estrategias y reproduction social, siglos XVI a XX (La Paz, 1987)
and, focusing on yerba mate, Juan Carlos Garaviglia, Mercado interno y
economia colonial (Mexico, D.F., 1983). A general survey is provided by
Carlos Sempat Assadourian, El sistema de la economia colonial: El mercado
interior, regiones y espacio econdmico (Mexico, D.F., 1983). Articles by S.
Rivera Cusicanqui and others have appeared in the journal Avances (La Paz,
1978- ). See also Daniel J. Santamaria, 'La propiedad de la tierra y la
condicion social del indio en el Alto Peru, 1780-1810', DE, 17/6 (1977),
2 5 3 - 7 1 . E. Tandeter and N. Wachtel, 'Precios y production agraria:
Potosi y Charcas en el siglo XVIII', DE, 29/90 (1983), 197-230, is a
pioneering study. On the local level, the small study Siporo: Historia de una
hacienda boliviana (La Paz, 1984) by Alberto Crespo R. and his team
deserves to be mentioned.
Mario Gongora was the pioneer in the field of Chilean rural history. His
works include: Origen de los 'inquilinos' de Chile Central (Santiago, Chile,
i960); (with J. Borde), Evolution de la propiedad rural en el Valle del Puanque
(Santiago, Chile, 1956); Encomenderos y estancieros: Estudios acerca de la
constitution social aristocrdtica de Chile despues de la Conquista, 15801660
(Santiago, Chile, 1970); Studies in the Colonial History of Spanish America
(Cambridge, Eng., 1975). See also Rafael Baraona, Roberto Santana and
Ximena Aranda, Valle de Putaendo: Estudio de estructura agraria (Santiago,

Chile, 1961). Also R. Mellafe, 'Latifundio y poder rural en Chile de los

siglos XVII y XVIII', Cuadernos de Historia, vol. 1 (Santiago, Chile,
1981), 8 7 - 1 0 8 . An important and unique contribution is that of M.
Carmagnani, Les mecanismes de la vie economique dans un societe coloniale: Le
Chile, 1680-1830 (Paris, 1973).
For short surveys of the rural history of the Rio de la Plata, see C.
Sempat Assadourian, G. Beato and J. C. Chiaramonte, Argentina: De la
conquista a la Independencia (Buenos Aires, 1972); H. C. E. Giberti, Histo-
ria economica de la ganaderia argentina (Buenos Aires, 1961); A. R.
Castellanos, Breve historia de la ganaderia en el Uruguay (Montevideo,
1971). Pedro Santos Martinez, Historia economica de Mendoza durante el
Virreinato, 1776-1810 (Madrid, 1961), and Ernesto J. A. Maeder, Histo-
ria economica de Corrientes en elperiodo virreinal, IJJ6-I8IO (Buenos Aires,
1981) are important works in the field of regional history. C. Garzon
Maceda, Economia del Tucumdn: Economia natural y economia monetaria: Siglos
XVI, XVII, XVIII (Cordoba, Arg., 1968), is another penetrating study of
general interest. Rural history is also dealt with in J. L. Mora Merida,
Historia social de Paraguay, 160050 (Seville, 1973). On the Jesuit mis-
sions, see M. Morner, Actividades politicas y economicas de los jesuitas en el Rio
de la Plata: La era de los Habsburgos (Buenos Aires, 1968), and his article on
the rivalry of Uruguayan ganado cimarron in Revista Portuguesa de Historia, 9
(1961), and Nicholas P. Cushner, Jesuit Ranches and the Agrarian Develop-
ment of Colonial Argentina, 1650IJ6J (Albany, N.Y., 1983). See also E.
A. Coni, Historia de las vaquerias de Rio de la Plata, 15551750 (Buenos
Aires, 1956) and the articles by J. C. Garaviglia and T. Halperin Donghi
in Enrique Florescano (ed.), Haciendas, latifundios y plantaciones en America
Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1975). S. M. Socolow, 'Economic activities of the
porteno merchants: The viceregal period', HAHR, 55/1 (1975), 1-24, and
J. C. Garaviglia, 'Economic growth and regional differentiation: The
River Plate region at the end of the eighteenth century', HAHR, 65/1
(1985), 5 1 - 8 9 are also useful.
The Audiencia of Quito (Ecuador) is still little explored. More data on
rural and social history than the title suggests can be found in Segundo
Moreno Yafiez, Sublevaciones indigenas en la Audiencia de Quito, comienzos del
siglo XVIII hasta finales de la Colonia (Bonn, 1976). See also Galo Ramon
V., La resistencia andina: Cayambe 1500-1800 (Quito, 1987). On the rural
textile industry, see J. Ortiz de la Tabla Ducasse, 'Obrajes y obrajeros del
Quito colonial', Anuario de Estudios Americanos, 39 (Seville, 1982), 341
65. See also Segundo Moreno Yanez and U. Oberem, Contribution a la

ii. Labour, taxation, distribution and exchange 93
etnohistoria ecuatoriana (Otavalo, 1981). On the coast, see Maria Luisa

Laviana Cuetos, Guayaquil en siglo XVIII: Recursos naturales y desarrollo
economico (Seville, 1987) and M. T. Hamerly, Historia socialy economica de la
antigua provincia de Guayaquil, 17631842 (Guayaquil, 1973).
In Colombia, the sociologist O. Fals Borda was the pioneer in rural
history. See his El hombre y la tierra en Boyacd (Bogota, 1957), and his
article, 'Indian congregations in the New Kingdom of Granada: Land
Tenure Aspects, 1595-1850", in TA, 1^/4 (1957), 3 3 1 - 5 1 . On the
Indian communities, see also an article by T. Gomez in Caravelle: Cahiers
du Monde Hispanique et LusoBresilien, 27 (Toulouse, 1977). The main
contributions by G. Colmenares include Haciendas de los jesuitas en el Nuevo
Reino de Granada, siglo XVIII (Bogota, 1969) and Historia economica y social
de Colombia, 15371719 (Bogota, 1973). See also the impressive work by
G. Colmenares and Zamira Diaz de Zuloaga, Sociedady economia en el Valle
del Cauca, vol. 1, Cali: Terratenientes, mineros y comerciantes: Siglo XVIII
(Bogota, 1983). Vol. 2, Guerra y economia en las haciendas: Popaydn 1780
1830 (Bogota, 1983). On Antioquia in the eighteenth century, see Ann
Twinam, Miners, Merchants and Farmers in Colonial Colombia (Austin, Tex.,
1982). See also J. A. Villamarin, 'Haciendas en la Sabana de Bogota,
Colombia, en la epoca colonial: 15391810', in Florescano (ed.), Hacien-
das, latifundios y plantaciones, and contributions to the Anuario Colombiano
de Historia Social y de la Cultura (1963 ).
In his pioneering work, Economia colonial de Venezuela (Mexico, D.F.,
1946), E. Arcila Farias dealt mainly with commercialization. For a
broader approach, see Federico Brito Figueroa, Estructura economica de Vene-
zuela colonial (Caracas, 1963), an analysis in strictly Marxist terms. P.
Michael McKinley, P re-Revolutionary Caracas: Politics, Economy and Society,
1777-1811 (Cambridge, Eng., 1985) deals with the far-flung economi-
cally important province, not just the city. A fine study on Venezuela in
the late colonial and early national periods is M. Izard, La agricultura
venezolana en una epoca de transicion (Caracas, 1972).
11. ASPECTS OF THE INTERNAL ECONOMY:

LABOUR, TAXATION, DISTRIBUTION AND
EXCHANGE
There are no satisfactory surveys of the Spanish American colonial econo-

mies. A provocative, thoughtful, but dated Marxist interpretation is

Sergio Bagu, Economia de la sociedad colonial: Ensayo de historia comparada de

America Latina (Buenos Aires, 1949). Also somewhat dated is Emilio A.
Coni, Agricultura, comercio e industria coloniales (siglo XVIXVIII) (Buenos
Aires, 1941). A more modern but less stimulating study is Demetrio
Ramos, Mineria y comercio interprovincial en Hispanoamerica {siglos XVI, XVII
y XVIII) (Valladolid, 1970). More recently, see Juan Carlos Vedoya, Histo-
ria social y economica de la colonia, siglos XVI, XVII y XVIII (Tandil, Arg.,
1985). A useful synthesis of the economies of Lower and Upper Peru in the
colonial period is Jaime R. Rios Burga, Ciclos productivos en el espacioperuano
colonial, siglos XVIXIX: Una aproximacion a una sintesis cuantitativa (Lima,
1986), while a significant contribution for New Spain and Peru in the late
colonial period is Nils Jacobsen and Hans-Jiirgen Puhle (eds.), The Econo-
mies of Mexico and Peru during the Late Colonial Period, IJ6O-I8IO (Berlin,
1986). A well-documented economic history of colonial Paraguay is Juan
Bautista Rivarola Paoli, La economia colonial (Asuncion, 1986). Much use-
ful material on economic institutions can still be found in C. H. Haring,
The Spanish Empire in America (New York, 1947). A study with a very
different emphasis, as the title suggests, is the short book by Stanley J.
and Barbara H . Stein, The Colonial Heritage of Latin America: Essays on
Economic Dependence in Perspective (New York, 1970). For the Atlantic sea
link, Atlantic trade and the Atlantic economy in general, see essay 11:4.
LABOUR
A convenient summary of Indian colonial labour systems is by Juan A. and

Judith E. Villamarin, Indian Labor in Mainland Colonial Spanish America
(Newark, Del., 1975). Nicolas Sanchez-Albornoz (ed.), Poblaciony mano de
obra en America Latina (Madrid, 1985) also provides a useful overview. The
evolution of such labour systems may be grasped by reading in sequence the
introductions to the several volumes by Silvio Zavala and Maria Castelo
(eds.), Fuentes para la historia del trabajo en Nueva Espana, 15521805, 8
vols. (Mexico, D.F., 193946). Readers should also consult Zavala's El
servicio personal de los indios en el Peru (extractas del siglo XVI, XVII, XVIII), 3
vols. (Mexico, D.F., 197880), which has extensive discussion of the Peru-
vian encomienda, mita and peonage, and the same author's companion
volumes, El servicio de los indios en Nueva Espana, vol. 1: 15211550; vol. 2:
15501.57.5 (Mexico, D.F., 19841985). A photofacsimile edition of the
royal confirmations of encomiendas and sales of office which were compiled
between 1629 and 1635 by Antonio de Leon Pinelo has been published as

ii. Labour, taxation, distribution and exchange 95
Tratado de confirmaciones reales de encomiendas, oficios i casos, en que se requieren

para las Indias Occidentales, edited by Eduardo Arcila Farias (Caracas, 1979).
The encomienda, how it declined because of population loss and royal
legislation, and how some entrepreneurs used it as a device for capital
accumulation and diversification, are discussed in Jose Miranda, Lafuncion
economica del encomendero en los origenes del regimen colonial: Nueva Espana,
15231531 (Mexico, D.F., 1965). A later encomendero prosopography is
Robert T. Himmerich, The Encomenderos of New Spain, 15211555 (Austin,
Tex., 1991).
The link between the encomienda and land tenure in general is dis-
cussed in two very different essays: James Lockhart, 'Encomienda and
hacienda: The evolution of the great estate in the Spanish Indies', HAHR,
49/3 (1969), 411-29; and Robert G. Keith, 'Encomienda, hacienda and
corregimiento in Spanish America: A structural analysis', HAHR, 51/3
(1971), 43146. The pioneer of studies on peonage is, once again, Silvio
Zavala, in his 'Los origenes coloniales del peonaje en Mexico', TE, 10
(19434), 71148. See also Genaro V. Vazquez, Legislation del trabajo en
los siglos XVI, XVII y XVIII (Mexico, D.F., 1938); Samuel Kagan, Los
vagabundos en la Nueva Espana, siglo XVI (Mexico, D.F., 1957); Richard
Konetzke, 'Los mestizos en la legislation colonial', Revista de Estudios
Politicos, 112-14 (i960), 113-30, 179-215; and Karen Spalding, De
indio a campesino: Cambios en la estructura social del Peru colonial (Lima,
1974). For the literature on black slavery, see, essay 11:14.
A comparative study of the transformations in labour practices and land
tenure in several important Nahua towns in sixteenth-century central
Mexico is Jesus Ruvalcaba Mercado, Agricultura india en Cempoala, Tepea-
pulco y Tulancingo, siglo XVI (Mexico, D.F., 1985). A study of early
Mexican haciendas is Lolita Gutierrez Brockington, The Leverage of Labor:
Managing the Cortes Haciendas in Tehuantepee, 1588-1688 (Durham, N.C.,
1989). For the later period departure points are offered in a collection by
Arij Ouweneel and Cristina Torales Pacheco (comps.), Empresarios, indiosy
estado: Perfil de la economia mexicana, siglo XVIII (Amsterdam, 1988);
Claude Morin's detailed Michoacdn en la Nueva Espana del siglo XVIII:
Crecimiento y desigualdad en una economia colonial (Mexico, D.F., 1979); and
Doris M. Ladd, The Making of a Strike: Mexican Silver Workers' Struggles in
Real del Monte, 1766-1J75 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1988). For Peru, a number of
studies deserve special mention: on land and labour, Susan Ramirez,
Provincial Patriarchs: Land Tenure and the Economies of Power in Colonial Peru
(Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1986), details the origins and evolution of hacien-

das in the north coastal Lambayeque region; Keith Davies, Landowners in

Colonial Peru (Austin, Tex., 1984), focuses on the southern region of
Arequipa; and Nicholas P. Cushner's various studies on Jesuit ranches are
also useful; while with regard to mines, Peter Bakewell's Miners of the Red
Mountain: Indian Labor in Potosi, 1545-1650 (Albuquerque, N.Mex.,
1985) and Jeffrey A. Cole's The Potosi Mita, 15J3-IJ00: Compulsory Indian
Labor in the Andes (Stanford, Calif., 1985) are an essential combination.
For more bibliography on mining, see 11:8. For work on migration and
movement, see David J. Robinson (ed.), Migration in Colonial Spanish
America (Cambridge, Eng., 1990) and Ann M. Wightman's Indigenous
Migration and Social Change: The Foresteros ofCuzco, 1520-1720 (Durham,
N.C., 1990). A well-researched study of forced Indian labour in twelve
towns in early seventeenth-century Merida is Edda O. Samudio Azpurua,
El trabajo y los trabajadores en Merida colonial: Fuentes para su estudio (San
Cristobal, Ven., 1984). See also Robson Brines Tyrer, Historia demogrdfica
y econdmica de la audiencia de Quito: Poblacion indigena e industria textil,
1600-1800 (Quito, 1988).
TAXATION
Gabriel Ardant is the main authority on systems of taxation. See, for

example, his massive Theorie sociologique de I'impot, 2 vols. (Paris, 1965).
Jose Miranda surveys the history and economies of Indian tribute in Mex-
ico in his El tributo indigena en la Nueva Espana durante el siglo XVI (Mexico,
D.F., 1952). Nicolas Sanchez-Albornoz covers a later and longer period,
including the post-independence tributes of the nineteenth century, in
Indios y tributos en el Alto Peru (Lima, 1978). Ronald Escobedo Mansilla, El
tributo indigena en el Peru, siglos XVI y XVII (Pamplona, 1979) is thorough
but lacks interpretation and imagination.
Derramas and repartimientos de mercancias await detailed history and analy-
sis. Meanwhile, a good study of the late colonial repartimientos in Peru is A.
Moreno Cebrian, El corregidor de indios y la economia peruana en el siglo XVIII.-
Los repartos forzosos de mercancias (Madrid, 1977). See also Jurgen Golte,
Repartos y rebeliones: Tupac Amaru y las contradicciones de la economia colonial
(Lima, 1980). We are equally lacking in definitive works on the specific
institutions which Indians adopted so readily, the caja de comunidad and the
cofradia. There are two unpublished doctoral dissertations containing exten-
sive information: Francis Joseph Brooks, 'Parish and cofradia in eighteenth-
century Mexico' (Princeton University, 1976); and Gary Wendell Graff,

1 1 . Labour, taxation, distribution and exchange 97
'Cofradias in the new kingdom of Granada: Lay fraternities in a Spanish-

American frontier society, 16001755' (University of Wisconsin, 1973).
See also Gonzalo Aguirre Beltran, Formas degobierno indigena (Mexico, D.F.,
1953); Pedro Carrasco, "The civil religious hierarchy in Mesoamerican
communities: Pre-Spanish background and colonial development', Ameri-
can Anthropologist, 63 (1961), 48397; appropriate parts of the impressive
study by Pierre Duviols, La lutte contre les religions autochtones dans la Peru
colonial (Paris, 1971); and Jose Miranda and Silvio Zavala, 'Instituciones
indigenas en la colonia', in A. Caso (ed.), Me'todos y resultados de la politica
indigenista en Mexico (Mexico, D.F. 1954), 29-167.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXCHANGE
On the consulados see, for example, German O. E. Tjarks, El consulado de

Buenos Aires, y sus proyecciones en la historia del Rio de la Plata, 2 vols.
(Buenos Aires, 1962) and the older Robert S. Smith, The Spanish Guild
Merchant: A History of the Consulado, 1250-1700 (Durham, N.C., 1940).
Government estancos or monopolies are the subject of a series of works from
the Escuela de Estudios Hispanoamericanos in Seville. The most recent is
by Jose Jesus Hernandez Palomo, La renta del pulque en Nueva Espana,
16631810 (Seville, 1979). The crown's revenues are studied exhaustively
in Francisco Gallardo y Fernandez, Origen, progresos y estado de las rentas de la
corona de Espana, su gobierno y administration, 8 vols. (Madrid, 18058).
The Indian economy and market system are discussed in such well-
known works as Charles Gibson, The Aztecs under Spanish Rule: A History of
the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519-1810 (Stanford, Calif., 1964);
Josep M. Barnadas, Charcas, 15351565: Origenes historicos de una sociedad
colonial (La Paz, 1973); and Magnus Morner, La corona espanola y losforaneos
en lospueblos de indios de America (Stockholm, 1970). On the possible extent
of influence of trade routes in central Mexico, see Ross Hassig, Trade,
Tribute and Transportation: The Sixteenth-Century Political Economy of the Val-
ley of Mexico (Norman, Okla., 1985). Lawrence H. Feldman's A Tumpline
Economy: Production and Distribution Systems in Sixteenth-Century Eastern Gua-
temala (Culver City, Calif, 1985), is a useful study of the production of
goods and distribution in this early colonial region of Central America.
On Andean integration into the mercantile economy, an important newer
study is Olivia Harris, Brooke Larson and Enrique Tandeter (eds.), La
participation indigena en los mercados surandinos: Estrategias y reproduccion
social, siglos XVI a XX (La Paz, 1987). See also Rossana Barragan Romano,

'En torno al modelo comunal mercantil: El caso de Mizque, Cochabamba,

en el siglo XVII', Chungara, 15 (1985), 125-41.
For long-distance commerce, routes and markets, the following should
provide an introduction: Woodrow Borah, Early Colonial Trade and Naviga-
tion Between Mexico and Peru (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1954); Marcello
Carmagnani, Les mecanismes de la vie economique dans une societe coloniale: Le
Chili (1680-1830) (Paris, 1973); Manuel Moreyra y Paz Soldan, Elcomercio
de exportacidn en el Pacifico a comienzos del siglo XVIII (Lima, 1944); and Maria
Encarnacion Rodriguez Vicente, El tribunal del consulado de Lima en la
primera mitad del siglo XVII (Madrid, i960). Lawrence A. Clayton reviews
some works on Pacific trade in 'Trade and navigation in the seventeenth-
century viceroyalty of Peru', JLAS, J/I (1975), 1-21, and gives us a good
picture of a colonial shipyard and port in Caulkers and Carpenters in a New
World: The Shipyards of Colonial Guayaquil (Athens, Ohio, 1980). The
PotosiBuenos Aires route has a large but scattered bibliography. Helpful
are Mario Rodriguez, 'Dom Pedro of Braganza and Colonia do Sacramento,
1680-1705', HAHR, 38/2 (1958), 180-208; and Sergio Villalobos R.,
Comercio y contrabando en el Rio de la Plata y Chile, 17001811 (Buenos
Aires, 1965). An amusing account of the journey between Buenos Aires
and Lima is 'Concolorcorvo', El Lazarillo: A Guide for Inexperienced Travelers
between Buenos Aires and Lima, 1773, translated by Walter D. Kline (Bloom-
ington, Ind., 1965). See also Zacarias Moutoukias, Contrabando y control
colonial en el siglo XVII: Buenos Aires, el Atldntico y el espacio peruano (Buenos
Aires, 1988). A Creole merchant's interesting account of why illegal trade
flourished near the end of the eighteenth century is Jose Ignacio de Pombo,
Comercio y contrabando en Cartagena de Indias, 2 de junio de 1800 (Bogota,
1986). Fairs are discussed in Manuel Carrera Stampa, 'Las ferias novo-
hispanas', HM, 2 (19523), 31942, which also contains maps of trade
routes, and in Allyn C. Loosley, 'The Puerto Bello fairs', HAHR, 13
(1933), 31435. A challenging article questioning whether the fair was an
accurate indicator of trade and analysing alternative routes is Enriqueta
Vila Vilar, 'Las ferias de Portobelo: Aparencia y realidad del comercio con
Indias', Loteria, 358 (JanuaryFebruary 1986), 3993. Carrera Stampa
also wrote a pioneering work on craft guilds, Los gremios mexicanos: La
organization gremial en Nueva Espaha, 15211810 (Mexico, D.F., 1954).
The literature on merchants is extensive, especially for the eighteenth
century. An article on a less well-known early group is John C. Super, 'Part-
nership and profit in the early Andean trades: The experiences of Quito mer-

11. Labour, taxation, distribution and exchange 99
chants, 1580-1610', JLAS, 11/2(1979), 265-81. Important for the early

period is Louisa Schell Hoberman, Mexico's Merchant Elite, 1390-1660:
Silver, State and Society (Durham N.C., 1991). Work on colonial industries
has also been voluminous. On the textile obrajes, see John C. Super,
'Queretaro obrajes: Industry and society in provincial Mexico 1600-1810',
HAHR, 56/2 (1976), 197-216; Robson Tyrer, 'The demographic and
economic history of the Audiencia of Quito: Indian population and the
textile industry 1600-1810' (Ph.D. thesis, University of California at
Berkeley, 1976; Sp. trans., Quito, 1988, cited above); Javier Ortiz de la
Tabla Ducasse, "El obraje colonial ecuatoriano: Aproximacion a su estudio',
Revista de Indias, 27 (1977), 471541; G. P. C. Thomson, Puebla de los
Angeles: Industry and Society in a Mexican City (Boulder, Colo., 1989); Rich-
ard J. Salvucci, Textiles and Capitalism in Mexico: An Economic History of the
Obrajes, 15391840 (Princeton, N.J., 1987); and Carmen Viqueira and
Jose I. Urquiola, Los obrajes en la Nueva Espana (Mexico, D.F., 1990).
Other colonial industries have interested scholars such as Eduardo
Arcila Farias, who described Venezuela's cacao in Economia colonial de Vene-
zuela (Mexico, D.F., 1946), and the trade in it to Veracruz in Comercio entre
Venezuela y Mexico en los sighs XVI y XVII (Mexico, D.F., 1959); Manuel
Rubio Sanchez, Historia del anil 0 xiquilite en Centroamerica, 2 vols. (San
Salvador, 1976, 1978); and John E. Kicza, 'The pulque trade of late
colonial Mexico City', TA, 27 (1980), 193-221. There is a census of the
small manufacturers of Buenos Aires in Lyman L. Johnson, 'The entrepre-
neurial reorganization of an artisan trade: The bakers of Buenos Aires,
1770-1820', TA, 27 (1980), 139-60. On other individual entrepreneurs
and resourceful groups, see Maria Cristina Torales (ed.), La compania de
comercio de Francisco Ignacio de Yraeta, 176J-IJ9J: Cinco ensayos, 2 vols.
(Mexico D.F., 1985); John E. Kicza, Colonial Entrepreneurs: Families and
Business in Bourbon Mexico City (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1983); Peter
Bakewell, Silver and Entrepreneurship in Seventeenth-Century Potosi: The Life
and Times of Antonio Lopez de Quiroga (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1989); Ly-
man L. Johnson, 'The racial limits of Guild solidarity: An example from
colonial Buenos Aires', RHA, 99 (1985), 7-26; and Jay Kinsbruner, Petty
Capitalism in Spanish America: The Pulperos of Puebla, Mexico City, Caracas
and Buenos Aires (Boulder, Colo., 1987).
Sixteenth-century price inflation was the object of a study by Woodrow
Borah and Sherburne Cook, Price Trends ofSome Basic Commodities in Central
Mexico, 1531-1570 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1958). Enrique Flores-

ioo //. Colonial Spanish America
cano covered the same problems for the last century of the colonial period
in his Precios de tnaiz y crisis agricolas en Mexico, IJO8I8IO (Mexico, D.F.,
1969). A useful synthesis of the later literature on price movements is
Ruggiero Romano, 'Algunas consideraciones sobre la historia de precios en
America colonial,' H1SLA: Revista Latinoamericana de Historia Economica y
Social, 7/1 (1986), 65-103, and valuable essays appear in a recent collec-
tion by Lyman L. Johnson and Enrique Tandeter (eds.), Essays on the Price
History of Eighteenth-Century Latin America (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1990).
For opposing views on the seventeenth-century crisis, see Wbodrow
Borah, New Spain's Century of Depression (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1951),
and John Lynch, The Hispanic World in Crisis and Change, 1598-1700
(Oxford, 1992). But the debate goes on. For example, a work which
examines the deterioration of the Dominican economy in the seventeenth
century is Frank Pefia Perez, Cien anos de miseria en Santo Domingo, 1600
1700 (Santo Domingo, 1985).
The colonial boom of the eighteenth century and the partial setbacks
which took place in the years before independence have been studied in
many of the works already cited. The other side of the eighteenth-century
economic boom is nowhere better summed up than in D. A. Brading's
Haciendas and Ranchos in the Mexican Bajio: Leon, ijoo1860 (Cambridge,
Eng., 1978). See also Eric Van Young, Hacienda and Market in Eighteenth
Century Mexico: The Rural Economy of the Guadalajara Region, 16751820
(Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1981). Other works on the late colonial econ-
omy include Ann Twinam's analysis of the province of Antioquia, Miners,
Merchants and Farmers in Colonial Colombia (Austin, Tex., 1982); Maria
Luisa Laviana Cuetos, Guayaquil en el sigh XVIII: Recursos naturales y
desarrollo econdmico (Seville, 1987); Armando de Ram6n and Jose Manuel
Larrafn, Origenes de la vida economica chilena, 16591808 (Santiago, Chile,
1982); and Jerry W. Cooney, Economia y sociedad en la intendencia del Para-
guay (Asuncion, 1990).
12. SOCIAL O R G A N I Z A T I O N A N D SOCIAL

CHANGE
Sophisticated discussion of Spanish American social organization is ex-

tremely rare. But see by James Lockhart, 'Encomienda and hacienda: The
evolution of the great estate in the Spanish Indies', HAHR, 49 (1969),
41129; introduction to Ida Altman and James Lockhart (eds.), Provinces

12. Social organization and social change io i
of Early Mexico: Variants of Spanish American Regional Evolution (Los An-

geles, 1976); 'Capital and province, Spaniard and Indian: The example of
late sixteenth-century Toluca', in Altman and Lockhart, Provinces of Early
Mexico, 99-123. See also Wbodrow Borah, 'Race and class in Mexico',
Pacific Historical Review, 23 (1954), 331-42; Enrique Otte, Trager und
Formen der wirtschaftlichen Erschliessung Lateinamerikas im 16. Jahr-
hundert', JGSWGL, 4 (1967), 226-66; and Richard Boyer, 'Mexico in
the seventeenth century: Transition of a colonial society', HAHR, 57/3
(1977), 45478. The latter two articles are perhaps more economic than
social in orientation. Two broad thematic works by Magnus Morner cover
all Spanish America for the entire colonial period and are in a part social,
part legal vein: Race Mixture in the History of Latin America (Boston, 1967),
and La corona espanola y los fordneos en los pueblos de indios de America (Stock-
holm, 1970). See also Guillermo Cespedes's synthesis, Latin America: The
Early Years (New York, 1974), summarizing much basic research. James
Lockhart and Enrique Otte, Letters and People of the Spanish Indies, Sixteenth
Century (Cambridge, Eng., 1976) contains analysis of general social types
and processes together with specific examples; Otte's 'Die europaischen
Siedler und die Probleme der Neuen Welt', JGSWGL, 6 (1969), 1-40
contains additional similar material. For a wider canvas, see James Lock-
hart and Stuart B. Schwartz, Early Latin America: A History of Colonial
Spanish America and Brazil (Cambridge, Eng., 1983).
The remarkable florescence of writing on the social history of early Latin
America has mainly taken the form of works at once specific and theoreti-
cal, specific in that they closely reconstruct the progress of individual per-
sons or organizations in a specific time and place, and theoretical in that
thereby they reveal previously unknown categories and patterns basic to
the general social process. James Lockhart, 'The social history of colonial
Latin America: Evolution and potential', LARR, 7/1 (1972), 6-45, sur-
veys this literature up to c. 1970, including such contributions as Mario
Gongora, Grupos de conquistadores en Tierra Firme (1509-1530) (Santiago,
Chile, 1962) and James Lockhart, Spanish Peru, 1532-1560 (Madison,
Wis., 1968). The following are some of the more important monographs
completed in this general vein since then: Mario Gongora, Encomenderos y
estancieros: Estudios acerca de la constitucion social aristocratica de Chile despuis de
la conquista, 15801600 (Santiago, Chile, 1970); P. J. Bakewell, Silver
Mining and Society in Colonial Mexico: Zacatecas, 1546IJOO (Cambridge,
Eng., 1971); D. A. Brading, Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico,
17631810 (Cambridge, Eng., 1971); James Lockhart, The Men of

IO2 //. Colonial Spanish America
Cajamarca: A Social and Biographical Study of the First Conquerors of Peru

(Austin, Tex., 1972); Leon G. Campbell, 'A Creole establishment: The
Audiencia of Lima in the later eighteenth century', HAHR, 52/1 (1972),
125; Frederick P. Bowser, The African Slave in Colonial Peru, 15241650
(Stanford, Calif., 1974); Mario Gongora, 'Urban social stratification in
colonial Chile', HAHR, 55/3 (1975), 42148; Peter Marzahl, Town in the
Empire: Government, Politics, and Society in Seventeenth-Century Popaydn (Aus-
tin, Tex., 1978); D. A. Brading, Haciendas and Ranchos in the Mexican
Bajio: Le6n, 17001860 (Cambridge, Eng., 1978); Herman W. Konrad,
A Jesuit Hacienda in Colonial Mexico: Santa Lucia, 15761767 (Stanford,
Calif., 1980); Eric Van Young, Hacienda and Market in Eighteenth-Century
Mexico: The Rural Economy of the Guadalajara Region, 16751820 (Berkeley
and Los Angeles, 1981); Ann Twinam, Miners, Merchants, and Farmers in
Colonial Colombia (Austin, Tex., 1982); Efrain Trelles Arestegui, Lucas
Martinez Vegaso: Funcionamiento de una encomienda peruana inicial (Lima,
1982); John E. Kicza, Colonial Entrepreneurs: Families and Business in Bour-
bon Mexico City (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1983); Keith A. Davies, Land-
owners in Colonial Peru (Austin, Tex., 1984); Susan E. Ramirez, Provincial
Patriarchs: Land Tenure and the Economics of Power in Colonial Peru (Albuquer-
que, N.Mex., 1986); John Frederick Schwaller, The Church and Clergy in
Sixteenth-Century Mexico (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1987); Peter Bakewell,
Silver and Entrepreneurship in Seventeenth-Century Potosi: The Life and Times of
Antonio Ldpez de Quiroga (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1988); Ida Altman, Emi-
grants and Society: Extremadura and Spanish America in the Sixteenth Century
(Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1989); Robert J. Ferry, The Colonial Elite of
Early Caracas: Formation and Crisis, 1567-1767 (Berkeley and Los An-
geles, 1989); Robert T. Himmerich, The Encomenderos of New Spain, 1521-
1555 (Austin, Tex., 1991). As the list shows, the history of rural estates
plays a dominant role in this literature, but mining is not neglected, and
the difficult, complex topic of urban society has begun to receive some
attention, though much more is required.
Until the 1980s, this sort of research, which broadly speaking we may
term career-pattern history, has been aimed primarily at the Hispanic
sector of Spanish American society, mainly for technical reasons for source
availability and accessibility. In the late 1980s, books began to appear on
the Indians of the central regions which, though not perhaps identical in
approach to those above, share a great deal with them: Steve J. Stern,
Peru's Indian Peoples and the Challenge of Spanish Conquest: Huamanga to 1640
(Madison, Wis., 1982); Karen Spalding, Huarochiri: An Andean Society

12. Social organization and social change 103
under Inca and Spanish Rule (Stanford, Calif., 1984); Nancy M. Farriss,
Maya Society under Colonial Rule (Princeton, N.J., 1984); S. L. Cline,
Colonial Culhuacan, 15801600 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1986); Robert S.
Haskett, Indigenous Rulers: An Ethnohistory of Town Government in Colonial
Cuernavaca (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1991); and James Lockhart, The
Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of
Central Mexico, Sixteenth through Eighteenth Centuries (Stanford, Calif.,
1992).
Another kind of work exists, which is more aggregate or statistical,
sometimes containing a considerable amount of anecdotal illustration,
without prior close attention to functioning entities and the detail of the
social context within which the phenomena examined operated. This type
of research tends to throw less direct light on social categories and pro-
cesses, yet seen in conjunction with the type of research just cited, it can
yield valuable insights and can reach into some areas not otherwise accessi-
ble to investigation. See, for example, William B. Taylor, Landlord and
Peasant in Colonial Oaxaca (Stanford, Calif., 1972); German Colmenares,
Historia economicay socialde Colombia, 1537-1719 (Bogota, 1973); Stepha-
nie Blank, 'Patrons, clients, and kin in seventeenth-century Caracas',
HAHR, 54/2 (1974), 260-83; Doris M. Ladd, The Mexican Nobility at
Independence, 1780-1826 (Austin, Tex., 1976); John V. Lombardi, People
and Places in Colonial Venezuela (Bloomington, Ind., 1976); Robert G.
Keith, Conquest and Agrarian Change: The Emergence of the Hacienda Sytem on
the Peruvian Coast (Cambridge, Mass., 1976); Peter Boyd-Bowman, 'Pat-
terns of Spanish emigration to the Indies until 1600', HAHR, 56/4
(1976), 580-604; Christon I. Archer, The Army in Bourbon Mexico, 1760-
1810 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1977); Mark A. Burkholder and D. S.
Chandler, From Impotence to Authority: The Spanish Crown and the American
Audiencias, 1687-1808 (Columbia, Mo., 1977); Susan Migden Socolow,
The Merchants of Buenos Aires, 1778-1810 (Cambridge, Eng., 1978); John
K. Chance, Race and Class in Colonial Oaxaca (Stanford, Calif., 1978); Leon
G. Campbell, The Military and Society in Colonial Peru, 1750-/810 (Phila-
delphia, 1978); William B. Taylor, Drinking, Homicide and Rebellion in
Colonial Mexican Villages (Stanford, Calif., 1979); Julia Hirschberg, 'Social
experiment in New Spain: A Prosopographical study of the early settle-
ment at Puebla de los Angeles, 1531-1534', HAHR, 59/1(1979), 1-33;
Lyman L. Johnson, "Manumission in colonial Buenos Aires', HAHR, 59/2
( L 979). 258-79; Asuncion Lavrin and Edith Couturier, 'Dowries and
wills: A view of women's socioeconomic role in colonial Guadalajara and

Puebla, 16401790', HAHR, 59/2 (1979), 280304; Herbert S. Klein,

'The structure of the hacendado class in late eighteenth-century Alto Peru:
The Intendencia de La Paz', HAHR, 60/2 (1980), 191212; Michael M.
Swann, Tierra Adentro: Settlement and Society in Colonial Durango (Boulder,
Colo., 1982); Cheryl English Martin, Rural Society in Colonial Morelos
(Albuquerque, N.Mex. 1985); Silvia Marina Arrom, The Women of Mexico
City, IJ90185J (Stanford, Calif, 1985); Patricia Seed, To Love, Honor,
and Obey in Colonial Mexico: Conflicts over Marriage Choice, 15J41821
(Stanford, Calif., 1988).
13. INDIAN SOCIETIES UNDER SPANISH

RULE
A major work of reference for the ethnohistory and particularly the ethno-
historical bibliography of Mesoamerica is the Guide to Ethnohistorical
Sources, which comprises the four final volumes (12-15) of Robert Wau-
chope (ed.), Handbook of Middle American Indians (Austin, Tex., 1964-
75). The four volumes were edited by Howard Cline and they contain
articles on the relevant bibliographical materials, the Relaciones geogrdficas,
the chronicles and their authors, the pictorial manuscripts (codices), mate-
rials in the native and in the European traditions, and much else. There is
no comparable guide to the ethnohistorical source material of South Amer-
ica. But see albeit dated Julian H. Steward (ed.), The Handbook of
South American Indians, especially vol. 2, (Washington, D.C., 1946). Two
useful summary articles that survey the bibliography and the state of
research c. 1970 are. John V. Murra, 'Current research and prospects in
Andean ethnohistory', LARR, 5 (1970), 3-36, and Karen Spalding, 'The
colonial Indian: Past and future research perspectives', LARR, 7 (1972),
47-76.
Basic works on Spanish institutional controls over Indians include Clar-
ence Haring, The Spanish Empire in America, rev. ed. (New York, 1963),
which is still a useful one-volume general summary. For other general
works, see essay II: 1. A number of monographs treat special topics: Alberto
Mario Salas, Las armas de la conquista (Buenos Aires, 1950), on conquest,
warfare, and weapons; Silvio Zavala, La encomienda Indiana (Madrid, 1935)
and Las instituciones juridicas en la conquista de America (Madrid, 1935; rev.
ed., 1971); L. B. Simpson, The Ecomienda in New Spain (1950; rev. ed.,
Berkeley, 1966), Guillermo Lohmann Villena, El corregidor de indios en el

Peru bajo los Austrias (Madrid, 1957); Constantino Bayle, Loscabildosseculares

en la America espanola (Madrid, 1952); and many others. Peter Gerhard, A
Guide to the Historical Geography of New Spain (Cambridge, Eng., 1972; rev.
ed., 1993) is fundamental for the history of encomiendas, corregimientos,
town foundations, and local institutions and events. Special note should be
taken of Lewis Hanke, The Spanish Strugglefor Justice in the Conquest ofAmerica
(Philadelphia, 1949), on the campaign for fair treatment of Indians, and of
Edward H. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico and the
United States on the Indians of the South-West 15331960 (Tucson, Ariz.,
1962), an examination of whiteIndian contacts in northern Mexico and
the south-west of the United States.
The classic treatment of the friars' efforts to convert the Indians in
Mexico to the 1570s is Robert Ricard, La 'conquete spirituelle' du Mexique
(Paris, 1933); Eng. trans., The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico: An Essay on the
Apostolate and the Evangelizing Methods of the Mendicant Orders of New Spain,
152315J2 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1966). Many of Ricard's conclu-
sions, however, have been contested. One influential counterpoint is J.
Jorge Klor de Alva, 'Spiritual conflict and accommodation in New Spain:
Toward a typology of Aztec responses to Christianity, in The Inca and Aztec
States 14001800: Anthropology and History, edited by G. A. Collier, R. I.
Rosaldo and J. D. Wirth (New York, 1982), 34566. Also of interest on
this early missionary era in New Spain are Miguel Leon-Portilla's brief but
important Los franciscanos vistos por el hombre ndhuatl: Testimonios indigenas
del siglo XVI (Mexico, D.F., 1985); a welcome new addition of Motolinia's
Historia de los indios de la Nueva Espana by Georges Baudot (Madrid, 1985);
Mauricio J. Mixco's fine English translation and revision of Luis Nicolau
d'Olwer's classic 1952 study, Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, 1499-1590
(Salt Lake City, 1987) and, on the same subject, a set of stimulating essays
in J. Jorge Klor de Alva, H. B. Nicholson and Eloise Quifiones (eds.), The
Work of Bernardino de Sahagun, Pioneer Ethnographer of Sixteenth-Century
Aztec Mexico (Austin, Tex., 1988). Important, too, are a new facsimile
edition of a major NahuatlSpanish confession manual, with a valuable
introductory essay by Roberto Moreno, Alonso de Molina's Confesionario
mayor en la lengua mexicana y castellana (Mexico, D.F., 1984); Louise M.
Burkhart's challenging study, The Slippery Earth: NahuaChristian Moral
Dialogue (Tucson, Ariz., 1989); and, for a slightly later period, Hernando
Ruiz de Alarcon, The Treatise of Ruiz de Alarcon (.1629), ed. and trans. J. R.
Andrews and R. Hassig (Norman, Okl., 1984), the most authoritative
English edition of this 1629 work which was meant as a manual for

io6 //. Colonial Spanish America
confessors of Indians and extirpators of idolatry. The historical literature
on northern Mexican and borderlands missions is too extensive to summa-
rize here.
The 'missionary era' in the Andes is less known than the similar period
in Mexico. Still useful, however, are Fernando de Armas Medina, Cristia-
nizacion del Peru (Seville, 1953) and Antonine Tibesar, Franciscan Begin-
nings in Colonial Peru (1^32-1600) (Washington, D.C., 1953). Two
thought-provoking discussions of sixteenth-century Peruvian religious
themes are Sabine MacCormack, ' "The Heart Has Its Reasons": Predica-
ments of Missionary Christianity in early colonial Peru', HAHR, 65/3
(1985), 4 4 3 - 6 6 and Carlos Sempat Assadourian, 'Las rentas reales, el
buen gobierno y la hacienda de Dios: El parecer de 1568 de Fray Francisco
de Morales sobre la reformacion de las Indias temporal y espiritual', His-
torica, 9/1 (1985), 75130. And see Sabine MacCormack's study, Religion
in the Andes: Vision and Imagination in Early Colonial Peru (Princeton, N.J.,
1991). A more thorough guide to important literature on religious mat-
ters appears in essay II: 16. Pierre Duviols, La lutte contre les religions
autochtones dans le Perou coloniale. 'L'extirpation de I'idolatrie' entre 1532 et
1660 (Lima, 1971), translated into Spanish as La destruccidn de las religiones
andinas (Mexico, D.F., 1977), remains an essential departure point for the
study of the Limeno Church's efforts to extirpate idolatry in the course of
the sixteenth and first half of the seventeenth century.
Important writings on tribute, land and labour, largely from the Span-
ish administrative point of view, are Jose Miranda, El tributo indigena en la
Nueva Espana durante el siglo XVI (Mexico, D.F., 1952); L. B. Simpson,
Exploitation of Land in Central Mexico in the Sixteenth Century (Berkeley and
Los Angeles, 1952); Frangois Chevalier, La formation des grands domaines au
Mexique: Terre et societe aux XVI'XVII' siecles (Paris, 1952; also in Spanish
and English translations); and the series of introductions to the volumes of
Silvio A. Zavala and Maria Costelo (eds.), Fuentespara la historia del trabajo
en Nueva Espana, 8 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 193946). An important modern
work on the hacienda in Peru is Robert G. Keith, Conquest and Agrarian
Change: The Emergence of the Hacienda System on the Peruvian Coast (Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1976). A general survey of labour is Juan A. and Judith E.
Villamarin, Indian Labor in Mainland Colonial Spanish America (Newark,
Del., 1975). Articles by James Lockhart, 'Encomienda and Hacienda: The
evolution of the Great Estate in the Spanish Indies', HAHR, 49/3 (1969),
41129, and Robert G. Keith, 'Encomienda, Hacienda and Corregimiento
in Spanish America: A structural analysis', HAHR, 51/3 (1971), 4 3 1 - 4 6

13- Indian societies under Spanish rule 107
provide other useful general outlines. For more on these themes see essay
II: 11. On relations between Spaniards and Indians, the article by Elman
R. Service, 'Indian-European relations in colonial Latin America', Ameri-
can Anthropologist, 57 (1955), 41125, and the general treatment by
Magnus Morner, Race Mixture in the History of Latin America (Boston,
1967), are worthy of attention.
The study of Indian society under colonial conditions owes much to the
seminal work of the California demographers L. B. Simpson, Sherburne F.
Cook and Woodrow Borah, beginning in the 1940s and continuing to the
present, and published principally in the Ibero-Americana series. See essay
11:6. Borah especially has developed the original demographic materials in
studies of Indian social organization, tribute payment, labour and prices.
Some of the more important later studies on Indian demography would
include both of Linda A. Newson's monumental contributions for Central
America, The Cost of Conquest: Indian Decline in Honduras Under Spanish Rule
(Boulder, Colo., 1986) and Indian Survival in Colonial Nicaragua (Norman,
Okla., 1987) and, for the Andes, Noble David Cook's Demographic Col-
lapse: Indian Peru, 15201620 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981) and Suzanne
Austin Alchon, Native Society and Disease in Colonial Ecuador (Cambridge,
Eng., 1991).
Pioneering work in the analysis of Nahuatl texts and codices for what
they yield on Indian social structure and social history has been accom-
plished by Pedro Carrasco, Joaquin Galarza, Hans J. Prem and others.
Frances Karttunen and James Lockhart have also examined the colonial
history of the Nahuatl language in Nahuatl in the Middle Years: Language
Contact Phenomena in Texts of the Colonial Period (Berkeley and Los An-
geles, 1976). Important additions in this area include the publication of
two bilingual editions (EnglishNahuatl and SpanishNahuatl) of the
early colonial record of the Indian municipality of Tlaxcala: James Lock-
hart, Frances Berdan and Arthur J. O. Anderson (trans, and eds.), The
Tlaxcalan Adas: A Compendium of the Records of the Cabildo of Tlaxcala,
1545-162J (Salt Lake City, 1986), and Eustaqio Celestino Solis et al.
(trans, and eds.), Actas de Cabildo de Tlaxcala, 154J-156J (Mexico,
D.F., 1985). The former selects twenty-five sessions, while the latter
represents the complete minutes of 184 meetings of the Indian council.
Historical essays precede both editions. An invaluable reference work,
giving a chronology of Nahuatl scholarship from 1546 to 1980 and a
catalogue of Nahuatl printed works (some 2,961 items), is Ascension H.
de Leon-Portilla, Tepuztlahcuilolli: Impresos en nahuatl: Historia y bib-

io8 //. Colonial Spanish America
liografia, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1988). James Lockhart, Nahuas and
Spaniards: Postconquest Central Mexican History and Philology (Stanford,
Calif., 1991) is of wide interest.
Treatments of colonial Indian society in particular areas of Mexico include
Delfina Lopez Sarrelangue, La nobleza indigena de Patzcuaro en la epoca
virreinal (Mexico, D.F., 1965); Charles Gibson, Tlaxcala in the Sixteenth
Century (New Haven, Conn., 1952) and The Aztecs under Spanish Rule (Stan-
ford, Calif., 1964); William B. Taylor, Landlord and Peasant in Colonial
Oaxaca (Stanford, Calif., 1972) and Drinking, Homicide and Rebellion in
Colonial Mexican Villages (Stanford, 1979); Ronald Spores's expanded study
(from the 1967 original) of the Mixteca Alta, The Mixtecs and Colonial Times
(Norman, Okla., 1984); the collection of studies edited by Ida Altman and
James Lockhart, Provinces of Early Mexico (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976);
and James Lockhart. The Nahuas after the Conquest. A Social and Cultural
History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries (Stan-
ford, 1992). John K. Chance, Conquest of the Sierra: Spaniards and Indians in
Colonial Oaxaca (Norman, Okla., 1989) extends this author's investigations
into the Villa Alta district in the backlands of rural Oaxaca. See also
Marcello Carmagnani, El regreso de los dioses: El proceso de reconstitucidn de la
identidad etnica en Oaxaca, sighs XVII y XVIII (Mexico, D.F., 1988), which
links the forging of a mid-colonial identity with territory in Oaxaca; S. L.
Cline, Colonial Culhuacdn, 15801600: A Social History of an Aztec Town
(Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1986), which presents insights into kinship and
property in colonial Indian society; and Arij Ouweneel and Simon Miller
(eds.), The Indian Community of Colonial Mexico: Fifteen Essays on Land Tenure,
Corporate Organizations, Ideology and Village Politics (Amsterdam, 1990). Two
notable studies of Cuernavaca by Robert S. Haskett plot continuities and
transformations of Nahua political structures into the colonial era: 'Indian
town government in colonial Cuernavaca: Persistence, adaptation and
change', HAHR, 67/2(1987), 203-31, and'Living in two worlds: Cultural
continuity and change among Cuernavaca's ruling elite', Ethnohistory, 35/1
(1988), 3459. Susan Kellogg charts postconquest inheritance patterns in
'Aztec inheritance in sixteenth-century Mexico City: Colonial patterns,
prehispanic influences', Ethnohistory, 33/3 (1986), 313-30. Also deserving
special mention is Serge Gruzinski, La colonisation de I'imaginaire: Societes
indigenes et occidentalisation dans le Mexique Espagnol, XVIe-XVIIIe siecle
(Paris, 1988); Eng. trans. The Conquest of Mexico (Cambridge, Eng., 1993).
The first four chapters of the same author's Man-Gods in the Mexican High-

lands: Indian Power and Colonial Society, 1520-1800 (Stanford, Calif., 1989)
explore four extraordinary case studies of colonial Indians.
Work on the rest of Mesoamerica has also increased. Some useful pri-
mary sources, accessible to English readers, should be noted first: a re-
edition of Ephraim G. Squier's i860 translation of Diego Garcia de
Palacio, Letter to the King of Spain: Being a Description of the Ancient Provinces
of Guazacapan, Izalco, Cuscatlan and Chuquimula, in the Audiencia of Guate-
mala, with additional notes by A. von Frantzius and Frank E. Comparato
(Culver City Calif., 1985), and a Spanish facsimile edition of Garcia de
Palacio's original, edited by Maria del Carmen Leon Cazeres (Mexico,
D.F., 1983); and Antonio de Leon Pinelo's important memoir from 1639,
translated with notes by Doris Zemurray Stone in 1932, Report Made in the
Royal Council of the Indies: On the Pacification and Population of the Provinces of
the Manche and Lacandon, reedited with additional notes by Frank E.
Comparato (Culver City, Calif., 1986). Of the secondary works in En-
glish, Nancy M. Farriss, Maya Society Under Colonial Rule: The Collective
Enterprise ofSurvival (Princeton, N.J., 1984) and Inga Clendinnen, Ambiva-
lent Conquests: Maya and Spaniard in Yucatan, 15171570 (Cambridge,
Eng., 1987) are essential works. A model piece of historical geography is
W. George Lovell's Conquest and Survival in Colonial Guatemala: A Histori-
cal Geography of the Cuchumatdn Highlands, 1500 1821 (Montreal, 1985).
In addition, Grant D. Jones, Maya Resistance to Spanish Rule: Time and
History on a Colonial Frontier (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1989); Elias Zamora
Acosta, Los mayas de las tierras altas en el siglo XVI: Tradicion y cambio en
Guatemala (Seville, 1985); and Severo Martinez Pelaez, Motines de indios:
La violencia colonial en Centroamerica y Chiapas (Puebla, Mex., 1985) all
examine different responses of indigenous culture to Spanish domination.
While the scope of colonial Mesoamerican scholarship is nothing if not
impressive, it can no longer be said that contemporary Andean studies lag
far behind. In South America comparable work began later, but current
research is making rapid headway. A pioneering survey was George
Kubler, 'The Quechua in the colonial world' in vol. 2 (1946) of the
Handbook of South American Indians, mentioned above. A number of
sixteenth-century studies by Maria Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, par-
ticularly Estructuras andinas del poder: Ideologia religiosa y politica (Lima,
1983), John V. Murra's essays in Formaciones economicas y politicas del mundo
andino (Lima, 1975) and the same author's careful editions of sixteenth-
century visitas, have proved equally influential. Nathan Wachtel, La vision

no //. Colonial Spanish America
des vaincus (Paris, 1971); Eng. trans., The Vision of the Vanquished: The
Spanish Conquest of Peru Through Indian Eyes, 1530-1570 (Hassocks, Sus-
sex, 1977), a wide-ranging, imaginative, structuralist analysis of Indian
life and thought in Peru, and La Lutte contre les religions by Pierre Duviols,
mentioned above, have set high standards for all later investigators. Amid
a burgeoning literature, two important and influential monographs are
Karen Spalding, Huarochiri: An Andean Society Under Inca and Spanish Rule
(Stanford, Calif., 1984), and Steve J. Stern, Peru's Indian Peoples and the
Challenge of Spanish Conquest: Huamanga to 1640 (Madison, Wis., 1982).
The scholarly edition of Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala's El primer nueva
coronica y bum gobierno, prepared by John V. Murra, Rolena Adorno and
George L. Urioste (Mexico, D.F., 1980), is an essential primary source.
Adorno's Guaman Poma: Writing and Resistance in Colonial Peru (Austin,
Tex., 1986), which traces this important chronicler's influences, and her
essay on indios ladinos in the volume edited by Kenneth J. Andrien and
herself, mentioned below, also make for rewarding reading. Two signifi-
cant essays on regional Indian lords in the colonial era build upon earlier
conclusions of Spalding and Stern on this theme: based on information
from the Lambayeque region on the north coast, Susan E. Ramirez, 'The
dueno de indios: Thoughts on the consequences of shifting bases of power of
the curaca de los antiguos under the Spanish in sixteenth-century Peru',
HAHR, 67/4 (1987), 575610 and, challenging Guaman Poma's nega-
tive depiction of the colonial kuraka as a usurper and opportunist, Thierry
Saignes, 'De la borrachera al retrato: Los caciques andinos entre dos
legitimidades Charcas', Revista Andina, 5/1 (1987), 13970. Ann M.
Wightman's Indigenous Migration and Social Change: The Foresteros of
Cuzco, 15701720 (Durham, N.C., 1990) breaks new ground on Indian
movement and the fate of the Spanish policy of reduccion, and Irene M.
Silverblatt's controversial synthesis, Moon, Sun and Witches: Gender Ideolo-
gies and Class in Inca and Colonial Peru (Princeton, N.J., 1987) focuses on
female power and the effects of successive conquests and consolidations on
Andean women. A number of excellent essays on both old and new themes
appear in Kenneth J. Andrien and Rolena Adorno (eds.), Transatlantic
Encounters: Europeans and Andeans in the Sixteenth Century (Berkeley, 1991).
And Bruce Mannheim has produced an innovative and valuable history of
southern Peruvian Quechua in The Language of the Inka Since the European
Invasion (Austin, Tex., 1991).
In the realm of accessible primary sources, one of the richest sources on

colonial Andean religion and culture, still much ignored outside Andean-

13- Indian societies under Spanish rule 111
ist circles, the so-called Huarochiri Manuscript, has been published in a

number of excellent scholarly editions: Gerald Taylor (ed. and trans.),
Ritos y tradiciones de Huarochiri: Manuscrito quechua de comimzos del siglo XVII
(Lima, 1987), including an important biographical study of the most
famous extirpator of idolatry, Francisco de Avila, by Antonio Acosta; and
in English Frank Salomon and George L. Urioste (ed. and trans.), The
(Austin, Tex., 1991). Salomon prefaces the latter with an informative
contextual essay. Luis Millones, whose articles in the 1960s and whose
1971 publication of Cristobal de Albornoz's Informaciones began consider-
ation of the Taki Onqoy uprising of the 1560s, has collected a number of
important documents and studies on the still fascinating movement in
south-central Peru: El retorno de las huacas: Estudios y documentos sobre el Taki
Onqoy, siglo XVI (Lima, 1990). See also Henrique Urbano and Pierre
Duviols, C. de Molina, C. de Albornoz: Fdbulas y mitos de los Incas (Madrid,
1989). Another important collection for students of Peruvian religious
history is an extraordinary group of seventeenth-century idolatry trials
compiled by Pierre Duviols (ed.), Cultura andina y represidn: Procesos y
visitas de idolatrias y hechicerias, Cajatambo, siglo XVII (Cuzco, 1986). A full
manuscript of the 1551 Cusco chronicle of Juan de Betanzos (only 18 of 82
chapters were previously known) has been published as Suma y narracion de
los incas, transcribed and edited by Maria del Carmen Martin Rubio (Ma-
drid, 1987). The work is based on the testimony of Betanzos's Inka wife,
Cuxirimay Ocllo (baptised Angelina Yupanqui), and treats the period
from the reorganisation of Tahuantinsuyu by Pachacuti Inka into the early
colonial period and neo-Inka state.
Three kinds of rebellion are discussed in Steve J. Stern (ed.), Resistance,
Rebellion and Consciousness in the Andean Peasant World: 18th to 20th Centuries
(Madison, Wis., 1987), a collection which includes a number of impor-
tant contributions to mid- and late-colonial historiography; Stern's own
introductory piece attempts to place Andean peoples in a wider compara-
tive framework. Also with an eye to late colonial insurrection as a prologue
to independence is Scarlett O'Phelan Godoy, Rebellions and Revolts in
Eighteenth-Century Peru and Upper Peru (Vienna, 1985). Deserving of special
mention in the context of these colonial Andean hopes and dreams are the
challenging studies of Alberto Flores Galindo, Buscando un Inca: Identidad
y Utopia en los Andes (Havana, 1986; Lima, 1987) and Manuel Burga,
Nacimiento de una Utopia: Muerte y resurreccion de los incas (Lima, 1988).
On the peoples of lowland South America in the colonial years, among

many other studies too numerous to detail here, see especially an impor-
tant synthesis by France Marie Renard-Casevitz, Thierry Saignes and A.
C. Taylor (eds.), L'lnca, I'espagnol et les sauvages: Rapports entre las sorites
amazoniennes et aridities du XVe au XVIIe siecle (Paris, 1986); a compilation
of primary sources on groups in what is today north-eastern Peru and
eastern Ecuador, Francisco Figueroa et al., Informes de jesuitas en el ama-
zonas, 1660-1684 (Iquitos, 1986); and on an area further to the north-
east, Neil L. Whitehead, Lords of the Tiger Spirit: A History of the Caribs in
Colonial Venezuela and Guyana, 14981820 (Providence, R.I., 1988).
14. AFRICANS IN SPANISH AMERICAN

COLONIAL SOCIETY
A survey of recent scholarship that also includes works on Brazil and the
English, French, and Dutch possessions in the Caribbean, with some men-
tion of the United States where comparisons are appropriate, can be found in
the excellent bibliographical notes appended to Herbert S. Klein, African
Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (New York, 1986). Somewhat
dated but still valuable for their perspectives are Frederick P. Bowser, 'The
African in colonial Spanish America: Reflections on research achievements
and priorities,' LARR, 7/1 (1972), 77-94; and Magnus Morner, 'Recent
research on Negro slavery and abolition in Latin America,' LARR, 13/2
(1978), 2 6 5 - 8 9 .
In 1977, Joseph C. Miller began his admirable and ambitious biblio-
graphical projects with Slavery: A Comparative Teaching Bibliography (Wal-
tham, Mass., 1977), which was followed by Slavery: A Worldwide Bibliog-
raphy, 1900-1982 (White Plains, N.Y., 1985). Annual supplements are
published in the journal Slavery and Abolition. See also the valuable
compilation by John David Smith, Black Slavery in the Americas: An
Interdisciplinary Bibliography, 1865-1980, 2 vols. (Westport, Conn.,
1982). Guidance to archival sources will be found in Miguel Acosta
Saignes, 'Introducci6n al estudio de los repositories documentales sobre
los africanos y sus descendientes en America,' America Indigena, 29
(1969), 7 2 7 - 8 6 .
A number of very helpful dictionaries have made their appearance.
Perhaps the most useful are Benjamin Nunez (comp.), Dictionary of Afro-
Latin American Civilization (Westport, Conn., 1979) and Thomas M. Ste-
phens (comp.), Dictionary of Latin American Racial and Ethnic Terminology

14- Africans in colonial society 113
(Gainesville, Fla., 1989). See also Robert M. Levine (comp.), Race and
Ethnic Relations in Latin America and the Caribbean: An Historical Dictionary
and Bibliography (Metuchen, N.J., 1980) and Randall M. Miller and John
David Smith (eds.), Dictionary of Afro-American Slavery (Westport, Conn.,
1988). The capstone to a lifetime of meritorious scholarship is Fernando
Romero's Quimba, fa, malomba negue: Afronegrismos en el Peru (Lima, 1988).
EUROPEAN BACKGROUND
For impressive surveys of the European background to Spanish American

slavery, see William D. Phillips, Jr., Slavery from Roman Times to the Early
Transatlantic Trade (Minneapolis, Minn., 1985); and David Brion Davis,
The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Ithaca, N.Y., 1966). For Spain
itself at the dawn of the Age of Discovery, the standard work remains
Charles Verlinden, L'esclavage dans I'Europe medievale, I: Peninsule Iberique
France (Bruges, 1955), though the generalist may prefer his more accessi-
ble essays collected in The Beginnings of Modern Colonization, trans. Yvonne
Freccero (Ithaca, N.Y., 1970). Other works of note are Vicente Cortes
Alonso, La esclavitud en Valencia durante el reinado de los Reyes Catolicos
(Valencia, 1964) and 'Valencia y el comercio de esclavos en el siglo XV,' in
Francisco de Solano (ed.), Estudios sobre la abolicion de la esclavitud (Madrid,
1986), 3385; Antonio Dominguez Ortiz, 'La esclavitud en Castilla du-
rante la edad moderna,' in Carmelo Vinas y Mey (ed.), Estudios de historia
social de Espana, 2 vols. (Madrid, 194952), vol. 2, 367428; Alfonso
Franco Silva, La esclavitud en Sevilla y su tierra a fines de la edad media
(Seville, 1979) and 'Aspectos diversos sobre la esclavitud en las ciudades
andaluzas durante los siglos XV y XVI', in Solano (ed.), Estudios sobre la
abolicion, 1532; and Ruth Pike, 'Sevillian society in the sixteenth cen-
tury: Slaves and freedmen,' HAHR, ^-jl^ (1967), 344-59. For early
Spanish attempts at slave trading, see Manuel Lobo Cabrera, 'Ideologia y
praxis en la proyeccion comercial y esclavista de Canarias hacia el Africa
Occidental,' in Solano (ed.), Estudios sobre la abolicion, 87-102.
THE SLAVE TRADE
From the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas to the end of the colonial period, the
slave trade to Spanish America lay largely outside the bounds of official
Spanish commerce, though its conduct in the hands of foreign suppliers
was subject to constant and often futile regulation. The classic account of

H4 H- Colonial Spanish America
Spanish policy toward the slave trade is Georges Scelle, La traite negriere
aux Indes de Castitle, 2 vols. (Paris, 1906). See also three fine general works
on commerce between Spain and America: Pierre and Huguette Chaunu,
Seville et I'Atlantique (1504-1650), 8 vols. in 11 (Paris, 1955-60); Lut-
gardo Garcia Fuentes, El comercio espanol con America, 16501700 (Seville,
1980); and Antonio Garcia-Baquero Gonzalez, Cadiz y el Atldntico, 1717
1778, 2 vols. (Seville, 1976) all of which mention those aspects of the
slave trade that came under the purview of Spanish officialdom, especially
those at the monopoly ports of Seville and Cadiz. An impressive number of
monographs on the Spanish American slave trade, including the contra-
band trade, based on foreign and colonial, as well as Spanish, sources have
appeared over the years. Worthy of note are: Alice Piffer Canabrava, 0
comercio portugues no Rio da Prata, 15801640 (Sao Paulo, 1944); Rozendo
Sampaio Garcia, 'Contribugao ao estudo do aprovisionamento de escravos
negros na America espanhola, 15801640,' Anais do Museu Paulista, 16
(1962), 5195; Lutgardo Garcia Fuentes, 'Licencias para la introduction
de esclavos en Indias y envios desde Sevilla en el siglo XVI,' JGSWGL, 19
(1982), 1-46; Herberts. Klein, The Middle Passage: Comparative Studies in
the Atlantic Slave Trade (Princeton, N J . , 1977); Eufemio Lorenzo Sanz,
Comercio de Espafia con America en la epoca de Felipe II (Valladolid, 1979),
51242; Jorge Palacios Preciado, La trata de negros por Cartagena de Indias
(Tunja, Col., 1973); Colin A. Palmer, Human Cargoes: The British Slave
Trade to Spanish America, 17001739 (Urbana, 111., 1981) and his 'The
company trade and the numerical distribution of slaves to Spanish Amer-
ica, 17031739,' in Paul E. Lovejoy (ed.), Africans in Bondage: Studies in
Slavery and the Slave Trade (Madison, Wis., 1986), 2742; Elena F. S. de
Studer, La trata de negros en el Rio de la Plata durante el siglo XVIII (Buenos
Aires, 1958); Bibiano Torres Ramirez, La compania gaditana de negros
(Seville, 1973); Marisa Vega Franco, El trdfico de esclavos con America . . .
16631674 (Seville, 1984); Enriqueta Vila Vilar, Hispano-America y el
comercio de esclavos: Los asientosPortugueses (Seville, 1977) and her 'La subleva-
ci6n de Portugal y la trata de negros,' l-AA, 2 (1976), 17192; and
Geoffrey J. Walker, Spanish Politics and Imperial Trade, 1700-1789 (Bloom-
ington, Ind., 1979).
Clearly, any estimates of the volume of the SpanishAmerican slave
trade for whatever region or period must be correlated with figures for the
trade as a whole. The classic work in this respect is Philip D. Curtin, The
Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census (Madison, Wis., 1969). Curtin's calculations
have been modified in many particulars, and the latest estimates may be

14 Africans in colonial society 115
found in Paul E. Lovejoy, "The volume of the Atlantic slave trade: A

synthesis,' Journal of African History, 23 (1982), 473-501; and David
Eltis, 'The nineteenth-century transatlantic slave trade: An annual time
series of imports into the Americas broken down by region,' HAHR, 67/1
(1987), 109-38. For an overview of the trade during its apogee and
decline, see Herbert S. Klein, 'Economic aspects of the eighteenth-century
Atlantic slave trade,' in James D. Tracy (ed.), The Rise of Merchant Empires:
Long Distance Trade in the Early Modern World, 1350-1730 (Cambridge,
Eng., 1990), 287310 and David Eltis, Economic Growth and the Ending of
the Transatlantic Slave Trade (New York, 1987).
The ambivalent and ambiguous stance of the Church with regard to the
slave trade has been little studied, but two items are of interest: Alonso de
Sandoval, De Instauranda Aethiopum salute: El mundo de la esclavitud negra en
America ed. Angel Valtierra (Bogota, 1956, from the 1627 Seville edi-
tion); and John K. Thornton, 'On the trail of Voodoo: African Christianity
in Africa and the Americas,' TA, 44 (1988), 261-78. (The Sandoval work
is best appreciated after reading the review by James F. King in HAHR,
37 Ii957l. 358-6o.)
SLAVERY
With regard to the study of slavery in the western hemisphere, it is not

too much to say that Frank Tannenbaum's Slave and Citizen: The Negro in
the Americas (New York, 1947), effected a scholarly revolution. Slavery,
and the related subjects of manumission, abolition, and race relations,
became worthy of serious investigation, thought, and often heated debate.
This was particularly true of the decade of the 1960s, and much of the
scholarly excitement then generated is encapsulated in Laura Foner and
Eugene D. Genovese (eds.), Slavery in the New World: A Reader in Compara-
tive History (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1969). Much of the research and
thought of succeeding decades is summarized, though not as well for Latin
America as it might have been, in Peter J. Parish, Slavery: History and
Historians (New York, 1989).
On slavery and race relations in Spanish America the following are
worthy of note: H. Hoetink (trans. Eva M. Hooykaas), The Two Variants in
Caribbean Race Relations: A Contribution to the Sociology of Segmented Societies,
(London, 1967) and Slavery and Race Relations in the Americas: Comparative
Notes on Their Nature and Nexus (New York, 1973); Orlando Patterson,
Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study (Cambridge, Eng., 1982);

n6 //. Colonial Spanish America
three thoughtful essays by Octavio Ianni, Sidney W. Mintz, and Manuel

Moreno Fraginals in Moreno Fraginals (ed.), Africa in Latin America: Essays
on History, Culture, and Socialization (New York, 1984); and Magnus
Morner, 'Slavery, race relations and Bourbon reorganisation in the eigh-
teenth century', in James Schofield Saeger (ed.), Essays on Eighteenth Cen-
tury Race Relations in the Americas (Bethlehem, Pa., 1987), 8-30. Finally,
mention should be made of the provocative, painstaking work by Jack D.
Forbes, Black Africans and Native Americans: Colour, Race, and Caste in the
Evolution of Red-Black Peoples (Oxford, 1988). It is Forbes's contention that
both the extent, and the ethnic and cultural implications, of the relations
between blacks and natiye Americans have been neglected and under-
estimated by scholars.
The best general account of slavery in colonial Spanish America is
Klein, African Slavery, and valuable for their perspectives are Philip D.
Curtin, The Rise and Vail of the Plantation Complex: Essays in Atlantic History
(Cambridge, Eng., 1990) and Magnus Morner, 'The impact of regional
variety on the history of the Afro-Latin Americans,' SECOLAS-Annals, 9
(1978), 1 13. Dated but still useful accounts are Leslie B. Rout, Jr., The
African Experience in Spanish America: 1502 to the Present Day (New York,
1976); and Rolando Mellafe, Negro Slavery in Latin America (Berkeley,
1975, from the 1972 Spanish edition). Magnus Morner has set the institu-
tion of slavery in a larger societal context in three works: Race Mixture in
the History of Latin America (Boston, 1967); Historia social latinoamericana:
Nuevos enfoques (Caracas, 1979); and Estratificacion social hispanoamericana
durante elperiodo colonial (Stockholm, 1980).
Of all Spain's American possessions, only in Cuba and (less so) in Puerto
Rico did slavery acquire, for a turbulent century in the twilight of empire,
a fundamental importance in both the economy and society, and the
institution there has received an impressive amount of scholarly attention.
For Cuba, the seminal works of Fernando Ortiz Fernandez, especially
Hampa afro-cubana: Los negros esclavos (Havana, 1916), may still be read
with profit, and the same is true of Alexander von Humboldt (trans, and
notes by J. S. Thrasher), The Island of Cuba (New York, 1856); and Hubert
H. S. Aimes, A History of Slavery in Cuba, 1511 to 1868 (New York and
London, 1907). More recent scholarship of very high quality includes:
Kenneth F. Kiple, Blacks in Colonial Cuba, IJJ4-1899 (Gainesville, Fla.,
1976); Franklin W. Knight, Slave Society in Cuba During the Nineteenth
Century (Madison, Wis., 1970); Lev! Marrero, Cuba: Economia y sociedad:
Azucar, ilustracion y conciencia, 1763-1868, 4 vols. (Madrid, 1983-5);

Manuel Moreno Fraginals, El ingenio: El complejo econdmico social cubano del

azucar (Havana, 1964); and Laird W. Bergad, Cuban Rural Society in the
Nineteenth Century: The Social and Economic History of Monoculture in Matan-
zas (Princeton, N.J., 1991).
Other works of note for Cuban slavery (up to the beginning of the nine-
teenth century) are: Academia de Ciencias de Cuba, Instituto de Ciencias
Historicas, La esclavitud en Cuba (Havana, 1986); Jorge Castellanos and
Isabel Castellanos, Cultura afrocubana, I: El negro en Cuba, 14921844
(Miami, 1988); Francisco Castillo Melendez, 'Poblacion y defensa de la
isla de Cuba (1650-1700),' Anuario de Estudios Americanos, 44 (1987), 1
87; Pedro Deschamps Chapeaux, El negro en la economia habanera del sigh
XIX (Havana, 1971); Jack Ericson Eblen, 'On the natural increase of slave
populations: The example of the Cuban black population, 1775-1900,' in
Stanley L. Engerman and Eugene D. Genovese (eds.), Race and Slavery in
the Western Hemisphere: Quantitative Studies (Princeton, N.J., 1975), 211
48; Roland T. Ely, Cuando reinaba su majestad el azucar (Buenos Aires,
1963); Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Social Control in Slave Plantation Societies: A
Comparison of St. Domingue and Cuba (Baltimore, 1971); Kenneth F. Kiple,
The Caribbean Slave: A Biological History (New York, 1985); Herbert S.
Klein, Slavery in the Americas: A Comparative Study of Virginia and Cuba
(Chicago, 1967); Juan Francisco Manzano(ed. Edward J. Mullen), The Life
and Poems of a Cuban Slave: Juan Francisco Manzano, IJ971854 (Hamden,
Conn., 1981); John Robert McNeill, Atlantic Empires of France and Spain:
Louisbourg and Havana, 1J001J63 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1985); Manuel
Moreno Fraginals, La historia como arma y ostros estudios sobre esclavos, ingenios
y plantaciones (Barcelona, 1983); Josef Opatrny, Antecedentes histdricos de la
formacion de la nacion cubana (Prague, 1986); and Pablo Tornero, 'Emi-
gracidn, poblaci6n y esclavitud en Cuba (17671817),' Anuario de Estudios
Americanos, 44 (1987), 22980.
For Puerto Rico, Francisco A. Scarano's most informative Sugar and
Slavery in Puerto Rico: The Plantation Economy of Ponce, 18001850 (Madi-
son, Wis., 1984) now stands to supplement the classic account by Luis M.
Diaz Soler, Historia de la esclavitud negra en Puerto Rico, 14931890, 2nd
ed. (Rio Piedras, 1965). See also: Sidney W. Mintz, Caribbean Transforma-
tions (Baltimore, 1984); Arturo Morales Carri6n, Auge y decadencia de la
trata negrera en Puerto Rico (1820-1860) (Rio Piedras, 1978); the essays of
Jose Curet and Andres Ramos Mattei in Ramos Mattei (ed.), Azucar y
esclavitud (Rio Piedras, 1982); Ramos Mattei, La hacienda azucarera: Su
crecimiento y crisis en Puerto Rico (siglo XIX), 2nd ed. (Rio Piedras, 1986);

u8 //. Colonial Spanish America
and Adam Szaszdi, 'Apuntes sobre la esclavitud en San Juan de Puerto

Rico, 18001811,' Anuario de Estudios Americanos, 24 (1967), 143377.
Of the mainland colonies, Mexico has received the most scholarly atten-
tion. Colin A. Palmer, Slaves of the White God: Blacks in Mexico, 1570
1650 (Cambridge, Mass., 1976) and Patrick J. Carroll, Blacks in Colonial
Vera Cruz: Race, Ethnicity and Regional Development (Austin, Tex., 1991)
evoke in fine fashion the realities of slavery in that colony during its
zenith, though the pioneering work of Gonzalo Aguirre Beltran, La
poblacion negra de Mexico, 15191810, 2nd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1972) can
still be read with profit for the late colonial period. Valuable supplemen-
tary information will be found in J. I. Israel, Race, Class and Politics in
Colonial Mexico, 1610-i6yo (London, 1975), and Dennis N. Valdes, 'The
decline of slavery in Mexico,' TA, 44 (1987), 16794. More specialized
works include: Gonzalo Aguirre Beltran, Medicina y magia: El proceso de
aculturacion en la estructura colonial (Mexico, D.F., 1963); Solange B. de
Alberro, 'Negros y mulatos en los documentos inquisitoriales: Rechazo e
integracion,' in Elsa Cecilia Frost et al. (eds.), El trabajoy los trabajadores en
la historia de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1977), 13261 and'Olvidar o recordar
para ser: Espanoles, negros y castas en la Nueva Espana, siglos XVI
XVII,' in La memoria y el olvido (Mexico, D.F., 1985), 135-44; Peter
Boyd-Bowman, 'Negro slaves in early colonial Mexico,' TA, 26 (1969),
13451; Geraldo Cardoso, Negro Slavery in the Sugar Plantations of Veracruz
and Pernambuco, 1550-1680: A Comparative Study (Washington, D.C.,
1983); Patrick J. Carroll, 'Black laborers and their experience in colonial
Jalapa,' in Frost, El trabajo, 11932, and 'Estudio sociodemografico de
personas de sangre negra en Jalapa, 1791,' HM, 23 (1973), 111 25;
Adriana Naveda Chavez-Hita, Esclavos negros en las haciendas azucareras de
Cordoba, Veracruz, 1690-1830 (Veracruz, 1987); Adriana Naveda Chavez-
Hita, 'Trabajadores esclavos en las haciendas azucareras de C6rdoba,
Veracruz, 17141763,' in Frost, El trabajo, 16282; Maria Elena Cortes
Jacome, 'La memoria familiar de los negros y mulatos, siglos XVIXVII,'
in La memoria y el olvido (Mexico, D.F., 1985), 12534; Cathy Duke, 'The
family in eighteenth-century plantation society in Mexico,' in Vera Rubin
and Arthur Tuden (eds.), Comparative Perspectives on Slavery in New World
Plantation Societies (New York, 1977), 2 2 6 - 4 1 ; Norman F. Martin, 'Ante-
cedentes y practica de la esclavitud negra en la Nueva Espaha del siglo
XVI,' in Bernardo Garcia Martinez et al. (comps.), Historia y sociedaden el
mundo de habla espanol: Homenaje a Jose Miranda (Mexico, D.F., 1970), 49
68; Irene Vazquez Valle, 'Los habitantes de la ciudad de Mexico vistos a

traves del censo del aiio de 1753' (M.A. thesis, El Colegio de Mexico,
1975); and Gisela von Wobeser, 'Los esclavos negros en Mexico colonial:
Las haciendas de Cuernavaca-Cuautla,' JGSWGL, 23 (1986), 145-71.
Many studies of the colonial Mexican economy contain valuable informa-
tion on the role of slave labor. See especially: Ward Barrett, The Sugar
Hacienda of the Marqueses del Valle (Minneapolis, Minn., 1970); Lolita
Gutierrez Brockington, The Leverage of Labor: Managing the Cortes Haciendas
in Tehuantepec, 1588-1688 (Durham, N.C., 1989); Ursula Ewald, Estudios
sobre la hacienda colonial en Mexico: Las propiedades rurales del Colegio de
Espiritu Santo en Puebla (Wiesbaden, 1976); Herman W. Konrad, A Jesuit
Hacienda in Colonial Mexico: Santa Lucia, I^J6IJ6J (Stanford, Calif,
1980); Cheryl English Martin, Rural Society in Colonial Morelos (Albuquer-
que, N.Mex., 1985); P. L. G. van der Meer, 'El Colegio de San Andres y
la produccion del azucar en sus haciendas de Xochimancas y Barreto,
1750-1767,' in Arij Ouweneel and Cristina Torales Pacheco (comps.),
Empresarios, indios y estado: Perfil de la economia mexicana, siglo XVHl (Am-
sterdam, 1988), 13864; Claude Morin, Michoacdn en la Nueva Espana del
siglo XVHl: Crecimiento y desigualdad en una economia colonial (Mexico, D.F.,
1979); Jose F. de la Peiia, Oligarquia y propiedaden la Nueva Espana, 1550
1624 (Mexico, D.F., 1983); Richard J. Salvucci, Textiles and Capitalism in
Mexico: An Economic History of the Obrajes, 15391840 (Princeton, N.J.,
1988); Hermes Tovar Pinz6n, 'Elementos constitutivos de la empresa
agraria jesuita en la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII en Mexico,' in Enrique
Florescano (ed.), Haciendas, latifundios y plantaciones en America Latina (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1975), 132222; and Gisela von Wobeser, Hacienda azucarera
en la epoca colonial (Mexico, D.F., 1988).
African slavery was both more important and more enduring in Peru
than in Mexico, and our knowledge of the institution there has expanded
significantly in the past twenty-odd years. Of particular importance are:
James Lockhart, Spanish Peru, 15321560: A Colonial Society (Madison,
Wis., 1968); Frederick P. Bowser, The African Slave in Colonial Peru,
15241650 (Stanford, Calif, 1974); Nicholas P. Cushner, Lords of the
Land: Wine and Jesuit Estates of Coastal Peru, 1600-1767 (Albany, N.Y.,
1980); Susan E. Ramirez, Provincial Patriarchs: Land Tenure and the Econom-
ics of Power in Colonial Peru (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1986); and Alberto
Flores Galindo S., Aristocracia y plebe, Lima, 17601830: Estructura de
clases y sociedad colonial (Lima, 1984). Christine Hiinefeldt is studying
nineteenth-century Peruvian slavery, and has published to date Mujeres:
Esclavitud, emociones y libertad: Lima, 18001854 (Lima, 1988).

I2O //. Colonial Spanish America
Also of interest for Peru are the following: Katharine Coleman, 'Provin-
cial urban problems: Trujillo, Peru, 16001784,' in David J. Robinson
(ed.), Social Fabric and Spatial Structure in Colonial Latin America (Ann
Arbor, Mich., 1979), 369408; Nicholas P. Cushner, 'Slave mortality and
reproduction on Jesuit haciendas in colonial Peru,' HAHR, 55/2 (1975),
17799; Keith A. Davies, Landowners in Colonial Peru (Austin, Tex.,
1984); Brian R. Hamnett, 'Church wealth in Peru: Estates and loans in the
Archdiocese of Lima in the seventeenth century,' JGSWGL, 10 (1973),
11332; Emilio Harth-terre, La presencia del negro en el virreinato del Peru
(Lima, 1971); Susan Ramirez Horton, The Sugar Estates of the Lambayeque
Valley, i6yoi8oo: A Contribution to Peruvian Agrarian History (Madison,
Wis., 1974); Pablo Macera, 'Feudalismo colonial americano: El caso de las
haciendas peruanas,' in Trabajos dehistoria (Lima, 1977), vol. 3, 139227,
'Instrucciones para el manejo de las haciendas jesuitas del Peru (siglos
XVII-XVIII),' Nueva Crdnica, ill (1966), 5-31 and, Las plantaciones
azucareras en el Peru, 18211875 (Lima, 1974); Jorge Polo y la Borda, 'La
hacienda Pachachaca (segunda mitad del siglo XVIII),' Historica, 1/2
(1977), 22347; Gabriela Ramos, 'Las manufacturas en el Peru colonial:
Los obrajes de vidrios en los siglos XVII y XVIII,' Historica, 13 (1989),
67106; Raul Rivera Serna, 'La agricultura y la ganaderia en el Peru entre
los afios 1820 y 1850,' Anuario de Estudios Americanos, 44 (1987), 4 7 7 -
520; and Jean-Pierre Tardieu, 'La pathologie redhibitoire de l'esclavage en
milieu urbain: Lima XVII.erne siede,' JGSWGL, 26 (1989), 19-35.
Our knowledge of African slavery in colonial Colombia has been very
substantially increased in recent years. Of particular interest are three
volumes published under the general title of Sociedad y economia en el Valle
del Cauca (Bogota, 1983): German Colmenares, Cali: Terratenientes, mineros
y comerciantes, siglo XVIII; Zamira Diaz de Zuluaga, Guerra y economia en las
haciendas: Popaydn, IJ8O1830; and Jose Escorcia, Desarrollo politico, social
y economico, 18001854. These works take their place alongside two other
excellent studies by David L. Chandler, Health and Slavery in Colonial
Colombia (New York, 1981) and William F. Sharp, Slavery on the Spanish
Frontier: The Colombian Chocd, 1680-1810 (Norman, Okla., 1976). Still of
great interest are two essays by Jaime Jaramillo Uribe in Anuario Colom-
biano de Historia Social y de la Cultura: 'Esclavos y sefiores en la sociedad
colombiana del siglo XVIII,' 1 (1963), 3-62 and 'Mestizaje y diferencia-
ci6n social en el Nuevo Reino de Granada en la segunda mitad del siglo
XVIII," 3 (1965), 21-48. Special mention must also be made of Norman
A. Meiklejohn's painstaking effort to measure slave law against reality:

'The implementation of slave legislation in eighteenth-centuty New Gra-

nada,' in Robert Brent Toplin (ed.), Slavery and Race Relations in Latin
America (Westport, Conn., 1974), 176203.
Other items of interest for colonial Colombia are: Nicolas del Castillo
Mathieu, Esclavos negros en Cartagena y sus aportes lexicos (Bogota, 1982);
David L. Chandler, 'Family bonds and the bondsman: The slave family in
colonial Colombia,' LARR, 16/2 (1981), 10731; German Colmenares,
'La economia de los jesuitas en el virreinato de Nueva Granada,' in Arnold
J. Bauer (comp.), La iglesia en la economia de America Latina, siglos XVI al
XIX (Mexico, D.F., 1986), 389-405, Haciendas de los jesuitas en el Nuevo
Reino de Granada, sigh XVIII (Bogota, 1969), and 'El trabajo en las
haciendas jesuitas en el siglo XVIII,' UN: Revista de la Direction de Divulga-
tion Cultural, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 1 (1968), 17590;
Aquiles Escalante, El negro en Colombia (Bogota, 1964); James F. King,
'Negro Slavery in New Granada,' in Greater America: Essays in Honor of
Herbert Eugene Bolton (Berkeley, 1945); Adolfo Meisel R., 'Esclavitud,
mestizaje y haciendas en la provincia de Cartagena, 15331851,' Desar-
rolloy Sociedad, 4(1980), 22777; David Pavy, 'The provenience of Colom-
bian Negroes," Journal of Negro History, 47 (1967), 36-58; and Robert C.
West, Colonial Placer Mining in Colombia (Baton Rouge, La., 1952).
For colonial Venezuela, the standard account remains Miguel Acosta
Saignes, Vida de los esclavos negros en Venezuela (Caracas, 1967), but it
should be supplemented by several more recent general works: Robert J.
Ferry, The Colonial Elite of Early Caracas: Formation and Crisis, 15671767
(Berkeley, 1989) and 'Encomienda, African slavery and agriculture in
seventeenth-century Caracas,' HAHR, 61/4 (1981), 60936; and P. Mi-
chael McKinley, Pre-Revolutionary Caracas: Politics, Economy and Society,
1777-1811 (New York, 1986). Of continuing interest are: Eduardo
Arcila Farias et al. (eds.), La obra pia de Chuao, 1568-1825 (Caracas,
1968); Federico Brito Figueroa, El problema de tierra y esclavos en la historia
de Venezuela (Caracas, 1973); John V. Lombardi, People and Places in Colo-
nial Venezuela (Bloomington, Ind., 1976); and Edda O. Samudio A., Las
haciendas del Colegio San Francisco Javier de la Compania de Jesus en Merida,
1628-1767 (Merida, Ven., 1985).
Though still incomplete, the record of African slavery in colonial Argen-
tina has been greatly strengthened by three recent works: George Reid
Andrews, The Afro-Argentines of Buenos Aires, 1800-1900 (Madison, Wis.,
1980); Nicholas P. Cushner, Jesuit Ranches and the Agrarian Development of
Colonial Argentina, 1650-1767 (Albany, N.Y., 1983); and Juan Carlos

Garavaglia, Economia, sociedad y regiones (Buenos Aires, 1987), a socio-

economic history of Argentina during the eighteenth century. Also of
interest are: Samuel Amaral, 'Rural production and labour in late colonial
Buenos Aires,' JLAS, 19/2 (1987), 2 3 5 - 7 8 ; Carlos Sempat Assadourian,
El trdfico de esclavos en Cdrdoba, 1588-1610 (C6rdoba, Arg., 1965) and El
trdfico de esclavos en Cordoba de Angola a Potosi, siglos XVI-XVII (Cordoba,
Arg., 1966); Jorge Comadran Ruiz, Evolucion demogrdfica argentina durante
el periodo hispano, 1535-1810 (Buenos Aires, 1969); Ceferino Garzon
Maceda and Jose Walter Dorflinger, 'Esclavos y mulatos en un dominio
rural del siglo XVIII en C6rdoba: Contribucion a la demografia historica,'
Revista de la Universidad Nacional de Cdrdoba, 2 (1961), 62740; Lyman L.
Johnson and Susan Migden Socolow, 'Population and space in eighteenth-
century Buenos Aires,' in David J. Robinson (ed.), Social Fabric and Spatial
Structure in Colonial Latin America (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1979), 33968;
Jose Luis Masini, La esclavitud negra en Mendoza: Epoca independiente (Men-
doza, 1962) and Regimen juridico de la esclavitud negra en Hispanoamerica
hasta 1810 (Mendoza, 1958); Carlos A. Mayo, 'Iglesia y esclavitud en el
Rio de la Plata: El caso de la Orden Betlemita (1748-1822),' RHA, 102
(1986), 9 1 - 1 0 2 ; Ricardo Rodriguez Molas, 'Esclavitud africana, religion
y origen etnico,' l-AA, 14 (1988), 125-47; Ricardo Salvatore and Jona-
than C. Brown, 'Trade and proletarianization in late colonial Banda Orien-
tal: Evidence from the Estancia de las Vicas, 1791-1805', HAHR, 67/3
(1987), 43160; and Pedro Santos Martinez, Historia economica de Mendoza
durante el virreinato, 1776-1810 (Madrid, 1961).
African slavery in Chile awaits its historian, but there is a useful over-
view in William F. Sater, 'The Black experience in Chile,' in Toplin,
Slavery and Race Relations, 1350, to supplement the older works of Ro-
lando Mellafe, La introduccion de la esclavitud negra en Chile: Trdfico y rutas
(Santiago, Chile, 1959) and Gonzalo Vial Correa, El africano en el reino de
Chile: Ensayo historico-juridico (Santiago, Chile, 1957). Interesting eviden-
tial fragments are to be found in: Horacio Aranguiz Donoso, 'Notas para el
estudio de la hacienda de Calera de Tango, 1685-1783,' Historia, 6
(1967), 22162; Gustavo Valdes Bunster, Elpoder economico de los jesuitas en
Chile (15931767) (Santiago, Chile, 1985), who devotes no more than a
few lines to the slave labor force; and Delia M. Flusche and Eugene H.
Korth, Forgotten Females: Women of African and Indian Descent in Colonial
Chile, 1535-1800 (Detroit, Mich., 1983).
Slavery in colonial Santo Domingo has received considerable attention
in recent years. Of particular note are: Carlos Esteban Deive, La esclavitud

del negro en Santo Domingo, 2 vols. (Santo Domingo, 1980) and Ruben
Silie, Economia, esclavitudy poblacion . . . en elsiglo XVIII (Santo Domingo,
1976). See also: Franklyn J. Franco Pichardo, Los negros, los mulatos y la
nation dominicana (Santa Domingo, 1969); Carlos Larrazabal Blanco, Los
negros y la esclavitud en Santo Domingo (Santo Domingo, 1967); and Maria
Rosario Sevilla Soler, Santo Domingo: Tierra de frontera (1730-1800) (Se-
ville, 1980).
For Central America and (to some extent) Panama, slavery is deftly
placed in a broader socio-economic context by Murdo J. MacLeod, Spanish
Central America: A Socioeconomic History, 1520IJ20 (Berkeley, 1972) and
Miles L. Wortman, Government and Society in Central America, 16801840
(New York, 1982). Alfredo Castillero C. focuses on Panama in La sociedad
panamena: Historia de su formacidn e integration (Panama, 1970), while M.
A. L. Gudmundson Kristjanson (Lowell Gudmundson) provides most
interesting information in Estratificacion socio-racial y economica de Costa
Rica, 1700-1850 (San Jose, C.R., 1978). See also Oscar R. Aguilar, 'La
esclavitud en Costa Rica durante el periodo colonial (hipdtesis del
trabajo),' ESC, 5 (1973), 187-99; Luis A. Diez Castillo, Los cimarronesy la
esclavitud en Panama (Panama, 1968); Quince Duncan and Carlos Melen-
dez, El negro en Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1972); Rafael Leiva Vivas,
Trdfico de esclavos negros a Honduras (Tegucigalpa, 1982); and Pedro Tobar
Cruz, La esclavitud del negro en Guatemala (Guatemala, 1953).
The following items are of significance for other regions of Spanish
America: on Bolivia, Alberto Crespo, Esclavos negros en Bolivia (La Paz,
1977); Inge Wolff, 'Negersklaverei und Negerhandel in Hochperu 1 5 4 5 -
1640,' JGSWGL, 1 (1964), 157-86 and Esclavitud negra en el Alto Peru
(Hamburg, n.d.); on Ecuador, Michael L. Conniff, 'Guayaquil through
Independence: Urban development in a colonial system,' TA, 33 (1977),
385-410; Nicholas P. Cushner, Farm and Factory: TheJesuits andthe Develop-
ment of Agrarian Capitalism in Colonial Quito, I6OO-IJ6J (Albany, N.Y.,
1982); Julio Estupinan Tello, El negro en Esmeraldas: Apuntes para su estudio
(Quito, 1967); Michael T. Hamerly, Historia social y economica de la antigua
provincia de Guayaquil, IJ63-1842 (Guayaquil, 1973); and Norman E.
Whitten, Jr., Black Frontiersmen: A South American Case (New York, 1974);
on Paraguay, Josefina Pla, Hermano negro: La esclavitud en Paraguay (Madrid,
1972); on Uruguay, Emo Isola, La esclavitud en el Uruguay . . . (1743-
1852) (Montevideo, 1975), is the best account but see also: Paulo de
Carvalho Neto, El negro uruguayo hasta la abolition (Quito, 1965); Ildefonso
Pereda Valdes, El negro en el Uruguay pasado y presente (Montevideo, 1965);

and John Hoyt Williams, 'Observations on blacks and bondage in Uruguay,

1800-1836,' TA, 43 (1987), 411-27. Beyond categorisation but worth
reading is Paulo de Carvalho Neto, Estudios afros: Brasil-Paraguay-Uruguay-
Ecuador (Caracas, 1971).
SLAVE REBELLION
The problems of slave discontent, flight, and rebellion have called forth a
substantial literature. Two works impressively put these questions in
hemispheric perspective: Eugene D. Genovese, From Rebellion to Revolution
(Baton Rouge, La., 1979) and Richard Price (ed.), Maroon Societies: Rebel
Slave Communities in the Americas (Garden City, N.Y., 1973); the latter
reprints (33-103) various essays on Spanish America. The best single
account for Spanish America is Carlos Federico Guillot, Negros rebeldes y
negros cimarrones . . . durante el siglo XVI (Buenos Aires, 1961), while an
interesting sketch on the subject is provided by German Carrera Damas,
'Flight and confrontation,' in Moreno Fraginals, Africa in Latin America,
23-37-
The problem of cimarronaje and rebellion is dealt with in many of the
regional accounts listed above. In addition, specialized titles include:
Carlos Aguirre, 'Cimarronaje, bandolerismo y desintegracion esclavista:
Lima, 1821 1854', in Carlos Aguirre and Charles Walker (eds.), Bando-
leros, abigeos y montoneros: Criminalidad y violencia en el Peru, siglos XVlll
XX (Lima, 1990), 13782; Roberto Arrazola, Palenque: Primer pueblo libre
de America (Cartagena, 1970); Miguel Barnet (ed.) Esteban Montejo: The
Autobiography of a Runaway Slave, trans. Jocasta Innes (New York, 1968);
Guillermo A. Barak, Esclavos rebeldes: Conspiraciones y sublevaciones de esclavos
en Puerto Rico, 17951873 (Rio Piedras, 1982); Maria del Carmen Borrego
Pla, Palenques de negros en Cartagena de Indias a fines del siglo XVlll (Seville,
1973); Federico Brito Figueroa, Las insurrecciones de los esclavos negros en la
sociedad colonial venezolano (Caracas, 1961); Patrick Carroll and Aurelio de
los Reyes, 'Amapa, Oaxaca: Pueblo de cimarrones,' Boletin del Instituto
Nacional de Antropologia e Historia de Mixico, 2/4 (1973), 4350; Patrick
Carroll, 'Mandinga: The evolution of a Mexican runaway community,
1735-1827,' CSSH, 19 (1977), 488-505; Adriana Naveda Chavez-Hita,
'La lucha de los negros esclavos en las haciendas azucareras de Cordoba en
el siglo XVIII,' Anuario del Centro de Estudios Histdricos (Jalapa), 2 (1980);
D. M. Davidson, 'Negro slave control and resistance in colonial Mexico,
1519-1650,' HAHR, 46/2 (1966), 2 3 5 - 5 3 ; Carlos Esteban Deive, Los

cimarrones del Mantel de Neiba: Historia y etnografia (Santo Domingo, 1985);

Aquiles Escalante, 'Notas sobre el palenque de San Basilio: Una comuni-
dad negra en Colombia,' Divulgaciones Etnologicas (Barranquilla), 3 (1954);
Carlos Felice Cardot, Rebeliones, motines y movimientos de masas en el siglo
XVIII venezolano, IJ30-IJ81, 2nd ed. (Caracas, 1977); Alberto Flores
Galindo, 'Bandidos de la Costa', in Aguirre and Walker (eds.), Bandoleros,
57-68; Gabino La Rosa Corzo, Los cimarrones de Cuba (Havana, 1988);
Manuel Lucena Salmoral, 'Levantamiento de esclavos en Remedios,' Bo-
letin Cultural Bibliogrdfico (Bogota), 5/9 (1962), 11279; Anthony Mc-
Farlane, 'Cimarrones and palenques: Runaways and resistance in colonial
Colombia,' Slavery and Abolition, 6 (1985), 13151; Benjamin Nistal-
Moret (ed.), Esclavos profugos y cimarrones: Puerto Rico, ijyo1870 (Rio
Piedras, 1984); Jorge Pinto Rodriguez, 'Una rebelion de negros en las
costas del Pacifico Sur: El caso de la fragata Trial en 1804,' Historica, 10
(1986), 13955; Frederick M. Rodriguez, 'Cimarron revolts and pacifica-
tion in New Spain, the Isthmus of Panama, and colonial Colombia, 1503
1800' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Loyola University of Chicago, 1979);
William B. Taylor, 'The foundation of Nuestra Sefiora de Guadalupe de
los Morenos de Amapa,' TA, 26 (1970), 439-46; Ralph H. Vigil, 'Negro
slaves and rebels in the Spanish possessions, 1503-1558,' The Historian,
33(1971), 6 3 7 - 5 5 ; and Alain Yacou, 'La conspiracion de Aponte (1812)',
Historia y Sociedad, 1 (1988), 39-58. For runaways from British colonies
who found refuge in Spanish territory, see Jane Landers, 'Gracia Real de
Santa Teresa de Mose: A free Black town in Spanish colonial Florida,'
AHR, 95 (1990), 9-30.
FREE BLACKS
The status of free persons of African descent under slavery has received
more and more scholarly attention over the years. General accounts for
colonial Spanish America and nineteenth-century Cuba by Frederick P.
Bowser and Franklin W. Knight, respectively, are found in David W.
Cohen and Jack P. Greene (eds.), Neither Slave Nor Free: The Freedman of
African Descent in the Slave Societies of the New World (Baltimore, 1972), 1 9 -
58, 278-308. Extensive regional treatment is also provided by: Bowser,
'The free person of color in Mexico City and Lima: Manumission and
opportunity, 1580-1650,' in Stanley L. Engerman and Eugene D. Geno-
vese (eds.), Race and Slavery in the Western Hemisphere: Quantitative Studies
(Princeton, N.J. 1975), 331-68; Lowell Gudmundson, Mechanisms of

Social Mobility for the Population of African Descent in Colonial Costa Rica:
Manumission and Miscegenation (Heredia, C.R., 1976); and Lyman L. John-
son, 'Manumission in Colonial Buenos Aires, 17761810/ HAHR, 59/2
(1979), 25879. John K. Chance places the subject in a larger social
context in his interesting works: Race and Class in Colonial Oaxaca (Stan-
ford, Calif., 1978); 'The ecology of race and class in late colonial Oaxaca,'
in David J. Robinson (ed.), Studies in Spanish American Population History
(Boulder, Colo., 1981), 93117; and (with William B. Taylor) 'Estate
and class in a colonial city: Oaxaca in 1792,' CSSH, 19 (1977), 45487.
See also the subsequent exchange with other scholars in CSSH, 21 (1979),
42142, and 25 (1983), 70324. The gap between official prejudice and
social reality in racial classification and socio-economic mobility is studied
in: Rodney D. Anderson, 'Race and social stratification: A comparison of
working-class Spaniards, Indians, and Castas in Guadalajara, Mexico in
1821," HAHR, 68/2 (1988), 2 0 9 - 4 3 ; S i l v i a Marina Arrom, The Women of
Mexico City, 1790-1857 (Stanford, Calif. 1985); Patricia Seed, 'Social
dimensions of race: Mexico City, 1753,' HAHR, 62/4 (1982), 569-606;
Michael M. Swann, 'The spatial dimension of a social process: Marriage
and mobility in late colonial Mexico,' in David J. Robinson (ed.), Social
Fabric and Spatial Structure in Colonial Latin America (Ann Arbor, Mich.,
1979), 11780; and Verena Martinez-Alier, Marriage, Class and Colour in
Nineteenth-Century Cuba (New York, 1975). Many free persons of color
used military service as an avenue of advancement, and this subject is
studied by: George Reid Andrews, 'The Afro-Argentine officers of Buenos
Aires Province, 1800-1860,' Journal of Negro History, 64/2 (1979), 85
100; Christon I. Archer, 'Pardos, Indians and the army of New Spain:
Inter-relationships and conflicts, 1780-1810,' JLAS, 6/2 (1974), 2 3 1 -
55; Leon G. Campbell, The Military and Society in Colonial Peru, 1750
1810 (Philadelphia, 1978); Allan J. Kuethe, Cuba, 1753-181$: Crown,
Military, and Society (Knoxville, Tenn., 1986) and 'The status of the free
pardo in the disciplined militia of New Granada, 'Journal of Negro History,
56(1971), 105-17.
In addition to the extended mention often given in works on slavery,

free blacks are also discussed in: Gonzalo Aguirre Beltran, 'The integra-
tion of the Negro into the national society of Mexico,' in Magnus Morner
(ed.), Race and Class in Latin America (New York, 1970), 11-27; Rafael
Duharte Jimenez, 'Apuntes para la manumision de esclavos en Santiago
de Cuba,' Secuencia, 13 (1989), 10616; Lowell Gudmundson, "Black
into white in nineteenth-century Spanish America: Afro-American As-

15. Women in colonial society \ij
similation in Argentina and Costa Rica,' Slavery and Abolition, 5/1

(1984), 34-49; Lyman L. Johnson, 'The impact of racial discrimination
on Black artisans in colonial Buenos Aires,' Social History, 6/3 (1981),
301 16, and 'The racial limits of guild solidarity: An example from
colonial Buenos Aires,' RHA, 99 (1985), 7-26; Jay Kinsbruner, 'Caste
and Capitalism in the Caribbean: Residential patterns and house owner-
ship among the free people of color of San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1823-46,'
HAHR, 70/3 (1990), 43361, and Brigida von Mentz, Pueblos de indios,
mulatos y mestizos, 17701870: Los campesinos y las transformaciones proto-
industriales en el poniente de Morelos (Mexico, D.F., 1988). Finally, for a
fascinating study of those slaves or their descendants who voluntarily or
involuntarily returned to Africa, see Rodolfo Saracino, Los que volvieron a
Africa (Havana, 1988).
15. W O M E N IN SPANISH AMERICAN

COLONIAL SOCIETY
As social history becomes more comprehensive in its understanding of the

Spanish American colonial world, the presence of women as subjects of
their own destinies and as members of the family and the community at
large becomes more obvious and more relevant.
No general study of women in all Spanish America throughout the
colonial period has been attempted. Most works focus on a given geo-
graphical area. Judith Prieto de Zegarra, Mujer, poder y desarrollo en el Peru,
2 vols. (Lima, 1980) is a full-length study of women in Peru from Inca
times to the end of the nineteenth century. An important narrative survey
of women in colonial Peru is Luis Martin, Daughters of the Conquistadors:
Women of the Viceroyalty of Peru (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1983). For Mexico,
Pilar Gonzalbo Aizpuru, Las mujeres en la Nueva Espana (Mexico, D.F.,
1987) presents an overview of women's history, with emphasis on the
educational factors molding their lives. On Chile, less polished but still
useful is Sor Maria Imelda Cano, La mujer en el reyno de Chile (Santiago,
Chile, 1980). For Venezuela, Armila Troconis de Veracoceha, Indias,
esclavas, mantuanas y primeras damas (Caracas, 1990) offers a general descrip-
tive view of women in the colonial period and in the first half of the
nineteenth century. A general treatment of some features of the history of
women in New Spain is found in Asuncion Lavrin, 'In search of the
colonial woman in Mexico: The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries', in

A. Lavrin (ed.), Latin American Women: Historical Perspectives (Westport,

Conn., 1978), 23-59.
CONQUEST AND EARLY SETTLEMENT
While the variety of research possibilities continue to expand, certain

topics have received more attention than others, and the bibliographical
resources continue to show a lopsided configuration. An early study by
Nancy O'Sullivan Beare, Las mujeres de los conquistadores: La mujer espanola
en los comienzos de la colonization americana: Aportationes para el estudio de la
transmigration (Madrid, 1956), offered a general survey of women's pres-
ence in the conquest and first settlement period. It also established the
cultural dimension of the female contribution, to which current historiog-
raphy seems to be turning. The migration of Spanish women to the New
World, significant mostly in the sixteenth century, remains a challenge to
the historian. Peter Boyd-Bowman's 'Patterns of Spanish emigration to
the Indies until 1699', HAHR, 56/4 (1976), 580604 was a landmark
study, establishing a firm foundation for further qualitative works. Anto-
nio Garcia-Abasolo, 'Mujeres andaluzas en la America colonial: 1550
1650', Revista de Indias, 49/185 (1989), 91-109, reconstructs the story of
Andalusian migrant women.
The complex set of social values carried by men and women that, to the
extent possible in the New World, they tried to duplicate is a relevant
theme in the history of colonial Spanish America. Few comparative studies
between Spain and Spanish-American women have been carried out. On
the other hand, the growing number of studies of Spanish women prom-
ises to become an important resource for such comparisons, and for the
analysis of cultural transfers. Older historical surveys may still be helpful.
See, for example, Angel Valbuena Prat, La vida espanola en la edad de oro
(Barcelona, 1943); Antonio Domfnguez Ortiz, La sociedad espanola en el
siglo XVII, 2 vols. (Madrid, 1963); and Jose Deleito Pinuela, La mujer, la
casa y la moda en la Espanola del rey poeta (Madrid, 1946). More recent
studies are more concise and raise new questions. The medieval back-
ground is covered by Heath Dillard, Daughters of the Reconquest: Women in
Castilian Town Society, 1100-1300 (Cambridge, Eng., 1984), and Cristina
Segura (ed.), Las mujeres en las ciudades medievales (Madrid, 1984). The
critical sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when Spanish society set
many models for the New World, can be studied in works by Mary
Elizabeth Perry: Crime and Society in Early Modern Seville (Hanover, N . H . ,

i$. Women in colonial society 129
and London, 1980), Gender and Disorder in Early Modern Seville (Princeton,
N.J., 1990), 'Beatas and the Inquisition in early modern Seville,' in
Stephen Haliczer (ed.), Inquisition and Society in Early Modern Europe (Lon-
don, 1987), and 'With brave vigilance and a hundred eyes: The making of
women's prisons in counter-Reformation Spain', Women and Criminal Jus-
tice, 2/1 (1990), 317. Maria Dolores Perez Baltasar, Mujeres marginadas:
La Casa de Recogidas en Madrid (Madrid, 1984) is helpful for the study of
similar institutions in the colonies. See also Maril6 Vigil, La vida de las
mujeres en los sighs XVI y XVII (Madrid, 1986); Maria Angeles Duran
(ed.), La mujer en la historia de Espana (siglos XVI al XX) (Madrid, 1984);
and Vicente Graullera, 'Mujer, amor y moralidad en la Valencia de los
siglos XVI y XVII,' in Agustin Redondo (ed.), Amours le'gitimes, amours
illegitimes en Espagne (XVI-XVII siecles (Paris, 1985) 109-19. The analysis
of the writing of female religious is beginning to attract the attention of
literary analysts, and should encourage future historical monographs. See
Darcy Donahue, 'Writing lives: Nuns and confessors as auto-biographers
in early modern Spain', The Journal of Hispanic Philology, 13 (1989), 2 3 1 -
9, and Sonia Herpoel, Autobiografias por mandato: Una escritura femenina en
la Espana del siglo de oro (Antwerp, 1987).
James Lockhart explored the topic of the transfer of culture and the role
of the first generation of Spanish women in the Indies in his Spanish Peru,
1532-1560: A Colonial Society (Madison, Wis., 1968). See also Ida
Altman, Emigrants and Society: Extremadura and Spanish America in the
Sixteenth Century (Berkeley, 1989). Still useful for the early settlement
period is Analola Borges, 'La mujer pobladora en los origenes americanos',
Anuario de Estudios Americanos, 29 (1972), 389-444.
The legal rights of all women in Spanish America were defined by
Spanish legislation, especially the Siete Partidas, many premises of which
continued to be used as a departing interpretive source for later legisla-
tion. The Partidas have been beautifully translated into English by Sam-
uel Parson Scott (Chicago and New York, 1931). A useful compilation of
law is found in Marcelo Martinez Alcubilla, Cddigos antiguos de Espana, 2
vols. (Madrid, 1885). See also Jose Maria Ots Capdequi, 'Bosquejo his-
torico de los derechos de la mujer en la legislacion de Indias', Revista
General de Legislacion y Jurisprudencia, 132 (1918), 161-82, and El estado
espanol en la Indias (Mexico, D.F., 1946), 83-156. For the implementa-
tion of the general premises set up by Spanish legislation by the ad hoc
legislation issued by the crown throughout the colonial period, see Rich-
ard Konetzke (ed.), Coleccidn de documentos para la historia de la formacion

social de Hispanoamerica, 14931810, 3 vols. (Madrid, 1953-62). The

best source for Spanish legislation on marriage is Daisy Ripodas Ardanaz,
El matrimonio en lndias: Realidad social y regulacion juridica (Buenos Aires,
1977)-
The life and deeds of several exceptional women form a body of anec-
dotal popular history which, although mostly descriptive, is useful. See
Alejandro Vicuna, Ines de Sudrez (Santiago, Chile, 1941); Nicolas Leon,
Aventuras de la monja alferez (Mexico, D.F., 1973); Ventura Garcia, La
Pericholi (Paris, 1940); Mirta Aguirre, Influencia de la mujer en Iberoamerica
(Havana, 1947). Benjamin Vicuna Mackenna, Los Lispersguery la Quintrala
(Dona Catalina de los Rtos) (Valparaiso, 1908) provides information on a
truculent female figure and the complicated genealogical history of a
Chilean family. The fascinating figure of Micaela Bastidas, wife of Tupac
Amaru II, is well treated by Lilian E. Fisher, The Last Inca Revolt, 1780
1783 (Norman, Okla., 1966) and Francisco A. Loayza (ed.), Martires y
heroinas (Lima, 1945). A more recent work reassesses the figure of Micaela
and brings into relief the importance of women and family connections in
the revolt. See, Leon Campbell, 'Women and the Great Rebellion in Peru,
1780-1783,' TA, 32/2 (1985), 163-96. Vignettes of the lives of lesser-
known women can be found in Edith Couturier, 'Micaela Angela Carrillo:
Widow and Pulque dealer,' in David Sweet and Gary Nash (eds.), Struggle
and Survival in Colonial America (Berkeley, 1981) 36275, and also by
Couturier, 'Una viuda aristocratica en la Nueva Espana del siglo XVIII: La
condesa de Miravalle,' HM, 41/3 (1992), 327-63; Solange Alberro,
'Juana de Morga and Gertrudis de Escobar: Rebellious slaves,' and 'Beatriz
de Padilla: Mistress and mother,' in David Sweet and Gary Nash (eds.),
Struggle and Survival, 16589, 24757; Donald Chipman, "Isabel Monte-
zuma: Pioneer of mestizaje,' in Sweet and Nash (eds.), Struggle and Sur-
vival, 2 1 4 - 2 7 ; Georges Baudot, 'Malitzin, L'irreguliere,' in Claire Pailler
(ed.), Femmes des Am&riques (Toulouse, 1986), 19-30. See also Asuncion
Lavrin and Edith Couturier 'Las mujeres tienen la palabra: Otras voces en
la historia colonial de Mexico.' HM, 31/2 (1981), 278-313. Although
letters by women are difficult to find, the letters of Chilean women
assembled by Sergio Vergara Quiroz, Cartas de mujeres en Chile, 1630-
1885 (Santiago, Chile, 1987), offer engaging details of daily life and
emotions. An early attempt to define and describe the role of women in an
elite family was Edith Couturier 'Women in a noble family: The Mexican
Counts of Regla, 1750-1830', in Lavrin (ed.), Latin American Women,
129-49. J n n Tutino argued the issue of power between male and female

i _5. Women in colonial society 131
within the elite family in 'Power, class, and family: Men and women in
the Mexican elite, 1750-1810,' TA, 39/3(1983), 353-81.
The lion's share of bibliography and historical attention, however, be-
longs to the poet, Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz. Although the majority of
studies bear on her literary production, her life continues to spur interest
and controversy. Among the better earlier studies of Sor Juana are,
Ezequiel Chavez, Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz: Ensayo de psicologia, 2nd ed.
(Mexico, D.F., 1970); Julio Jimenez Rueda, Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz en su
epoca (Mexico, D.F., 1951); Anita Arroyo, Razon y pasion de Sor Juana
(Mexico, D.F., 1971). Arroyo offers an eleven-page bibliography of works
written up to the late 1960s. The publication of Octavio Paz, Sor Juana
Ines de la Cruz 0 Las trampas de la fe (Mexico, D. F., 1982), translated as Sor
Juana or The Traps of Faith (Cambridge, Mass., 1988) coincided with a
rising interest in Sor Juana in North America and Europe. This well-
written analysis of Sor Juana's life and literary work attempts to under-
stand the subject comprehensively within its period, although it is not
devoid of subjective judgements. A solidly researched and academically
oriented study by Marie-Cecile Benassy-Berling, Humanisme et religion chez
Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz: Lafemme et la culture au XVIIe siecle (Paris, 1982)
is a tempered treatment of the poet that many will prefer for accuracy and
objectivity. Excellent translations of Sor Juana's poetry and her famous
Respuesta letter make her more easily available to English-speaking stu-
dents. See Margaret Sayers Peden, A Woman of Genius: The Intellectual
Autobiography of SorJuana Ines de la Cruz (Salisbury, Conn., 1982), and Sor
Juana Ines de la Cruz: Poems (New York, 1985); and Allan Trueblood, A Sor
Juana Anthology (Cambridge, Mass., 1988). The most recent analyses of
Sor Juana's writing in English are, Stephanie Merrim (ed.), Feminist Perspec-
tives on Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz (Detroit, Mich., 1991), and George H.
Tavard, Juana Ines de la Cruz and the Theology of Beauty: The First Mexican
Theology (South Bend, Ind., 1991). See also the analysis of Sor Juana and
religious writers, in Jean Franco, Plotting Women: Gender and Representation
in Mexico (New York, 1989).
INDIGENOUS WOMEN
The status and social role of indigenous women prior to 1492, essential for
understanding continuities and transformations during the colonial pe-
riod, may be elicited from several of the available surveys of the major
cultures. On the societies of the Aztecs and Incas, see essays I:i and L3.

More specifically, see Pedro Carrasco, 'The joint family in ancient Mexico:
The case of Molotla', in Hugo Nutini et al. (eds.), Essays on Mexican
Kinship (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1976), and Waldemar Espinoza Soriano, 'La
poliginia senorial en el reino de Cajamarca: Siglos XV y XVI,' Revista del
Museo National (Peru), 43 (1979), 399-466. A comparison between the
pre-Columbian and the twentieth-century Indian woman in Mexico is
available in Anna-Brita Hellbom, La participation cultural de las mujeres:
Indias y mestizas en el Mexico precortesiano y postrevolutionario (Stockholm,
1967).
Ethnohistorians and historians of the early colonial period are delineating
the connections between the pre-Colombian and the colonial periods. We
have several important works that highlight kinship roles, household con-
tours, and gender relations within the indigenous cosmos. These works help
to understand the value system of indigenous communities and interpret
their reactions to colonial cultural and legal institutions. Two key studies of
indigenous sexual mores are Alfredo Lopez Austin, 'La sexualidad entre los
antiguos nahuas,' in Familia y sexualidad en Nueva Espana (Mexico, D.F.,
1982), 177206, and Serge Gruzinski, 'Matrimonio y sexualidad en Me-
xico y Texcoco en los albores de la conquista o la pluralidad de los discursos,'
in Solange Alberro (ed.), La actividad del Santo Oficio de la Inquisition en Nueva
Espana, 15J1-1590 (Mexico, D.F., 1981), 19-74.
The predicament of indigenous women immediately after the conquest
has been well documented and discussed by Elinor C. Burkett, 'Indian
women and white society: The case of sixteenth-century Peru', in Lavrin
(ed.), Latin American Women, 10128, and William L. Sherman, Forced
Labor in Sixteenth-Century Central America (Lincoln, Nebr., 1979). More
recently, Irene Silverblatt has provided a thorough coverage of Incaic
gender relations and ventures some interpretations on the colonial period
in Moon, Sun, and Witches: Gender Ideologies and Class in Inca and Colonial
Peru (Princeton, N.J., 1987). For a different view of the role of indigenous
women in the economy and society, see Brooke Larson, 'Produccion domes-
tica y trabajo femenino indigena en la formacion de una economia
mercantil colonial,' Historia Boliviana, 3/2 (1983), 17388, and Gustavo
Valcarcel, 'La condici6n de la mujer en el estado incaico,' Social Participa-
tion, 29 (1985), 6370. See also Ann Zulawski, 'Social differentiation,
gender, and ethnicity: Urban Indian women in Colonial Bolivia, 1640
1725,' LARR, 25/2 (1990), 93 113. A suggestive typology of indigenous
women based on the use of testaments is offered by Frank Salomon,
'Indian women of early colonial Quito as seen through their testaments',

15- Women in colonial society 133
TA, 44/3 (1988), 32542. A novel enquiry into Indian urban domestic
service is Luis Miguel Glave Testino, 'Mujer indigena, trabajo domestico y
cambio social en la ciudad de La Paz y el sur andino en 1684/ Bulletin de
I'lnstitut Frangais d'Etudes Andines, 16/34 (1987), 3969. For the role of
women in Andean brotherhoods, see Diane Elizabeth Hopkins, 'Ritual,
sodality and cargo among indigenous Andean women: A diachronic per-
spective,' in Alfred Meyers and Diane E. Hopkins, Manipulating the Saints:
Religious Brotherhoods and Social Integration in Postconquest Latin America
n a
(Hamburg, 1988), 175-95. C different type of activity, see Louisa
Stark, 'The role of women in peasant uprisings in the Ecuadorian high-
lands,' in Jeffrey Ehrenreich (ed.), Political Anthropology of Ecuador: Perspec-
tives from Indigenous Cultures (Albany, N.Y., 1985), 3 - 2 3 .
For New Spain, Inga Clendinnen, 'Yucatec Maya women: Role and
ritual in historical reconstruction,' in Journal ofSocialHistory (1982), 4 2 7 -
42 is a thoughtful discussion of the impact of the conquest on Maya
women. The interactions of indigenous women and the Spanish legal
system in Mexico City are aptly described by Susan Kellogg in several
works: 'Aztec women in early colonial courts: Structure and strategy in
legal context,' in Ronald Spores and Ross Hassig (eds.), Five Centuries of
Law and Politics in Mexico (Nashville, Tenn., 1984), 2538; 'Households
in late prehispanic and early colonial Mexico: Their structure and its
implications for the study of historical demography,' TA, 44/4 (1988),
48394, and 'Aztec inheritance in sixteenth-century Mexico City: colo-
nial patterns, prehispanic influences,' Ethnohistory, 23/3 (1986), 31330.
Another household study in central New Spain is Herbert R. Harvey,
'Household and family structure in early colonial Tepletaoztic: An analysis
of the Codice Santa Maria Asuncion,' Estudios de Cultura Ndhuatl, 18
(1986), 27594. Aztec women are integrated in the study of wills in
Susan Cline, Colonial Culhuacdn, 1580-1600 (Albuquerque, N.Mex.,
1986). Malitzin, Cortes's mistress, is sensitively discussed by Georges
Baudot in 'Malitzin, l'lrreguliere,' in Claire Pailler et al., Femmes des
Ameriques (Toulouse, 1986), 1929. For an interesting documentary
source on cacica holdings, see Ana Luisa Izquierdo, 'Tasaci6n de la Cacica
Gueytlalpa,' Estudios de Cultura Maya, 14 (1982), 289-98.
BLACK WOMEN
Studies on black women and black families before the nineteenth century
are few, but see Elinor Burkett, 'Early colonial Peru: The urban female

experience' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Pittsburgh, 1975), chap. 5,

'Black women and white society', 25295, and Delia M. Flusche and
Eugene H . Korth, Forgotten Females: Women of African and Indian Descent in
Colonial Chile, 15351800 (Detroit, Mich., 1983). Since Cuba remained
a colony in the nineteenth century, we may include in this section Verena
Martinez-Alier, Marriage, Class and Colour in Nineteenth-Century Cuba: A
Study of Racial Attitudes and Sexual Values in a Slave Society (Cambridge,
Eng., 1974). For general works on slavery, see essay II: 14.
EDUCATION
Although the concept of formal education for women did not begin to
develop until the late colonial period, informal education and, later, the
institutional approach to formal education have received some attention.
The works of Spanish educators and philosophers of the sixteenth century
are important insofar as the models they set for female behaviour held their
relevance for several centuries. Among the most important are, Fr Luis de
Leon, La perfecta casada (Mexico, D.F., 1970), Luis Vives, Instruction de la
mujer cristiana (Buenos Aires, 1940) and Fr Alonso de Herrera, Espejo de la
perfecta casada (Granada, 1636). To those references may be added a Mexi-
can educational novel, published in the early nineteenth century but repre-
senting the ideas of the last decades of the empire: Jose Joaquin Fernandez
de Lizardi, La Quijotitay suprima (Mexico, D.F., 1967), and a recent study
of Luis Vives by G. Kaufman, 'Juan Luis Vives in the education of women',
Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 3/4 (1978), 8916. For the
development of educational institutions, see Elisa Luque Alcaide, La educa-
tion en Nueva Espana (Sevilla, 1970), 163204; Pablo Cabrera, Cultura y
beneficencia durante la colonia, 2nd ed. (Cordoba, Spain, 1928); Gloria
Carrefio Alvarado, El colegio de Santa Rosa de Santa Maria de Valladolid,
IJ431810 (Morelia, Mex., 1979). Carmen Castaneda provides informa-
tion on the education of women in Guadalajara in her La education en
Guadalajara durante la colonia, 15521821 (Guadalajara, 1984).
CONVENTS
With few exceptions female conventual life and related activities have
been neglected by historians of the church. Thus, for information on that
subject one must turn to older general histories of the church or mono-
graphs on the foundation and development of convents. A comprehensive

15. Women in colonial society 135
work such as Antonio de Egaria, S.J., Historia de la iglesia en la America

espanola: Desde el descubrimiento hasta el siglo XIX (Madrid, 1966) offers a
good start. Local histories are best reflected in less broad works. Mariano
Cuevas, S.J., Historia de la iglesia en Mexico, 5 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1921
8), informative but biased, offers an overview of the female convents. Less
complete but still useful is Jose Manuel Groot, Historia eclesidstica y civil de
Nueva Granada, 2 vols. (Bogota, 1869). Histories of the regular orders
written during the colonial period also give information on the female
convents. See, for example, Antonio de la Calancha and Bernardo Torres,
Crdnicas Agustinianas del Peru, 2 vols. (Madrid, 1972); Fr Diego de Cor-
dova Salinas, Crdnicas franciscanas de las provincias del Peru (Washington,
D.C., 1957); Fr Alonso de Zamora, Historia de la provincia de San Antonio
del Nuevo Reino de Granada (Caracas, 1930); Agustin Davila Padilla, Histo-
ria de la fundacion y discurso de la provincia de Santiago de Mexico de la orden de
predicadores, 3rd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1955). Colonial histories of nunneries
are less numerous than the histories of religious orders. Two good exam-
ples are Ventura Travada, El suelo de Arequipa convertido en cielo en el estreno
del religioso monasterio de Santa Rosa de Santa Maria, in Manuel Odriozola
(ed.), Documentos literarios del Peru, 10 (Lima, 1877), 5-326; and Carlos
Siguenza y Gongora, Paraiso occidental (Mexico, D.F. 1648), which deals
with the convent of Jesus Maria in Mexico City. Despite the fact that all
these sources have an overtly pious character, they are rich in detail and
reflect the spirit of the period in which they were written.
Most of the modern works on nunneries focus on New Spain. Josefina
Muriel has written extensively on colonial nuns and women in other
religious-based institutions. Her better-known works are Conventos de
monjas en la Nueva Espana (Mexico, D.F., 1946) and Los recogimientos de
mujeres: Respuesta a unaproblemdtica novohispana (Mexico, D.F., 1974), both
of which are very informative. Indian nuns flourished in eighteenth-
century New Spain, and two works deal specifically with them: Josefina
Muriel, Las indias caciques de Mixico (Mexico, D.F., 1963), and Sister Ann
Miriam Gallagher, 'The Indian nuns of Mexico City's monasterio of Corpus
Christi, 17241822', in Lavrin (ed.), Latin American Women, 15072.
Sister Gallagher's doctoral dissertation, 'The family background of the
nuns of two monasterios in colonial Mexico: Santa Clara, Queretaro, and
Corpus Christi, Mexico City (17241822)' (Catholic University of Amer-
ica, 1972) has valuable archival material from the nunneries themselves.
In addition to a doctoral dissertation focusing on eighteenth-century nun-
neries in general, 'Religious life of Mexican women in the 18th century'

(Harvard University, 1963), Asuncion Lavrin has written several shorter

works mostly on the socio-economic aspects of nunneries. Among them
are 'The role of the nunneries in the economy of New Spain in the
eighteenth century", HAHR, 46/3 (1966), 371-93; 'El convento de Santa
Clara de Queretaro: La administracion de sus propiedades en el siglo
XVII', HM, 25/1 (1975), 76-117; 'Women in convents: Their economic
and social role in colonial Mexico', in Berenice Carroll (ed.), Liberating
Women's History (Urbana, 111., 1976), 250-77; 'Female religious,' in Lou-
isa Hoberman and Susan Socolow (eds.), Cities and Society in Colonial Latin
America (Albuquerque: N.Mex., 1986), 165-95; Women and religion in
Spanish America,' in Rosemary Radford Ruether and Rosemary Skinner
Keller, Women and Religion in America: The Colonial and Revolutionary Period,
vol. 2 (San Francisco, 1983), 4 2 - 7 8 ; 'Unlike Sor Juana? The model nun in
the religious literature of Colonial Mexico,' in Stephanie Merrim (ed.),
Feminist Perspectives, 6 1 - 8 5 . On Cuzco nunneries, see Kathryn Burns,
'Apuntes sobre la economia conventual: El monasterio de Santa Clara del
Cusco,' Allpanchis, 2^,1^,8 (1991), 6 7 - 9 6 . See also Nancy Van Deusen,
'Los primeros recomientos para doncellas mestizas en Lima y Cusco,
1550-1580,' Allpanchis, 22/3536(1990), 2 4 9 - 9 1 .
One of the few samplers of feminine conventual writing is an unusually
well edited and annotated autobiography of a Chilean nun of the mid-
colonial years: Ursula Suarez, Relacion autobiogrdfica (Santiago, Chile,
1984). A general survey of the convents of Cuzco in the late seventeenth
century includes information on the nunneries of that city. See Donald
Gibbs, 'The economic activities of nuns, friars, and their Conventos in
mid-colonial Cuzco,' TA, 45/4 (1989), 34362; Manuel Ramos Medina,
Imagen desantidaden un mundoprofano (Mexico, D.F., 1990) is the story of
the foundation of the Carmelite convent of St. Joseph in Mexico City. The
writings of female religious in Spain and Spanish America are studied and
interpreted by Electa Arenal and Stacey Schlau in Untold Sisters: Hispanic
Nuns in Their Own Works (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1989). On the founder
of the teaching Order of Mary in New Spain, Sister Maria de Azlor, see
Pilar Foz y Foz, La revolucidn pedagogica en Nueva Espana: 1J541820, 1
vols. (Madrid, 1981).
WITCHES
Inquisitorial records are rich sources for unconventional forms of behavior

that typed women as 'witches.' These works permit us to study counter-

ij. Women in colonial society 137
cultures in dissonance with the official forms of religious expressions, and

also forms of female empowerment used by otherwise 'marginal' women.
See Maria Emma Mannarelli, 'Inquisicion y mujeres: Las hechiceras en el
Peru durante el siglo XVII,' Revista Andina, 3/1 (1985), 14156; and three
articles by Ruth Behar: 'Sex and sin, witchcraft and the Devil in late-
colonial Mexico,' American Ethnologist, 14/1 (1987), 34-54; 'Sexual witch-
craft, colonialism, and women's powers: Views from the Mexican Inquisi-
tion,' in Asuncion Lavrin (ed.), Sexuality and Marriage in Colonial Latin
America (Lincoln, Nebr., 1989), 178208; and 'The visions of a Guachichil
witch in 1599: A window on the subjugation of Mexican hinterland gather-
ers,' Ethnology, 34/2 (1987): 11538. The disjunctions in the practice of
religious life by women are portrayed in Maria Agueda Meza, 'Ilusas y
alumbradas: Discurso mistico o erotico?' Caravelle, 52 (1989), 515,
Edelmira Ramirez Leyva, Maria Rita Vargas, Maria Lucia Celis: Beatas
embaucadoras de la colonia (Mexico, D.F., 1988), and Dolores Bravo, Ana
Rodriguez de Castro, procesada por ilusa, y afectadora de Santos (Mexico, D.F.,
1984). See also Solange Alberro, 'Herejes, brujas y beatas: Mujeres ante el
Tribunal de la Inquisicion,' in Carmen Ramos Escandon (ed.), Presencia y
transparencia: La mujer en la historia de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1987).
SEXUALITY
Ecclesiastical and civil authorities were deeply preoccupied by transgres-

sions against marriage, which were relatively common in the sixteenth and
early seventeenth centuries. See Alexandra Parma Cook and David Noble
Cook, Good Faith and Truthful Ignorance: A Case of Transatlantic Bigamy
(Durham, N.C., 1990) on a sixteenth century case of bigamy; Dolores
Enciso Rojas, 'Un caso de perversion de las normas matrimoniales: El
Bigamo Jose de la Pena,' in Sergio Ortega (ed)., De la santidad a la
perversion (Mexico, D.F., 1985), 179-96. In the last decade, the theme of
sexuality has become an important analytical tool for understanding gen-
der relations within or outside marriage, the effectiveness of ecclesiastical
and civil legislation on malefemale relationships, and the social mores of
the conquest and the colonial period. An exploration into the sexual mores
of the conquest is Pierre Ragon, Les Amours indiennes ou I'imaginaire du
conquistador (Paris, 1992). See also by the same author, Les Indiens de la
dicouverte: Evangelisation, manage et sexualite (Paris, 1992). For case studies
on Mexico, see Solange Alberro et al. Seis ensayos sobre el discurso colonial
relativo a la comunidad domestica (Mexico, D.F., 1980) and Sexualidad y

familia (Mexico, D.F., 1981), two pioneering works. More recently, the
volume edited by Sergio Ortega, De la santidad a la perversion, has added
new materials and nuances to the enquiry of gender and sexuality issues in
New Spain. For essays on marriage and sexuality throughout Spanish
America, see Lavrin (ed.), Sexuality and Marriage in Colonial Latin America,
cited above. For Brazil, see Ligia Bellini, A coisa obscura: Mulher, sodomia e
inquisiqao no Brasil colonial (Sao Paulo, 1987). Other contributions include
Pablo Rodriguez, Seduccion, amancebamiento y abandono en la Colonia (Bo-
gota, 1991) and Eduardo Cavieres F. and Rene Salinas M., Amor y ma-
trimonio en Chile tradicional (Valparaiso, 1991)
MARRIAGE AND THE FAMILY
Marriage and the family are topics critical to the study of women. They
have only been approached by a small number of social historians and
demographers. A general brief overview of the meaning of the family in
colonial Spanish America is provided by Elda R. Gonzalez and Rolando
Mellafe, 'La funcion de la familia en la historia social hispanoamericana
colonial', Anuario, 8 (1965), 5571. For the purpose of comparison with
Brazil, see one of the earliest investigations of marriage in colonial Brazil,
Donald Ramos, 'Marriage and the family in colonial Vila Rica,' HAHR,
55/2 (1975), 2 0 0 - 2 5 .
Some studies explore the evolution of a family as a whole, highlighting
but not focusing on its women. See, for example, Ida Altman, 'A family
and region in the northern fringe lands: The Marqueses de Aguayo of
Nuevo Le6n and Coahuila', in Ida Altman and James Lockhart (eds.),
Provinces of Early Mexico (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976); Jose Toribio
Medina, Los Errdzuris: Notas biogrdficas y documentos para la historia de esta
familia en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1964); Cathy Duke, 'The family in
eighteenth-century plantation society in Mexico,' Annals of the New York
Academy of Science, 292 (1977), 2 2 6 - 4 1 ; Paul Ganster, 'La familia Lopez
de Cervantes: Linaje y sociedad en el Mexico colonial,' HM, 31/2 (1981),
197232; John Frederick Schwaller, 'Tres familias mexicanas del siglo
XVI,' HM, 31/2 (1981), 171-96; Joaquin A. Ramirez F., Las primeras
familias de Caracas (Caracas, 1986), a genealogical study of families from
1559 to 1616; Delia Flusche, Two families in colonial Chile (Lampeter,
Wales, 1989). Family legislation, in theory and practice, is discussed by
Edith Couturier in "Women and the family in eighteenth-century Mexico:
Law and practice,' Journal of Family History, 10/3 (1985), 294-304. Dow-

ries and wills have been used as sources by Asuncion Lavrin and Edith
Couturier to delve into women's socio-economic power in colonial Mexico
in 'Dowries and wills: A view of women's socioeconomic role in colonial
Guadalajara and Puebla, 1640-1790', HAHR, 59/2 (1979), 281-304.
See also, Delia M. Flusche and Eugene H. Korth, 'A dowry office in
seventeenth-century Chile,' Historian, 49/2 (1987), 204-22; Richard E.
Ahlborn, 'The will of a New Mexico woman in 1762,' New Mexico Histori-
cal Review (July 1990), 31955; Maria Josefa Vergara Hernandez, Testa-
mento (Queretaro, 1987). For comparative purposes, see Muriel Nazzari,
Disappearance of the dowry: Women, families, and social change in Sao Paulo,
Brazil, 16001900 (Stanford, Calif., 1991), and 'Parents and daughters:
Change in the practice of dowry in Sao Paulo (1600-1770),' HAHR, 70/4
(1990), 6 3 9 - 6 5 .
The importance of marriage, family ties and kinship among the social
elite is stressed by Doris Ladd in The Mexican Nobility at Independence,
17801826 (Austin, Tex., 1976); Susan M. Socolow, The Merchants of
Buenos Aires, 17781810 (Cambridge, Eng., 1978); and Stephanie Blank,
'Patrons, clients and kin in seventeenth-century Caracas: A methodologi-
cal essay in colonial Spanish American social history', HAHR, 54/2
(1974), 26083. The patronage of women in the establishment of pious
foundations such as dowry funds and convents is examined by Edith
Couturier in ' "For the greater service of God": Opulent foundations and
women's philanthropy in colonial Mexico,' in Kathleen D. McCarthy
(ed.), Lady Bountiful Revisited (New Brunswick, N.J., 1990), 11941.
The Seminar on the History of the Family at the Colegio de Mexico is
publishing its collected conference papers, promising to develop a reli-
able body of information on this topic. See, for example, Pilar Gonzalbo
Aizpuru (coord.), Familias novohispanas: Siglos XVI al XIX (Mexico,
D.F., 1991). For their part, historical demographers are beginning to
make inroads into topics such as marriage patterns and fertility. Illustra-
tive works are Susan M. Socolow, 'Marriage, birth, and inheritance: The
merchants of eighteenth-century Buenos Aires', HAHR, 60/3 (1980),
387406; Michael M. Swann, 'The spatial dimensions of a social pro-
cess: Marriage and mobility in late colonial northern Mexico', in David
J. Robinson (ed.), Social Fabric and Spatial Structure in Colonial Latin
America (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1979); Silvia M. Arrom, 'Marriage patterns
in Mexico City, 1811,' Journal of Family History, 3/4 (1978), 37691;
John K. Chance, Race and class in colonial Oaxaca (Stanford, Calif., 1978)
which has useful information on marriage patterns and their influence on

race relations; Linda L. Greenow, 'Marriage patterns and regional interac-

tion in late colonial Nueva Galicia,' in David J. Robinson (ed.), Studies
in Spanish American Population History (Boulder, Colo., 1981), 119-47;
Herbert S. Klein, 'Familia y fertilidad en Amatenago, Chiapas, 1785-
1816.' HM, 36/2 (1986), 273-86. Robert McCaa has written several
important monographs on the dynamics of marriage in colonial Parral
(New Spain). See 'Calidad, clase, and marriage in colonial Mexico: The
case of Parral, 1788-90,' HAHR, 64/3 (1984), 477-502; 'Marriage,
migration, and settling down: Parral (Nueva Vizcaya), 17701778,' in
David J. Robinson (ed.), Migration in Colonial Spanish America (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1990), 212-37; 'Gustos de los padres, inclinaciones de los
novios y reglas de una feria nupcial colonial: Parral, 1770-1814,' HM,
40/4 (1991), 579614; and 'La viuda viva del Mexico borbonico: Sus
voces, variedades y vejaciones,' in Pilar Gonzalbo Aizpuru (coord.),
Familias novohispanas: Siglos XVI al XIX, 299-324.
The theological definition of marriage, sin, and the dilemmas caused by
Roman Catholic models of behaviour are studied by Sergio Ortega,
'Teologia novohispana sobre el matrimonio y comportamientos sexuales,
15191570,' in Sergio Ortega (ed.), De la santidada la perversion, 1946.
The concepts of sin and fornication are ably discussed by Ana Maria
Atondo in 'De la perversion de la practica a la perversion del discurso: La
fornicacion,' in Ortega (ed.), De la santidad a la perversion, 129-63.
Asuncion Lavrin, 'Sexuality in colonial Mexico: A Church dilemma," in
Lavrin (ed.), Sexuality and Marriage in Colonial Latin America, 4 7 - 9 2 ,
explores the concept of sin as defined by the church, and a variety of
personal behaviour that contradicted the ecclesiastical dicta in New Spain.
Similar contradictions were confirmed for colonial Venezuela by Kathy
Waldron, 'The sinners and the Bishop in colonial Venezuela: The Visita of
Bishop Mariano Marti, 1771-1784,' in Lavrin (ed.), Sexuality and Mar-
riage, 15677. For New Mexico, see Ramon A. Gutierrez, 'From honor to
love: Transformations of the meaning of sexuality in colonial Mexico,' in
Raymond T. Smith (ed.), Kinship, Ideology and Practice in Latin America
(Chapel Hill, N . C . , 1984), 2 3 7 - 6 3 , and 'Honor, ideology, marriage
negotiation, and class-gender domination in New Mexico, 1690-1846,'
LAP, 12 (1985), 81 104. Gutierrez analyzes gender relations in the in-
digenous and Spanish societies in When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went
Away: Marriage, Sexuality and Power in New Mexico, 15001846 (Stanford,
Calif., 1991). Some manifestations of sexuality have received initial atten-
tion in colonial Argentina by Carlos A. Mayo, ' "Amistades ilicitas": Las

relaciones extramatrimoniales en la campana bonaerense, 1750-1810,'

Cuadernos de Historia Regional, 1/2 (1985), 3-9. Unwed motherhood
among the Spanish-American elite illuminates social mores, as Ann
Twinam has shown in 'Honor, sexuality and illegitimacy in colonial Span-
ish America,' in Lavrin (ed.), Sexuality and Marriage, 118-55. The issue of
parental dissent to marriage of their offspring and the changing attitudes
of civil and ecclesiastical authorities is studied by Patricia Seed in To Love,
Honor and Obey: Conflicts Over Marriage Choice, 15741821 (Stanford, Ca-
lif, 1988), and Susan Socolow, 'Acceptable partners: Marriage choice in
colonial Argentina, 17781810,' in Lavrin (ed.), Sexuality and Marriage,
20946. See also, Patricia Seed, 'The Church and the patriarchal family:
Marriage conflicts in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century New Spain, 'Jour-
nal of Family History, 10/3 (1985), 2 8 4 - 9 3 , anc^ 'Marriage promises and
the value of a woman's testimony in colonial Mexico,' Signs: Journal of
Women in Culture and Society, 13/2 (1988), 253-76.
Several authors explore the meaning of marriage itself, a difficult and
challenging theme that is partially studied through the negative prism of
divorce and bigamy. Although few, these studies expand our knowledge of
daily life within the home. See Richard Boyer, 'Women, la Mala Vida, and
the politics of marriage', in Lavrin (ed.), Sexuality and Marriage, 25286,
and Thomas Calvo, 'The warmth of the hearth: Seventeenth-century
Guadalajara families,' in Asuncion Lavrin (ed.), Sexuality and Marriage,
287312. For an inner view of discord and break-down within the family,
see Alberto Flores Galindo and Magdalena Chocano, 'Las cargas del sacra-
mento', Revista Andina, ill (1984), 40334; Bernard Lavalle, Divorcio y
nulidad de matrimonio en Lima (1651ijoo): La desavenencia conyugal como
reveladorsocial(Talence, 1986); Ricardo Cicerchia, 'Vida familiar y practicas
conyugales: Clases populares en una ciudad colonial, Buenos Aires, 1800
1810', Boletin del Instituto de Historia Argentina y Americana, 'Dr. E. Ravig-
nani,' 3rd. Series, No. 1, 1st Semester (1990), 91 109. Mothering, as the
main occupation of women during the colonial period, and children as
members of the family, have received scant attention as topics of research.
Child abandonment has been interpreted as a mechanism to control the size
of the family by Elsa Malvido in 'El abandono de los hijos: Una forma de
control del tamano de la familia y del trabajo indigena: Tula, 16831830,'
HM, 34/4 (1980), 52161. See also Cristina Ruiz Martinez, 'La memoria
sobre la ninez y el estereotipo del nifio santo,' in Sergio Ortega (ed.), De la
santidad a la perversion, 4966, and Asunci6n Lavrin, 'Mexico, a historio-
graphical study of childhood,' in Ray Hiner and Joseph Hawes (eds.),

Children in Historical and Comparative Perspective: An International Handbook

and Research Guide (Westport, Conn., 1991), 42145. Rape and violence
against women are also included in the new social history. This subject has
been explored by Francois Giraud, 'Viol et societe coloniale: Le cas de la
nouvelle-Espagne au XVIII Siecle,' AESC, 41/5 (1986), 625-37; Car-
men Castafieda, Violacion, estupro y sexualidad: Nueva Galicia 17901921
(Guadalajara, 1989).
The role of women as members of the property network of the family and
in the intergenerational transmission of property has raised some interest,
although not as much as the topic deserves. See, for comparison with Brazil,
Alida C. Metcalf, 'Women and means: Women and family property in
colonial Brazil,' Journal ofSocial History, 24/2 (1990), 27798, and 'Fathers
and sons: The politics of inheritance in a colonial Brazilian township,'
HAHR, 66/3 (1986), 45584; John Tutino, 'Power, class and family: Men
and women in the Mexican elite: 17501810,' TA, 39/3(1983), 35982.
The economic activities of women as small business owners is described by
John E. Kicza, 'La mujer y la vida comercial en la ciudad de Mexico a fines
de la colonia', Revista de Ciencias Socialesy Humanidades, 2/4(1981), 3959-
Although not strictly historical, Julie Greer Johnson, Women in Colonial
Spanish American Literature: Literary Images (Westport, Conn., 1983) intro-
duces the subject of women in literary sources to the general reader. See
also the extensive survey of women's cultural activities by Josefina Muriel,
Cultura feminina novohispana (Mexico, D.F., 1982). The historiography of
colonial women in Spanish America is expanding and reasserting its valid-
ity by exploring how women behaved throughout time, within the con-
text of the home and the local or regional community, following a multi-
plicity of interests, dictated by class, ethnicity, and the evolution of social
mores, and socio-economic conditions throughout three centuries. The
network of family interests surrounding women and the character of gen-
der relations are the centres of current research, but the addition of re-
gional and ethnic nuances, especially the confluence of Spanish and indige-
nous worlds, seen through the prism of the female experience, holds the
promise of opening rich views of daily life in the colonial period.
16. THE C A T H O L I C C H U R C H
The historiography of the church in colonial Spanish America is in a far

more primitive state than the historiography of colonial Spanish America

i6. The Catholic church 143
in general. Only in recent years has it emerged from some of its accumu-
lated backwardness, giving promise of a better future.
A number of general histories of the church world-wide include chap-
ters, more or less generous in scope, devoted to Latin America: vols. 16 to
19 of the Histoire de I'Eglise depuis les origines jusqu'd nos jours (Paris, 1948
60), edited by Augustin Fliche and others; vols. 5 to 8 of Hubert Jedin's
Manual de historia de la Iglesia (Barcelona, 19748); vol. 3 of The Christian
Centuries: A New History of the Catholic Church, edited by Louis-Jacques
Rogier, R. Aubert and M. D. Knowles (London, 1964 ); and vols. 3 and
4 of the Historia de la Iglesia catdlica (Madrid, 195463) by Bernardino
Llorca, Ricardo Garcia Villoslada and Francisco Javier Montalban. See also
vols. 2, 3 and 4 of Simon Delacroix's Histoire universelle des missions
catholiques (Paris, 1956-9). From the Protestant point of view there is K.
S. Latourette's A History of the Expansion of Christianity (New York and
London, 1938-53).
There are also a number of works specifically Latin American in scope:
Leandro Tormo Sanz, Historia de la Iglesia en America Latina, vols. 1 and 3
(Madrid, 19623), A. Ybot Leon, La Iglesia y los eclesidsticos en la empresa de
Indias, 2 vols. (Barcelona, 195463), and Leon Lopetegui, Felix Zubi-
llaga and Antonio de Egana, Historia de la Iglesia en la America espanola desde
el descubrimiento hasta comienzos del siglo XIX, 2 vols. (Madrid, 19656)
confine themselves to the colonial period, though in some cases stretching
it to cover the period of the Wars of Independence. For its part, Richard
Pattee, El Catolicismo contempordneo hispanoamericano (Buenos Aires, 1951)
offers us the most extensive chronological range. Enrique D. Dussel's
Hipdtesis para una historia de la Iglesia en America Latina (Barcelona, 1967),
which was transformed and expanded into Historia de la Iglesia en
America Latina (Barcelona, 1972), shows a marked preference for the
twentieth century. C. R. Boxer, The Church Militant and Iberian Expansion,
144017 jo (Baltimore, 1978) deals selectively with a number of histori-
cal problems and includes Asia and Africa as well as Latin America. Hans-
Jiirgen Prien's Die Geschichte des Christentums in Lateinamerika (Gottingen,
1978) is the only work that can be considered fully comprehensive. How-
ever, the ambitious project that the Comisi6n de Estudios de Historia de
la Iglesia en America Latina has been advancing since 1973 the publica-
tion simultaneously in Spanish (Salamanca), in Portuguese (Petropolis)
and in English (New York), of 11 volumes of Historia General de la Iglesia
en America Latina under the general editorship of E. D. Dussel deserves
mention. There are some excellent essays on evangelisation and the ecclesi--

astical influence on life in the colonial period in Iglesia, religion y sociedad en

la historia latinoamericana (1492-1945), 2 vols. (Szeged, 1989). Still valu-
able as an examination of the relations between state and church is Wil-
liam Eugene Shiels, King and Church: The Rise and Fall of the Patronato Real
(Chicago, 1961). A compact recent synthesis is Ismael Sanchez Bella,
Iglesia y estado en la America espanola (Pamplona, 1990). Arnold J. Bauer
(comp.), La Iglesia en la economia de America Latina, siglos XVI al XIX
(Mexico, D.F., 1986) is a wide-ranging collection of previously published
articles, along with a substantial introduction by the compiler and some
new essays. Latin American ecclesiastical history lacks a basic bibliographi-
cal work of reference and historical journal. Anyone wishing to venture
among the islands of this archipelago has to consult the general learned
journals, such as the Revue d'Histoire Ecclesiastique (Louvain), the Indice
historico espanol (Barcelona), the Hispanic American Historical Review (Dur-
ham, N.C.), The Americas (Washington, D.C.) and the Revista de Historica
de America (Mexico, D.F.).
There are a number of studies devoted to the history of the church in
particular countries, but they are unfortunately variable in their range and
sources of information. Outstanding among them are Mariano Cuevas,
Historia de la Iglesia en Mexico, 5 vols. (El Paso, Tex., 1921-8); Ruben
Vargas Ugarte, Historia de la Iglesia en el Peru, 5 vols. (Lima and Burgos,
1953-62); Emilio Lisson Chaves (ed.), La Iglesia de Espana en el Peru:
Coleccidn de documentospara la historia de la Iglesia en el Peru, 5 vols. (Seville,
1943); Cayetano Bruno, Historia de la Iglesia en la Argentina, 8 vols.
(Buenos Aires, 1966-71); C. Jilva Cotapos, Historia eclesiastica de Chile
(Santiago, Chile, 1925); and Jose Maria Vargas, Historia de la Iglesia en el
Ecuador durante el Patronato espanol (Quito, 1962); and the appropriate
volumes on Historia eclesiastica in Historia extensa de Colombia, edited by
Juan Manuel Pacheco C.
There are also histories of the religious orders that worked in Spain's
American colonies. Here, too, the historiographical quality is most un-
equal, ranging from irreproachable critical works such as the Mexican,
Peruvian and Brazilian series of the Monumenta Historica Societatis Jesu on
the one hand, to the literature of edification and apologias on the other.
Outstanding are M. I. Perez Alonso, La Compahia deJesus en Mexico: Cuatro
siglos de labor cultural, i^j2-igy2 (Mexico, D.F., 1975); Serafim Leite,
Historia da Companhia de Jesus no Brasil, 10 vols. (Rio de Janeiro and
Lisbon, 193850); Juan Manuel Pacheco, Losjesuitas en Colombia, 2 vols.
(Bogota, 195962); Alberto E. Arizas, Los Dominicos en Venezuela (Bogota,

16. The Catholic church 145
1971); Avencio Villarejo, Los Agustinos en el Peru, 15481965 (Lima,

1965); Andres Mille, La Orden de la Merced en la conquista del Peru, Chile y
Tucumdn, 12181804 (Buenos Aires, 1958); E. de Palacio and J. Brunei,
Los Mercedarios en Bolivia (La Paz, 1976).
For easily comprehensible reasons, evangelization has proved powerfully
attractive as a subject. Robert Ricard, La conquete spirituelle du Mexique:
Essai sur I'apostolat et les methodes missionaires des Ordres Mendiants en Nouvelle
Espagne, de 1523 a 1572 (Paris, 1933), published in English as The Spiri-
tual Conquest of Mexico: An Essay on the Apostolate and the Evangelizing
Methods of the Mendicant Orders of New Spain: 1523-1572 (Berkeley, 1966),
opened up a wide field of research in relation to the transfer of Christianity
from Europe to America. One aspect of the phenomenon was pursued by
John Leddy Phelan, The Millennial Kingdom of the Franciscans in the New
World (Berkeley, 1956). Many of Ricard's conclusions, however, have been
contested or elaborated. See, for example, J. Jorge Klor de Alva, 'Spiritual
conflict and accommodation in New Spain: Toward a typology of Aztec
responses to Christianity', in The Inca and Aztec States 1400-1800: Anthro-
pology and History, edited by G. A. Collier, R. I. Rosaldo and J. D. Wirth
(New York, 1982), 345-66. Also of interest on this early missionary era
in New Spain are Miguel Leon-Portilla's brief but important Los francis-
canos vistos por el hombre ndhuatl: Testimonios indigenas del sigh XVI (Mexico,
D.F., 1985); Jose Catala and Jaime Vilchis Reyes, 'Apocaliptica espafiola y
empresa misional en los primeros franciscanos en Mexico', Revista de In-
dias, 45/176 (1985), 42147, an excellent refinement of earlier work by
Marcel Bataillon and John Leddy Phelan; a collection of 33 papers from a
1985 conference at La Rabida, Spain entitled Congreso internacional sobre
franciscanos en el Nuevo Mundo (Madrid, 1987); a welcome new edition of
Motolinia's Historia de los indios de la Nueva Espana by Georges Baudot
(Madrid, 1985) and a facsimile edition of Motolinia's correspondence,
Epistolario, 1526-1555, edited by Javier O. Aragon (Mexico, D.F.,
1986); Mauricio J. Mixco's fine English translation and revision of Luis
Nicolau d'Olwer's classic 1952 study, Fray Bernardino deSahagim, 1499
1590 (Salt Lake City, 1987) and, on the same subject, a set of stimulating
essays in J. Jorge Klor de Alva, H. B. Nicholson and Eloise Quitiones
(eds.), The Work of Bernardino de Sahagun: Pioneer Ethnographer of Sixteenth-
Century Aztec Mexico (Austin, Tex., 1988). Important, too, are a new
facsimile of a major NahuatlSpanish confession manual, with a valuable
introductory essay by Roberto Moreno, Alonso de Molina's Confesionario
mayor en la lengua mexicana y castellana (Mexico, D.F., 1984) and, more

generally, Juan Guillermo Duran's extensive edition of catechism texts and

studies, Monumenta catechetica hispanoamerkana (siglos XVI-XVIH) (Buenos
Aires, 1984).
On religious history in the Andes, see Fernando de Armas Medina, La
Cristianizacion del Peru, 1532-1600 (Seville, 1953), in which there is much
important information on ecclesiastical organization and practice. Johann
Specker, Die Missionsmethode in SpanishAmerika im 16. Jahrhundert mit
besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Konzilien und Synoden (Schoneck-Beckenried,
1953), sets out to systematize the earliest Latin American conciliar enact-
ments. See also Pedro Borges, Metodos misionales en la cristianizacion de Amer-
ica (Madrid, i960), Constantino Bayle, El clero seculary la evangelizacion de
America (Madrid, 1950) and E. D. Dussel, El episcopado hispano americano,
defensor y evangelizador del indio, 15041620, 9 vols. (Cuernavaca, 1964
71), and in a single volume Les Eveques hispano-americains, defenseurs et
evangelisateurs de I'indien 15031620 (Wiesbaden, 1970).
On Bartolome de Las Casas and the cultural, theological and religious
significance of the controversies surrounding his life, see the works cited
in essay 11:3.
The bibliography available on the Jesuit reductions is formidable, re-
flecting an age-old polemic. See, for example, Magnus Morner's pioneering
study, The Political and Economic Activities of theJesuits in the La Plata Region:
The Habsburg Era (Stockholm, 1953), Bartomeu Melia's La creation d'un
langage chretien dans les reductions des Guarani au Paraguay (Strasbourg, 1969)
and, among Melia's articles, 'La reducciones jesuiticas del Paraguay: Un
espacio para una Utopia colonial', Estudios Paraguayos, 6 (1978), 15768.
Louis Necker, Indiens Guaranis et chamanesfranciscaines: Les premieres reductions
du Paraguay, 1580-1800 (Paris, 1979) has assessed the continuity between
Franciscan missionary efforts and the general application of their method by
the Jesuits. Important work on the Jesuit-dominated Mojos region (modern
Beni in eastern Bolivia) includes a second edition of Jose Chavez Suarez's
1944 study, Historia de Moxos (La Paz, 1986), Josep M. Barnadas, 'Las
reducciones jesuiticas de Mojos', Historia Boliviano, 4/2 (1984), 13566,
and David Block's synthesis, 'La vision jesuitica de los pueblos aut6ctonos
de Mojos, 1667-1700', Historia Boliviana, 6/1-2 (1986), 7 3 - 8 8 . For a
summary of the vast research on the Guarani missions, Branislava Susnik,
'La cultura indigena y su organization social dentro de las misiones je-
suiticas', Suplemento antropologico, 19/2 (1984), 717.
For the growing literature on nunneries, see essay II: 15.
The recent interest in ethno-historical exploration has had some effect

upon the image we can perceive of the religious acculturation of the Indian
population. Pierre Duviols, La lutte contre les religions autochtones dans le
Perou colonial: L'extirpation de I'idolatrie entre 1532 et 1660 (Lima and Paris,
1971), translated into Spanish as La destruccion de las religiones andinas
(Mexico, D.F., 1977), remains an essential departure point for the study
of the Limeno church's efforts to extirpate idolatry in the course of the
sixteenth and first half of the seventeenth century. Nathan Wachtel, La
vision des vaincus: Les indiens du Perou devant la conquete espagnole (Paris,
1971), Eng. trans., The Vision of the Vanquished: The Spanish Conquest of
Peru Through Indian Eyes, 15301570 (Hassocks, Sussex, 1977), and
Jacques Lafaye, Quetzalcoatl et Guadalupe (Paris, 1974), Eng. trans., Quet-
zalcdatl and Guadelupe (Chicago, 1976) have similarly been influential in
opening up the study of the complicated effects of the uneven
evangelisation and the survival of Indian belief systems.
Out of an enormous and ever-growing bibliography for Mexico, special
attention should be afforded Inga Clendinnen, Ambivalent Conquests: Maya
and Spaniard in Yucatan, 1517-1570 (Cambridge, Eng., 1987). Louise M.
Burkhart's challenging study of the early doctrinal sources in Mexico, The
Slippery Earth: NahuaChristian Moral Dialogue (Tucson, Ariz., 1989) also
deserves mention. For a new English edition of an important primary
source on a slightly later period, see J. R. Andrews and R. Hassig (trans,
and eds.), The Treatise of Ruiz de Alarcon (1629) (Austin, Tex., 1984), a
work meant as a manual for confessors of Indians and extirpators of idola-
try. Serge Gruzinski, La Colonisation de I'imaginaire: Societes indigenes et
occidentalisation dans le Mexique espagnol, XVleXVllle siecle (Paris, 1988),
is available in English as The Conquest of Mexico (Cambridge, Eng., 1993)-
The first four chapters of the same author's Man-Gods in the Mexican
Highlands: Indian Power and Colonial Society, 1^,201800 (Stanford, Calif.,
1989) explore four extraordinary case studies of colonial Indians. On
Mesoamerica, Nancy M. Farriss, Maya Society Under Colonial Rule: The
Collective Enterprise of Survival (Princeton, N.J., 1984), has provided an
influential portrayal of the colonial Indian world. Also, a translation of Fr
Andres de Avendano y Loyola's Relation of Two Trips to Peten: Made for the
Conversion of the Heathen Ytzaex and Cehaches (Culver City, Calif., 1987),
has been prepared by Charles P. Bowditch and Guillermo Rivera.
For South America, most of the best newer work has focused on the
Peruvian and Bolivian Andes. There are a number of scholarly editions of
one of the most important sources on colonial Andean religion: in Spanish,
see Gerald Taylor (ed. and trans.), Ritos y tradiciones de Huarochiri:

Manuscrito quechua de comienzos del siglo XVII (Lima, 1987), including an
important biographical study of the most famous extirpator of idolatry,
Francisco de Avila, by Antonio Acosta; an English version has been pre-
pared by Frank Salomon and George L. Urioste (eds. and trans.), The
(Austin, Tex., 1991). Salomon prefaces the latter with an informative
introductory essay. Luis Millones has collected a number of important
documents and studies on the still fascinating Taki Onqoy movement of
the 1560s, El retorno de las huacas: Estudios y documentos sobre el Taki Onqoy,
siglo XVI (Lima, 1990). Two thought-provoking, and very different, dis-
cussions of sixteenth-century Peruvian religious themes are Sabine Mac-
Cormack's ' "The Heart Has Its Reasons": Predicaments of Missionary
Christianity in Early Colonial Peru', HAHR, 65/3 (1985), 44366, and
Carlos Sempat Assadourian, 'Las rentas reales, el buen gobierno y la haci-
enda de Dios: El parecer de 1568 de Fray Francisco de Morales sobre la
reformaci6n de las Indias temporal y espiritual', Historica, 9/1 (1985), 75
130. See also Sabine MacCormack's latest study, Religion in the Andes:
Vision and Imagination in Early Colonial Peru (Princeton, N.J., 1991). For
the fascinating questions that it provokes, see Valerie Fraser's work on
early church-building and towns, The Architecture of Conquest: Building in
the Viceroyalty of Peru, 1535-1635 (Cambridge, Eng., 1990). Norman
Meiklejohn's study, La iglesiay los Lupaqas durante la colonia (Cuzco, 1988)
concentrates on the effects of early colonial evangelisation among the
Aymara-speakers on the north shore of Lake Titicaca. Another important
collection for students of Peruvian religious history is an extraordinary
group of seventeenth-century idolatry trials compiled by Pierre Duviols
(ed.) in Cultura andina y represidn: Procesos y visitas de idolatrias y hechicerias,
Cajatambo, siglo XVII (Cuzco, 1986). For a critical review essay chal-
lenging Duviols's interpretative introduction, see Antonio Acosta, 'La
extirpaci6n de las idolatrias en el Peru: Origen y desarrollo de las
companas; a proposito de Cultura andina y represidn', Revista Andina, 5/1
(1987), I7I-95-
On the Inquisition, Henry Kamen, Inquisition and Society in Spain in the
Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (London, 1985), is a more recent general
study, although much can still be learned from Henry Charles Lea, A
History of the Inquisition in Spain, 4 vols. (New York, 19067) and The
Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies (New York, 1908). Another work is
Mary Elizabeth Perry and Anne J. Cruz (eds.), Cultural Encounters: The
Impact of the Inquisition in Spain and the New World (Berkeley, 1991).

Richard E. Greenleaf examines the Mexican Inquisition in Zumdrraga and

the Mexican Inquisition 1536-1543 (Washington, D.C., 1961), and The
Mexican Inquisition in the Sixteenth Century (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1969).
For the period to follow, see Solange Alberro, Inquisition et Soctete au
Mexique, 15711700 (Mexico, D.F., 1988). For Peru, the classic study is
Jose Toribio Medina, Historia del Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisicion de
Lima (1569-1820) (Santiago, Chile, 1887).
On the Patronato Real and its source, the papal bulls of donation, we
must consider as classics the works of Manuel Gimenez Fernandez, for
instance his Nuevas consideraciones sobre la historia, senddo y valor de las hulas
alejandrinas de 1493 referentes a las Indias (Seville, 1943), and those of
Alfonso Garcia Gallo, for example his study "Las bulas de Alejandro VI y el
ordenamiento juridico de la expansion portuguesa y castellana en Africa e
Indias', in Anuario de Historia del Derecho Espanol, vols. 27 and 28 (1957
8). See also the important studies of Pedro de Leturia, collected in vol. 1 of
his Relaciones entre la Santa Sede y Hispanoamerica, 3 vols. (Rome and
Caracas, 1959), and the work of his disciple, Antonio de Egana, La teoria
del Regio Vicariato espanol de Indias (Rome, 1958), for the seventeenth
century, and also, so far as the regalist and gallican developments in the
eighteenth century are concerned, Alberto de La Hera, El regalismo borbon-
ico (Madrid, 1963).
A thorough later study of the structure of the early church and clerical
career patterns in early colonial Mexico is John Frederick Schwaller, The
Church and Clergy in Sixteenth-Century Mexico (Albuquerque, N.Mex.,
1987), while on church wealth see the same author's Origins ofChurch Wealth
in Mexico: Ecclesiastical Revenues and Church Finances, 15231600 (Albuquer-
que, N.Mex., 1985) and, from a different angle, Victoria Hennessey Cum-
mins, 'Imperial policy and Church income: The sixteenth-century Mexican
Church', TA, 63/1 (1986),, 87103. A major contribution is Stafford
Poole's masterly biography, Pedro Moya de Contreras: Catholic Reform and
Royal Power in New Spain, 15111591 (Berkeley, 1987). An important
monograph on the church in late colonial Mexico, and especially the attack
by the crown on the fuero eclesidstico, is Nancy M. Farriss, Crown and Clergy in
Colonial Mexico 1159-1821: The Crisis of Ecclesiastical Privilege (London,
1968). Important newer work on Central American regions, in addition to
Clendinnen's study and others noted above, includes Adriaan C. van Oss's
well-documented book on parish foundation and composition, Catholic
Colonialism: A Parish History of Guatemala, 1524-1821 (Cambridge, Eng.,
1986); Antonio G. Aguirre's focus on the first three decades of missionary

activities in Guatemala, Francisco Marroquin y Bartolome de Las Casas: Her-

aldos de Cristo en Guatemala, 3 junto 1530 a 18 abril 1563 (Guatemala City,
1983); and Jose Zaporta Pallares, Vida eclesial en Guatemala, afinesdel siglo
XVII, 1683-ijoi (Guatemala City, 1983), an account of seventeenth-
century religious life from the point of view of a Mercedarian bishop of
Guatemala, Andres de las Navas y Quevedo (16831701).
Finally, some interesting investigations of the church and its influence
on society are a collection of nine essays by Asuncion Lavrin (ed.), Sexual-
ity and Marriage in Colonial Latin America (Lincoln, Nebr., 1989); Patricia
Seed's original To Love, Honor and Obey in Colonial Mexico: Conflicts over
Marriage Choice, 1574-1821 (Stanford, Calif, 1988); and, for the light it
throws on marriage and family ties in the pre-Tridentine Hispanic world,
Alexandra Parma Cook and Noble David Cook, Good Faith and Truthful
Ignorance: A Case of Transatlantic Bigamy (Durham, N.C., 1991).
17. L I T E R A T U R E A N D I N T E L L E C T U A L LIFE
There are not many general works on the cultural history of colonial
Spanish America. However, J. H. Elliott's edited collection, The Hispanic
World (London, 1991), published in the United States as The Spanish World
(New York, 1991), offers a useful introduction to Spanish history and
civilisation. Focusing on the early modern period, see an excellent selec-
tion of the same author's essays: J. H. Elliott, Spain and Its World, 1500
1700 (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1989). There are two older works
which remain useful: De la conquista a la independencia (Mexico, D.F.,
1954), by the Venezuelan Mariano Picon Salas, translated into English as
A Cultural History of Spanish America (Berkeley, 1962), is a work about
culture in the traditional sense of 'high culture', that is, books and fine
arts; George Foster's Culture and Conquest (Chicago, i960) concerns culture
in the anthropological sense of the word and stresses the cultural contribu-
tion of Spain to the daily life of Spanish America in the colonial era. There
are important chapters devoted to cultural life in America by Guillermo
Cespedes del Castillo (for the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries) and
Mario Hernandez Sanchez-Barba (for the eighteenth) in the monumental
Historia de Espana y America, edited by J. Vicens Vives (Barcelona, 1957;
2nd ed., 1977). A recent general survey is Mario Hernandez Sanchez-
Barba, Historia y literatura en Hispano-America 14921820: La version in-
telectual de una experiencia (Valencia, Spain, 1978). Mario Gongora, Studies

17. Literature and intellectual life 151
in the Colonial History of Spanish America (Cambridge, Eng., 1975) dis-

cusses many aspects of intellectual and cultural life. On HispanoCreole
urban civilization, see Jose Luis Romero, Latinoamerica: Las ciudades y las
ideas (Buenos Aires, 1976).
A number of bibliographical reference works are indispensable, espe-
cially the researches of the Chilean scholar Jose Toribio Medina, which
appeared at the beginning of this century and are therefore somewhat
inaccessible, except in specialized libraries: his Historia de la imprenta en
America y Oceania, followed by Imprenta en Mexico, Imprenta in Puebla,
Imprenta en Guadalajara and others, all of which appeared in the first fifteen
years of the century, give an impression of the quantity of books - and
authors from the different towns of colonial Spanish America. Medina's
works on the Inquisition in Chile, Mexico and Peru are no less important.
Two in particular may be mentioned: Historia del Tribunal de la Inquisicion de
Mexico (Santiago, Chile, 1905) which has been expanded by Julio Jimenez
Rueda (Mexico, D. F., 1952); and the Historia del Tribunal de la Inquisicion de
Lima, republished in 1954 in Santiago, Chile with a preface by Marcel
Bataillon.
The bibliographical and biographical work of the Mexican Joaquin
Garcia Icazbalceta, a contemporary of Medina, has needed little updating;
it was published in ten volumes of Obras (Mexico, 1896-9). See also
Francisco Esteve Barba, Historiografia indiana (Madrid, 1964), a guide to
the major writings of the colonial period. The best guide to works trans-
lated into English remains R. A. Humphreys, Latin American History; A
Guide to the Literature in English (London, 1958).
Among more recent monographs the following deserve mention: J. H.
Elliott, The Old World and the New 1492-1650 (Cambridge, Eng., 1970);
F. Chiapelli (ed.), First Images of America: The Impact of the New World on the
Old, 2 vols. (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976); Antonello Gerbi, The
Dispute of the New World, translated from the original Italian edition of
X
955 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1973), and Nature in the New World, translated
from the 1975 Italian edition (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1985); Alain Milhou, Colon
y su mentalidad mesidnica en el ambiente franciscanista espanol (Valladolid,
1983); Luis Weckman, La herencia medieval de Mexico (Mexico, D.F.,
1984); Lee E. Huddleston, Origins of the American Indians, European Con-
cepts, 14921929 (Austin, Tex., 1967); Anthony Pagden, The Fall of
Natural Man: The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative Ethnology
(Cambridge, Eng., 1982); Lewis Hanke, All Mankind Is One: A Study of the
Disputation between Bartolomi de Las Casas and Juan Gines de Sepulveda in

1350 on the Intellectual and Religious Capacity of the American Indians

(Dekalb, 111., 1974); Juan Friede and Benjamin Keen (eds.), Bartolome de
Las Casas in History: Towards an Understanding of the Man and His Work
(Dekalb, 111., 1971); for a visual depiction of the 'black legend", see the
engravings by Theodore deBry, recently collected in a splendid volume,
America deBry, 1590-1634 (Berlin, 1990) and in the Spanish edition
(Madrid, 1992); J. Lockhart and E. Otte, Letters and People of the Spanish
Indies (Cambridge, Eng., 1976) and Otte's recent edition of an even larger
collection, Cartas privadas de emigrantes a Indias, 1540-1616 (Seville,
1988); John Leddy Phelan, The Millennial Kingdom of the Franciscans in the
New World: A Study of the Writings of Gerdnimo de Mendieta, 15251604
(Los Angeles, 1956; revised ed., 1970); Shirley B. Heath, Telling Tongues:
Language Policy in Mexico, Colony to Nation (New York, 1972); Demetrio
Ramos Perez, El mito del Dorado: Su genesis y proceso (Caracas, 1973); Benja-
min Keen, The Aztec Image in Western Thought (New Brunswick, N.J.,
1971); Jacques Lafaye, Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe: The Formation of the
National Consciousness in Mexico (Chicago, 1976), translated from the origi-
nal French edition by B. Keen. James Lockhart, Nahuas and Spaniards
(Stanford, Calif., 1991) and The Nahuas after the Conquest (Stanford, Calif.,
1992) are important new works on Mesoamerican cultural and intellectual
history.
For the Andes, new insight into the Andean intellectual world is offered
by new scholarly editions of the late sixteenth-century Huarochiri manu-
script: Gerald Taylor (ed. and trans.), Ritos y tradiciones de Huarochiri:
Manuscrito quechua de comienzos del siglo XVII (Lima, 1987), including an
important biographical study of the most famous extirpator of idolatry,
Francisco de Avila, by Antonio Acosta; and an English version prepared by
Frank Salomon and George L. Urioste (eds. and trans.), The Huarochiri
Manuscript: A Testament of Ancient and Colonial Andean Religion (Austin,
Tex., 1991), with a substantial introductory essay by Salomon. Also de-
serving mention are Alberto Flores Galindo, Buscando un Inca: Identidad y
Utopia en los Andes (Havana, 1986; Lima, 1987) and Manuel Burga, Naci-
miento de una Utopia: Muerte y resurreccion de los incas (Lima, 1988). See also
the important essays in Kenneth J. Andrien and Rolena Adorno (eds.),
Transatlantic Encounters: Europeans and Andeans in the Sixteenth Century
(Berkeley, 1991) and Sabine MacCormack, Religion in the Andes: Vision and
Imagination in Early Colonial Peru (Princeton, N.J., 1991).
Older but still useful are Irving Leonard, Books of the Brave: Being an
Account of Books and of Men in the Spanish Conquest and Settlement of the

18. Architecture and art 153
Sixteenth-Century New World (Cambridge, Mass., 1949) and Baroque Times

in Old Mexico: Seventeenth-Century Persons, Places and Practices, 2nd ed. (Ann
Arbor, Mich., 1959); the dated but still useful overview, Felipe Barreda
Laos, Vida intelectual del Virreinato del Peru, 3rd ed. (Lima, 1964); Lewis
Hanke, The Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America (Philadelphia,
1949); Arthur P. Whitaker (ed.), Latin America and the Enlightenment
(Ithaca, N.Y., 1942). On the universities: John Tate Lanning, Academic
Culture in the Spanish Colonies (New York, 1940), The University of the
Kingdom of Guatemala (1955), and The Eighteenth Century Enlightenment in
the University of San Carlos de Guatemala (1957).
On the development of Creole consciousness two new works lead the
way: the path-breaking essays in Nicholas Canny and Anthony Pagden
(eds.), Colonial Identity in the Atlantic World, 1500-1800 (Princeton, N.J.,
1987) and David A. Brading's monumental The First America: The Spanish
Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492I86J (Cambridge,
Eng., 1991). Important older works include Gloria Grajales, Nacionalismo
incipiente en los historiadores coloniales (Mexico, D.F., 1961); Andre Saint-Lu,
Condition coloniale et conscience Creole au Guatemala (Paris, 1970); Ruth Wold,
El diario de Mexico (Madrid, 1970).
Since the cultural colonization of the Philippines was in many ways
comparable to that of the Indies and the Philippines (administratively and
religiously dependent on New Spain) were linked to Spain through the
Indies, John Leddy Phelan, The Hispanization of the Philippines (Madison,
Wis., 1959) is an important beginning.
18. ARCHITECTURE AND ART
Among the pioneers in writing the history of the art and architecture of
colonial Spanish America, the prominent figures in Mexico were Manuel
Romero de Terreros, with his Historia sintetica del arte colonial (Mexico,
D.F., 1922), and Manuel Toussaint, author of the classic Arte colonial en
Mixico, 2nd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1962); Eng. trans. Colonial Art in Mexico,
(Austin, Tex., 1967). A comparable role was played in Peru by the
architect Emilio Harth-terre, whose numerous articles have been collected
into one volume: Peru: Monumentos historicos y arqueologicos (Mexico, D.F.,
1975). See also Hector Velarde, Arquitecturaperuana (Mexico, D.F., 1946)
for a number of interesting points of view. In Argentina there were three
early specialists: Angel Guido, Martin S. Noel and Miguel Sola. Guido

was a theorist who made his name with Eurindia en el arte hispanoamericano
(Santa Fe, Arg., 1930). Noel, architect, theorist - see his Teoria histdrica
de la arquitectura virreinal (Buenos Aires, 1932) and connoisseur, was
most importantly the editor of a series of studies entitled Documentos de arte
colonial sudamericano, published in Buenos Aires between 1943 and 1957
by the Academia Nacional de Bellas Artes. The most comprehensive and
coherent work was Miguel Sola, Historia del arte hispanoamericano (Barce-
lona, 1935). The major work, however, was to be that undertaken by a
Spanish historian, Diego Angulo Ifiiguez, the chief author of a monumen-
tal Historia del arte hispanoamericano, 3 vols. (Barcelona, 1945-56), in
which he was assisted by another Spaniard, Enrique Marco Dorta, and by
the Argentine architect Mario Jose Buschiazzo. See also Martin Soria, La
pintura del siglo XVI en Sudamerica (Buenos Aires, 1952).
Little by little, a new generation of art historians began to emerge in
each of the major countries, especially in Mexico, where Francisco de la
Maza, a brilliant essayist, left several fundamental studies: La Ciudad de
Cholula y sus iglesias (Mexico, D.F., 1959); El Churrigueresco en la Ciudad
de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1969), and Arquitectura de los coros de monjas
(Mexico, D.F., 1973). The historian Justino Fernandez produced a most
useful little book, Arte mexkano (Mexico, D.F., 1958), plus (among
others) Arte mexicano del siglo XIX (Mexico, D.F., 1967). Victor Manuel
Villegas, El gran signo formal del barroco (Mexico, D.F., 1956) remains the
classic study of the estipite or square inverted pyramidal pillar. Later the
same author collaborated with a Spaniard, A. Bonet Correa, in El barroco
en Espaiia y en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1969), a curious and controversial
work. Also worthy of mention is Sergio G. Zaldivar, Arquitectura del
barroco popular (Guadalajara, i960), an analysis of eleven churches in the
state of Jalisco.
Pre-eminent amongst the foreigners who have interested themselves in
this field are North Americans, especially George Kubler, with his classic
Mexican Architecture of the Sixteenth Century, 2 vols. (New Haven, Conn.,
1948). Later, he was the author, jointly with Martin Soria, of a major
volume, Art and Architecture in Spain and Portugal and Their American
Dominions, 1500-1800 (Baltimore, 1959). New directions, also, were
marked out by the work of Harold E. Wethey, particularly in his Colonial
Architecture and Sculpture in Peru (Cambridge, Mass., 1949) and his later
'Hispanic American colonial architecture in Bolivia', published in the
Gazette des Beaux-Arts 39 (1952); Spanish trans. Arquitectura virreinal en
Bolivia (La Paz, 1961). About the same time Alfred Neumeyer's article

18. Architecture and art 155
'The Indian contribution to architectural decoration in Spanish colonial

America', The Art Bulletin, 30 (1948), attracted a great deal of attention.
Robert C. Smith and Elizabeth Wilder, A Guide to the Art of Latin America
(Washington, D.C., 1948) constituted a major step forward. Also in
English was the important (but hotly debated) work of Pal Kelemen,
Baroque and Rococo in Latin America (New York, 1951). Later, Kelemen
brought out a brief textbook, Art of the Americas, Ancient and Hispanic
(New York, 1969) and Vanishing Art of the Americas (New York, 1977). All
of Kelemen's books are exceptionally well illustrated.
Important monographs to appear in the United States since i960 in-
clude: Joseph Armstrong Baird, The Churches ofMexico, 1530-1810 (Berke-
ley and Los Angeles, 1962), John MacAndrew, The Open-Air Churches of
Sixteenth-Century Mexico (Cambridge, Mass., 1965), Sidney D. Markman,
Architecture of Antigua Guatemala (Philadelphia, 1966) and Architecture and
Urbanisation in Colonial Chiapas, Mexico (Philadelphia, 1984), and Robert
James Mullen, Dominican Architecture in Sixteenth Century Qaxaca (Tempe,
Ariz., 1975). A valuable survey article is Elizabeth Wilder, 'The history of
art in Latin America, 1500-1800: Some trends and challenges', LARR,
10/1 (1975), 7 - 5 0 . Another influential thinker in this field, equal in
influence to George Kubler, has been the German scholar Erwin Walter
Palm. See, in particular, Los monumentos arquitectonicos de la Espanola, 2 vols.
(Ciudad Trujillo, 1955), his major work, and Arquitectura y arte colonial en
Santo Domingo (Santo Domingo, 1974). Other foreign scholars who have
written valuable monographs include Adriaan C. van Oss, Inventory of 861
Monuments of Mexican Colonial Architecture (Amsterdam, 1979), Ilmar Luks,
Tipologia de la escultura decorativa hispdnica en la arquitectura mexicana del siglo
XVIII (Caracas, 1980) and Valerie Fraser, The Architecture of Conquest:
Building in the Viceroyalty of Peru, 1535-1635 (Cambridge, Eng., 1990).
Turning to the present generation of Latin American art historians, in
Mexico, the most important is Elisa Vargas Lugo: see Las portadas religiosas
de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1969) and La iglesia de Santa Prisca en Taxco
(Mexico, D.F., 1974). She is a member of the Instituto de Investigaciones
Esteticas at the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, founded in
1939. From there since 1985 she and some of her former students have
been publishing Juan Correa: Su vida y su obra, a monumental work in
several volumes. See also Xavier Moyssen Echeverria, La escultura de la
Nueva Espana en el siglo XVI (Mexico, D.F., 1965); Manuel Gonzalez
Galvan, De Guatemala a Nicaragua: Diario del viaje de un estudiante de arte
(Mexico, D.F., 1968), Jorge Alberto Manrique, Los dominicos y Azcapotz-

alco (Xalapa, 1963) and Marco Diaz, Arquitectura religiosa en Atlixco (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1974) and Arquitectura en el desierto: Misiones jesuitas en Baja
California (Mexico, D.F., 1986). The Institute publishes an important
journal, Anales. Outside the Institute, see, for example, Carlos Flores
Marini, Casas virreinales en la Ciudad de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1970);
Pedro Rojas Rodriguez, Tonantzintla (Mexico, D . F , 1978) and the colo-
nial sections of the multi-volume Historia general del arte mexicano (Mexico,
D.F., 1969); Maria del Consuelo Maquivar, Elpaisaje religioso en Mexico, 3
vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1975) and Los retablos de Tepoztldn (Mexico, D.F.,
1976); Guillermo Tovar de Teresa, Pintura y escultura del Renacimiento en
Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1979); Clara Bargellini, La Catedral de Chihuahua
(Mexico, D.F., 1984); and Jose Guadalupe Victoria, Pintura y sociedad en
Nueva Espaiia (Mexico, D.F., 1986), originally a French doctoral disserta-
tion which offers a more sociological approach to the problems of colonial
Mexican art. Of all the Latin American countries, Mexico publishes the
largest number of books and journals in this field.
The countries of Central America and the Caribbean are rather poorly
served, although the publication of the Pan-American Institute of Geog-
raphy and History are useful: there are, for instance, volumes on Guate-
mala (1953), Panama (1950) and Haiti (1952). Guatemala alone has
been studied to any significant degree, and there are several important
works such as Markman's Architecture of Antigua Guatemala; Verle Lincoln
Annis, La arquitectura de la Antigua Guatemala, 1543-IJ73 (Guatemala
City, 1968) and, in recent years, the publications of the two Guatema-
lans Luis and Jorge Lujan Mufioz. Heinrich Berlin, Historia de la imag-
inerta colonial en Guatemala (Guatemala City, 1952) is indispensable. For
Cuba, it is necessary to resort to Joaquin E. Weiss Sanchez, Arquitectura
cubana colonial (Havana, 1936). See also the works that have been pub-
lished by Cuba's Direction del Patrimonio Colonial and, particularly,
those by the Argentine architect Roberto Segre. On the Dominican
Republic, see the works of Erwin Palm cited above and Eugenio Perez
M o n t a s , Republica Dominicana: Monumentos histdricos y arqueologicos (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1984).
In the case of Colombia, on the other hand, both surveys and detailed
studies abound. Still useful, if uneven, is the work of the late Carlos
Arbelaez Camacho, in collaboration with the Spaniard Francisco Gil
Tovar, El arte colonial en Colombia (Bogota, 1968); with another Spanish
scholar, Santiago Sebastian, Arbelaez Camacho contributed La arquitectura
colonial (Bogota, 1967), vol. 4 of the Historia extensa de Colombia. Santiago

i8. Architecture and art 157
Sebastian's shorter publications may also be read with profit: for example,
Arquitectura colonial en Popaydn y Valle del Cauca (Cali, 1965) and La
ornamentation arquitectonica en Nueva Granada (Tunja, 1966). An author
interesting for his qualities as a polemicist is German Tellez, a noted
architect and photographer: see his contribution (as well as those of Gil
Tovar, Sebastian and others) to the most recent collective work on the
subject, the well-illustrated Historia del arte colombiano (Barcelona, 1977)
and his Arquitectura domestica: Cartagena de Indias (Bogota, 1988). In addi-
tion to vol. 4 of the Historia del arte colombiano, Gil Tovar has contributed
La obra de Gregorio Vazquez (Bogota, 1980). On Colombia, see also Luis
Alberto Acufia, Siete ensayos sobre el arte colonial en la Nueva Granada (Bo-
gota, 1973).
In Venezuela Carlos Manuel Moller has been writing articles on aspects
of the history of colonial art since 1951. However, the whole subject was
transformed by an Italian architect, Graziano Gasparini. His many publica-
tions include Templos coloniales de Venezuela (Caracas, 1959) and the more
general, polemical, AmSrica, barroco y arquitectura (Caracas, 1972). He also
founded the Boletin del Centro de Investigations Historicas y Esteticas de la
Universidad Central, which has been published in Caracas without interrup-
tion since 1964. On the other arts, one may consult Alfredo Boulton,
Historia de lapintura en Venezuela, 2 vols. (Caracas, 19648), and Carlos F.
Duarte, Historia de la orfebreria en Venezuela (Caracas, 1970). See also
Duarte and Gasparini, Los retablos delperiodo colonial en Venezuela (Caracas,
1971).
In Ecuador, the earliest scholar to win a reputation for the study of its
art was Jose Gabriel Navarro, above all for El arte en la provintia de Quito
(Mexico, D.F., i960). Following in his footsteps, and drawing on an
abundance of archival material, has been the Ecuadorean Dominican Fa-
ther Jose Maria Vargas. His Historia del arte ecuatoriano (Quito, 1964)
and Patrimonio artistico ecuatoriano (Quito, 1967) are both somewhat ill-
arranged, but are books to which it is essential to refer. The architect H.
Crespo Toral is the author of a number of monographs. Both Father Vargas
and Crespo Toral have contributed (anonymously) to the multi-volume
Arte colonial en Ecuador (Barcelona, 1977 ), which is profusely illustrated
in full colour. See also Dario Donoso Samaniego, Diccionario arquitectdnico
de Quito (Quito, 1983). For painting and sculpture, see the works of
Navarro, Vargas and Crespo cited above. A valuable work is Gabrielle G.
Palma, Sculpture in the Kingdom of Quito (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1987).
Peru and Bolivia are the countries apart from Mexico with the most

abundant bibliography. Besides the works by Wethey and Harth-terre al-

ready cited, the many articles and several books of the late Ruben Vargas
Ugarte, S.J., especially his Diccionario de artistas coloniales de la America
meridional (Buenos Aires, 1947), are essential. Since then the leading fig-
ures in the field have been Francisco Stastny, Humberto L. Rodriguez
Camilloni, J. Garcia Bryce and Jorge Bernales Ballesteros. Stastny is the
author of Perez de Alesio y la pintura del siglo XVI (Buenos Aires, 1947).
Rodriguez Camilloni has produced several valuable monographs, and Gar-
cia Bryce has brought out an interesting study of Matias Maestro. Bernales
Ballesteros, a Peruvian who lived in Seville, has produced the best docu-
mented of all studies of Lima, Lima: La ciudad y sus monumentos (Seville,
1972). He is also the author of vol. 2, Siglos XVI al XVIH oiHistoria delarte
hispanoamericano (Madrid, 1987). An important study by a Chilean historian
is Alfredo Benavides Rodriguez, La arquitectura en el Virreinato del Peru y en la
Capitania-General de Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1941). Other studies by Peruvi-
ans include Pablo Macera, El arte mural cuzqueno (Lima, 1975); Ricardo
Mariategui Oliva, Techumbres y artesonados peruanos de los siglos XVI y XVII
(Lima, 1975); Rogger Ravines, Cajamarca: Arquitectura religiosa y civil
(Lima, 1983); Luis Rodriguez Cobos, Arquitectura limena (Lima, 1983); Jose
Chichizola Debernardi, El manierismo en Lima (Lima, 1983); and Antonio
San Cristobal Sebastian, Arquitectura virreinal religiosa (Lima, 1988).
For Bolivia, it is essential to consult the work of Jose de Mesa and Teresa
Gisbert. They not only translated Wethey on Bolivia but also have to their
credit a myriad of articles and monographs, notably Historia de la pintura
cuzquena (Buenos Aires, 1962), Bolivia: Monumentos historicos y arqueologicos
(La Paz, 1970), and La escultura virreinal en Bolivia (La Paz, 1972). Further-
more, since 1972 they have been publishing the journal Artey Arquitectura
under the auspices of San Andres University. By Teresa Gisbert alone are
two fascinating works: Iconografia y mitos indigenas (La Paz, 1980) and
Arquitectura andina, 15301830 (La Paz, 1985). Not to be overlooked is
the work of Mario Chacon Torres, Documentos sobre arte colonial en Potosi
(Potosi, 1959). Among the scholars who have contributed to the study of
Peruvian and Bolivian colonial art the Argentine architect-historian Ra-
mon Gutierrez deserves mention: see his Notas sobre las haciendas del Cusco
(Buenos Aires, 1984) and Arquitectura virreinal en Cusco y su region (Cuzco,
1987). Also by Gutierrez, in collaboration with Cristina Esteras y Ale-
jandro Malaga, is El valle de Colca, Arequipa: Cinco siglos de arquitectura y
urbanismo (Buenos Aires, 1986).
In Chile, besides Benavides Rodriguez, already cited, there is the histo-

i8. Architecture and art 159
rian Eugenio Pereira Salas, author of the monumental Historia del arte en el
Reino de Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1965). Amongst younger historians, the
Benedictine Father Gabriel Guarda stands out, as does M. Rojas-Mix,
author of a somewhat tendentious book, La Plaza Mayor (Barcelona,
1978), on town planning. Nowadays there are other scholars active in the
field, such as Myriam Weissberg, an architect of Valparaiso, and Trebbi
del Trevigiano.
Argentina is better served. This is, in the first place, due to Mario Jose
Buschiazzo's founding of the Instituto de Arte Americano y de Investiga-
ciones Esteticas: between 1948 and 1971 it published 24 issues of its
journal Anales, as well as several important books, not all of them by
Argentines. From among the multiplicity of Buschiazzo's own works
worthy of special mention is Bibliografia de arte colonial argentino (Buenos
Aires, 1947) and a brief but excellent handbook, Historia de la arquitectura
colonial en Iberoamerica (Buenos Aires, 1961). Other researchers in Argen-
tina include Hector Schenone, author of a number of valuable articles and
a book written in collaboration with Adolfo Luis Ribera, El arte de la
imagineria en el Rio de la Plata (Buenos Aires, 1948). Schenone and Ribera
wrote several important chapters in the multi-volume Historia general del
arte en la Argentina, published during the 1980s by the Academia Nacional
de Bellas Artes in Buenos Aires. An independent Argentine researcher was
Father Guillermo Furlong, S.J., who contributed a valuable series of
studies on colonial architects and artisans: see, for example, Arquitectos
argentinos durante la dominacion hispdnica (Buenos Aires, 1946) and Artesanos
argentinos durante la dominacion hispdnica (Buenos Aires, 1946). As an exam-
ple of the work of a later generation of architects with a historical apti-
tude, see, for example, Marina Waisman (ed.), Arquitectura colonial argen-
tina (Buenos Aires, 1987).
Paraguay was the object of the attention of the Uruguayan historian Juan
G. Giuria: see La arquitectura en el Paraguay (Buenos Aires, 1950), a classical
work of reference. More recently Ramon Gutierrez and collaborators have
published Evolucion urbanistica y arquitectonica del Paraguay (Resistencia,
Arg., n.d.). Guillermo Furlong contributed to the subject with Misiones y
sus pueblos guaranies (Buenos Aires, 1962). R. Montefilpo, Yaguaron
(Asunci6n, 1964) analysed the church of that name. P. Frings and J.
Ubelmesser, Paracuaria: Art Treasures of the Jesuit Republic of Paraguay
(Mainz, 1982) is a practical guide for the foreign visitor. More important
are Josefina Pla, El barroco hispano-guarani (Asunci6n, 1975); and C. J.
McNaspy andj. M. Blanch, Lost Cities ofParaguay: Art and Architecture ofthe

Jesuit Reductions, I6OJ-IJ6J (Chicago, 1982). Still today the most impor-
tant architectural history of Uruguay is Juan G. Giuria, La arquitectura en el
Uruguay, 2 vols. (Montevideo, 1955).
Some more recent general works deserve mention. Enrique Marco Dorta,
Estudios y documentos de arte hispanoamericano (Madrid, 1981); Santiago Se-
bastian, in collaboration with Jose de Mesa and Teresa Gisbert, Arte
iberoamericano desde la colonization a la independencia, 2 vols. (Madrid, 1986),
part of Summa Artis, a classic general history of art; Leopoldo Castedo,
Historia del arte iberoamericano, 2 vols. (Madrid, 1988), an expansion of his
earlier Historia del arte y la arquitectura latinoamericana (Barcelona, 1969).
Finally, Damian Bayon, author of a polemical work on the art and architec-
ture of colonial Spanish America, Sociedady arquitectura colonial sudamericana
(Barcelona, 1974), has produced, in collaboration with four Brazilian schol-
ars (Murillo Marx, Myriam Ribeiro de Oliveira, Aurea Pereira da Silva and
Hugo Segawa) a well-illustrated Historia del arte colonial sudamericano (Barce-
lona, 1989); French trans., L'art colonial sud-americain (Paris, 1990); Eng.
trans., History of South American Colonial Art and Architecture: Spanish South
America and Brazil (New York, 1992).
19. MUSIC
The first histories of music written by Spanish Americans which include

sections on the colonial period are Jose Saenz Poggio, Historia de la musica
guatemalteca (Guatemala, 1878), republished in Anales de la Sociedad de
Geografia e Historia de Guatemala, 22/12 (1947), 654, and Ramon de la
Plaza, Ensayos sobre el arte en Venezuela (Caracas, 1883; facsimile reprint,
1977). Serafin Ramirez, La Habana artistica (Havana, 1891) and Laureano
Fuentes Matons, Las artes en Santiago de Cuba (Santiago, Cuba, 1893),
although riddled with errors, contain some still useful information on the
early nineteenth century. The historian Gabriel Saldivar y Silva published
aged 25 his authoritative Historia de la musica en Mtxico (epocas precortesiana y
colonial) (Mexico, D.F., 1934); it still remains uniquely valuable. In con-
trast with earlier Latin American music researchers, Saldivar was a palaeog-
rapher who exploited numerous documents in the ecclesiastical and secular
archives of Mexico City. To him and his collaborator, his wife Elisa Osorio
de Saldivar, belongs the honour of having preceded all other Latin Ameri-
cans in treating their continent's musical past dispassionately,, and of hav-

19- Music 161
ing placed its study on a sound footing. The next scholar to write a history
of his nation's music was Eugenio Pereira Salas. His Los origenes del arte mu-
sical en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1941) still remains a model of method even
though superseded in some factual aspects by Samuel Claro Valdes, Oyendo
a Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1979). Alejo Carpentier, La musica en Cuba (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1946) is still quoted, partly because of the author's fame in other
fields. To him belongs the credit of having been the first to unveil Cuba's
leading colonial composer, Esteban Salas y Castro (17251803). Lauro
Ayestaran provided an exhaustive account of his nation's past in La musica
en el Uruguay, vol. 1 (Montevideo, 1953). Jose Antonio Calcano corrected
many mistakes in Ramon de la Plaza when he published his masterful La ci-
udady su musica, crdnica musical de Caracas (Caracas, 1958; facsimile reprint
1980). Vicente Gesualdo, Historia de la musica en la Argentina, 1536-1851
(Buenos Aires, 1961; 2nd ed., 1977) covers colonial music in the Rio de la
Plata region. Jose Ignacio Perdomo Escobar included important colonial
data in his Historia de la musica en Colombia (3rd and 4th eds., Bogota, 1963
and 1975). Andres Pardo Tovar's lengthy La cultura musical en Colombia (Bo-
gota, 1966) was sponsored by the Academia Colombiana de Historia. On
Peru an important more recent work is Juan C. Estenssoro Fuchs, Musica y
sociedad coloniales: Lima 16801830 (Lima, 1989). On the music of Guate-
mala, see Dieter Lehnhoff, Espada y pentagrama: La musica polifonica en la
Guatemala del siglo XVI (Guatemala City, 1986) and Alfred E. Lemmon,
La musica de Guatemala en el siglo XVIII (Antigua Guatemala, 1986).
Among lexicons, Rodolfo Barbacci, 'Apuntes para un diccionario bio-
grafico musical peruano', Fenix, 6 (1949), 414510, and Carlos Raygada,
'Guia musical del Peru', Fenix, 1214 (X9567) itemize useful colonial
data. Otto Mayer-Serra's two-volume Musica y musicos de Latinoamerica
(Mexico, D.F., 1947), brings together in a systematic way material ex-
tracted from previous publications. Much more up-to-date are the colonial
articles in Riemann Musiklexicon Ergdnzungsband Personenteil: AK (Mainz,
1972) and LZ (1975); in Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 15 and
16 (Bogota, Cuzco, Guatemala City, Lima and Mexico City in the supple-
ments for 1973 and 1979); and in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and
Musicians (London, 1980). Nicolas Slonimsky's classic Music of Latin Amer-
ica (New York, 1945; reprinted 1972) focuses on twentieth-century devel-
opments to the detriment of earlier music history, but Gerard Behague's
Music in Latin America, An Introduction (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1979) is
valuable for the colonial period. Leonie Rosentiel's chapter on 'The New

World' in the Schirmer History of Music (New York, 1982), 837-946, is

especially useful for its colonial summary.
Among researchers whose monographs are basic for colonial music,
Francisco Curt Lange stands pre-eminent, with 49 substantial publications
in Spanish, Portuguese, German and English, itemized in The New Grove,
vol. 10, 447. Robert Stevenson published numerous articles on colonial
topics in Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart (beginning with volume 9
[1961}), in Italian-, French- and Spanish-language lexicons, in Grove's
Dictionary ofMusicandMusicians, 5th ed. (i954)and in TheNewGrove. His
books with colonial sections include Music in Mexico: A Historical Survey
(New York, 1952, 1971), The Music of Peru: Aboriginal and Viceroyal Epochs
(Washington, D.C., i960), La musica colonial en Colombia (Cali, 1964),
Music in Aztec and Inca Territory (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1968, 1976),
Renaissance and Baroque Musical Sources in the Americas (Washington, D.C.,
1970), Foundations of New World Opera (Lima, 1973), Christmas Music from
Baroque Mexico (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1974), A Guide to Caribbean
Music History (Lima, 1975), Latin American Colonial Music Anthology (Wash-
ington, D . C , 1975) and Tomds de Torrejon y Velesco: Lapurpura de la rosa
(Lima, 1976). In Inter-American Music Review (Los Angeles) he has since
1978 published fully documented essays on colonial music in Caracas,
Cuzco, Guatemala City, Mexico City, Puebla, Quito, and San Juan, Puerto
Rico.
In the 1980s the Pampero Foundation sponsored the publication of the
most sumptuous volume of colonial music documentation yet issued in
any Latin American country: Alberto Calzavara's Historia de la musica en
Venezuela: Pertodo hispdnico, con referencias al teatro y la danza (Caracas,
1987). However, the author's insistence that Lino Gallardo, not Juan Jose
Landaeta, composed the music for the Venezuelan national anthem, Gloria
al bravo pueblo, somewhat diminished enthusiasm for the author's other
documentary findings. The 1980s also saw the publication by the Insti-
tuto de Investigaciones Esteticas of the 10-volume La musica de Mexico,
edited by Julio Estrada. Included in vol. 2 of Historia (Mexico, D.F.,
1986) is Robert Stevenson, 'La musica en el Mexico de los siglos XVI a
XVIII'. For an authoritative review by Esperanza Pulido and Juan Jose
Escorza of the first six volumes of La musica de Mixico, see Latin American
Music Review!Revista de Musica Latinoamericana (Austin, Texas), 8/2 (1987).

Ill
COLONIAL BRAZIL
The best overall introduction to the sources for and the literature on the
history of colonial Brazil is Jose Honorio Rodrfgues, Histdria da historia do
Brasil, I: historiografia colonial, 2nd ed. (Sao Paulo, 1979). See also Jose
Honorio Rodrigues, Historiografia del Brasil, Siglo XVII (Mexico, D.F.,
1963). Also invaluable is Rubens Borba de Moraes, Bibliografia brasileira
do periodo colonial (Sao Paulo, 1969), a catalogue of works by Brazilians
published before 1808. See also Rubens Borba de Moraes, Bibliographia
Brasiliana: A Bibliographical Essay on Rare Books about Brazil Published from
1504 to 1900 and Works of Brazilian Authors Published Abroad before the
Independence of Brazil in 1822, 2 vols. (Amsterdam, 1958; rev. and en-
larged, Rio de Janeiro and Los Angeles, 1983). Joaquim Verissimo Serrao,
A historiografiaportuguesa, 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1972-4) places the early histori-
ans of Brazil in their Portuguese context. Francis A. Dutra discusses the
sources and literature on colonial Brazil in English in A Guide to the History
of Brazil, 1500-1822 (Santa Barbara, Calif., 1980).
1. T H E PORTUGUESE SETTLEMENT OF
BRAZIL, 1 5 0 0 - 1 5 8 0
For guidance to archival collections for sixteenth- (and seventeenth-) cen-

tury Brazil the best point of departure is the bibliographical appendix in
Frederic Mauro, Le Portugal, le Bresil, et I'Atlantique au XVIIe siecle (15 70-
I6JO): Etude Economique (Paris, 1983), originally published in i960 under
a slightly different title. Important sources have been transcribed and
published as appendices to the various chapters of Carlos Malheiro Dias
(ed.), Historia da colonizaqao portuguesa do Brasil, 3 vols. (Porto, 19214).
Additional source material can likewise be found scattered throughout the
163

164 ///. Colonial Brazil
Anais da Biblioteca National do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro, 1876 ) and

the volumes of the series Documentos historicos (Rio de Janeiro, 1928 )
published by the same institution. Many relevant documents have also
been transcribed in the volumes of As gavetas da Torre do Tombo, 12 vols. to
date (Lisbon, i960 ).
Standard accounts of Brazilian history that include treatment of the
sixteenth century are Francisco Adolfo Varnhagen's nineteenth century
(1857) classic (enriched with notes by Joao Capistrano de Abreu and
Rodolfo Garcia): Historia geral do Brasil, 5 vols., 9th ed. (Sao Paulo,
1975); Capistrano de Abreu's classic, Capitulos de historia colonial, 4th ed.
(Rio de Janeiro, 1954); Historia da colonizaqdo portuguesa do Brasil edited by
Carlos Malheiro Dias (cited above), a collaborative work on the period to
1580 that reflects the best Portuguese scholarship of its generation; Pedro
Calmon, Historia do Brasil, 7 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1959); and Sergio
Buarque de Holanda (ed.), Historia geral da civilizagdo brasileira, I: A epoca
colonial, 2 vols. (Sao Paulo, i960). Harold B. Johnson and Maria Beatriz
Nizza da Silva (eds.), 0 imperio luso-brasileiro, vol. 1: 15001620 (Lisbon,
1992; Volume 6 of the Nova historia da expansdo portuguesa, edited by Joel
Serrao and A. H. Oliveira Marques), provides new data on the growth of
the economy during this period. An older account of the period to 1580,
with emphasis on the economic relations between settlers and Indians, is
Alexander Marchant, From Barter to Slavery (Baltimore, 1942). Eulalia M.
L. Lobo has written a dense but excellent overview of Brazilian colonial
administration and enriched it by comparison with Spanish examples:
Processo administrativo ibero-americano (Rio de Janeiro, 1962). Sergio
Buarque de Holanda gives an attractive account of one aspect of imperial
ideology in his Visdo do Paraiso: Os motivos edenicos no descobrimento e co-
lonizagdo do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1959). Eduardo Hoornaert has edited a
collection of studies of the colonial Brazilian church: Historia da igreja no
Brasil, primeird epoca (Petr6polis, 1977).
Portugal's thrust into the Atlantic during the fifteenth century has
generated a large literature, separate from that of colonial Brazil and too
vast to cover in detail. For a general introduction to the field, see Vitorino
Magalhaes Godinho, A economia dos descobrimentos henriquinos (Lisbon,
1962), with a useful critical bibliography. It might be supplemented,
bibliographically, by the more exhaustive list published in Bailey W.
Diffie and George D. Winius, Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415
1580 (Minneapolis, Minn., 1977), 480516. The essential facts of the
expansion are given in Damiao Peres's standard work, Historia dos descobri-

i . The Portuguese settlement of Brazil 165
mentos Portugueses, 2nd ed. (Coimbra, i960), and in Luis de Albuquerque,

Introduqdo a historia dos descobrimentos (Coimbra, 1962), with emphasis on
technical matters. Contrasting poles of interpretation are offered by
Duarte Leite's Historia dos descobrimentos, 2 vols. (Lisbon, 195861)
critical, skeptical, debunking and by Jaime Cortesao's two-volume syn-
thesis, Os descobrimentos Portugueses (Lisbon, 195861), which gives greater
rein to the historical imagination, with sometimes dubious results. The
tradition of D. Leite has been continued in the work of Luis de Albuquer-
que. See his book of essays, Cronicas de historia de Portugal (Lisbon, 1987)
and Portugal no tnundo (Lisbon, 1989). Manuel Nunes Dias, 0 capitalismo
monarquico portugues, 2 vols. (Coimbra, 196364) has a wealth of data, not
always fully digested. A stimulating essay that attempts to define some
fundamental characteristics of colonial Brazilian life and discover their
Iberian provenance is Sergio Buarque de Holanda, Raizes do Brasil, 6th ed.
(Rio de Janeiro, 1971).
Metropolitan events during the sixteenth century can be approached
via A. H. de Oliveira Marques's excellent, interpretive Historia de Portu-
gal, 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1980) - to be preferred to the earlier edition in
English as well as through an older collaborative work edited by
Damiao Peres et. al., Historia de Portugal, 8 vols (Barcelos, 1928-38).
Joaquim Verissimo Serrao, Historia de Portugal, III (1498-1580) (Lisbon,
1978), is of value primarily for its wealth of bibliographical references.
Oliveira Marques has also written the best general account of late medi-
eval Portugal: Portugal na crise dos seculos XIV e XV (Lisbon, 1986), with
emphasis on social and economic matters. For general reference the
Diciondrio de historia de Portugal, edited by Joel Serrao, 4 vols. (Lisbon,
1961-71) remains the essential tool.
For the reign of King Manuel 'The Fortunate', a good secondary study
is lacking, but earlier accounts are fundamental: Damiao de Gois, Cronica
do Felicissmo Rei Dom Manuel, ed. David Lopes, 4 vols. (Coimbra, 1949-
55) and Jer6nimo Os6rio, Da vida e feitos d'El Rey D. Manuel, 3 vols.
(Lisbon, 1804-6), a translation of his De rebus Emmanuelis gestis (Lisbon,
1571). For the reign of Manuel's successor we have Alfredo Pimenta's D.
Joao III (Porto, 1936) as well as two seventeenth-century accounts: Fr Luis
de Sousa, Anais de D. Joao III, ed. M. Rodrigues Lapa, 2 vols. (Lisbon,
1938), and Francisco de Andrade, Chronica de . . . Dom Joao III . . . , 4
vols. (Coimbra, 1796). In addition, much of the correspondence about
imperial affairs that passed between King Joao III and the count of Castan-
heira (Antdnio de Ataide) has been edited and published (in the original

Portuguese) by J. D. M. Ford and L. G. Moffatt, Letters of John III, King of
Portugal, 1521-155-/ (Cambridge, Mass., 1931). King Sebastiao and his
successor, CardinalKing Henrique, have found their biographer in Jose
Maria de Queiroz Velloso, whose D. Sebastiao, 15541578, 3rd ed. (Lis-
bon, 1945) and 0 reinado de Cardeal D. Henrique (Lisbon, 1946) give the
essential story.
Vitorino Magalhaes Godinho has examined the structure and function-
ing of the empire, taken as a whole, in various articles printed in his
collected Ensaios 11: Sobre a historia de Portugal, 2nd ed. (Lisbon, 1978),
and more comprehensively in his Os descobrimentos e a economia mundial, 2nd
ed., 4 vols. (Lisbon, 1983), a 'Braudelian' treatment of the subject. We
now have a superior survey of the early economy of the Atlantic islands in
Alberto Vieira, 0 Comercio inter-insular nos seculos XV e XVI: Madeira, Azores
e Candrias (Funchal, 1987). Not to be overlooked is the short but superb
volume by the dean of Portuguese geographers: Orlando Ribeiro, Aspectos e
problemas da expansdoportuguesa (Lisbon, 1962). Jose Sebastiao da Silva Dias
has dealt with sixteenth-century Portuguese culture and intellectual life in
an excellent study, A politica cultural da epoca de D Jodo III, 2 vols.
(Coimbra, 1969), while an older work by Hernani Cidade, A literatura
portuguesa e a expansdo ultramarina, 1, 2nd ed. (Coimbra, 1963), is still
useful.
Cabral's 'discovery' of Brazil has generated much controversy cogently
summarized by the late Samuel Eliot Morison in The European Discovery of
America: The Southern Voyages 1492-1616 (New York, 1974), 210-35.
The voyages that followed Cabral's have been carefully sorted out by Max
Justo Guedes in Historia naval brasileira, 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1975-9),
1/1, 179245. Both Marchant, From Barter to Slavery, and Histdria da
colonizagdo portuguesa do Brasil provide good accounts of the voyage of the
Bretoa, while another early voyage under the auspices of the Fuggers is
recounted in Tidings out of Brazil (Cdpia der Newen Zeytung ausz Presillg
Landt), trans. Mark Graubard (Minneapolis, Minn., 1957). Rolando
Laguarda Trias clarifies the Spanish-Portuguese conflict over the La Plata
region in the Historia naval brasileira, ill, 249-348, while his account of
the voyages of Christovao Jaques revises the earlier account of Ant6nio
Baiao and C. Malheiro Dias in Historia da colonizagdo portuguesa, 3, 5994.
He is also responsible for the best modern account of the expedition of
Martim Afonso da Sousa, the primary source for which a diary of the
voyage by Martim's brother, Pero Lopes de Sousa - has been lavishly
edited with supplementary documentation by Eugenio Castro, Didrio da

i. The Portuguese settlement of Brazil i6j
navegagdo de Pero Lopes de Sousa (1530-1532), 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro,

1940). Little research has been done on the primary export of early Brazil-
the dyewood for which the country was named - but Mauro gives a
succinct survey of the subject in Le Portugal, Le Bresil et I'Atlantique, and
this may be supplemented with Bernardino Jose de Souza, 0 Pau-brasil na
historia national, 2nd ed. (Sao Paulo, 1978). Mircea Buescu has written a
number of stimulating and insightful studies of the early Brazilian econ-
omy: Exercicios de historia economica do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1968); Historia
economica do Brasil: Pesquisas e andlises (Rio de Janeiro, 1970); 300 anos de
inflagdo (Rio de Janeiro, 1973). Outdated, but still useful in part, is the
classic of Roberto C. Simonsen, Historia economica do Brasil, 1500-1820,
4th ed. (Sao Paulo, 1962). The influential work of Celso Furtado, Forma-
qdo economica do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1959) is, as Mauro dryly remarks, a
'theoretical essay.' Also of interest, though insufficiently critical, is Jose
Gongalves Salvador, Os Cristdos-novos e 0 comercio no Atldntico meridional,
1530-1680 (Sao Paulo, 1978).
The period of settlement is probably the least well studied of the various
phases of Brazil's sixteenth-century history and good analyses are lacking.
Some of the donatarial grants are printed in Historia da colonizagdo
portuguesa, 3, 257-83, 309-423, and competently analyzed by Paulo
Merea in his accompanying chapter; the subsequent histories of the cap-
taincies are touched upon in all the general accounts, but the topic still
lacks an up-to-date synthesis. Worthy of consultation, however, are the
works of Joao Fernando de Almeida Prado: Primeiros povoadores do Brasil,
15001530 (Sao Paulo, 1935); Pernambuco e as capitanias do nordeste do
Brasil, 4 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1941): Bahia e as capitanias do centro do Brasil,
15301626, 3 vols. (Sao Paulo, 194550); Sdo Vicente e as capitanias do sul
do Brasil 15011531 (Sao Paulo, 1961); and A conquista da Paraiba (Sao
Paulo, 1964). An uncritical but competent general account is Elaine
Sanceu, Captains of Brazil (Barcelos, 1965). Of the earlier writers, Vicente
do Salvador, Historia do Brasil, the first history of Brazil (1627), ed.
Capistrano de Abreu and Rodolfo Garcia, 3rd ed. (Sao Paulo, 1931),
Gabriel Soares de Sousa, Tratado descritivo do Brasil em 1587, first pub-
lished in Rio de Janeiro in 1851, ed. Francisco A. de Varnhagen, 4th ed.
(Sao Paulo, 1971), and Fernao Cardim, S.J., Tratados da terra e gente do
Brasil, ed. Capistrano de Abreu (Rio de Janeiro, 1925; 3rd ed. Sao Paulo,
1978) give the most information on the post-settlement development of
the various captaincies. Jose Antonio Gongalves de Mello has re-edited (in
collaboration with Cleonir Xavier de Albuquerque) the letters of Duarte

Coelho, donatary of Pernambuco: Cartas de Duarte Coelho a el ret (Recife,
1967), with a valuable introductory study, while many of the other letters
about the early settlements that were sent back to Portugal have been
published as appendixes to various chapters of Historia da colonizagdo
portuguesa, 3, 25783, 30923. A. Teixeira da Mota summarizes almost
all that is known about the most successful donatary before he went to
Brazil in Duarte Coelho, capitdo-mor de armada no Atldntico, 133135 (Lis-
bon, 1972), and Francis Dutra analyzes the conflict between donatarial
grantees and the Crown in 'Centralization vs. donatarial privilege,' in
Dauril Alden, ed., Colonial Roots of Modern Brazil (Chicago, 1973).
Relations between Indians and Portuguese can be followed in the excel-
lent and detailed survey (with full bibliography) of John Hemming, Red
Gold: The Conquest of the Brazilian Indians, 1500IJ6O (London, 1978),
while the evolution of Portuguese policy toward the Brazilian natives is
outlined by Georg Thomas. Die portugiesische Indianerpolitik in Brasilien,
15001640 (Berlin, 1968); Port, trans. Politica indigenista dos Portugueses
no Brasil, 15001640 (Sao Paulo, 1984). A standard treatment of the
principal Indian group encountered by the Portuguese settlers is Florestan
Fernandes, Organizagdo social dos Tupinambd (Sao Paulo, 1963). The Jesuits'
role in the conversion and acculturation of the Tupi is related in detail by
Serafim Leite, Historia da Companhia deJesus no Brasil, 10 vols. (Lisbon and
Rio de Janeiro, 1938-50), while the principal sources the Jesuit mis-
sionaries' letters have been edited in four volumes by the same scholar:
Monumenta brasiliae (Rome, 195660). This prolific historian has also
given us (inter alia) N6brega's corpus in Cartas do Brasil e mais escritos do P.
Manuel da Nobrega (Coimbra, 1955), as well as a study of the foundation
and early history of Sao Paulo, so closely linked to Jesuit activity: Nobrega e
a fundagdo de Sao Paulo (Lisbon, 1953). More references to the Jesuits are
found in essay 111:9. Other works on the early history of Sao Paulo are
Jaime Cortesao, A fundagdo de Sao Paulo capital geogrdfica do Brasil (Rio
de Janeiro, 1955), and Vitorino Nemesio, 0 campodeSdo Paulo, A Compan-
hia de Jesus e 0 piano portuguis do Brasil, 1528-1563 (Lisbon, 1954). Less
attention has been paid to the northern area, later to be the Estado de
Maranhao, but H. C. Palmatory, The River of the Amazons, Its Discovery and
Early Exploration, 1500-1743 (New York, 1965) will serve to introduce
the subject.
A short introductory overview of the French challenge to the Portu-
guese possession of Brazil is Michel Mollat's "As primeiras relagoes entre a
Franga e o Brasil: Dos Verrazano a Villegaignon,' Revista de Historia 24,

i. The Portuguese settlement of Brazil 169
(1967), 343-58, while the problem of piracy can be approached via the
collection of papers Course et Piraterie, published by the Commission Inter-
nationale d'Histoire Maritime (Paris, 1975); also valuable are the relevant
pages in Michel Mollat, Le commerce maritime normand a la fin du Moyen Age
(Paris, 1952). More detail is given in Paul GafFarel, Histoire de Bresil
francais au XVIe siecle (Paris, 1878), and, more recently, in Charles-Andre
Julien, Les Voyages de decouverte et les premiers etablissements (XVXVI siecles)
(Paris, 1948). For the rise and fall of Villegaignon's settlement at Rio de
Janeiro, we now have a comprehensive, up-to-date study from Philipe
Bonnichon and Gilberto Ferrez. 'A Franca antartica,' Historia naval bra-
sileira, 2, 40271. Two famous contemporary accounts of the colony
(which also provide much first-hand information about the Indians) are
the Calvinist Jean de Lery's Histoire d'un voyage faict en la terre du Bresil (La
Rochelle, 1578) and Les singularitez de la France Antartique autrement nommee
Amerique (Paris and Antwerp, 1558) by the Franciscan Andre Thevet, who
sailed out with Villegaignon in 1555. The governor who drove the French
from Rio and solidified Portuguese control has found his biographer in
Herbert Ewaldo Wetzel, Mem de Sd, terceiro governador geral (1557-1572)
For a view of Brazil's society and economy c. 1580, Frederic Mauro, Le
Portugal, le Bresil et I'Atlantique should be consulted. The original version
in French is preferable to the recent Portuguese translation, Portugal, 0
Brasil e 0 Atlantico, 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1988), which is marred by misprints
and errors. Mauro's work may be supplemented by Stuart Schwartz's rich
and definitive study of the sugar industry, part of which applies to the
sixteenth century: Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society
(Cambridge, Eng., 1985). African slaves, whose importation into Brazil
helped fuel the sugar boom, can be studied via a number of works, the
most accessible of which is probably Katia M. de Queir6s Mattoso's Etre
esclave au Bresil: XVle-XIXe siecle (Paris, 1979) with a bibliography that
will lead the reader to further work on the subject. (There is an English
translation: To Be a Slave in Brazil, New Brunswick, N J . , 1986). Al-
though it treats primarily slave importation into Spanish America, the
best description of the traffic and how it worked is to be found in Enri-
queta Vila Vilar, Hispano-America y el comercio de esclavos: Los asientos Portu-
gueses (Seville, 1977).
Finally, for a stimulating 'macro-view' of sixteenth-century Brazil in a
world context there is the speculative essay of Pierre Chaunu, 'Place et role
du Bresil dans les systemes de communications et dans les m6canismes de

croissance de 1'economie du XVIe siecle,' Revue d'Histoire Economique et
Sociale, 48 (1970), 46082.
2. PORTUGAL A N D BRAZIL, 1580-1750
The following general histories of Portugal are indispensable: in English,

H. V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal (London, 1966); in Portu-
guese, A. H. de Oliveira Marques, Historia de Portugal, 3 vols. (Lisbon,
1980) (trans, into English and French), and Joaquim Verissimo Serrao,
Historia de Portugal, 12 vols. (Lisbon, 1977-90); in French, A. A. Bour-
don, Histoire de Portugal (Paris, 1970), short but very good, and Y. Bot-
tineau, Le Portugal et sa vocation maritime: Histoire et civilisation d'une nation
(Paris, 1977), written with style and subtlety, preserving the balance
between underlying structures and events. Mention must also be made of
the very useful Diciondrio de historia de Portugal, ed. Joel Serrao, 4 vols.
(Lisbon, 196171), Damiao Peres's great Historia de Portugal, 8 vols.
(Barcelos, 192838), and vols. 1 and 5 of Fortunato de Almeida, Historia
de Portugal (Coimbra, 192231), which consists of a description of Portu-
guese institutions and their development. A. Silbert, Le Portugal mediter-
raneen a la fin de I'Ancien Regime, 2 vols. (Paris, 1966) is very useful for the
study of agrarian and social structures. On the Portuguese empire, a start
can be made with C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 14151825
(London, 1969), and Four Centuries of Portuguese Expansion 14151825: A
Succinct Survey (Johannesburg, 1965). V. Magalhaes Godinho, L'economie de
Vempire portugais aux XVe et XVIe sikies (Paris, 1969), has been expanded
from the Portuguese, Os descobrimentos e a economia mundial, 2
vols. (Lisbon, 19635; 2nd ed., 4 vols., 1983). See also V. Magalhaes
Godinho's contributions to the New Cambridge Modern History: 'Portugal
and her Empire,' vol. 5 (1961), 38497, and 'Portugal and her Empire,
16801720,' vol. 6(1970), 50940. F. Mauro, Le Portugal et I'Atlantique
au XVIle siecle 15701670: Etude economique (Paris, i960; 2nd ed., 1983,
under the title Le Portugal, le Bresil et I'Atlantique au XVlle siecle; Port,
trans., 2 vols. Lisbon, 1989) is fundamental and has a convenient bibliog-
raphy to which reference can be made. See also V. Magalhaes Godinho, 'Le
Portugal - les flottes du sucre et les flottes de Tor (1670-1770)', AESC
(1950), 18497, reprinted in Ensaios 2 (Lisbon, 1978), 293315. For
complementary material, see Bentley T. Duncan, Atlantic Islands:
Madeira, the Azores and the Cape Verdes in the XVIIth Century, Commerce and

2. Portugal and Brazil, 1580-1750 171
Navigation (Chicago, 1972); Os Agores e 0 Atlantico (Seculos XIVXVII),
Adas do Coloquio Internacional, 1983 (Instituto Historico da Ilha
Terceira, Angra, 1984); Os Agores e as dinamicas do Atlantico, Actas do II
Col6quio, 1988 (Angra, 1989); Actas do I Coloquio Internacional de
Historia de Madeira, 1986, 2 vols. (Funchal, 1989); Actas do II Coloquio,
1989 (Funchal, 1990). Joao Lucio de Azevedo, Epocas de Portugal Eco-
ndmico, 2nd ed. (Lisbon, 1973) remains very useful. For Brazil, F. Mauro,
Le Bresil du XVe a la fin du XVllle siecle (Paris, 1977), brings the subject
up to date and gives bibliographical information. See also F. Mauro's brief
Histoire du Bresil, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1978). Recent and interesting is Luis de
Albuquerque, Portugal no mundo (Lisbon, 1989); and Vitorino Magalhaes
Godinho, Mito e mercadoria, Utopia e prdtica de navegar, seculos XIIIXVIII
(Lisbon, 1990), a new edition of old but important articles. See also F.
Mauro, 'Recent works on the political economy of Brazil in the Portuguese
empire,' LARR, 19/1 (1984), 87105.
There are a number of monographs essential for an understanding of
Portugal's role in America and its repercussions in the Old World. For
Portugal's Atlantic policy, see C. R. Boxer, Salvador de Sa and the Struggle
for Brazil and Angola 1602-1686, 2nd ed. (Westport, Conn., 1975) and
The Golden Age of Brazil, 1695-1750 (Berkeley, 1962), and Dauril Alden,
Royal Government in Colonial Brazil (Berkeley, 1968), a major part of which
is devoted to matters of diplomacy and war. For a study of Portuguese
administration in America, see Stuart B. Schwartz, Sovereignty and Society
in Colonial Brazil: The Judges of the High Court of Bahia, 1586-1750
(Berkeley, 1974); also J. N. Joyce, 'Spanish influence on Portuguese ad-
ministration: a study of the Conselho da Fazenda and Habsburg Brazil'
(unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Southern California, 1974). On
Portuguese political economy and the part played in it by Brazil, J. B. de
Macedo, Problemas de historia da industria portuguesa no seculo XVIII (Lisbon,
1963) is important. See also the new edition of V. Magalhaes Godinho,
Ensaios II: Sobre historia de Portugal (Lisbon, 1978). An important contribu-
tion is Carl Hanson, Economy and Society in Baroque Portugal, 16681703
(Minneapolis, Minn., 1981). See also James C. Boyajian, Portuguese Bank-
ers at the Court of Spain 1626-1650 (New Brunswick, N.J., 1983) and J.
R. do Amaral Lapa, A Bahia e a Carreira da India (Sao Paulo, 1966). On
Portuguese diplomacy in America, the following should be consulted: A.
P. Canabrava, 0 comercio portugues no Rio da Prata 15801640 (Sao Paulo,
1944), Luis Ferrand de Almeida, A diplomacia portuguesa e os limites meridi-
onais do Brasil, I, 14931700 (Coimbra, 1957), J. Cortesao, Raposo

Tavares e a formaqao territorial do Brasil (Rio de Janiero, 1958), and Alexan-

dre de Gusmdo e 0 Tratado de Madrid, 5 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 195063). For
the north, see H. C. Palmatory, The River of the Amazons: Its Discovery and
Early Exploration, 1500-1J43 (New York, 1965), and Mario Meireles,
Historia do Maranhdo (Sao Luis, i960).
On nautical questions, see the sundry publications of the various Portu-
gueses congresses, such as the Congresso da Historia da Expansao
Portuguesa no Mundo, Congresso do Mundo Portugues, Congresso dos
Descobrimentos Henriquinos; also A. Marques Esparteiro, Galeotas e ber-
gantins reais (Lisbon, 1965); N. Steensgaard, Carracks, Caravans and Compa-
nies (Copenhagen, 1973), a new edition of which has appeared under the
title, The Asian Trade Revolution of the Seventeenth Century: The East India
Companies and the Decline of the Caravan Trade (Chicago, 1974); Sousa
Viterbo, Trabalhos nduticos dos Portugueses nos seculos XVI e XVII (Lisbon,
1900); H . Leitao and J. V. Lopes, Diciondrio da linguagem de marinha antiga
e atual, 2nd ed. (Lisbon, 1974); A. Fontoura da Costa, A marinharia dos
descobrimentos (Lisbon, 1933); the work of Virginia Rau on foreign mer-
chants in Lisbon, for example, 'Os mercadores e banqueiros estrangeiros
em Portugal no tempo de D. Joao III (1521-1587)', in Estudios de Historia
Economica (Lisbon, 1961), 35-62; finally, all the studies which have ap-
peared in the publications of the Junta de Investigagoes Cientificas do
Ultramar, particularly those of the Centro de Estudos de Cartografia
Antiga, Seccao de Coimbra and Seccao de Lisboa.
On the exports from Brazil, especially sugar and gold, see essays 111:5
and 111:7; Philip D. Curtin, The Rise and Fall of the Plantation Complex:
Essays on Atlantic History (Cambridge, Eng., 1990); Stuart B. Schwartz,
Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society: Bahia, 1550-1835
(Cambridge, Eng., 1985); Vera Ferlini, Terra trabalho epoder: 0 mundo dos
engenhos no Nordeste colonial (Sao Paulo, 1986). John A. Hall, 'World sys-
tem holism and colonial Brazilian agriculture: A critical case analysis,'
LARR, 19/2 (1984), 4 3 - 6 9 , argues against Wallerstein's theory that
Brazilian agriculture was shaped by pre-existing 'patrimonial and trade
capitalism' rather than by the emergent world capitalist economy.
On the slave trade to Brazil the following should be noted: M. Goulart,
Escravidao africana no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1950); G. Scelle, Histoire politique
de la traite negriere aux Indes de Castille, 2 vols. (Paris, 1906); Philip Curtin,
The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census (Madison, Wis., 1969); H. S. Klein,
'The Portuguese slave trade from Angola in the 18th century', Journal of
Economic History, 32/4(1972), 894-917, and The Middle Passage: Compara-

live Studies in the Atlantic Slave Trade (Princeton, N.J., 1978); E. G. Peralta
Rivera, 'Les Mecanismes du commerce esclavagiste, XVIIe siecle' (3rd
cycle thesis, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris, 1977); P.
Verger, Flux et reflux de la traite de negres entre le golfe du Benin et Bahia de
Todos os Santos du XVIIe au XIXe siecle (Paris, 1968), and 'Mouvements de
navires entre Bahia et le Golfe de Benin XVIIeXIXe siecles', Revue
Franqaise d'Histoire d'Outre-Mer, 55 (1968), 5-36; E. Vila Vilar, Hispano
America y el comercio de esclavos: Los asientosPortugueses (Seville, 1977); finally,
K. Polanyi, Dahomey and the Slave Trade: An Analysis of an Archaic Economy
(Seattle, 1966). See also Jose Gongalves Salvador, Os magnatas do trafico
negreiro: Seculos XVI e XVII (Sao Paulo 1981). The excellent thesis of Felipe
de Alencastro, 'Le commerce des vivants' (University of Paris x, 1986)
remains unpublished. On money, see A.C. Teixeira de Aragao, Descripqao
geral e historica das moedas cunhadas em nome dos reis de Portugal, 3 vols.
(Lisbon, 187480), and N. C. da Costa, Historia das moedas do Brasil
(Porto Alegre, 1973). On wars at sea, A. Botelho de Sousa, Subsidiospara a
historia das guerras da Restauraqao no Mar e no Alem Mar, I (Lisbon, 1940),
and W. J. van Hoboken, Witte de With in Brazilie 1648-1649 (Amster-
dam, 1955). For institutions, Marcelo Caetano, Do Conselho UItramarino ao
Conselho do Imperio Colonial (Lisbon, 1943); Regimento das Casas das Indias e
Minas, ed. Damiao Peres (Coimbra, 1947); Gustavo de Freitas, A Compan-
hia Geral do Comercio do Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1951).
For foreign relations, the two classic works are E. Prestage, The Diplo-
matic Relations of Portugal with France, England and Holland from 1640 to
1668 (Watford, Eng., 1925) and E. Brasao, A restauraqao: Relaqoes diplo-
mdticas de Portugal de 1640 a 1668 (Lisbon, 1939). See also Charles
Verlinden, Les Origines de la civilisation atlantique (Paris, 1966), and F.
Mauro, Etudes economiques sur ['expansion portugaise, 15001900 (Paris,
1970). For Spain and the Spanish empire, see the works of E. J. Hamilton,
P. H. Chaunu and others, cited in essays II: 1, IL3 and IL4. As regards
France, there is no comprehensive work, only chapters or articles in vari-
ous publications. See, in particular, the numerous articles by J. Soares de
Azevedo on French trade in Lisbon. I. S. Revah, Le Cardinal de Richelieu et
la restauration de Portugal (Lisbon, 1950) deserves mention. A good work is
Jean-Francois Labourdette, La Nation franqaise a Lisbonne de 1669 a 1790.
Entre colbertisme et liberalisme (Paris, 1988).
On the relations of Portugal with England, see W. M. Shillington and
A. B. Wallis Chapman, The Commercial Relations of England and Portugal
(London, 1908; reprinted in New York, 1970), the standard work; Sir

174 HI- Colonial Brazil
Richard Lodge, 'The English Factory at Lisbon', Transactions of the Royal

Historical Society, 4th ser., 16(1933), 21047); A. R. Walford, The British
Factory in Lisbon (Lisbon, 1940); Alan K. Manchester, British Preeminence in
Brazil, Its Rise and Decline (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1933); R. Davis, 'English
foreign trade 1660-1700', Economic History Review, 7 (1954), 150-66,
and 'English foreign trade, 1700-1774', Economic History Review, 15
(1962), 2 8 5 - 3 0 3 ; Elizabeth Brody Schumpeter, English Overseas Trade
Statistics (1697-1808) (Oxford, i960); H. E. S. Fisher, The Portugal
Trade: A Study 0/Anglo-Portuguese Commerce, IJOO-IJJO (London, 1971);
A. D. Francis, The Methuens and Portugal, 1691-1708 (Cambridge, Eng.,
1966); S. Sideri, Trade and Power: Informal Colonialism in AngloPortuguese
Relations (Rotterdam, 1970); C. R. Boxer, 'Brazilian gold and British
traders in the first half of the eighteenth century', HAHR, 49/3 (1969),
45472; and Virgilio Noya Pinto, 0 ouro brasileiro e 0 comercio anglo
portugues (uma contribuigdo aos estudos de economia atlantica no skulo XVIII)
(Sao Paulo, 1979). These should be complemented by Michel Morineau,
Incroyables gazettes et fabuleux metaux: Les retours des tresors americains d'apres
les gazettes hollandaises (XVIe-XVIIIe siecles) (Paris, 1985).
For the diplomatic and political aspects of the Dutch presence in Brazil,
see C. R. Boxer, The Dutch in Brazil, 2nd ed. (Hamden, 1973); P.
Agostino, 'A politica Vieira e a entrega de Pernambuco', Espiral (January-
March 1965), 122-34; C. R. Boxer, 'Portuguese and Dutch colonial
rivalry', Studia, 2 (1958), 7-42; Evaldo Cabral de Mello, A guerra do
agucar (Sao Paulo, 1983); Rubro Veio, 0 imagindrio da Restauracdo Pernambu-
cana (Rio de Janeiro, 1986); F. Mauro, Origens da desigualidade entre os povos
de America (Sao Paulo, 1986); Johannes M. Postma, The Dutch in the
Atlantic Slave Trade (Cambridge, Eng., i99o);J. M. Campos, A restauragdo
em Portugal e no Brasil (Lisbon, 1962); V. Rau, 'A embaixada de Tristao de
Mendonga Furtado e os arquivos holandeses', Anais da Academia Portuguesa
de Histdria, 2nd ser., 8 (1958), 93-160; G. D. Winius, 'India or Brazil:
Priority for imperial survival during the wars of the Restoration', Journal of
the AmericanPortuguese Cultural Society, 1/4-5 (1967), 34-42. Finally, A.
Wiznitzer, Jews in Colonial Brazil (New York, i960) deserves mention.
3. PORTUGAL A N D BRAZIL, 1 7 5 0 - 1 8 0 8
For a general approach to the Portuguese empire during the period 1750
1808, there are two fundamental works by C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese

3- Portugal and Brazil, IJ501808 175
Seaborne Empire, 14151815 (London, 1969), chaps. 6 and 7, and The

Golden Age of Brazil 1695IJ 50: Growing Pains of a Colonial Society (Berke-
ley, 1962), final chapter. Useful textbooks include A. H. Oliveira Marques,
Historia de Portugal desde os tempos mais remotos ate 0 governo do Sr. Marcelo
Caetano, 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1980), I, chaps. 8 and 9; Joaquim Verissimo
Serrao, Historia de Portugal, vol. 6, 0 Despotismo iluminado (1750-1807)
(Lisbon, 1982); Joel Serrao and A. H. Oliveira Marques (eds.), A nova
historia da expansdoportuguesa, vol. 8, 0 Imperio luso-brasileiro, 17501822
(ed. Maria Beatriz Nizza da Silva) (Lisbon, 1986); Jean-Frangois La-
bourdette, Le Portugal de IJ8O a 1802 (Paris, 1985); and Historia geral da
civilizagdo brasileira, ed. Sergio Buarque de Holanda, I: A epoca colonial, 2
vols. (Sao Paulo, i960), and II: 0 Brasil mondrquico, vol. 1, 0 processo de
emancipagdo (Sao Paulo, 1962). There are also certain studies of individual
reigns which, despite the limitations of their time and genre, deserve
mention: Simao Jose da Luz Soriano, Historia do reinado de El-Rei D. Jose e da
administragdo do Marques de Pombal, 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1867); Joao Lucio de
Azevedo, 0 Marques de Pombal e sua epoca, 2nd ed. (Lisbon, 1922), an early
critical study; Alfredo Duarte Rodrigues, 0 Marques de Pombal e os seus
bidgrafos (Lisbon, 1947), which summarizes the early literature; Caetano
Beirao, Dona Maria I (17771792), 4th ed. (Lisbon, 1944), still unfortu-
nately the best work on the post-Pombal years; and Angelo Pereira, D.Jodo
VI Principe e Rei, 4 vols. (Lisbon, 19537), I: A retirada da familia real para 0
Brasil (1807). More recently, there are several excellent works based on
extremely important archival research. Dauril Alden, Royal Government in
Colonial Brazil, with Special Reference to the Administration of the Marquis of
Lavradio, Viceroy, 17691779 (Berkeley, 1968) is particularly concerned
with the structure of royal power in Brazil in the Pombal era and the
activities of an enlightened administrator, and, more generally, with the
political military and economic history of the captaincies of the South.
Kenneth R. Maxwell, Conflicts and Conspiracies: Brazil and Portugal 1750
1808 (Cambridge, Eng., 1973), makes a new contribution to the study of
the tensions between the metropolis and the colony and of the first moves
towards Brazilian independence, notably in 1789. Fernando A. Novais,
Portugal e Brasil na arise do antigo sistema colonial (17771808) (Sao Paulo,
1979), gives us an important survey of mercantilist colonialism and of the
economic policies of the Portuguese government at the end of the eigh-
teenth and beginning of the nineteenth century. Like Boxer's Golden Age for
the preceding period, these last three penetrating analyses are a landmark in
the historiography of colonial Brazil.

More specifically, on the territorial redefinition of Brazil, J. Cortesao,
Alexandre de Gusmdo e 0 Tratado de Madrid (1J50), 5 vols. (Rio de Janeiro,
195063), gives an extremely full documentation for the Treaty of Ma-
drid, its antecedents and some of its consequences, together with a com-
mentary which is often polemical. Alden, Royal Government, already cited,
59275, makes an extremely lucid and detached analysis of the same
subject, especially concerned with all the negotiations and military opera-
tions from the Treaty of Madrid to the Treaty of San Ildefonso (1778) and
after. On the occupation, defence and colonization of the Amazon region
and the government's Indian policy, the fundamental documents were
published in Marcos Carneiro de Mendonga, A Amazonia na era pombalina
(correspondencia inedita do Governador e Capitdo General do Estado do Grdo
Para e Maranhdo, Francisco Xavier de Mendonga Furtado, 17511759, 3
vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1963); see also Joto Lucio de Azevedo, Osjesuitas no
Grao Para (Lisbon, 1901), and 'Politica de Pombal relativa ao Brasil', in
Novas Epandforas: Estudos de historia e literatura (Lisbon, 1932), 7-62; more
recently, Manuel Nunes Dias, 'Politica pombalina na colonizacao da Ama-
zonia 17551777', Studia, 23 (1968), 732, together with his exhaustive
study of one of the instruments of Pombal's policy, the commercial com-
pany of Grao Para e Maranhao (see below). Among the works of Arthur
Cezar Ferreira Reis, see especially A politica de Portugal no valle amazonico
(Belem, 1940).
On the reorganization of political institutions, a good general study is
lacking. This is a major lacuna in Portuguese historiography and there is
no alternative to recourse to the sources. The best general essay is the
chapter on administration, justice and the army in Caio Prado Junior,
Formagdo do Brasil contempordneo: Colonia, 8th ed. (Sao Paulo, 1965), trans-
lated by Suzette Macedo as The Colonial Background of Modern Brazil (Berke-
ley, 1967). See also the works by Alden and Maxwell cited above, and
Historia administrativa do Brasil, vol. 5: Helio de Alcantara Avellar, Ad-
ministragdo Pombalina (Brasilia, 1983). Despite its many omissions so far as
the description and analysis of administrative structures are concerned, the
Diciondrio de historia de Portugal (ed. Joel Serrao), 4 vols. (Lisbon, 1961
71) has its uses. There are also the articles of Marcelo Caetano, 'As Re-
formas pombalinas e post-pombalinas respeitantes ao Ultramar: O novo
espirito em que sao concebidas', in Historia da expansdo portuguesa no mundo,
3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940), 3, 25160, and Jose Goncalo de Santa Ritta,
'Organizagao da administracao ukramarina no seculo XVIIF, Congresso do
mundoportugues (Lisbon, 1940), 8, 12353.

The fundamental importance of the texts of laws and decress, of which

much use has been made in this chapter, should be underlined. In the
absence of a complete edition, it is necessary to turn to compilations such
as: Collecgdo das Leys, Decretos e Alvards que comprehende ofeliz Reinado del Rey
Fidelissimo D. Jose I Nosso Senhor, desde 0 anno de 1750 ate 0 de 1777, 4 vols.
(Lisbon, 1777), and Antonio Delgado da Silva, Collecgdo da Legislagdo
Portugueza desde a ultima compilagdo das Ordenagoes: Legislagdo de 1756 a
1820, 6 vols. (Lisbon, 18305). See also the work by Helio de Alcantara
Avellar cited above.
On the reorganization of the economy, besides consulting manuscript
sources it is indispensable to go to contemporary accounts, among which
see especially the following: Memorias Economkas da Academia Real das
Sciencias de Lisboa para 0 adiantamento da Agricultura, das Artes e da Industria
em Portugal e suas Conquistas, 5 vols. (Lisbon, 1789-1815; repr. 1989),
analysed by Abilio Carlos d'Ascensao Diniz Silva in 'La formulation d'une
politique de developpement economique au Portugal a la fin du XVIIIe
siecle' (Memoire for the Diploma in Sciences Economiques, University of
Paris I, 1969); Obras Economkas de J. J. da Cunha de Azeredo Coutinho
(17941804), edited by Sergio Buarque de Holanda (Sao Paulo, 1966);
Jacome Ratton, Recordagoens de . . . sobre occurrencias do seu tempo em Portu-
gal . . . de Maio 1744 a Setembro de 1810 (London, 1813); Dom Rodrigo
de Souza Coutinho, speeches, memoranda, reports and letters, published
by the Marquis of Funchal, 0 Conde de Linhares, Dom Rodrigo Domingos
Antonio de Souza Continho (Lisbon, 1908), and by Marcos Carneiro de
Mendonga, 0 Intendente Camara, Manoel Ferreira da Cdmara Bethencourt e
Sd, Intendente Geral das Minas e dos Diamantes, 17641835 (Rio de Janeiro,
1933); Adrien Balbi, Essai statistique sur le Royaume de Portugal et d'Algarve,
2 vols. (Paris, 1822); Jose Accursio das Neves, Nogoes historkas, economkas e
administrativas sobre a produgdo e manufactura das sedas em Portugal . . .
(Lisbon, 1827), and Variedades sobre objetos relativos as artes, commercio e
manufacturas, 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1814-17).
Among the studies of economic history dating from the first half of the
twentieth century, two classics should not be forgotten: Joao Lucio de
Azevedo, Epocas de Portugal economico, 2nd ed. (Lisbon, 1973), and Roberto
C. Simonsen, Historia economica do Brasil 15001820, 6th ed. (Sao Paulo,
1969).
Among recent works dealing with the whole period, two well-
documented studies have made a fundamental contribution: the pioneer-
ing work of quantitative history, Vitorino Magalhaes Godinho, Prix et

monnaies au Portugal 17501850 (Paris, 1955), and Kenneth R. Maxwell,
Conflicts and Conspiracies (cited above).
Apart from these, it is necessary to have recourse to books dealing with
specific subjects and specific periods, of which the Pombal era is by far the
most thoroughly studied, notably by Jorge Borges de Macedo, A situaqao
economica no tempo de Pombal (1951; 2nd ed., Lisbon, 1982), a suggestive
and well-documented work, and by the Viscount of Carnaxide, 0 Brasil na
administragdo pombalina (Economia e politica externa) (Sao Paulo, 1940), a
controversial study. See also J. Borges de Macedo, 'Portugal e a economia
"pombalina": Temas e hipoteses', Revista de Historia, 19 (1954), 81-99.
On the fleet system, see V. Magalhaes Godinho, 'Portugal, as frotas do
agucar e as frotas do ouro 1670-1770', Ensaios, 2 (Lisbon, 1968), 2 9 3 -
315 (original in French in AESC [1950}, 184-97). See also Eulalia Maria
Lahmeyer Lobo, 'As frotas do Brasil", JGSWGL, 4 (1967), 465-88;
Albert-Alain Bourdon, 'Le Marquis de Pombal et la reorganisation des
flottes de commerce entre le Portugal et le Bresil (17531766)', Universi-
dade de Lisboa, Revista da Faculdade de Letras, 3rd ser., 6 (1962), 18297;
and especially Virgilio Noya Pinto, 0 ouro brasileiro e 0 comercio anglo-
portugues (Uma contribuigdo aos estudos de economia atlantica no seculo XVIII)
(Sao Paulo, 1979)- For the post-Pombal period, there is now Fernando A.
Novais, Portugal e Brasil (cited above), as well as Jose Jobson de A. Arruda,
0 Brasil no comercio colonial (Sao Paulo, 1980), which is a detailed analysis
of the trade balances of the last years of the period.
On commercial companies and monopolies, besides the exhaustive stud-
ies by Manuel Nunes Dias, Fomento e mercantilismo: A Companhia Geral de
Comercio do Grdo e Maranhdo (17551778) (Sao Paulo, 1971), and Jose
Ribeiro Junior, Colonizagdo e monopolio no Nordeste brasileiro: A Companhia
Geral de Pernambuco e Paraiba (17591780) (Sao Paulo, 1976), see the
article by Jorge Borges de Macedo, 'Companhias comerciais', in Diciondrio
de Historia de Portugal, I, 63744, which provides both a synthesis and a
good bibliography, and two penetrating studies by Myriam Ellis: 0
monopolio do sal nos estados do Brasil (1631 1801) (Sao Paulo, 1955) anc^ ^
Baleia no Brasil colonial (Sao Paulo, 1969). For the slave trade, see the
works cited in essay 111:2, and, more particularly for the late eighteenth
century, Antonio Carreira, As companhias pombalinas de Grdo-Pard e Maran-
hdo e Pernambuco e Paraiba, 2nd ed. (Lisbon, 1983).
On industrial policy, Jorge Borges de Macedo, Problemas de historia da
industria portuguesa no seculo XVIII (1963; 2nd ed., Lisbon, 1982), and the
analysis of Fernando A. Novais, 'A Proibigao das manufacturas no Brasil e

3- Portugal and Brazil, 17301808 179
a politica economica portuguesa do fim do seculo XVIII', Revista de Histo-

ria, 33/67 (1966), 14566. On the policy of developing traditional and
new colonial products, see essay 111:8.
Portugal's international trade, notably with England, has been the
object of several good analyses, such as H. E. S. Fisher, The Portugal Trade:
A Study of AngloPortuguese Commerce, 17001770 (London, 1971), whose
statistics may be supplemented, for the years 1770-1808, with those in
E. B. Schumpeter, English Overseas Trade Statistics (1697-1808) (Oxford,
i960), 17-18; see also Sandro Sideri, Trade and Power: Informal Colonialism
in Anglo-Portuguese Relations (Rotterdam, 1970); the more recent study of
Virgilio Noya Pinto, 0 ouro brasileiro e 0 comercio anglo-portugues (cited
above); and Frangois Crouzet, 'AngleterreBresil, 16971850: Un siecle
et demi d'echanges commerciaux', in Histoire, Economie, Societe (Paris), 9/2
(1990), 287317. For reference, Jose de Almada, A alianca inglesa: Subsid-
ios para 0 seu estudo, 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1946). The short- and long-term
consequences of the famous Methuen Treaty have been the subject of
violent controversy. See the solid study by A. D. Francis, The Methuens and
Portugal, 16911708 (Cambridge, Eng., 1966), and the survey by Jorge
Borges de Macedo, 'Methuen', in Diciondrio de historia de Portugal, vol. 3,
4955. On Franco-Portuguese trade, which has been studied less inten-
sively, Vitorino Magalhaes Godinho, Prix et monnaies (cited above), 321
71, and Frederic Mauro, 'L'Empire portugais et le commerce franco-
portugais au milieu du XVIIIe siecle', in his Etudes economiques sur
['expansion portugaise (Paris, 1970), 8195. The most recent analysis on
this subject is Jean-Frangois Labourdette, La Nation francaise a Lisbonne de
1669 a 1790: Entre colbertisme et liberalisme (Paris, 1988). On the very end
of the period, Jorge Borges de Macedo, 0 bloqueio continental: Economia e
guerra peninsular (Lisbon, 1962).
As regards quantitative history, besides the work of Magalhaes Go-
dinho, Novais and Arruda, there are three conference papers published in
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, L'Histoire quantitative du
Bresil de 1800 a 1930 (Paris, 1973): Fernando A. Novais, 'Notas para o
estudo do Brasil no comercio internacional do fim do seculo XVIII e inicio
do seculo XIX (1796-1808)', 5 9 - 7 5 , Harold B. Johnson, Jr., 'Money
and prices in Rio de Janeiro (1760-1820)', 39-57, and Katia M. de
Queiros Mattoso, 'Os pregos na Bahia de 1750 a 1930', 167-82. Queiros
Mattoso has also written 'Conjoncture et societe au Bresil a la fin du
XVIIIe siecle', Cahiers des Ameriques Latines, 5 (1970), 3 3 - 5 3 , while
Johnson is also the author of 'A preliminary enquiry into money, prices

i8o / / / . Colonial Brazil
and wages 1763-1823', in The Colonial Roots of Modern Brazil, edited by

Dauril Alden (Berkeley, 1972).
On Pombal the majority of the works already mentioned have some-
thing to say. See also Francisco Jose Calazans Falcon, A epoca pombalina
(Politica economica e monarquia ilustrada) (Sao Paulo, 1982). A number of
valuable publications appeared on the occasion of the two hundredth
anniversary of Pombal's death in 1982, notably: 0 Marques de Pombal e 0 seu
tempo, Instituto de Historia e Teoria das Ideias of the Faculdade de Letras
de Coimbra (Revista de Historia das Ideias, 4, 1982); Como interpretar
Pombal? No bicentenario da sua tnorte (Lisbon, 1983); and Joaquim Verfssimo
Serrao, 0 Marquis de Pombal: 0 homem, 0 diplomata e 0 estadista (Lisbon,
1982).
4. POPULATION
General studies on the structure and growth of the Brazilian population in

the colonial period are rare. Attempts to calculate the size of the popula-
tion and assess its growth at various dates have been carried out by Roberto
Simonsen, Historia economica do Brasil (15001820), 6th ed. (Sao Paulo,
1969), and also by Celso Furtado, Formagdo economica do Brasil, n t h ed.
(Sao Paulo, 1971). Using information from the third quarter of the eigh-
teenth century, when the first census surveys were carried out in each
captaincy, various authors have assembled and organized statistics still
preserved in archives, in an attempt to arrive at a demographic aggregate
for the country during the period. The following studies, in particular, are
worthy of note: Dauril Alden, 'The population of Brazil in the late 18th
century: A preliminary survey', HAHR, 43/1 (1963), 173-205; Maria
Luiza Marcflio, 'Accroissement de la population: Evolution historique de la
population bresilienne jusqu'en 1872', in Comite International de Coordi-
nation des Recherches Nationales en Demographie, La population du Bresil
(Paris, 1974); also M. L. Marcilio, 'Evoluc.ao da populacjio brasileira
atraves dos censos ate 1872', Anais de Historia, 6 (1974), 115-37. Some
scholars have based their figures on different sources. For example, using
the more reliable nineteenth-century census figures, they have made retro-
spective estimates in order to arrive at a probable total for the population of
Brazil in the eighteenth century. Such is the case of Giorgio Mortara,
'Estudos sobre a utilizagao do movimento da populagao do Brasil', Revista
Brasileira de Estatistica (January-March 1941), 38-46, who calculated the

4 Population 181
total population of Brazil by year, from 1772. As far as the post-1800

period is concerned, the most recent figures are those provided by Thomas
W. Merrick and Douglas H. Graham, Population and Economic Development
in Brazil: 1800 to the Present (Baltimore, 1979).
Many items from colonial census surveys have also been published. A
summary of the main items available in the archives of Rio de Janeiro is
provided by Joaquim Norberto de Souza e Silva, 'Investigates sobre os
recenseamentos da populagao geral do Imperio e de cada Provincia de per
si, tentadas desde os tempos coloniaes ate hoje', in Re/atorio do Ministerio
dos Negocios do Imperio, 1870 (Rio de Janeiro, 1872), annex. This summary
was utilized by F. J. de Oliveira Vianna, 'Resumo historico dos inqueritos
censitarios realizados no Brasil', in Brazil, Recenseamento do Brasil, 1920
(Rio de Janeiro, 1922), vol. 1, Introduction. Colonial census surveys from
several captaincies have been published in their entirety in many numbers
of RIHGB and in the Revistas of the various state Historical Institutes, as
well as in ABNRJ.
Catalogues of demographic sources are now being published. See, for
example, M. L. Marcilio and L. Lisanti, 'Problemes de l'histoire quantita-
tive du Bresil: Metrologie et demographie', in Centre National de la
Recherche Scientifique, L'histoire quantitative du Bresil de 1800 a 1930
(Paris, 1973); Marcilio, 'Catalogo de los datos bibliograficos documentales
de naturaleza demografico existentes en los archivos brasilefios', in
CELADE, Fuentes para la demografia historica de America Latina (Mexico,
D.F., 1975), 87131; and finally, Marcilio, 'Levantamentos censitarios da
fase proto-estatistica do Brasil', Anais de Historia, 9 (1977), 6375.
The best study on the anthropological and racial formation of the
Brazilian people is still Gilberto Freyre's classic work, Casa grande e sen-
zala, 10th ed. (Rio de Janeiro, 1961), vol. 2. Equally important is Darcy
Ribeiro, As Americas e a civilizaqao (Petr6polis, 1977).
The indigenous population has been the subject of research by demogra-
phers and historians. Ethnographic and anthropological studies give ac-
count of the size and decline of the indigenous population during the
colonial period. The classic study by Angel Rosenblat, La poblacion indi-
gena de America desde 1492 hasta la actualidad (Buenos Aires, 1945), pre-
sents very low figures for the Brazilian Indian. At present, we have at our
disposal far more reliable figures in William Denevan (ed.), The Native
Population of the Americas in 1492 (Madison, Wis., 1976; 2nd ed., 1992),
and particularly in John Hemming, Red Gold: The Conquest of the Brazilian
Indians, 1300-7760 (London, 1978).

The African slave trade to Brazil has always received attention from
scholars. For Bahia, the pioneer study is that of Pierre Verger, Flux et
reflux de la traite des negres entre le Golfe de Benin et Bahia de Todos os Santos du
XVIIe au XVIIIe siecles (Paris, 1968). See also, by the same author, 'Mouve-
ments de navires entre Bahia et le Golfe de Benin (XVII-XIXe siecles)',
Revue Frangaise d'Histoire d'Outre-mer, 55 (1968), 5-36. The trade to the
north-east has been studied by Antonio Carreira, As companhias pombalinas
de navegagdo, comercio e trdfico de escravos entre a costa africana e 0 Nordeste
brasileiro (Bissau, 1969). For Amazonia, see the work of Colin M. Mac-
Lachlan, 'African slave trade and economic development in Amazonia,
1700-1800', in Robert B. Toplin (ed.), Slavery and Race Relations in Latin
America (London, 1974).
For the history of the slave trade to Brazil as a whole, the most complete
study is that by Philip D. Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census
(Madison, Wis., 1969). See also, by H. S. Klein, 'The Portuguese slave
trade from Angola in the 18th century'', Journal of Economic History, 32/4
(1972), 894917, and The Middle Passage: Comparative Studies in the Atlan-
tic Slave Trade (Princeton, N.J., 1978).
With regard to general studies on Brazilian slavery in the colonial
period, one must begin by mentioning A. M. Perdigao Malheiro's classic
work, A escraviddo no Brasil: Ensaio histdrico, juridico e social, 3 vols. (Rio de
Janeiro, 18667; new ed., 1944). Of more recent studies, the most
noteworthy are Mauricio Goulart, A escraviddo africana no Brasil, 3rd ed.
(Sao Paulo, 1975); Katia M. Queiros Mattoso, Etre esclaveau Bresil, XVIe-
XlXe siecles (Paris, 1979; Eng. trans., To Be a Slave in Brazil, New Bruns-
wick, N.J., 1986); and Stuart B. Schwartz's important article, 'The manu-
mission of slaves in colonial Brazil: Bahia, 1684-1745', HAHR, 54/4
(1974), 6 0 3 - 3 5 .
Some regional studies on the demography of the colonial period have
been published. The pioneer study is M. L. Marcflio, La ville de Sao Paulo:
Peuplement et population, IJ50-1850 (d'apres les registres paroissiaux et les
recensements anciens) (Rouen, 1968). See also M. L. Marcilio, 'Croissance de
la population pauliste de 1798 a 1828', Annales de Demographie Historique,
l
911 (1978), 2 4 9 - 6 9 . Another important work is Iraci del Nero da Costa
Vila Rica: Populagdo (1J19-1826) (Sao Paulo, 1979). For the recent work
of Iraci del Nero da Costa and Francisco Vidal Luna on the demography of
eighteenth century Minas Gerais, see essay 111:7-
The structure, composition and organization of the family and house-
holds in late colonial Brazil have begun to attract attention: See Donald

^. Plantations and peripheries 183
Ramos, 'City and country: The family in Minas Gerais, 18041838', Jour-
nal of Family History, 3/4(1978), 161-75, and M. L. Marcilio, 'Tendances
et structures des menages dans la Capitainerie de Sao Paulo (17651828)
selon les listes nominatives d'habitants', in Centre National de la Recherche
Scientifique, L'histoire quantitative, 15765, and Caiqara: Terra e populagdo
(Sao Paulo, 1986), a cross-generational study of the families of small farmers
of the northern coast of the province of Sao Paulo. Also M. L. Marcilio,
'Mariage et remariage dans le Bresil traditionnel: Lois, intensite, calen-
dries', i n j . Dupaquieret al. (eds.), Marriage and Re-marriage in Past Popula-
tions (London, 1980) and Maria Beatriz Nizza da Silva, Sistema do casamento
no Brasil colonial (Sao Paulo, 1984). For later work on the family by Alida
Metcalf, Muriel Nazzari and Elizabeth Kuznesof, see essay 111:5. On the
mechanisms of inheritance within the elite of colonial Sao Paulo, see Carlos
A. P. Bacellar, 'Familia, heranca e poder em Sao Paulo: 1765-1855',
Estudos CEDHAL, 7 (Sao Paulo, 1991). Sexuality within and outside mar-
riage, illegitimacy and the abandonment of children has begun to be stud-
ied by Brazilian historians. CEDHAL (Centro de Estudos de Demografia
Historica da America Latina) of the University of Sao Paulo, founded in
1985, has supported a collective and interdisciplinary project, A Familia e a
Crianc,a na Historia da Popula$ao Brasileira. Among the publications to
come out of this project, see, for example, F. T. Londono, 'Publico e
escandaloso: Igreja e concubinato no antigo bispado do Rio de Janeiro'
(unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Sao Paulo, 1992); R. P. Venancio,
'Ilegitimidade e concubinato no Brasil colonial: Rio de Janeiro e Sao Paulo',
Estudos CEDHAL, 1 (1986); F. T. Londono, 'El concubinato y la iglesia en el
Brasil colonial', Estudos CEDHAL, 2 (1988); R. P. Venancio, ' "Casa da
Roda" - Institution d'assistance infantile au Bresil' (unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, University of Paris, Sorbonne IV, 1993); M. L. Marcilio (ed.),
Mulher, sexualidade e igreja na historia do Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1993); Ana Silvia
Scott, 'Dinamica familiar - elite paulista (17651836)'(unpublished Mas-
ter's thesis, University of Sao Paulo, 1987).
5. PLANTATIONS AND PERIPHERIES,

c. 1580-c. 1750
GENERAL HISTORIES
Sergio Buarque de Holanda (ed.), Historia geral da civilizaqao brasileira, l:A

epoca colonial, 2 vols. (Sao Paulo, i960) provides a succinct survey of major

themes. Pedro Calmon, Historia do Brasil, 7 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1959)
has the most detailed colonial sections of the many modern histories. The
classic Historia geral do Brasil, 5 vols. 9th ed. (Sao Paulo, 1975), by
Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen, originally published in 1857, is still
valuable. Together, C. R. Boxer's Salvador de Sd and the Struggle for Brazil
and Angola, 16021686 (London, 1952) and his The Golden Age of Brazil,
1695IJJO (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1964) provide the best available
overview in English of Brazilian history for the period. Frederic Mauro, Le
Brisil du XVe a la fin du XVHIe sikle (Paris, 1977) is a brief survey based on
solid scholarship. Dauril Alden (ed.), Colonial Roots of Modern Brazil
(Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1973) presents an important collection of
papers on colonial themes. A. J. R. Russell-Wood (ed.), From Colony to
Nation (Baltimore, 1975), is primarily concerned with the post-1750
period but does have a number of articles pertinent to the earlier era. The
Anais do Congresso Comemorativo do Bicentendrio da Transferencia da Sede do
Governo do Brasil, 4 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1966), contains many items of
interest, as do the various publications of the Luso-Brazilian Colloquium
(first Proceedings or Adas published in Nashville, Tenn., 1953). In the
past decade many classic chronicles and important documents have been
reprinted or published for the first time. Of special importance to readers
of English is Dialogues of the Great Things of Brazil, a translation oiDidlogos
das grandezas do Brasil (1618), attributed to Ambrosio Fernandes Brandao,
edited by Frederick Arthur Holden Hall, William F. Harrison, and Doro-
thy Winkers Welker (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1987).
GOVERNMENT AND ECONOMY
The structure of Portuguese government in Brazil is summarized in Eu-

lalia Maria Lahmeyer Lobo, Processo administrativo ibero-americano (Rio de
Janeiro, 1962). Dauril Alden, Royal Government in Colonial Brazil (Berke-
ley and Los Angeles, 1968), contains much useful material. Stuart B.
Schwartz, Sovereignty and Society in Colonial Brazil (Berkeley and Los
Angeles, 1973), discusses the judicial structure of the colony. A useful
collection of royal instructions is Marcos Carneiro de Mendonga, Raizes
da formaqdo administrativa do Brasil, 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1972). A
provocative interpretative essay that touches on the early colonial era is
Raymundo Faoro, Os donos do poder, 1st ed. (Rio de Janeiro, 1958). Other
works on the organs of colonial government in Portugal itself are cited in
essay 111:2.

^. Plantations and peripheries 185
General studies of the colonial economy are few. Frederic Mauro's he

Portugal, le Bresil, et I'Atlantique au XVlle siecle (Paris, 1983), originally
published in i960 under a slightly different title, is an essential quantita-
tive study of Brazil within the Atlantic system. For other works on the
Atlantic economy, again see essay 111:2. Mauro has also published impor-
tant collections of essays, such as Nova historia e novo mundo (Sao Paulo,
1969). Roberto Simonsen, Historia economica do Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1937), is
still valuable although many of the figures presented need revision. A
number of volumes by Mircea Buescu, such as his 300 anos da inflagdo (Rio
de Janeiro, 1973), make good use of colonial economic data. The synthe-
ses of Caio Prado Junior, The Colonial Background of Modern Brazil (Berke-
ley and Los Angeles, 1967) and Celso Furtado, The Economic Growth of
Brazil (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1963) provide excellent overviews.
Especially provocative is Fernando Novais, Estrutura e dindmica do sistema
colonial (Lisbon, 1975) which has also appeared in a Brazilian edition.
Various economic activities have received monographic attention, al-
though the record here is spotty. A major difficulty is a lack of serial
economic data for the period prior to 1750. There are no adequate studies
of manioc- or tobacco-farming for this period. A good study of the ranch-
ing society in the north-east is provided by Luiz Mott, 'Fazendas de gado
do Piaui (16971762)', Anais do VII Simposio Nacionalde Professores Universi-
tdrios de Historia (Sao Paulo, 1976), 34369. See also on this topic,
Lycurgo Santos Filho, Uma comunidade rural no Brasil antigo (Sao Paulo,
1956). The history of sugar has received the most attention. Wanderley
Pinho's Historia dum engenho no Reconcavo (Rio de Janeiro, 1946) is a classic
account of Bahia. Vera Lucia Amaral Ferlini, Terra, trabalho e poder (Sao
Paulo, 1988) and Stuart B. Schwartz, Sugar Plantations and the Formation of
Brazilian Society (Cambridge, Eng., 1985) both also deal with Bahia.
Unfortunately, similiar studies do not exist for the engenhos of Rio de
Janeiro and Pernambuco. Antonio Barros de Castro, 'Escravos e senhores
nos engenhos do Brasil' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Camp-
inas, 1976) is an excellent overview based on printed primary sources. Still
indispensable for any study of the colonial economy is Andre Joao Antonil
(pseudonym of Antonio Giovanni Andreoni, S.J.), Cultura e opulencia do
Brasil por suas drogas e minas (Lisbon, 1711), a work whose value has been
greatly increased by the notes and introduction provided by Andree Man-
suy in the Paris edition of 1968. Myriam Ellis has contributed such solid
studies as Aspectos dapesca da baleia no Brasil colonial (Sao Paulo, 1958), and
Alice P. Canabrava's analysis of Brazilian trade in the Rio de la Plata, 0

186 / / / . Colonial Brazil
comercio portugues no Rio da Prata, 1580-1640, 2nd ed. (Sao Paulo, 1984)
remains essential reading. The study of the merchant community has been
made feasible by the publication of an extensive merchant correspondence,
in Luis Lisanti (ed.), Negocios colonials, 5 vols. (Brasilia, 1973).
SLAVERY
A lively debate is being conducted in Brazil over the nature of the colonial
economy and the role of slavery within it. Jacob Gorender, 0 escravismo
colonial (Sao Paulo, 1978) is a major statement based on a wide reading of
printed sources. It has produced considerable reaction, as is demonstrated
in the group of essays in Jose Roberto do Amaral Lapa (ed.), Modos do
produgao e realidade brasileira (Petropolis, 1980). An earlier essay by Ciro
Flamarion S. Cardoso, 'El modo de produccion esclavista colonial en Amer-
ica', in Modos de produccion en America Latina (Buenos Aires, 1973), is still
an important theoretical formulation of the problem.
The form of labour and its relation to the social and economic structures
of the colony has been a major theme in Brazilian history. The most
complete study of Portuguese Indian policy is Georg Thomas, Die Portu-
giesische Indianerpolitik in Brasilien, 1500-1640 (Berlin, 1968; Port, trans.
1984), but it should be used in conjunction with Kieman's book on Indian
policy in the Amazon (cited below) and with the works of Father Serafim
Leite on the Jesuits. John Hemming, Red Gold: The Conquest of the Brazil-
ian Indians, 15001760 (London, 1978) is a well-written narrative ac-
count. Stuart B. Schwartz, 'Indian labor and New World plantations:
European demands and Indian responses in northeastern Brazil', AHR, 83/
1 (1978), 4379, deals with Bahia, but studies of other regions are sorely
needed.
Despite the centrality of African slavery to colonial Brazil, the coverage
of the topic is very uneven. To some extent this is a problem of sources
available for the pre-1750 period. Some of the best books about slavery in
Brazil often have little information on the early colonial period and are
forced to infer the previous history. Such is the case with Gilberto Freyre's
classic, The Masters and the Slaves (New York, 1946), originally published
in 1933 in Brazil. Present concerns have also oriented research. Thus, we
have a large and growing literature on slave resistance and especially
Palmares, as is represented by Edison Carneiro, 0 quilombo dos Palmares,
3rd ed. (Rio de Janeiro, 1966), but little on the early slave trade. On that
topic Maurfcio Goulart, A escraviddo africana no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1949) is

j. Plantations and peripheries 187
still a good starting point. Pierre Verger's Flux et reflux de la traite des negres
entre le Golfe de Benin et Bahia du dix-septieme au dix-neuvieme siecle (Paris,
1968) has been translated into English (Ibadan, 1976) and Portuguese
(Sao Paulo, 1987). It centers on the eighteenth century slave trade to
Bahia. Joseph Miller, Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan
Slave Trade (Madison, Wis., 1988) concentrates on the African aspects of
the trade.
Portuguese attitudes towards slavery have been studied by A. J. R.
Russell-Wood, 'Iberian expansion and the issue of black slavery', AHR,
83/1 (1978), 16-42, and David Sweet, 'Black robes and black destiny:
Jesuit views of African slavery in 17th-century Latin America', RHA, 86
(1978), 8 7 - 1 1 3 ; but many other issues need investigation. The fullest
study of the ideology of slavery in colonial Brazil is Ronaldo Vainfas,
Ideologia e escraviddo (Petropolis, 1986). Questions concerning the profit-
ability, demography, family structure and internal organization of Brazil-
ian slavery in this period all remain to be studied. An example of what can
be done is provided by Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e
senhores (Sao Paulo, 1981), an essentially quantitative study of slave owner-
ship. On slave culture, Roger Bastide, The African Religions of Brazil
(Baltimore, 1978) remains the essential introduction. A useful popular
survey that incorporates the best recent scholarship is Katia M. de Queir6s
Mattoso, To Be a Slave in Brazil (Paris, 1979; New Brunswick, N.J., and
London, 1986)
SOCIAL ASPECTS
In some ways the literature on free people of colour and race relations is
better developed than that on slavery itself. A. J. R. Russell-Wood,
'Colonial Brazil', in David W. Cohen and Jack P. Greene (eds.), Neither
Slave Nor Free: The Freedom of African Descent in the Slave Societies of the New
World (Baltimore, 1972), incorporates much of the author's own work and
follows the approach of Charles R. Boxer, Race Relations in the Portuguese
Colonial Empire (Oxford, 1963). Stuart B. Schwartz, 'The manumission of
slaves in colonial Brazil: Bahia 1684-1745', HAHR, 54/4 (1974), 6 0 3 -
65, is a quantitative study. A. J. R. Russell-Wood, 'Black and mulatto
brotherhoods in colonial Brazil', HAHR, 54/4 (1974), 567602, is a good
general discussion, but it should be used together with Patricia Mulvey,
"The black lay brotherhoods of colonial Brazil: A history' (unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, City University of New York, 1976), and Manoel S. Car-

dozo, 'The lay brotherhoods of colonial Bahia', The Catholic Historical
Review, 33/1 (1947), 12-30.
Social change and social groups before 1750 have received little atten-
tion. Francis Dutra has produced a number of studies of institutional
response to social change, of which 'Membership in the Order of Christ in
the seventeenth century', TA, 27/1 (1970), 3-25, is a good example.
Women are beginning to find a place in Brazilian historical studies. The
chapters by Susan Soeiro and A. J. R. Russell-Wood, in Asuncion Lavrin
(ed.), Latin American Women: Historical Perspectives (Westport, Conn.,
1978), 60100, 17397, have now been joined by publications based on
new research concentrating on southern Brazil. Representative of this
trend are Alida C. Metcalf, 'Women and means: Women and family
property in colonial Brazil', Journal of Social History, 24/2 (1990), 277-97
and Family and Frontier in Colonial Brazil: Santana de Parnaiba, 1580-
1822 (Berkeley, 1992); Muriel Nazzari, Disappearance of the Dowry: Women,
Families and Social Change in Sao Paulo, 16001900 (Stanford, Calif.,
1992) and Elizabeth Kuznesof, 'The Role of the female headed household
in Brazilian modernization, 17651836', Journal of Social History, 13/4
(1980), 589613. Maria Beatriz Nizza da Silva, Sistema do casamento no
Brasil colonial (Sao Paulo, 1984) provides an overview. Various social
groups have been best studied in Bahia (see below), but many important
topics need to be examined. There are, for example, no studies of wage
labourers or artisan organizations in the early period.
One social group, the New Christians, has received extensive treat-
ment. Arnold Wiznitzer, The Jews in Colonial Brazil (New York, i960), is
a general study. Anita Novinsky, Cristaos novos na Bahia (Sao Paulo, 1972)
brings a great deal of new material into the debate about the Judaism of
the New Christians. Regional studies like Jose Gongalves Salvador, Os
cristaos novos: Povoamento e conquista do solo brasileiro (Sao Paulo, 1976) on the
southern captaincies, and Jose Antonio Gongalves de Mello, Gente da
nasqdo: Cristaos novos ejudeus em Pernambuco, 15421654 (Recife, 1989) on
Pernambuco have deepened our understanding of this group. The series
Judaica Brasil from the University of Sao Paulo has published monographs
like Maria Liberman, 0 levante do Maranhdo: Judeu cabeqa do levante (1983)
on specific themes. Maria Luiza Tucci Carneiro, Preconceito racial no Brasil
colonial (Sao Paulo, 1983) examines institutionalized attitudes toward
New Christians. The history of the New Christians was intimately, if
unfortunately, tied to that of the Inquisition. A good study of the struc-
ture and operation of that body in Brazil is Sonia A. Siqueira, A inquisigdo

j>. Plantations and peripheries 189
portuguesa e a sociedade colonial (Sao Paulo, 1978). A revisionist view of the

colonial church is presented by Eduardo Hoornaert, Formacdo do catolicismo
brasileiro, 1550-1800 (Petropolis, 1978).
The Inquisition's records have provided much material for the history of
popular attitudes and practices in colonial Brazil, especially as these relate
to what the church considered deviant behavior. Laura de Mello e Souza, 0
diabo na terra da Santa Cruz (Sao Paulo, 1987) examines witchcraft, while Ro-
naldo Vainfas, Tropico dos pecados (Rio de Janeiro, 1989) analyses attitudes
toward sexuality. Luis Mott, in a large number of studies such as A inquisiqdo
em Sergipe (Aracaju, Braz., 1985) and Escraviddo, homosexualidade e demonolo-
gia (Sao Paulo, 1988), has examined many areas of popular life and culture.
On the Brazilian cities and towns, the fundamental work is Nestor
Goulart Reis Filho, Evolugdo urbana do Brasil (15001720) (Sao Paulo,
1968). Also useful are Edmundo Zenha, 0 municipio no Brasil (Sao Paulo,
1948), and Nelson Omegna, A cidade colonial (Rio de Janeiro, 1961). A
more recent work with emphasis on the late colonial era is Roberta Marx
Delson, 'Town planning in colonial Brazil' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
Columbia University, 1975). An excellent interpretative essay is Richard
M. Morse, 'Brazil's urban development: Colony and empire', in Russell-
Wood, From Colony to Nation, 15581.
REGIONAL STUDIES
The historiography of the period before 1750 is regionally unbalanced.

Bahia has received far more attention than other areas. Thus, many general-
izations contained in the chapter are based on findings for Bahia which
remain to be demonstrated for other areas.
For Bahia there are excellent social and institutional studies. A. J. R.
Russell-Wood, Fidalgos and Philanthropists (Berkeley and Los Angeles,
1968), studies the Misericordia. Susan Soeiro, 'A baroque nunnery: The
economic and social role of a colonial convent: Santa Clara de Desterro,
Salvador, Bahia, 1677-1800' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, New York Uni-
versity, 1974), is good on women in society and the financial role of that
institution. C. R. Boxer's chapter on the camara of Salvador in Portuguese
Society in the Tropics (Madison, Wis., 1965) is particularly valuable. David
G. Smith, 'The mercantile class of Portugal and Brazil in the seventeenth
century: A socio-economic study of the merchants of Lisbon and Bahia,
1620-1690' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Texas, 1975), is the
most thorough study of merchants. Rae Flory, 'Bahian society in the mid-

colonial period: The sugar planters, tobacco growers, merchants, and
artisans of Salvador and the Reconcavo, 1680-1725' (unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, University of Texas, 1978) is based on notarial records. Stuart B.
Schwartz, Sugar Plantations, is a comprehensive study of Bahia's social and
economic history in the period. Jose Roberto do Amaral Lapa, A Bahia e a
carreira da India (Sao Paulo, 1966), deals with Salvador as a port and
shipyard. Thales de Azevedo, Povoamento da cidade do Salvador, 3rd ed.
(Bahia, 1968), and Afonso Ruy, Historia politica e administrativa da cidade
do Salvador (Bahia, 1949), are still invaluable.
For Pernambuco and its adjacent areas the situation is in general much
worse. Jose Antonio Gongalves de Mello has done much in Revista do
Institute Arqueologico, Historico e Geogrdfico Pernambucano to rectify the situa-
tion. Also valuable is Francis A. Dutra, Mafias de Albuquerque (Recife,
1976). On the war of the Mascates, see Norma Marinovic Doro, 'Guerra
dos Mascates- 1710' (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Sao
Paulo, 1979), Nelson Barbalho, 1710: Recife versus Olinda (Recife, 1986),
and J. A. Goncalves de Mello's excellent 'Nobres e mascates na camara de
Recife', R1AHGP, 53 (1981), 114-262.
The best scholarship on the Dutch occupation of the north-east is repre-
sented by C. R. Boxer's The Dutch in Brazil, 1624-54 (Oxford, 1957), on
military and political affairs; Jose Antonio Gongalves de Mello, Tempo dos
Flamengos, 2nd ed. (Recife, 1978), on social matters; and Evaldo Cabral de
Mello, Olinda restaurada (Sao Paulo, 1975), on the economy. These works
incorporate the earlier classic studies. In addition, the above authors have all
edited important documents of the period. Representative of them and
extremely valuable is J. A. Gongalves de Mello (ed.), Relatdrio sobre as
capitanias conquistadas by Adriaen van der Dussen (Rio de Janeiro, 1947) and
his series Fontes para a historia do Brasil holandes (Recife, 1986 ). In addi-
tion, classic works such as Duarte de Albuquerque Coelho, Memorias didrias
da guerra do Brasil (Madrid, 1654) have been published by the municipal
government of Recife (1981). E. van der Boogaart (ed.),Johan Maurits van
Nassau-Siegen, 16041679 (The Hague, 1979), presents recent Dutch and
Brazilian scholarship on the period. Finally, Evaldo Cabral de Mello, Rubro
veio (Rio de Janeiro, 1986) examines the impact of the Dutch wars on the
self-perception of the Pernambucans. His 0 nome e 0 sangue (Sao Paulo, 1989)
demonstrates the role of genealogy in that self-perception.
On the smaller north-eastern captaincies Luiz R. B. Mott, Piauicolonial
(Teresina, 1985) and Sergipe del rey (Aracaju, 1986) present essays on
social, demographic, and economic themes.

3- Plantations and peripheries 191
Modern social and economic history on Rio de Janeiro before 1750 is

virtually nonexistent. Joaquim Verissimo Serrao, 0 Rio de Janeiro no skulo
XVI, 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965), is valuable for the documents it reproduces.
Vivaldo Coaracy, 0 Rio de Janeiro no skulo XVII, 2nd ed. (Rio de Janeiro,
1965), contains useful information. The many works of Alberto Lamego
on the sugar economy of Rio de Janeiro were extensively used by William
Harrison, in 'A struggle for land in colonial Brazil: The private captaincy
of Paraiba do Sul, 15331753' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of
New Mexico, 1970), but much remains to be done.
There is an extensive historiography on Sao Paulo which is in the process
of considerable change. Much of the work written before 1950 concen-
trated on the exploits of the bandeiras and reflected older historical con-
cerns. A provocative essay on the early history of Sao Paulo is Florestan
Fernandes, Mudangas sociais no Brasil (Sao Paulo, i960), 179-233. There
are a number of histories of the region, of which Afonso d'Escragnolle
Taunay, Historia seiscentista da vila de Sao Paulo, 4 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1926
9), is the most thorough. Taunay is also the dean of bandeira studies, and
his Historia geral das bandeiraspaulistas, 11 vols. (Sao Paulo, 192450), is
the basic study. Alfredo Ellis Junior, Meio skulo de bandeirismo (Sao Paulo,
1948) and Jaime Cortesao, Raposo Tavares e a formagdo territorial do Brasil
(Rio de Janeiro, 1958) are standard works by other specialists. John M.
Monteiro is transforming the study of Indianwhite relations in Sao Paulo
in studies based on his unpublished thesis, 'Sao Paulo in the seventeenth
century: Economy and society' (University of Chicago, 1985). Also interest-
ing in this regard is John French, 'Riqueza, poder, e mao-de-obra numa
economia de subsistencia: Sao Paulo, 15961625', Revista do Arquivo Mu-
nicipal, 195 (1982), 79-107. Jose de Alcantara Machado, Vida e morte do
bandeirante (Sao Paulo, 1930), uses the series Inventdrios e testamentos (Sao
Paulo, 1920- ) to evoke everyday life. The works of Sergio Buarque de
Holanda, such as Caminhos e fronteiras (Rio de Janeiro, 1957) and Visao do
paraiso (Rio de Janeiro, 1959), are indispensable. Richard M. Morse (ed.),
The Bandeirantes: The Historical Role of the Brazilian Pathfinders (New York,
1965) presents excerpts from many important works. Suggestive essays are
contained in Jaime Cortesao's Introdugdo a historia das bandeiras, 2 vols.
(Lisbon, 1964). The Jesuit missions of southern Brazil and the Rio de la
Plata are now receiving attention from modern social and economic histori-
ans. Arno Alvares Kern, Missoes: Uma Utopiapolitica (Porto Alegre, 1982) is
a perceptive overview. Examples of the more recent work appear in Estudos
Ibero-americanos, 15/1 (1989), which is dedicated entirely to this subject.

On the extreme south, Jose Honorio Rodrigues, 0 continente do Rio
Grande (Rio de Janeiro, 1954) provides a succinct essay. Guillermino
Cesar, Historia do Rio Grande do Sul (Porto Alegre, 1970) has interesting
social information. Dauril Alden, Royal Government, provides the best
summary in English.
For the Brazilian north prior to 1750 the bibliography is not large. J.
Liicio de Azevedo, Os Jesuitas no Grdo-Pard: Suas missoes e a colonizaqdo
(Coimbra, 1930) is still valuable. Mathias Kieman, The Indian Policy of
Portugal in the Amazon Region, 16141693 (Washington, D.C., 1954)
remains indispensable. Arthur Cezar Ferreira Reis, Historia do Amazonas
(Manaus, 1935) is representative of his many works on the region. Joao
Francisco Lisboa's Cronica do Brasil colonial: Apontamentos para a historia do
Maranhdo (Petropolis, 1976), is a republication of an earlier and still
useful work. Joyce Lorimer, English and Irish Settlement on the River Amazon,
1550-1646 (London, 1989) presents an important collection of docu-
ments. Two articles by Colin MacLachlan, 'The Indian labor structure in
the Portuguese Amazon', in Alden, Colonial Roots, 199230, and 'African
slave trade and economic development in Amazonia, 1700-1800', in
Robert Toplin (ed.), Slavery and Race Relations in Latin America (Westport,
Conn., 1974), 112-45, a r e useful. On the economy, Sue Ellen Anderson
Gross, 'The economic life of the Estado do Maranhao e Grao-Para, 1686-
1751' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Tulane University, 1969) provides a
survey. Dauril Alden, 'The significance of cacao production in the Amazon
region during the late colonial period: An essay in comparative economic
history', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 120/2 (1976), 1 0 3 -
35, is the best study of that topic. On the society of the Amazon region,
the most thorough study to date is David Sweet, 'A rich realm of nature
destroyed: The middle Amazon valley, 1640-1750' (unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1974).
6. INDIANS AND THE FRONTIER
Literature on Brazilian Indians is far richer for the sixteenth than for
subsequent centuries. On contemporary authors and secondary literature,
see essay 1:5.
On the west and the south in the seventeenth century, the fundamental
study, although sometimes confusing, is Afonso d'Escragnolle Taunay,
Historia geral das bandeiras paulistas, n vols. (Sao Paulo, 1924-50). The

6. Indians and the frontier 193
majority of documents about bandeiranteJesuit conflict are in the seven

volumes edited by Jaime Cortesao and Helio Vianna, Manuscriptos da
Coleqao De Angelis (Rio de Janeiro, 195170), and in Jaime Cortesao,
Raposo Tavares a formacao territorial do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1958) and
Introdugdo a historia da bandeiras, 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1964). See also Alfredo
Ellis Junior, Meio seculo de bandeirismo (Sao Paulo, 1948), Jose de Alcantara
Machado, Vida e morte do bandeirante (Sao Paulo, 1943), and the works of
Sergio Buarque de Holanda. Many key sources have been translated in
Richard M. Morse (ed.), The Bandeirantes: The Historical Role of the Brazil-
ian Pathfinders (New York, 1965). There is contemporary information on
the bandeirantes in Pedro Tacques de Almeida Paes Leme, Nobiliarchia
Paulistana and Historia da Capitania de S. Vicente (1772) and in collections
of documents such as: Adas da Cdmara Municipal de S. Paulo (Sao Paulo,
1914 ), Inventdrios e testamentos (Sao Paulo, 1920 ) and the large but
disorganized Documentos interessantes para a historia e costumes de Sao Paulo,
86 vols. (Sao Paulo, 18941961). Aurelio Porto, Historia das missoes ori-
entais do Uruguai (Rio de Janeiro, 1943) is important, and the history of
the Jesuits' Paraguayan missions is documented in Nicolau del Techo,
S.J., Historia de la provincia del Paraguay (Liege, 1673), J o s e Sanchez
Labrador, S.J., El Paraguay catdlico (1770), 3 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1910
17), and Antonio Ruiz de Montoya, S.J., Conquista espiritual . . . en las
provincias del Paraguay, Parana, Uruguay y Tapi (Madrid, 1639), and,
among modern accounts, Pablo Pastells, S.J., Historia de la Compania de
Jesus en la provincia del Paraguay, 8 vols. (Madrid, 191259), Magnus
Morner, The Political and Economic Activities of the Jesuits in the La Plata
Region (Stockholm, 1953), and Guillermo Furlong, Misionesy suspueblos de
guaranies (Buenos Aires, 1962).
For Bahia and the north-east in the seventeenth century, Diogo de Cam-
pos Moreno, Livro que da razdo do estado do Brasil (1612) (Recife, 1955) ' s
useful, as are Andre Joao Antonil, Cultura e opulencia do Brasil . . . (Lisbon,
1711; modern eds., Sao Paulo, 1923 and Paris, 1968), and Ambrosio
Fernandes Brandao, Didlogosdasgrandezasdo Brasil(c. i6i8)(Recife, 1962,
Eng. trans., Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1987). The Franciscan Martin of
Nantes wrote an interesting chronicle of his mission with the Bahia Cariri:
Relation succinte et sincere . . . (Quimper, France, c. 1707; Salvador, 1952).
There is some good material in Barao de Studart (ed.), Documentos para a
historia do Brasil e especialmente a do Ceard, 4 vols. (Fortaleza, 1908-21), but
by far the most material is in the vast and disorganized Documentos historicos
da Biblioteca Nacional do Rio deJaneiro (Rio de Janeiro, 1928- ). In English,

see Charles Boxer, Salvador de Sd and the Struggle for Brazil and Angola,
16021686 (London, 1952); and Stuart B. Schwartz, 'Indian labor and
New World plantations: European demands and Indian responses in north-
eastern Brazil', AHR, 83/1 (1978), 4 3 - 7 9 .
The impact of the Dutch wars on the Indians of the north-east is
reported in the contemporary works of Caspar Barlaeus, Rerum in Brasilia
gestarum historia (Cleef, 1660; Rio de Janeiro, 1940), Roulox Baro, Rela-
tion du voyage . . . au pays des Tapuies (1647), Adriaen van der Drussen,
Report on the Conquered Captaincies in Brazil (1639) (Rio de Janeiro, 1947);
various letters and reports by Gedeon Morris de Jonge in RIHGB, 58/1
(1895), a n d Joannes de Laet, Novus Orbis (Leyden, 1633; French trans.
Histoire du Nouveau Monde, Leyden, 1640) and Histoire o/te laerlick Verhael
van de Verrichtinghen der Geotroyeerde West-Indiscbe Compagnie (Leyden, 1644;
trans. ABNRJ, 30-42 (190820)). From the Portuguese side: Diogo
Lopes de Santiago, 'Historia da guerra de Pernambuco . . .' (1655),
RIHGB, 3 8 - 9 (1875-6), Raphael de Jesus, Castrioto Lusitano (Lisbon,
1679), and papers in Documentos holandeses (Rio de Janeiro, 1945). For
modern works on the Dutch in north-east Brazil, see essay 111:5-
For Maranhao and the Amazon, the basic contemporary history is Ber-
nardo Pereira de Berredo, Annaes historias do estado do Maranhao (Lisbon,
1749). The 'Livro grosso do Maranhao', in ABNRJ, 667 (1948) is full of
good information. The Anais of the Biblioteca Nacional also published
early reports by Jacome Raimundo de Noronha, Simao Estacio da Sylveira
and others. For the later seventeenth century, there are Joao de Sousa
Ferreira, 'America abreviada, suas noticias e de seus naturaes, e em particu-
lar do Maranhao (1686)', RIHGB, 57/1 (1894), and Francisco Teixeira de
Moraes, 'Relacao historica e politica dos tumultos que sucederam na
cidade de S. Luiz do Maranhao (1692)', RIHGB, 40/1 (1877).
As usual, missionaries produced the bulk of written material on the
Amazon region. Venancio Willeke has recorded the activities of the early
Franciscans, Missoes franciscanos no Bra//'/(Petropolis, 1974). But the Jesu-
its were the most active, and their mission was inspired by Antonio Vieira,
for whom the basic sources are: Obras escolhidas, 12 vols. (Lisbon, 1951-4),
of which vol. 5 deals with Indians; Cartas, 3 vols. (Coimbra, 1925-8); and
Sermoes, 14 vols. (Lisbon, 1679-1710), or 3 vols. (Porto, 1908); Andre de
Barros, Vida do apostolico Padre Antonio Vieyra (Lisbon, 1745). Two vivid
and important memoirs by missionaries are: Joao Felipe Bettendorf,
'Chronica da missao dos padres de Companhia de Jesus no Estado do
Maranhao (1699)', RIHGB, 72/1 (1901), and Joao Daniel, 'Thesouro

6. Indians and the frontier 195
descoberto no maximo rio Amazonas', RIHGB, 2 - 3 , 41 (1840-1, 1878).

There is also a history of the Jesuits and a Memorial sobre 0 Maranhdo by the
eighteenth-century Jesuit Jose de Moraes, in Candido Mendes de Almeida,
Memorias para a historia do extincto estado do Maranhdo, 2 vols. (Rio de
Janeiro, i860) and in A. J. de Mello Moraes, Corografia historica . . . do
imperio do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, i860), both of which contain other useful
works on Maranhao despite rather jumbled presentation. The basic history
on the Jesuits, apart from Serafim Leite's monumental work, is Joao Lucio
de Azevedo, Osjesuitas no Grdo-Pard: Suas missoes e a colonizagdo (Coimbra,
1930). See also his life of Vieira, Historia do Padre Antonio Vieira, 2 vols.
(Lisbon, 1920), and, in English, C. R. Boxer, A Great huso-Brazilian Fig-
ure, Padre Antonio Vieiro, S.J., 1608-169J (London, 1957), and Mathias
C. Keiman, The Indian Policy of Portugal in the Amazon Region, 16141693
(Washington, D.C., 1954). For the quarrels with Spanish Jesuits, Samuel
Fritz, Mision de los Omaguas . . . (Eng. trans., Hakluyt Society, 2nd series,
51; London, 1922) and Jose Chantre y Herrera, Historia de las misiones de la
Compaiiia de Jesus en el Maranon espanol (Madrid, 1901).
For eighteenth-century Amazonas, there are useful reports by Governor
Joao da Maia da Gama and by the Jesuit Bartholomeu Rodrigues, all
published in Mello Moraes, Corografia historica. The papers of Pombal's
half-brother Mendonca Furtado are in Marcos Carneiro Mendonga (ed.),
Amazonia na era Pombalina, 3 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1963), and reports on
travels related to the frontiers of the Treaty of Madrid are in Jose Gongalves
da Fonseca, Primeira exploragdo dos rios Madeira e Guapori em 1749 (in
Mendes de Almeida, Memorias, 2), Jose Monteiro de Noronha, Roteiro da
viagem . . . ate as ultimas colonias do sertdo . . . (Barcelos, 1768, and
Belem, 1862), and Francisco Xavier Ribeiro de Sampaio's Diario of his
voyage of 1774-5 (Lisbon, 1825) and report on Rio Branco in RIHGB, 13
(1850). Finally, scientific travellers start to appear on the Amazon: Charles
Marie de La Condamine, Relation abregie dun voyage fait dans I'interieur de
I'Amerique meridionale (Paris, 1745) and Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira,
'Diario da viagem philosophica pela capitania de Sao Jose do Rio Negro'
(1786) (parts in RIHGB, 4 8 - 5 0 (1885-8); also Sao Paulo, 1970). David
Sweet, 'A rich realm of nature destroyed: The middle Amazon valley,
1640-1750' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1974)
is essential. A recent work on the indigenous peoples of the Rio Branco
region in the eighteenth century is Nadia Farage, As muralhas dos sertoes
(Sao Paulo, 1991). Contact on this northernmost frontier is summarized in
John Hemming, 'How Brazil acquired Roraima', HAHR, 70/2 (1990).

There is little about Indians in literature on central and north-east
Brazil during the eighteenth century. Apart from works already cited,
there are reports on abuse of Indians in the north-east, in Virginia Rau and
Maria Fernanda Gomes da Silva (eds.), Os manuscritos do arquivo da Casa de
Cadaval respeitantes ao Brasil, 2 vols. (Coimbra, 19568) and in Sebastiao
da Rocha Pitta, Historia da America Portugueza (Lisbon, 1730). An interest-
ing report on Indian policy at the end of the century is Jose Arouche de
Toledo Rendon, 'Memoria sobre as aldeas de indios da provincia de Sao
Paulo (1798)', RIHGB, 4 (1842). On 'model villages' in late-eighteenth-
century Goias, see Marivone Matos Chaim, Aldeamentos indigenas (Goids
1J49-1811) (Sao Paulo, 1983).
Most interest in Indians was in southern Brazil. For the Guaicuru and
Paiagua, who harassed convoys to Cuiaba, see Jose Sanchez Labrador, El
Paraguay catolico, Manuel Felix de Azara, Viajes por la America meridional
(1809) (Madrid, 1923), Francisco Rodrigues do Prado, 'Historia dos
indios Cavalleiros ou da nac,ao Guaycuru (1795)', RIHGB, 1 (1839),
Martin Dobrizhoffer, Geschichte der Abiponer . . . , 3 vols. (Vienna, 1783
4; Eng. trans., London, 1822), Ricardo Franco de Almeida Serra, 'Parecer
sobre o aldeamento dos indios uaicunis e guanas . . . " (1803), RIHGB, 7
and 13 (1845 and 1850) and 'Discripcao geographica da provincia de
Matto Grosso' (1797), RIHGB, 6 (1844). For Bororo and other tribes near
Cuiaba, Antonio Pires de Campos, 'Breve noticia . . . do gentio barbaro
que ha na derrota . . . do Cuyaba' (1727), RIHGB, 25 (1862). A general
history of that region is Joseph Barbosa de Sa, 'Relacao das povoacoens do
Cuyaba e Matto Grosso . . . " (1775), ABNRJ, 23 (1904).
For the War of the Sete Povos, the Treaty of Madrid and the expulsion of
the Jesuits, Jacintho Rodrigues da Cunha, 'Diario da expedicao de Gomes
Freire de Andrade as missoes do Uruguai1 (1756), RIHGB, 16 (1853),
Thomaz da Costa Correa Rebello e Silva, 'Memoria sobre a Provincia de
Missoes', RIHGB, 2 (1840), Jaime Cortesao, Do Tratado de Madri a con-
quista dos Sete Povos (1750-1802) (Rio de Janeiro, 1969) and Alexandre de
Gusmao e 0 Tratado de Madrid, 8 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1950-9), and works
on the Jesuits already cited. Among modern works, Guillermo Kratz, El
tratado hispano-portugues de limites de 17.50 y sus consecuencias (Rome, 1954),
deserves mention. A comprehensive treatment of the Indians and the expan-
sion of the frontiers up to the expulsion of the Jesuits is John Hemming,
Red Gold: The Conquest of the Brazilian Indians (London, 1978). Manuela
Carneiro da Cunha (ed.), A historia dos indios do Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1992) is
an important recent work of collaborative scholarship: see especially chap-

7. The gold cycle 197
ters by John Manuel Monteiro on the Guarani, Miguel Menendez on tribes

on the Madeira and Tapajos, and Marta Rosa Amoroso on the Mura.
7. T H E G O L D C Y C L E , c. 1 6 9 0 - 1 7 5 0
Studies on the 'golden age' of Brazil have focused on only one area, Minas
Gerais, which was the major gold-producing region of the colonial period.
There has been an erroneous assumption that what was true for Minas
Gerais was equally applicable to auriferous zones of Bahia, Sao Paulo,
Goias, Mato Grosso, Pernambuco and Espirito Santo. Readers should be
cautious of generalizations based on the Mineiro experience and recognize
that differences in topography, chronology, demography, racial composi-
tion, political importance, degree of effective crown administration and
relative importance within the overall economic context resulted in wide
variations among the gold-bearing regions of Brazil. The diamond indus-
try lies beyond the scope of this essay, but an excellent introduction is
provided by Augusto de Lima Junior, Historia dos diamantes nas Minas
Gerais (Lisbon and Rio de Janeiro, 1945) and Joaquim Felfcio dos Santos,
Memorias do distrito diamantino da comarca do Serra do Frio, 3rd ed. (Rio de
Janeiro, 1956).
Many contemporary or near-contemporary accounts of gold strikes,
exploitation, consolidation and decline are available. Andre Joao Antonil
(pseudonym of Antonio Giovanni Andreoni, S.J.) is valuable for the early
years in Minas Gerais, although it is doubtful he ever visited the region.
Available in a modern edition (edited by Andree Mansuy, Paris, 1968), his
Cultura e opulencia do Brasilpor suas drogas e minas (Lisbon, 1711), especially
part 3, contains information not available elsewhere. It remains unsur-
passed for bringing to the reader the intensity and raw emotions of the
initial gold rush. Dr. Caetano Costa Matoso's notes form the basis for the
Relatos sertanistas: Colectanea, with introduction and notes by Afonso de
Escragnolle Taunay (Sao Paulo, 1953). A commentary on the medical state
of the captaincy is Luis Gomes Ferreira's Erdrio mineral dividido em doze
tratados (Lisbon, 1735), based on his residence for two decades in Minas
Gerais. Charles Boxer has made some of the few studies of the author and
his medical treatise: see The Indiana University Bookman, 10 (1969), 49
70; 11 (1973), 8 9 - 9 2 . The moral tract Compendio narrativo do peregrino da
America (Lisbon, 1728) of Nuno Marques Pereira, whose literary Maecenas
was none other than the sertanista Manuel Nunes Viana, contains many

insights. See also Noticias das minas de Sao Paulo e dos sertoes da mesma
capitania, 159J-1JJ2, 3rd ed. (Sao Paulo, 1954) by the Paulista Pedro
Taques de Almeida Paes Leme (1714-77). The intensely spiritual life of
the captaincy is revealed in the Triunfo Eucharistico exemplar da Christandade
Lusitana . . . by Simao Ferreira Machado (Lisbon, 1734). There are numer-
ous memoranda, of which the most penetrating was penned by Jose Joao
Teixeira Coelho, an eleven-year resident as crown judge: 'Instruccao para o
governo da capitania de Minas Gerais (1780)', first published in RIHGB,
15/3 (1852), 257-463, reprinted in Revista do Arquivo Piiblico Mineiro, 8/
12 (1903), 3 9 9 - 5 8 1 , and translated in part by E. Bradford Burns (ed.),
A Documentary History of Brazil (New York, 1966), 155-63. Other com-
mentaries, many of them published in Revista do Arquivo Piiblico Mineiro
(Ouro Preto, 1 8 9 6 - ; Belo Horizonte, 1 9 0 3 - ), focus on the decline of the
economy of Minas Gerais. The best overview is undoubtedly the Pluto
Brasiliensis of the German mining engineer Baron Wilhelm Ludwig von
Eschwege (Berlin, 1833), portions of which have been published in Revista
do Arquivo Piiblico Mineiro and in the Historia e Memoria da Academia Real
das Ciencias de Lisboa, 4/1 (1815), 21929, as 'De uma memoria sobre a
decadencia das minas de ouro de Capitania de Minas Gerais e sobre outros
objectos montanisticos'. Technical aspects of processing gold and silver
were the subject of a monograph by Ant6nio da Silva, Directorio practico da
prata e ouro, em que se mostram as condigoens, com que se deveum lavrar estes dous
nobilissimos metaes; para que se evitem nas obras, os enganos, e nos artifices os erros
(Lisbon, 1720). For Minas Gerais such accounts may be complemented by
those of nineteenth-century travellers; e.g. John Mawe, Travels in the
Interior of Brazil, Particularly in the Gold and Diamond Districts (London,
1812), Johann Baptist von Spix and Carl Friedrich von Martius, Reise in
Brasilien in den Jahren I8IJ bis 1820, 3 vols. (Munich, 182331), of
which a partial English translation by H. E. Lloyd is available, 2 vols.
(London, 1824).
Other mining captaincies have been less favoured than was Minas
Gerais by contemporary chroniclers and commentators, although a great
deal can be found, for example, in the pages of RIHGB and Revista do
Instituto Historico e Geografico de Sao Paulo in the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries.
Contemporary scholarship has been fascinated by the Brazilian pathfind-
ers, the bandeirantes, and the frontier. Myriam Ellis, 'As bandeiras na
expansao geografica do Brasil', in Historia geral da civilisacdo brasileira, I, A
epoca colonial, 2 vols. (Sao Paulo, i960), and her essay in Revista de Historia

de Sao Paulo, 36 (1958), 429-67, survey the field. For fuller discussion of
the literature, see essays 111:5 anc^ 6. On the search for gold, more particu-
larly in the period before the so-called golden age, see Myriam Ellis,
'Pesquisas sobre a existencia do ouro e da prata no planalto paulista nos
seculos XVI e XVII', Revista de Historia de Sao Paulo, 1 (1950), 5i~72;Lucy
de Abreu Maffei and Arlinda Rocha Nogueira, 'O ouro na capitania de Sao
Vicente nos seculos XVI e XVII', Anais do Museu Paulista (1966); Joaquim
Jose Gomes da Silva, 'Historia das mais importantes minas de ouro do
estado do Espirito Santo', RIHGB, 55/2 (1893), 3558; Madelena da
Camara Fialho, 'Muragem do ouro nas capitanias do norte do Brasil', Con-
gresso do Mundo portugues, 10/2, 2nd section (Lisbon, 1940), 8594.
Manoel da Silveira Cardozo describes the roller-coaster nature of the
crown's hopes in 'Dom Rodrigo de Castel-Blanco and the Brazilian El
Dorado, 1673-1682', TA, 7/2 (1944), 13159. Well-publicized but
abortive attempts to discover significant mineral deposits brought acute
embarrassment to both the king and to Afonso Furtado de Castro do Rio
de Mendonc,a during his governorship of Brazil (16715); a manuscript by
a mysterious Spainard, Juan Lopes Sierra, acquired by the Bell Library of
the University of Minnesota, has been translated into English by Ruth E.
Jones and edited with notes by Stuart B. Schwartz under the title A
Governor and His Image in Baroque Brazil (Minneapolis, Minn., 1979).
Manuel Cardozo has surveyed the Minas Gerais phase of the initial gold
rush in his classic article 'The Brazilian gold rush', TA, 3/2 (1946), 137
60. Routes from Sao Vicente and Rio de Janeiro are described by Richard
P. Momsen, Jr., Routes Over the Serra do Mar (Rio de Janeiro, 1964). Several
authors have discussed the relationship between Brazilian gold strikes and
moves to the west in the first half of the eighteenth century. The most
succinct account in English is David M. Davidson, 'How the Brazilian
West was won: Freelance and state on the Mato Grosso frontier, 1737
1752', in D. Alden (ed.), Colonial Roots of Modern Brazil (Berkeley and Los
Angeles, 1973), 61-106. In Portuguese there is Capistrano de Abreu,
Caminhos antigos e povoamento do Brasil, 4th ed. (Rio de Janeiro, 1975);
Sergio Buarque de Holanda, Monroes (Rio de Janeiro, 1945) and Caminhos e
fronteiras (Rio de Janeiro, 1957); Afonso de Escragnolle Taunay, Relatos
monqoeiros (Sao Paulo, 1953), and his 'Demonstracao dos diversos caminhos
de que os moradores de S. Paulo se servem para os rios de Cuiaba e
Provincia de Cochipone', Anais do Museu Paulista, 1 (1922), 459-79.
Francisco Tavares de Brito's account of travel from Rio de Janeiro to Minas
Gerais (Seville, 1732) was republished in RIHGB, 230 (1956), 4 2 8 - 4 1 .

2OO ///. Colonial Brazil
Exploration, settlement and consolidation in Goias occupied Taunay in 0/

primeiros anos de Goyaz, 1722-1748 (Sao Paulo, 1950).
The changing and complex relationships between mining regions and
ports have been examined in A. J. R. Russell-Wood, 'Frontiers in colo-
nial Brazil: Reality, myth and metaphor', in Paula Covington (ed.), Latin
American Frontiers, Borders, and Hinterlands: Research Needs and Resources
(Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1990), 2661, and 'Ports of colonial Brazil', in
F. W. Knight and Peggy Liss (eds.), Atlantic Port Cities: Economy, Culture
and Society in the Atlantic World, 1650-1850 (Knoxville, Tenn., 1991),
196-239.
Crown government and the fiscal administration of the mining areas has
received remarkably little attention from scholars, and what few studies
there are have focused on Minas Gerais. The first governor of Minas Gerais
and Sao Paulo was chronicled by Aureliano Leite in his Antonio de Albuquer-
que Coelho de Carvalho, capitdo-general de Sdo Paulo e Minas do Ouro no Brasil
(Lisbon, 1944). Francisco de Assis Carvalho Franco's Historia das minas de
Sdo Paulo: Administradores gerais e provedores, seculos XVI e XVII (Sao Paulo,
1964) holds useful information: the most penetrating study of a local crown
administrator is Marcos Carneiro de Mendonga, 0 Intendente Cdmara: Man-
uel Ferreira da Cdmara Bethancourt e Sd, Intendente Geral das Minas e Diaman-
tes, 17641835 (Sao Paulo, 1958). Early minutes of the town council of
Vila Rica have been published in the ABNRJ, 49 (1927; published in
1936), 199391, and in Revista do Arquivo Publico Mineiro, 25/2(1937), 3
166. The struggle between officialdom and poderosos do sertdo is described by
A. J. R. Russell-Wood, 'Manuel Nunes Viana: Paragon or parasite of em-
pire?', TA, 37/4 (1981), 4 7 9 - 9 8 . Augusto de Lima Junior focused on the
establishment of municipalities in Minas Gerais in several of his many
works: A Capitania das Minas Gerais (Origens eformaqdo), 3rd ed. (Belo Hori-
zonte, 1965); Asprimeiras vilas do ouro (Belo Horizonte, 1962); Vila Rica do
Ouro Preto: Sintese historica e descritiva (Belo Horizonte, 1957). See also Yves
Leloup, Les villes de Minas Gerais (Paris, 1970) and A. J. R. Russell-Wood,
'Local government in Portuguese America: A study in cultural divergence',
CSSH, 16/2 (1974), 187231. Francisco Iglesias has placed the events in
Minas Gerais in broader context in 'Minas e a imposigao do estado no
Brasil', Revista de Historia de Sdo Paulo, 50/100 (1974), 25773.
If the administration of mining areas has not received the attention it
deserves, the same cannot be said of the legal aspects of mining, especially
the collection of the royal fifths: as to the former, indispensable are Fran-
cisco Ignacio Ferreira, Repertorio juridico do Mineiro: Consolidafdo alphabetica

e chronologica de todas as disposigoes sobre Minas comprehendendo a legislagao

antiga e moderna de Portugal e do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1884) and Joao
Pandia Calogeras, As minas do Brasil e sua legislagao, 3 vols. (Rio de
Janeiro, 19045). Information on the fifths is contained in C. R. Boxer,
The Golden Age of Brazil, 1695-1J50 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1969);
Kenneth Maxwell, Conflicts and Conspiracies: Brazil and Portugal, 1750
1808 (Cambridge, Eng., 1973); and Virgilio Nova Pinto, 0 ouro brasileiro
e 0 comercio anglo-portugues (Sao Paulo, 1979). Manoel da Silveira Cardozo's
early studies are still the best available: 'Alguns subsidios para a historia da
cobranca do quinto na capitania de Minas Gerais ate 1735' reprint from /
Congresso da historia da expansdo portuguesa no mundo (Lisbon, 1937); "The
collection of the fifths in Brazil, 1695-1709', HAHR, 20/3 (1940), 3 5 9 -
79; 'Os quintos do ouro em Minas Gerais (1721-1732)', / Congresso do
mundo portugues, 10/2, 2nd section, (Lisbon, 1940), 11728. Robert
White focused on the capitation tax of 1735 in 'Fiscal policy and royal
sovereignty in Minas Gerais', TA, 34/2 (1977), 20729. Cardozo re-
turned to fiscal aspects in his later article, 'Tithes in colonial Minas
Gerais', Catholic Historical Review, 38/2(1952), 17582.
There has been a surge in our knowledge of demography in Minas
Gerais in the eighteenth century, especially for the late colonial period.
This is attributable to the pioneering work of Iraci del Nero da Costa and
colleagues at the Instituto de Pesquisas Economicas da Faculdade de Econo-
nomia e Administragao of the University of Sao Paulo (IPEUSP). Such
studies are data driven, based on detailed archival research, and char-
acterised by sophisticated methodology. For the 'gold cycle' era, relevant
are: Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populacdo (1719-1826) (Sao Paulo,
r
979). As populates das Minas Gerais no seculo XVIII: Urn estudo de
demografia historica (Sao Paulo, 1978), Populagoes mineiras (Sao Paulo,
1981), Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais tipicas (Sao Paulo, 1982) and,
with Francisco Vidal Luna, 'Demografia historica de Minas Gerais no
periodo colonial', Revista Brasileira de Estudos Politicos, 58 (1984), 1562,
which is not only a model of effective synthesis but has a useful biblio-
graphical appendix. Vidal Luna blends the quantitative with the qualita-
tive in his articles 'Estrutura da posse de escravos em Minas Gerais (1718)',
Historia Economica: Ensaios (Sao Paulo, 1983), 15 41, and 'Algumas carac-
teristicas dos proprietaries de escravos de Vila Rica', Estudos Economicos, 11
(1981), 151-7.
For the social history of the mining areas, the articles of Donald Ramos
are of great interest: 'Marriage and the family in colonial Vila Rica',

2O2 ///. Colonial Brazil
HAHR, 55/2 (1975), 2 0 0 - 2 5 ; Vila Rica: Profile of a colonial Brazilian
urban center', TA, 35/4 (1979), 495-526; 'City and country: The family
in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838', Journal ofFamily History, 3/4(1975), 3 6 1 -
75. Concubinage and marriage, based on ecclesiastical and parish records,
are discussed in Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, 'Devas-
sas nas Minas Gerais: Observacpes sobre casos de concubinato', Anais do
Museu Paulista, 31 (Sao Paulo, 1982) and 'Vila Rica: Casamentos de
escravos (17271826)', Revista de Histdria (Sao Paulo), 56/111 (1977),
195208. The seamy side of the golden age is revealed by Laura de Mello
e Souza, Desclassifuados do ouro: A pobreza mineira no seculo XVIII (Rio de
Janeiro, 1982).
A. J. R. Russell-Wood, The Black Man in Slavery and Freedom in Colonial
Brazil (London, 1982), 10427, examines the impact of gold mining on
the slave trade and the institution of slavery in the mining regions. Studies
of persons of African descent have focussed on two very different areas,
namely religious brotherhoods and runaways. The former have been studied
by Fritz Teixeira de Salles, Asociagoes religiosas no ciclo do ouro (Belo Horizonte,
1963), Julita Scarano, Devogao e escraviddo: A irmandade de Nossa Senhora do
Rosdrio dos Pretos no distrito diamantino no seculo XVIII (Sao Paulo, 1976) and
'Black brotherhoods: Integration or contradiction?', L-BR, 16/1 (1979), 1
17, A. J. R. Russell-Wood, 'Black and mulatto brotherhoods in colonial
Brazil: A study in collective behavior', HAHR, 54/4 (1974), 567-602, and
Cristina Avila, 'O negro no barroco mineiro o caso da igreja do Rosario de
Ouro Preto', Revista do Departamento de Histdria (Universidade Federal de
Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte), 6 (1988), 6976. There is a growing
literature on runaways: Waldemar de Almeida Barbosa, Negros equilombos em
Minas Gerais (Belo Horizonte, 1972); Carlos Magno Guimaraes, 'Os
quilombos do seculo do ouro', Revista do Departamento de Histdria, 6 (1988),
1545 a n d 'Quilombos e brecha camponesa Minas Gerais (seculo XVIII),
Revista do Departamento de Histdria, 8 (1989), 2837; Julio Pinto Vallejos,
'Slave control and slave resistance in colonial Minas Gerais, 17001750',
JLAS, 17/1 (1985), 1-34. An interesting dialogue between a sometime
miner and a lawyer on the evils of slavery has been translated by C. R. Boxer
under the title 'Negro slavery in Brazil: A Portuguese pamphlet (1764)',
Race, 5/3 (1964), 3847. A general survey is Aires da Mata Machado Filho,
0 Negro e 0 garimpo em Minas Gerais, 2nd ed. (Rio de Janeiro, 1964).
There are no satisfactory general surveys in English of life in mining
communities. Chapters in Boxer's The Golden Age on the gold rush to
Minas Gerais, the struggle between Paulistas and Emboabas and life in

j . The gold cycle 203
eighteenth-century Vila Rica have yet to be bettered. General surveys

include: Joao Camillo de Oliveira Torres, Histdria de Minas Gerais, 5 vols.
(Belo Horizonte, 1962); Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen, Histdria geral do
Brasil, 5 vols., 9th ed. (Sao Paulo, 1975), especially vol. 4; Miran de
Barros Latif, As Minas Gerais, 2nd ed. (Rio de Janeiro, i960). Afonso de
Escragnolle Taunay's monograph Sob el Rey Nosso Senhor: Aspectos da vida
setecentista brasileira, sobretudo em Sao Paulo (Sao Paulo, 1923), an earlier
version of which appeared in the Anais do Museu Paulista, 1 (1922), can
still be read with profit. Mario Leite, Paulistas e mineiros: Plantados de
cidades (Sao Paulo, 1961) is useful. Much can be gleaned on events in
central Minas Gerais from an excellent account of the Diamond District:
Aires da Mata Machado Filho, Arraial do Tijuco. Cidade Diamantina, 2nd
ed. (Sao Paulo, 1957).
Much ink has been expended on two incidents in the history of Minas
Gerais in the first half of the eighteenth century: one so-called war and one
revolt. The first was the War of the Emboabas, for which there is adequate
material for thought in Manoel' da Silveira Cardozo's 'The Guerra dos
Emboabas: Civil war in Minas Gerais, 17081709', HAHR, 22/3 (1942),
47092, and the scholarly chapter in Boxer's The Golden Age, together
with the references there cited. The second was the 1720 revolt in Vila
Rica, also treated by Boxer, and in more detail by P. Xavier da Veiga, A
revolta de 1J20 em Vila Rica, discurso histdrico-politico (Ouro Preto, 1898).
If the social history of the mining areas has yet to receive its due from
historians, no such neglect has been present in treating the spiritual,
intellectual, musical, architectural and artistic vitality of Minas Gerais in
the eighteenth century. The Triunfo eucharistico (Lisbon, 1734) and the
Aureo trono episcopal (Lisbon, 1749) have been reproduced, with introduc-
tion and notes by Affonso Avila, under the title Residuos seiscentistas em
Minas: Textos do seculo do ouro e as projegoes do mundo barroco, 2 vols., 2nd
ed. (Belo Horizonte, 1967). Diogo de Vasconcelos, Histdria do bispado
de Mariana (Belo Horizonte, 1935) and Conego Raimundo Trindade's
Arquidiocese de Mariana: Subsidies para a sua histdria, 2 vols., 2nd ed. (Belo
Horizonte, 1953 and 1955) provide an introduction. Intellectual life is
addressed in Jose Ferreira Carrato, Igreja, iluminismo, e escolas mineiras
coloniais (Notas sobre a cultura da decadencia mineira setecentista) (Sao Paulo,
1968) and his earlier As Minas Gerais e os primdrdios do Caraga (Sao Paulo,
1963); Eduardo Frieiro, 0 diabo na livraria do conego (Belo Horizonte,
1957), and E. Bradford Burns, "The Enlightenment in two colonial Brazil-
ian libraries', Journal of the History of Ideas, 25/3 (1964), 4 3 0 - 8 . The

history of mentalites is in its infancy in colonial Brazil. In her 0 diabo e a
terra de Santa Cruz (Sao Paulo, 1987), Laura de Mello de Souza has drawn
in part on records of the archdiocese of Mariana, described in her article
'As devassas eclesiasticas da arquidiocese de Mariana: Fonte primaria para
a historia da mentalidades', Anais do Museu Paulista, 33 (1984), 6 5 - 7 3 ,
to paint a fascinating picture of popular religion in the colony. Resurrec-
tion of a long-forgotten musical tradition in eighteenth-century Minas
Gerais is attributable to the unflagging efforts of Francisco Curt Lange.
The greatest scholarly interest has focused on baroque art and architecture
in Minas Gerais: see essay III: 10.
Turning from the social and cultural history of the mining areas to the
economic aspect, the reader is better supplied. The mining process is well
described by Antonil (Cultura e opulencia, part 3, ch. 14 and elsewhere);
Calogeras, As Minas, vol. I, III32; and Eschwege. To these contempo-
rary accounts can be added Mawe, Travels, and Paul Ferrand, L'or a Minas
Gerais (Bresil), 2 vols. (Belo Horizonte, 1913), especially vol. 1, 2167.
Labour arrangements occupied Lucinda Coutinho de Mello Coelho, 'Mao-
de-obra escrava na mineragao e trafico negreiro no Rio de Janeiro', Anais do
VI Simposio Nacional dos Professores de Historia, I (Sao Paulo, 1973), 449
89. Productivity of slaves in Goias was studied by Luis Palacin, 'Trabalho
escravo: Produc,ao e produtividade nas minas de Goias', Anais do VI Sim-
posio, I, 44348. This may be read in conjunction with Francisco Vidal
Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, 'Algumas caracterfsticas do contingente
de cativos em Minas Gerais', Anais do Museu Paulista, 29 (1979), 7997.
The debate over slavery and progress is taken up by Joao Antonio de Paula,
'Os limites da industrializac.ao colonial: A industrializagao em Minas Ger-
ais no seculo XVIII', Revista Brasileira de Estudos Politicos, 58 (1984), 63
104. The interstices of economies and society are examined by Francisco
Vidal Luna in Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (Sao Paulo, 1981), 'Econo-
mia e sociedade em Minas Gerais (periodo colonial)', in Revista do Instituto
de Estudos Brasileiros, 24 (1982), 3340 and, with Iraci del Nero da Costa,
Minas colonial, Economia e sociedade (Sao Paulo, 1982). Francisco Iglesias
provides an overview in 'Minas Gerais, polo de desenvolvimento no seculo
XVIII', in Primeira semana de estudos histdricos (0 Brasil-seculo XVlll-o
seculo mineiro) (Ponte Nova, 1972). The importance of females of African
descent in the marketing sector is emphasized by Luciano Raposo de
Almeida Figueiredo and Ana Maria Bandeira de Mello, 'Quitandas e
quitutes: Um estudo sobre rebeldia e transgressao femininas numa socie-
dade colonial', in Cadernos de Pesquisa, 54 (1985), 5061, and Liana Maria

Reis, 'Mulheres de ouro: As negras de tabuleiro nas Minas Gerais do seculo

XVIII', Revista do Departamento de Historia (UFMG), 8 (1989), 7 2 - 8 5 .
Estimates as to actual production vary enormously: see Eschwege;
Calogeras; Roberto C. Simonsen, Historia economica do Brasil, 1500
1820, 4th ed. (Sao Paulo, 1962); Visconde de Carnaxide, 0 Brasil na
administragdo pombalina (Sao Paulo, 1940); Adolph G. Soetbeer, Edel-
metall-Produktion and Werth-verhdltnis zwischen Gold und Silber seit der
Entdeckung Amerikas bis zur Gegenwart (Gotha, 1819). Revenue yields for
Minas Gerais are contained in appendices to Boxer, The Golden Age and
Maxwell, Conflicts and Conspiracies. The most recent study of the subject
is Noya Pinto, 0 ouro brasileiro, 39117. Numismatists may wish to
consult A. C. Teixeira de Aragao, Descripgdo geral e historica da moedas
cunhadas em nome dos reis, regentes e governadores de Portugal, 3 vols. (Lisbon,
187480); K. Prober, Catdlogo das moedas brasileiras (Sao Paulo, 1966);
Vitorino Magalhaes Godinho, Prix et monnaies au Portugal, 17501850
(Paris, 1955); Alvaro de Salles Oliveira, Moedas do Brasil: I. Moedas e
barras de ouro: Elementos para 0 seu estudo (Sao Paulo, 1944); Severino
Sombra, Historia monetdria do Brasil colonial: Repertorio com introdugdo, notas
e carta monetdria, enlarged ed. (Rio de Janeiro, 1938); Alvaro da Veiga
Coimbra, Nocoes de numismdtica brasileira Brasil colonia and Nogoes de
numismdtica brasileira Brasil independente, reprints 18 and 21 in the
series Colegao da Revista de Historia (Sao Paulo, 1959, i960).
The economies and commerce of the mining areas have been the subjects
of fewer studies. Problems of supply lines and the domestic economy were
well described by Antonil and, more recently, by the well-documented
studies of Myriam Ellis, Contribuigdo ao estudo do abastecimento das areas
mineradoras do Brasil no seculo XVIII (Rio de Janeiro, 1961) and Mafalda P.
Zemella, 0 abastecimento da capitania das Minas Gerais no seculo XVI11 (Sao
Paulo, 1951). The cattle industry is mentioned by Rollie E. Poppino,
'Cattle industry in colonial Brazil', Mid-America, 31/4 (1949), 21947.
The importance of muleteers is described by Basilio de Magalhaes, 'The
pack trains of Minas-Gerais', Travel in Brazil, 2/4 (1942), 17, 33. The
most detailed study of any single commercial activity is by Miguel Costa
Filho, A cana-de-agucar em Minas Gerais (Rio de Janeiro, 1963).
General studies of the Brazilian economy include sections on mining:
the reader is referred to the still useful Obras economical of J. J. da Cunha de
Azeredo Coutinho, available in a modern edition (Sao Paulo, 1966) edited
by Sergio Buarque de Holanda; Roberto Simonsen, Historia economica; Caio
Prado Junior, Historia economica do Brasil, 8th ed. (Sao Paulo, 1963); P.

Pereira dos Reis, 0 colonialismo portugues e a conjuragao mineira (Sao Paulo,

1964). There is extensive literature on the Atlantic trade in gold and its
impact on Portugal and on Anglo-Portuguese relations; see essays 111:2
and 111:3.
8. LATE C O L O N I A L B R A Z I L , 1750-1808
Volume 6 of Joaquim Verissimo Serrao, Historia de Portugal, 12 vols.

(Lisbon, 1977-90) is a conservative view of the period and includes
extensive bibliographical notes. Other general histories of the period, such
as Fortunato de Almeida, Historia de Portugal, IV (1580-1816) (Coimbra,
1926), and Damiao Peres (ed.), Historia de Portugal, 8 vols. (Barcelos,
192838), are badly dated but can still be profitably consulted for some
subjects. Although uneven in quality, there are many informative essays in
Joel Serrao (ed.), Diciondrio de historia de Portugal, 4 vols. (Lisbon, 1962
71). For more specialized studies of Portugal under Pombal and his succes-
sors, see essay 111:3.
For nearly a century and a half the classic history of colonial Brazil has
been Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen, Historia geral do Brasil, 9th ed., 5
vols. (Sao Paulo, 1975). While it remains worth consulting because of the
sources utilized by the author and added to by subsequent editors, it is
unsatisfactory as a synthesis for this period because of its defective organiza-
tion. More readable is the fourth volume of Pedro Calmon, Historia do
Brasil, 7 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1959), but the treatment of the post-1750
years in Sergio Buarque de Holanda (ed.), Histdria geral da civilizagao
brasileira, I, A epoca colonial, 2 vols. (Sao Paulo, i960), is woefully incom-
plete and disappointing. Far superior, though encyclopaedic, is Maria
Beatriz Nizza da Silva et al., 0 impSrio luso-brasileiro, 17501822, vol. 8 of
Joel Serrao and A. H. Oliveira Marques (eds.), Nova historia da expansao
portuguisa (Lisbon, 1986). The major interpretive analysis remains Caio
Prado Junior, The Colonial Background of Modern Brazil, translated by
Suzette Macedo (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1967), first published in
Portuguese more than four decades ago.
On peninsular aspects of the Luso-Brazilian economic relationship dur-
ing this period, the fleet system, and the Pombaline monopoly companies,
again see essay IIL3. On the emergence of Rio de Janeiro as Brazil's chief
entrepot during this period, see Corcino Madeiras dos Santos, Relates
comerciais do Rio de Janeiro com Lisboa (1J63-1808) (Rio de Janeiro, 1980),

8. Late colonial Brazil, IJ501808 207
and Rudolph William Bauss's industriously prepared 'Rio de Janeiro: The

rise of late-colonial Brazil's dominant emporium, 1777-1808' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. thesis, Tulane University, 1977). Additional details may be
found in the opening chapter of Eulalia Maria Lahmeyer Lobo's encyclo-
paedic Historia do Rio de Janeiro (Do capital comercial ao capital industrial e
financeiro), 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1978), but we still await comparable
studies of other Brazilian seaports. See, however, Rudy Bauss, 'Rio
Grande do Sul in the Portuguese empire: The formative years, 1777
1808,' TA, 39/4 (1983), 519-35-
On the slave trade, see essay 111:2 and, for the late eighteenth century,
Jean Mettas, 'La traite portugaise en haute Guinee, 17581797: Prob-
lemes et methodes',_/0#rrf/ of African History, 16/3 (1975), 34363; and
J. C. Miller, "Mortality in the Atlantic slave trade: Statistical evidence on
causality', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 11/3 (1981), 385423,
which demonstrate what the archives and modern methodologies are able
to tell us. For the role of the slave trade in spurring recurring smallpox
epidemics in colonial Brazil, see D. Alden and Joseph C. Miller, 'Un-
wanted cargoes: The origins and dissemination of smallpox via the slave
trade from Africa to Brazil, c. 1560-1830,' in Kenneth F. Kiple (ed.),
The African Exchange: Toward a Biological History of Black People (Durham,
N.C., 1987), 35109. Joseph C. Miller (compiler), Slavery: A Comparative
Teaching Bibliography (Waltham, Mass., 1977), and continuing supple-
ments, report on most of the known literature concerning this vast topic.
On the treatment of slaves in colonial Brazil and the socio-economic
status of emancipated slaves, especially mulattoes, which warrants further
investigation, see essay 111:5.
Apart from Caio Prado Junior's incisive essays in Colonial Background,
no reliable history of Brazil's agricultural development during these years
exists. Luiz Amaral, Historia geral da agricultura brasileira, 2nd ed., 2 vols.
(Sao Paulo, 1958), remains standard but is badly digested and does not
reflect newer, archive-based findings. Though primarily concerned with
the nineteenth century, Eulalia Maria Lahmeyer Lobo, Historia politico-
administrativa da agricultura brasileira, 18081889 (Brasilia, 1980) is use-
ful for its bibliography and for some of its details.
In spite of their vital importance to the Brazilian diet, few studies exist
concerning the beginnings of wheat or manioc cultivation and trade. But
see Corcino Medeiros dos Santos, Economia e sociedade de Rio Grande do Sul,
seculo xvi/i (Sao Paulo, 1984) for one regional study of the origins of wheat
production in Brazil. We are better served with respect to the tobacco

2o8 ///. Colonial Brazil
industry. Its origins have been deftly traced by Rae Jean Flory, 'Bahian
society in the mid-colonial period: The sugar planters, tobacco growers,
merchants, and artisans of Salvador and the Reconcavo, 16801725' (un-
published Ph.D. thesis, University of Texas, 1978), chap. 5, and its
further development analyzed by Catherine Lugar, 'The Portuguese to-
bacco trade and tobacco growers of Bahia in the late colonial period', in D.
Alden and Warren Dean (eds.), Essays Concerning the Socioeconomic History of
Brazil and Portuguese India (Gainesville, Fla., 1977), 2670; see also Jose
Roberto do Amaral Lapa (ed.), 'O tabaco brasileiro no seculo xviii (anota-
goes aos estudos sobre o tobaco de Joaquim de Amorim Castro)', Studia, 29
(1970), 57144, reprinted in Economia colonial (Sao Paulo, 1973), 141
230. Geancarlo Belotte, 'Le tabac bresilien aux xviii* siecle' (unpublished
doctoral thesis, Universite de ParisNanterre, 1973), organizes most of
the known statistics but is otherwise unimpressive.
The standard history of the revival of the sugar industry, at least in
Bahia, is Stuart B. Schwartz, Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian
Society: Bahia, 15501835 (Cambridge, Eng., 1985). We await compara-
ble regional studies for the industry's revitalization in Pernambuco and in
Rio de Janeiro, but for the latter consult Alberto Lamego's chaotically
organized but indispensable A terra Goitacd a luz de documentos ineditos, 8
vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 191347) for the spectacular rise of sugar in the
Campos region. Maria Teresa Schorer Petrone, A lavoura canavieira em Sao
Paulo (Sao Paulo, 1968) is a model study.
The literature on other aspects of the agricultural renaissance of the late
eighteenth century remains fragmentary. Studies of the cotton industry in
Pernambuco and Maranhao are badly needed. Some features of the cattle
industry in the interior of the north-east have been explored by Luiz R. B.
Mott in several essays, including 'Fazendas de gado do Piaui (16971762
[1772])', Anais do VIII Simposio Nacional dos Professores Universitdrios de
Historia (Sao Paulo, 1976), but no comparable account of stock raising for
Minas Gerais has been published. For Rio Grande do Sul, see Madeiros dos
Santos, cited above, and Mario Jose Maestri Filho, 0 escravo no Rio Grande
do Sul: A charqueada e a genese do escravismo gaucho (Porto Alegre, 1984).
The beginnings of rice cultivation have been examined by D. Alden,
'Manuel Luis Vieira: An entrepreneur in Rio de Janeiro during Brazil's
agricultural renaissance', HAHR, 34/4 (1959), 521-37. The only study of
the production of dyestuffs in this period is D. Alden, 'The growth and
decline of indigo production in colonial Brazil: A study in comparative
economic history', Journal of Economic History, 25 (1965), 3560. Surpris-

8. Late colonial Brazil, 1750-1808 209
ingly, no adequate history of the beginnings of Brazilian coffee has ap-

peared, but see Afonso de Escragnolle Taunay, Historia do cafe no Brasil, II
(Rio de Janeiro, 1939). For the development of cacao, see D. Alden, 'The
significance of cacao production in the Amazon in the late colonial period',
American Philosophical Society, Proceedings, 120/2 (April 1976). Myriam
Ellis, 0 monopolio do sal no estado do Brasil (16311801) (Sao Paulo, 1955)
remains unsurpassed.
The economic decline of the interior during this period has never been
adequately assessed. A masterful account of efforts by royal and private
enterprise to link the back-country with the seacoast is David M. David-
son, 'Rivers and empire: The Madeira route and the incorporation of the
Brazilian far west, 1737-1808' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Yale Univer-
sity, 1970), of which the only published excerpt is 'How the Brazilian
West was won: Freelance and state on the Mato Grosso frontier, 1737-
1752,' in D. Alden (ed.), Colonial Roots of Modern Brazil (Berkeley and Los
Angeles, 1973), 61-106. The transportation and marketing problems of
the backlands at this time warrant systematic explication.
Another vital economic activity that scholars have ignored is colonial
Brazil's coastal fishing industry. Only whaling has received attention: see
Myriam Ellis, Aspectos dapesca da baleia no Brasil colonial (Sao Paulo, 1958),
and D. Alden, 'Yankee sperm whalers in Brazilian waters, and the decline
of the Portuguese whale fishery (1773-1801)', TA, 20/1 (1964), 2 6 7 - 8 8 .
We will have a far better understanding of how particular branches of
the Brazilian economy fared during this period when we possess adequate
price histories for major markets. Three pioneering studies are Harold B.
Johnson, Jr., 'A preliminary inquiry into money, prices, and wages in Rio
de Janeiro, 1763-1823,' in Alden, Colonial Roots, 231-83; Katia M. de
Queir6s Mattoso, 'Conjuncture et societe au Bresil a la veille de la revolu-
tion des alfaiates - Bahia 1798', Cahiers des Ameriques Latines, 5 (1970),
3 3 - 5 3 ; and D. Alden, "Price movements in Brazil before, during, and
after the gold boom with special reference to the Salvador market, 1670-
1769,' in Lyman Johnson and Enrique Tandeter (eds.), Essays on the Price
History of Eighteenth-Century Latin America (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1990),
335-71-
Colonial adminstration during this period is discussed in detail in D.
Alden, Royal Government in Colonial Brazil (Berkeley and Los Angeles,
1968), and more briefly by Caio Prado Junior in the final chapter of
Colonial Background.
For a favourable appraisal of the religious policy of the Pombaline

2io ///. Colonial Brazil
regime, see Henrique Schaefer, Historia de Portugal, 5 (Porto, 1899), 2 0 8 -

13; see also Fortunato de Almeida, Historia da igreja em Portugal, new ed.
by Damiao Peres, vol. 3 (Porto, 1970), which is a mine of useful data, and
Thales de Azevedo, Igreja e estado em tensdo e crise (Sao Paulo, 1978). No one
is likely to improve significantly upon the meticulously researched, care-
fully organized, forcefully presented works by Serafim Leite, S.J. His
Historia da Companhia de Jesus no Brasil, 10 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1938-
50) is one of the major works ever produced on Brazil's colonial experience
and appears in a condensed version as Suma historica da Companhia de Jesus
no Brasil . . . 1549-1760 (Lisbon, 1965). See also D. Alden, "Economic
aspects of the expulsion of the Jesuits from Brazil: A preliminary report',
in Henry H. Keith and S. F. Edwards (eds.), Conflict and Continuity in
Brazilian Society (Columbia, S.C., 1969), 2 5 - 6 5 . A recent study of the
role of parish priests is Eugenio de Andrade Veiga, Os parocos no Brasil no
periodo colonial, 1500-1822 (Salvador, Brazil, 1977). The cultural role of
the church in the interior is analysed by Jose Ferreira Carrato, Igreja,
iluminismo e escolas mineiras coloniais (Sao Paulo, 1968), while the ubiqui-
tous black brotherhoods have been restudied by Patricia A. Mulvey, 'Black
brothers and sisters: Membership in the black lay brotherhoods of colonial
Brazil', L-BR, 17/2 (1980), 253-79. For additional bibliography, see
essays 111:7 a n d M:9-
Without question the best serial runs of demographic evidence for this
period pertain to Sao Paulo. They have been analysed closely in Maria
Luiza Marcilio, La ville de Sao Paulo, 1750-1850: Peuplement et population
(Rouen, 1968), and Elizabeth Anne Kuznesof, Household Economy and
Urban Development: Sao Paulo, 1765-1836 (Boulder, Colo., 1986). The
latter particularly demonstrates what can be done with adequate resources,
sound methodology and access to computer time. See also Kuznesof, 'The
role of the female-headed household in Brazilian modernization: Sao Paulo
1765 to 1836', Journal of Social History, 13 (1980), 589-613, and 'The
role of merchants in the economic development of Sao Paulo, 1765-r.
1850', HAHR, 60/4 (1980), 571-92. While demographic materials are
less exensive for other parts of Brazil, much remains in Brazilian and
Portuguese archives to challenge future scholars. See also essay 111:4.
The opening chapter of Lobo's Historia do Rio de Janeiro helps to fill the
gap that exists concerning the urban history of that city during this
period. We have better coverage for Bahian society and the city of
Salvador than we do for any other part of Brazil during the eighteenth

8. Late colonial Brazil, 1750-1808 211
and early nineteenth centuries. In addition to the outstanding disserta-

tion by Flory, there is David Grant Smith and Rae Jean Flory, 'Bahian
merchants and planters in the seventeeth and early eighteenth centuries',
HAHR, 58/4 (1978), 571-94; John Norman Kennedy's 'Bahian elites,
1750-1822', HAHR, 53/3 (1973), 415-39; and two well-researched
doctoral dissertations that span the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries: F. W. O. Monon, 'The conservative revolution of indepen-
dence, Bahia 17901840' (Oxford, 1974), the first half of which con-
cerns the years before 1808, and Catherine Lugar, 'The merchant commu-
nity of Salvador, Bahia 17801830' (State University of New York at
Stony Brook, 1980). Still valuable is Thales de Azevedo, Povoamento da
cidade de Salvador, 3rd ed. (Bahia, 1968). Would that there were studies
for other major cities comparable to Katia M. de Queir6s Mattoso's
sophisticated, carefully researched and lucidly presented Bahia: A cidade
do Salvador e seu mercado no seculo XIX (Salvador, 1978), portions of which
concern the late colonial period. The curious emergence of Brazilian
Levittowns, i.e., planned, model communities, in the Amazon, the far
west and the south-east, mostly established between 1716 and 1775, is
examined by Roberta Marx Delson, New Towns for Colonial Brazil (Ann
Arbor, Mich., 1979). Still useful is Paulo F. Santos, 'Formagao de
cidades no Brasil colonial', V Coloquio Internacional de Estudos Luso-
Brasileiros, Adas, 5 (Coimbra, 1968), 7116.
For a detailed analysis that places the conspiracies of this period within
a broad context, see Kenneth R. Maxwell, Conflicts and Conspiracies: Brazil
and Portugal 17501808 (Cambridge, Eng., 1973), which is mainly con-
cerned with the Mineiro plot. David Higgs, 'Unbelief and politics in Rio
de Janeiro during the 1790s,' L-BR, 21/1 (1984), 1334, focusses on the
mindsets of key socio-economic components of Rio de Janeiro.
The Bahian 'tailor's revolt' has inspired several fascinating studies:
Afonso Ruy, A primeira revoluqdo social brasileira, 2nd ed. (Bahia, 1951);
Katia M. de Queiros Mattoso, Presenga francesca no movimento democrdtico
baiano de 1798 (Salvador, 1969); and Luis Henrique Dias Tavares, Historia
da sedicdo intentada na Bahia em 1798 ('A conspiraqdo dos alfaiates') (Sao
Paulo, 1975) are the major Brazilian studies, but the outstanding chapter
in Morton's thesis should not be missed. In addition to Buarque de
Holanda's fine introduction to the Obras economicas of J. J. da Cunha de
Azeredo Coutinho, see E. Bradford Burns, 'The role of Azeredo Coutinho
in the enlightenment of Brazil', HAHR, 44/2 (1964), 145-60, and

Manoel Cardozo, 'Azeredo Coutinho and the intellectual ferment of his
times', in Keith and Edwards, Conflicts and Continuity in Brazilian Society,
72-112.
9. THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
Two volumes of the Historia da igreja no BrawV (Petropolis, 1977 and 1980)
have been published. The first contains two studies on the colonial period:
E. Hoornaert, 'A evangelizagao e a cristiandade durante o primeiro periodo
colonial', and R. Azzi, 'A instituicjio eclesiastica durante o primeiro pe-
riodo colonial'. Equally important are the relevant sections of the compre-
hensive and well-documented study by Hans-Jiirgen Prien, Die Geschichte
des Christentums in Lateinamerika (Gottingen, 1978).
Certain sources are of particular importance to an understanding of the
basic themes of church history in Brazil between 1500 and 1800: Claude
d'Abbeville, Histoire de la mission des Peres Capucins de Vile de Maragnon et
terres circonvoisines (Paris, 1614; Rio de Janeiro, 1975); Joao Daniel,
'Tesouro descoberto do maximo rio Amazonas, 17571776', ABNRJ, 2
vols. (1976); Miguel Garcia, 'Carta ao Pe. Geral Aquiviva, da Bahia:
Sobre graus e ressaibos da universidade do colegio da Bahia; sobre a
liberdade dos indios, de que era defensor, tornando-se-lhe intoleraves as
confissoes dos moradores, 1583', excerpts in Serafim Leite, Historia da
Companhia de Jesus no Brasil, 10 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 193850), vol. 1,
98; vol. 2, 227, 440; Gongalo Leite, 'Carta ao Pe. Geral contra as
homicidas e roubadores da liberdade dos indios do Brasil' (Lisboa, 1586),
excerpts in Historia da Companhia de Jesus no Brasil, vol. 2, 229; Martin de
Nantes, 'Relation succinte de la mission du pere Martin de Nantes, predi-
cateur capucin, missionaire apostolique dans le Bresil, parmi les indiens
appelles Cariris' (Quimper, 1705) (Rio de Janeiro, 1979); Manuel da
Nobrega, 'Dialogo sobre a conversao do Gentio, 15561557', in Serafim
Leite, Monumentae Brasiliae, 4 vols. (Rome, 195660), 2, 31744; Dom
Sebastiao Monteiro da Vide, ' C o n s t i t u t e s primeiras do Arcebispado da
Bahia, propostas e aceitas em o Sinodo diocesano que o dito Senhor
celebrou em 12 de junho de 1707' (Lisboa, 1719; Coimbra, 1720; Sao
Paulo, 1853); Antonio Vieira, 'Informagao que por ordem do Conselho
Uitramarino deu sobre as coisas do Maranhao ao mesmo Conselho 0 Padre
Antonio Vieira' (Lisbon, 1678), in RIHGB, 72/1 (1910), 72; 'Regula-
mento das aldeias do Para e Maranhao ou "visita" do P. Antonio Vieira',

Historia da Companhia deJesus no Brasil, vol. 4, 10624. A useful guide is

J. C. de Macedo Soares, 'Fontes da historia da Igreja Catolica no Brasil',
RIHGB, 220 (1952), 7 - 3 3 8 .
With regard to the process of evangelization, the Jesuit missionary
movement has been recorded by Serafim Leite in the Historia da Companhia
deJesus no Brasil and Monumentae Brasiliae already cited. For the missionary
activities of other religious orders we have only partial studies. For the
Franciscans, there is V. Willeke, Missoes franciscanas no Brasil (Petropolis,
1974); for the Carmelites, A. Prat, Notas histdricas sobre as missoes carmelitas
(Recife, 1940), and M. M. Wermers, 'O Estabelecimento das missoes
carmelitanas no Rio Negro e no Solimoes, 16951711', in V Coloquio
Internacional de Estudos LusoBrasileiros (Coimbra, 1965); for the Capu-
chins, M. Nembro, Storia dell'attivitd missiondria dei Minori Cappuccini nel
Brasile, 1538-1889 (Institutum Historicum Ordinis Fratrum Minorum
Cappuccinorum, Rome, 1958) and P. V. Regni, Os Capuchinhos na Bahia,
3 vols. (Salvador, Brazil, 1988).; for the Benedictines, J. G. de Luna, Os
monges beneditinos no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1974); for the Oratorians, A.
Rupert, 'A ac.ao missionaria do orat6rio no Brasil e a propaganda' in S.C.
de Propaganda Fide Memoria Rerum, 16221972 (Rome, 1972), vol. 2,
112130. An important general study is J. O. Beozzo, Lets e regimentos das
missoes (Sao Paulo, 1983). On the expulsion of the Jesuits, besides the work
of Serafim Leite, see D. Alden, 'Economic aspects of the expulsion of the
Jesuits from Brazil: A preliminary report', in Conflict and Continuity in
Brazilian Society, edited by Henry H. Keith and S. F. Edwards (Columbia,
S . C , 1969), 2 5 - 6 5 .
The Padroado has been studied by Charles M. de Witte in 'Les bulles
pontificales et l'expansion portugaise au XVe siecle', Revue d'Histoire Ec-
clesiastique, 48 (1953), 683718. A good examination of the effect of the
Padroado on church finances is O. de Oliveira, Os dizimos eclesidsticos do
Brasil nos periodos da colonia e do imperio (Belo Horizonte, 1964). However,
the best study is still the famous 'Introduction' to Candido Mendes de
Almeida's Direito civil eclesidstico brasileiro (Rio de Janeiro, 186073).
On the question of the New Christians, see, for Portugal, A. Saraiva,
Inquisigdo e cristdos-novos (Oporto, 1969) and, for Brazil, A. Novinsky,
Cristdos-novos na Bahia (Sao Paulo, 1972). A study written at the begin-
ning of the century shows how the system of repression worked, even
against the missionaries: Barao de Studart, 'O Padre Martin de Nantes e o
Coronel Dias d'Avila', Revista da Academia Cearense, 7 (1902), 4155.
The Indian policy of the church has been comprehensively studied by

John Hemming in Red Gold: The Conquest of the Brazilian Indians (London,
1978). See also the outstanding study by C. de A. Moreira Neto, Indios da
Amazonia: De maioria a minoria (17501850) (Petropolis, 1988). Church
policy towards the blacks is mentioned at various points in Pierre Verger's
voluminous study, Flux et reflux de la traite des negres entre le golfe de Benin et
Bahia de Todos os Santos du XVIIe siecle (Paris, 1968). See also A. J. Saraiva,
'Le Pere Antoine Vieira SJ et la question de l'esclavage des noirs au XVIIe
siecle', AESC (1967).
The life and thought of Antonio Vieira, the most famous Jesuit of the
period, has been the subject of two interesting studies: M. Haubert, L'Eglise
et la defense des 'sauvages' (Brussels, 1964), and R. Cantel, Prophitisme et
messianisme dans I'oeuvre d'Antonio Vieira (Paris, i960). Jose Hon6rio Rodri-
gues's lucid article on 'Vieira, doutrinador do colonialismo portugues' is
reprinted in his Historia e historiografia (Petropolis, 1970), 3455. See also
essay 111:6.
There are a number of good monographs on the religious brotherhoods.
See, for example, F. Teixeira de Salles, Associates religiosas no ciclo de ouro
(Belo Horizonte, 1963). Also, J. Scarano, Devogdo e escravidao: A Irmandade
deN.S. do Rosdrio dos Pretos no distrito diamantino no seculo XVIII (Sao Paulo,
1976). On the Santa Casa de Miseric6rdia, there is the study by C. B. Ott,
A Santa Casa de Miserkdrdia da cidade do Salvador (Rio de Janeiro, i960)
and A. J. R. Russell-Wood, Fidalgos and Philanthropists (London, 1968).
On beatos and beatas, see D. Monteiro, Os errantes do novo seculo (Sao Paulo,
1974); H . Fragoso, 'As Beatas do Padre Ibiapina: Uma forma de vida
religiosa para os sertdes do Nordeste', in E. Hoornaert (ed.), Padre Ibiapina
e a igreja dos pobres (Sao Paulo, 1984), 85-106; R. Azzi, 'Ermitaes e
Irmaos: Uma forma de vida religiosa no Brasil antigo', Convergencia, 9
(1976), 37083 and 43041; E. Hoornaert, 'De Beatas a Freiras', in R.
Azzi (ed.), A vida religiosa no Brasil: Enfoques histdricos (Sao Paulo, 1983),
6173; S. V. da Silva (ed.), A Igreja e 0 controle social nos sertoes nordestinos
(Sao Paulo, 1988), especially the first two chapters; C. da Costa e Silva,
Roteiro de vida e de morte (Sao Paulo, 1982).
On popular Christianity, see J. Scarano, Devogdo e escravidao (Sao Paulo,
1976); C. C. Boschi, Os leigos e 0poder (Sao Paulo, 1986); Laura de Mello e
Souza, 0 diabo e a terra de Santz Cruz (Sao Paulo, 1986); R. Azzi, 0
catolicismo popular no Brasil (Petr6polis, 1978); C. Rodrigues Brandao,
Sacerdotes de Viola (Petr6polis, 1981) and Os deuses do povo (Sao Paulo,
1980); E. Galvao, Santos e visagens (Sao Paulo, 1976); and I. Alves, 0
carnaval devoto (Petropolis, 1980).

i o. Architecture and art 215
On African religions and Christianity, see Associagao Ecumenica de

Teologos do Terceiro Mundo, Identidack negra e religido (Rio de Janeiro,
1986); A. A. da Silva, 'A antiga e a nova evangelizac,ao vistas pelos afro-
americanos', in P. Suess (ed.), Queimadura e semeadura (Petropolis, 1988),
20318; J. O. Beozzo, 'As Americas negras e a historia da Igreja', in
Escraviddo negra e a historia da igreja na America Latina (Petropolis, 1987),
61 ff; J. M. Lima Mira, A evangelizaqdo do negro no periodo colonial brasileiro
(Sao Paulo, 1983); E. Hoornaert, 'A Leitura da biblia em relac,ao a
escravidao negra no Brasil colonia', in Estudos Biblicos, 17 (1988), 1129.
On indigenous cultures and Christianity, see in particular three collec-
tions of essays: Inculturagdo e libertacdo (Sao Paulo, 1986), Paulo Suess
(ed.), Queimadura e semeadura, and 0 rosto indio de Deus (Petropolis,
1989). See also E. Hoornaert (ed.), Das reducoes latino-americanas as lutas
indigenas atuais (Sao Paulo, 1982) and the various writings of Paulo
Suess.
On religious sincretism, see two articles by J. Comblin: 'Situagao his-
torica do catolicismo no Brasil', Revista Eclesidstica Brasileira (1966), 574
601 and "Tipologia do catolicismo no Brasil', Revista Eclesidstica Brasileira
(1968), 4673. See also Comblin's essay 'Sujeitos e horizontes novos", in
Queimadura e semeadura, cited above, and two contributions by E. Hoorn-
aert: Formagdo do catolicismo brasileiro, 15001800 (Petropolis, 1974) and
'A evangelizagao segundo a tradicjio guadalupana', Revista Eclesidstica Bra-
sileira (1974). 524-5-
Finally, two collections of essays on the history of religious life in Brazil
edited by R. Azzi deserve mention: A vida religiosa no Brasil: Enfoques
bistdricos (Sao Paulo, 1983) and Os religiosos no Brasil: Enfoques historicos (Sao
Paulo, 1986).
10. ARCHITECTURE AND ART
The extensive critical literature now available to scholars covering most

aspects of Brazilian colonial architecture and art dates back to 1937, when
the first numbers appeared of the Revista and Publicaqdoes of the Servic.0 do
Patrimonio Historico e Artistico Nacional, Ministerio da Educagao e
Cultura (SPHAN). These two series have provided the solid basis of
documentation and critical analysis which has opened up the subject for
serious study. In the same year, 1937, there was published the first
important general survey of Brazilian colonial architecture: Juan Giuria,

2i6 / / / . Colonial Brazil
'La riqueza arquitectonica de algunas ciudades del Brasil', Revista de la

Sociedad Amigos de la Arqueologia, 8 (Montevideo, 1937).
General studies of the colonial period that are worthy of note include:
Robert C. Smith, 'The arts in Brazil', in H. V. Livermore (ed.), Portugal and
Brazil (Oxford, 1953); Germain Bazin, L'architecture religieuse baroque au
Bresil, 2 vols. (Paris, 19568); A. C. da Silva Telles, Atlas dos monumentos
histdricos e artisticos do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1975); Benedito de L. Toledo,
'A arte no Brasil do seculo XVI ao infcio do seculo XIX', in Historia geral da
arte no Brasil, /(Sao Paulo, 1983); and John Bury, Arquitectura e arte no Brasil
colonial (Sao Paulo, 1990). The latter reprints in Portuguese translation
(edited by Myriam Andrade Ribeiro de Oliveira, with illustrations, includ-
ing over eighty architectural drawings and engravings) nine essays on the art
and architecture of Brazil, Portugal, Portuguese India and China during the
period 15001800. On eighteenth-century religious sculpture and paint-
ing throughout Brazil, see Myriam A. Ribeiro, 'A arquitetura e as artes
plasticas no seculo XVIII brasileiro', in Gdvea: Revista de Historia da Arte 2
(1985). Several valuable articles have been published in the Belo Horizonte
periodical Revista Barroco, notably Hugo M. Segawa, 'Os jardins piiblicos no
periodo colonial e o passeio publico do Rio de Janeiro', a pioneer study of
early gardens, in vol. 12 (1983), and Myriam A. Ribeiro, 'Escultura colo-
nial brasileira', in vol. 13 (1984-5). An important doctoral thesis is Cleide
Santos Costa Biancardi, 'Formas e funcoes das sacristias no Brasil-colonia'
(Escola de Comunicagoes e Artes, University of Sao Paulo, 1988).
Among surveys limited to particular areas the following are especially
valuable: for Bahia, Edgard de Cerqueira Falcao, Reliquias da Bahia (Sao
Paulo, 1940), with very good illustrations, and R. C. Smith, Arquitectura
colonial bahiana (Bahia, 1951), containing some useful special studies; for
Bahia, Pernambuco and Paraiba, Clarival do Prado Valladares, Aspectos da
arte religiosa no Brasil: Bahia, Pernambuco, Paraiba (Rio de Janeiro, 1981),
with very good illustrations; for the northeast of Brazil from Maranhao to
Bahia, Clarival do Prado Valladares, Nordeste historico e monumental, 4 vols.
(Bahia, 1982-4), a magnificently illustrated record of colonial architec-
ture and art; for Minas Gerais (which has attracted most scholarly atten-
tion), see R. C. Smith, 'The colonial architecture of Minas Gerais in
Brazil', Art Bulletin, 21 (1939); E. de C. Falcao, Reliquias da Terra do Ouro
(Sao Paulo, 1946; 2nd ed., 1958), with very good illustrations; Sylvio de
Vasconcellos and Renee Lefevre, Minas, cidades barrocas (Sao Paulo, 1968;
2nd ed., 1977); Paulo F. Santos, Subsidios para 0 estudo da arquitetura
religiosa em Ouro Preto (Rio de Janeiro, 1951), with measured ground plans,

io. A rchitecture and art i\~i
elevations and sections; Judith Martins, Diciondrio de artistas e artifices dos
seculos XVlll e XIX em Minos Gerais' (Rio de Janeiro, 1974); Myriam A.
Ribeiro, 'A pintura da perspectiva em Minas colonial, ciclo rococo',
Revista Barroco, 12 (1983); and Paulo K. Correa Mourao, As igrejas setecen-
tistas de Minas (Belo Horizonte, 1986). Myriam A. Ribeiro, 'O rococo
religioso em Minas Gerais' (Universite Catholique de Louvain, Faculte de
Philosophic et Lettres, 1990) is an important unpublished doctoral thesis.
Another original contributor to Mineiro art historical studies is Lygia
Martins Costa, whose notable examination in depth of the decoration of
the chancel of the matrix of Sao Joao d'El Rei (1989) will, it is hoped, soon
be published. Her analytical acumen was already well demonstrated in an
article on o Aleijadinho's retablos in the Revista do Patrimonio, 18 (1978).
In addition to the well-documented monographs on particular churches
published in the two SPHAN series, other important studies are: Pedro
Sinzig, 'Maravilhas da religiao e da arte na igreja e no convento de Sao
Francisco da Bahia", RIHGB, 165 (1932; pub. separately 1933); R. C.
Smith, 'Nossa Senhora da Conceiâo da Praia and the Joanine style in
Brazil', Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 14 (1956); R. C.
Smith, 'Santo Antonio do Recife', Anudrio do Museu Imperial, 7 (1946);
Augusto Carlos da Silva Telles, Nossa Senhora da Gloria do Outeiro (Rio de
Janeiro, 1969); Mario Barata, Igreja da Ordem Terceira da Penitencia do Rio de
Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro, 1975); and R. C. Smith, Congonhas do Campo (Rio
de Janeiro, 1973).
The art and architecture associated with particular religious orders has
attracted some specialized studies. Among those on the Jesuits the follow-
ing deserve notice: P. F. Santos, 0 barroco e ojesuitico na arquitetura do Brasil
(Rio de Janeiro, 1951), and Serafim Leite, Artes e oficios dosjesuitas no Brasil
(Lisbon, 1953). For the Benedictines there are the works of Clemente
Maria de Silva Nigra, in particular Frei Bernardo de Sao Bento (Salvador,
1950) and Os dois escultores Frei Agostino da Piedade, Frei Agostino de Jesus e 0
arquiteto Frei Macdrio de Sdojodo (Salvador, 1971).
Among individual artists most attention has naturally been paid to o
Aleijadinho. The first biography by Rodrigo Jose Ferreira Bretas, Tracos
biogrdficos relatives ao finado Antonio Francisco Lisboa, 0 Aleijadinho (1858),
was republished by SPHAN in 1951. Germain Bazin's monograph
Aleijadinho et la sculpture baroque au Bresil (Paris, 1963) has not been
superseded, but Sylvio de Vasconcellos, Vida e obra de Antonio Francisco
Lisboa, 0 Aleijadinho (Sao Paulo, 1979) and Myriam A. Ribeiro, 0 Alei-
jadinho, passos eprofetas (Belo Horizonte, 1984) are also valuable.

2i8 ///. Colonial Brazil
On civil architecture the outstanding work remains Jose Wasth Rodri-

g u e s , Documentdrio arquitectdnico relativo a antiga construgdo civil no Brasil,
2nd ed. (Sao Paulo, 1975). There are a few studies of individual buildings
in the SPHAN publications; and to these should be added R. C. Smith, 'A
Brazilian merchants' exchange', Gazettedes Beaux-Arts (1951). On military
architecture the most detailed examination of a representative group of
fortresses is Gilberto Ferrez, Rio de Janeiro e a defesa do seu porto, 1550-
1800, 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1972). Luis Silveira, Ensaio de iconografia das
cidades portuguesas do ultramar, vol. 4 (Lisbon, 1957) provides basic docu-
mentation on Portuguese colonial cities, while Sylvio de Vasconcellos,
Vila Rica: Formagdo e desenvolvimento (Rio de Janeiro, 1951; 3rd ed., Sao
Paulo, 1977) examines one important colonial town in some depth.
The definitive work on azulejos is J. M. dos Santos Simoes, Azulejaria
portuguesa no Brasil (15001822) (Lisbon, 1965). The famous azulejos in
the Franciscan convent at Salvador are well illustrated in Silvanisio Pin-
heiro, Azulejos do convento de Sdo Francisco da Bahia (Salvador, 1951).
Knowledge of developments in the mother country is indispensable as
background for the appreciation of the art and architecture of colonial
Brazil. Particularly useful for this purpose are the Portuguese studies of R.
C. Smith, notably: 'Joao Federico Ludovice', The Art Bulletin, 18(1936),
A talha em Portugal (Lisbon, 1962), Nicolau Nasoni (Lisbon, 1967), The Art
of Portugal 15001800 (London, 1968), Frei Jose de Santo Antonio Vilaga, 2
vols. (Lisbon, 1972) and Andre Soares (Lisbon, 1973).
On the art of the seventeenth-century Dutch colony in northeast Brazil
two studies that deserve mention are: Joaquim de Sousa Leao, Frans Post
16121680 (Amsterdam, 1973), and Jose L. Mota Menezes, 'O seculo
XVII e o Brasil holandes', in Historia geral da arte no Brasil I (Sao Paulo,
1983). The standard monograph on Post remains Erik Larsen, Frans Post:
Interprete du Bresil (Amsterdam and Rio de Janeiro, 1962).
Finally, some valuable evidence on colonial art and architecture is con-
tained in records, graphic and literary, made by early visitors to indepen-
dent Brazil. The most important evidence can be found in Richard F.
Burton, Explorations of the Highlands of the Brazil, 2 vols. (London, 1869).
Burton took a lively interest in colonial churches, some of which were still
being completed when he visited them.

IV
THE INDEPENDENCE OF LATIN
AMERICA
i . T H E O R I G I N S OF SPANISH A M E R I C A N
INDEPENDENCE
Most of the documentary compilations and narrative sources throw more

light on the course of independence than on its origins, but some data on
the latter will be found in Biblioteca de Mayo, 17 vols. (Buenos Aires,
i9603); Archivo del General Miranda, 24 vols. (Caracas, 192950); Biblio-
teca de la Academia Nacional de la Historia, 82 vols. (Caracas, 19606); Colec-
cion documental de la independencia del Peru, 30 vols. (Lima, 1971). Mexico
and northern South America attracted the attention of a distinguished
contemporary observer, Alexander von Humboldt, whose Ensayo politico
sobre el reino de la Nueva Espana, ed. Juan A. Ortega y Medina (Mexico,
D.F., 1966), and Viaje a las regiones equinocciales del Nuevo Continente, 5 vols.
(Caracas, 1956) illuminate conditions in the late colonial period. For an
example of liberal economic writings in Buenos Aires, see Manuel
Belgrano, Escritos economicos, ed. Gregorio Weinberg (Buenos Aires, 1954).
The Spanish background has a large bibliography, of which the follow-
ing is a small selection: Gonzalo Anes, El antiguo regimen: Los Borbones, 5th
ed. (Madrid, 1981); Antonio Dominguez Ortiz, Sociedady estado en el siglo
XVIII espanol (Madrid, 1981); John Lynch, Bourbon Spain 1700-1808
(Oxford, 1989). The Enlightenment can be studied in Richard Herr, The
Eighteenth-century Revolution in Spain (Princeton, N.J., 1958), and its im-
pact in America in R. J. Shafer, The Economic Societies in the Spanish World
(1763-1821) (Syracuse, N.Y., 1958); see also M. L. Perez Marchand, Dos
etapas ideologicas del siglo XVIII en Mexico a traves de los papeles de la Inquisi-
cidn (Mexico, D.F., 1945). Jose Carlos Chiaramonte (ed.), Pensamiento de la
219

2 2O IV The independence of Latin America
ilustration: Economia y sociedad iberoamericanas en el siglo XVIII (Caracas,

X
97S>)> provides a survey of the state of the subject and a selection of
primary texts. On the Jesuits, in particular Viscardo, see Miguel Batllori,
El abate Viscardo: Historia y mito de la intervencion de los jesuitas en la indepen-
dencia de Hispanoamerica (Caracas, 1953), and Merle E. Simmons, Los
escritos dejuan Pablo Viscardo y Guzman (Caracas, 1983).
Applied enlightenment, or imperial reform, and American responses to
it can be approached through Stanley J. and Barbara H. Stein, The Colonial
Heritage of Latin America (New York, 1970), 86119, and then studied in
more detail in John Lynch, Spanish Colonial Administration, 17821810:
The Intendant System in the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata (London, 1958); J.
R. Fisher, Government and Society in Colonial Peru: The Intendant System 1784
1814 (London, 1970); Mark A. BurkholderandD. S. Chandler, From Impo-
tence to Authority: The Spanish Crown and the American Audiencias 16871808
(Columbia, Mo., 1977), which measures Creole office-holding; D. A. Brad-
ing, Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico 1763-1810 (Cambridge, Eng.,
1971); Reinhard Liehr, Ayuntamiento y oligarquia en Puebla, 1787-1810, 2
vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1976); and Jacques A. Barbier, Reform and Politics in
Bourbon Chile, 1755-1796 (Ottawa, 1980). The attempt to reform reparti-
mientos and control local economic interests is dealt with in Brian R. Ham-
nett, Politics and Trade in Southern Mexico 1750-1821 (Cambridge, Eng.,
1971), and in Stanley J. Stein, 'Bureaucracy and business in the Spanish
empire, 1759-1804: Failure of a Bourbon reform in Mexico and Peru',
HAHR, 61/1 (1981), 2-28. Juan Marchena Fernandez, Oficialesy soldadosen
el ejercito de America (Seville, 1983) shows the increasing 'Americanization' of
the Spanish Army in America, while military reform is given precise defini-
tion in Christon I. Archer, The Army in Bourbon Mexico 17601810 (Albu-
querque, N.Mex., 1977), Leon G. Campbell, The Military and Society in
Colonial Peru 17501810 (Philadelphia, 1978), and AllanJ. Kuethe, Mili-
tary Reform and Society in New Granada, 17731808 (Gainesville, Fla.,
1978). The colonial bureaucracy is subject to close scrutiny in Susan Mig-
den Socolow, The Bureaucrats of Buenos Aires, 17691810: Amor al Real Ser-
vicio (Durham, N . C . , 1987). Clerical immunity and its erosion by reform
and revolution are studied in Nancy M. Farriss, Crown and Clergy in Colonial
Mexico 17591821: The Crisis of Ecclesiastical Privilege (London, 1968),
while the economic role of the church and its limits are clarified by Arnold J.
Bauer, 'The Church in the economy of Spanish America: Censos and Depositos
in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries', HAHR, 63/4 (1983), 70733;
religious trends in Mexico are studied by D. A. Brading, 'Tridentine Cathol-

i . The origins of Spanish American independence 221
icism and Enlightened Despotism in Bourbon Mexico', JLAS, 15/1 (1983),

122. Aspects of renewed fiscal pressure are explained in D. A. Brading,
'Facts and figments in Bourbon Mexico', BLAR, 4/1 (1985), 6 1 - 4 ; W.
Kendall Brown, Bourbons and Brandy: Imperial reform in eighteenth-century
Arequipa (Albuquerque, N. Mex., 1986); and Juan Carlos Garavaglia and
Juan Carlos Grosso, 'Estado borbonico y presion fiscal en la Nueva Espana,
1750-1821', in Antonio Anninoetal. (eds.), America Latina: Dallo stato co-
loniale allo stato nazione( 17 50-1940), 2 vols. (Milan, 1987)^01. 1, 78-97.
The violent reaction to taxation and other burdens has been studied in a
number of works on the rebellions of the eighteenth century. Joseph Perez,
Los movimientos precursores de la emancipacion en Hispanoamerka (Madrid, 1977)
identifies the major movements and their character. Segundo Moreno
Yanez, Sublevaciones indigenas en la Audiencia de Quito, desde comienzos del siglo
XVIII hastafinalesde la colonia (Bonn, 1976), describes Indian protest and
riot in the region of Quito, 17601803, against a background of agrarian
structure. Indian and mestizo movements in Upper Peru are the subject of
Rene Arze Aguirre, Participacion popular en la independencia de Bolivia (La
Paz, 1979). Anthony McFarlane, 'Civil disorders and popular protests in
late colonial New Granada', HAHR, 64/1 (1984), 1754, classifies and
interprets the numerous examples of popular protests, previously overshad-
owed by the comunero movement, and focuses on an urban movement in
'The "Rebellion of the Barrios": Urban insurrection in Bourbon Quito',
HAHR, 69/2 (1989), 283330. Brian Hamnett identifies the regional
origins of protest in Roots of Insurgency: Mexican Regions, 17501824 (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1986). On the comunero rebellion, see John Leddy Phelan, The
People and the King: The Comunero Revolution in Colombia, 1781 (Madison,
Wis., 1978); Carlos E. Munoz Oraa, Los comuneros de Venezuela (Merida,
Ven., 1971). Scarlett O'Phelan Godoy, Rebellions and Revolts in Eighteenth
Century Peru and Upper Peru (Cologne, 1985) explores the culmination of
eighteenth-century protests in the great rebellion of Tupac Amaru.
The problems of economic causation continue to exercise historians.
Tulio Halperin Donghi (ed.), El ocaso del orden colonial hispanoamericana
(Buenos Aires, 1978), brings together a number of studies of a socio-
economic character dealing with crises in the colonial order. Nils Jacobsen
and Hans-Jiirgen Puhle (eds.), The Economies of Mexico and Peru during the
Late Colonial Period, 17601810 (Berlin, 1986) is a combination of new
research and the latest synthesis. Spanish thinking on colonial trade is the
subject of Marcelo Bitar Letayf, Economistas espanoles del siglo XVIII: Sus
ideas sobre la libertaddel comercio con Indias (Madrid, 1968), while policy and

222 IV. The independence of Latin America
practice are described in E. Arcila Farias, El siglo ilustrado en America:

Reformas economicas del siglo XVIII en Nueva Espana (Caracas, 1955), and
Sergio Villalobos R., El comercio y la crisis colonial: Un mito de la independen-
cia (Santiago, Chile, 1968). The role of colonial trade in Spanish economic
development is discussed in Jordi Nadal and Gabriel Tortella (eds.),
Agricultura, comercio colonial y crecimiento economico en la Espana contempordnea:
Adas del Primer Coloquio de Historia Economico de Espana (Barcelona, 1974).
Quantitative studies of new research and its fate during the Anglo-
Spanish wars are provided by Antonio Garcia-Baquero, Cadiz y el Atldntico
(17171778), 2 vols. (Seville, 1976) and Comercio colonial y guerras
revolucionarias (Seville, 1972), and by Javier Ortiz de la Tabla Ducasse,
Comercio exterior de Veracruz 1778-1821 (Seville, 1978). John Fisher, Com-
mercial Relations between Spain and Spanish America in the Era of Free Trade,
1778-1796 (Liverpool, 1985) gives a precise measurement of trade under
comercio libre.
Economic conditions within Spanish America in the late colonial period
are the subject of basic research. Lyman L. Johnson and Enrique Tandeter
(eds.), Essays on the Price History of Eighteenth-Century Latin America (Albu-
querque, N.Mex., 1990) studies the framework of late colonial price
history and provides indexes of prices in urban and regional markets. The
mining sector and its position in the socio-economic structure of Mexico is
studied in David A. Brading, Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico,
77631810 (Cambridge, Eng., 1971). For mining in Peru, see J. R.
Fisher, Silver Mines and Silver Miners in Colonial Peru, 17761824 (Liver-
pool, 1977), and for Upper Peru Rose Marie Buechler, The Mining Society
of Potosi 17761810 (Syracuse, N.Y., 1981). Enrique Tandeter, 'Forced
and free labour in late colonial Potosi', Past and Present, 93 (1981), 98
136, demonstrates the importance of mita labour to the survival of Potosi
production. Enrique Florescano, Precios del maiz y crisis agricolas en Mexico
(17081810) (Mexico, D.F., 1969), examines rising maize prices, agrar-
ian crisis and rural misery on the eve of the Mexican insurgency. For
further regional studies of the agrarian sector, see D. A. Brading, Hacien-
das and Ranchos in the Mexican Bajio: Leon 17001860 (Cambridge, Eng.,
1978), and Eric Van Young, Hacienda and Market in Eighteenth-Century
Mexico: The Rural Economy of Guadalajara, 16751820 (Berkeley and Los
Angeles, 1981). Humberto Tandron, El real consulado de Caracas y el
comerico exterior de Venezuela (Caracas, 1976), illustrates the tension between
agricultural and commercial interests and the clash between Venezuelan
and Spanish viewpoints, while problems of another export economy and

i . The origins of Spanish American independence 223
its hinterland are studied by Michael T. Hamerly, Historia social y economica

de la antiguaprovincia de Guayaquil, 17631842 (Guayaquil, 1973). Susan
Migden Socolow, The Merchants of Buenos Aires 1778-1810: Family and
Commerce (Cambridge, Eng., 1978) analyses the formation, economic role
and social position of the porteho merchant group, while the little-known
history of artisans is investigated by Lyman L. Johnson, 'The silversmiths
of Buenos Aires: a case study in the failure of corporate social organisa-
tion" , JLAS, 8/2 (1976), 181213.
Social structure of the pre-independence period involves problems of
class, Creoles and race. Historians have recently tended to emphasize
economic interests, social perceptions and political groupings rather than
simple Creole peninsular conflict as an explanation of independence: see
Luis Villoro, El proceso ideologico de la revolution de independencia (Mexico,
D.F., 1967), for a survey of social classes in Mexico; further refinement of
analysis is provided by David A. Brading, 'Government and elite in late
colonial Mexico', HAHR, 53/3 (1973), 389-414, and by Doris M. Ladd,
The Mexican Nobility at Independence IJ801826 (Austin, Tex., 1976).
Venezuelan structures are explained by German Carrera Damas, La crisis de
la sociedad colonial venzolana (Caracas, 1976), and Miguel Izard, El miedo a
la revolution: La lucha por la libertad en Venezuela (17771830) (Madrid,
1979); while the growing tension between whites and coloureds is de-
scribed by Federico Brito Figueroa, Las insurrecciones de los esclavos negros en
la sociedad colonial (Caracas, 1961), Miguel Acosta Saignes, Vida de los
esclavos negros en Venezuela (Caracas, 1967), and I. Leal, 'La aristocracia
criolla venezolana y el codigo negrero de 1789', Revista de Historia, 2
(1961), 6181. The influence of the revolution in Saint-Domingue can be
studied in Eleazar Cordova-Bello, La independencia de Haiti y su influencia
en Hispanoamerica (Mexico, D.F., and Caracas, 1967). Alberto Flores
Galindo, Aristocracia y plebe, Lima 1760-1830 (Lima, 1984) studies the
formation of a new ruling elite in Peru.
The theme of incipient nationalism is gradually receiving more system-
atic study. Older works by J. A. de la Puente Candamo, La idea de la
comunidadperuana y el testimonio de los precursores (Lima, 1956), and Nestor
Meza Villalobos, La conciencia politica chilena durante la monarquia (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1958) contain useful data, while Andre Saint-Lu, Condition
coloniale et conscience Creole au Guatemale (1524-1821) (Paris, 1970) brings
in a less-studied region. Americanism as a cultural phenomenon is ex-
plored in the classic study by Antonello Gerbi, The Dispute of the New
World (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1973). But the most significant advance has been

224 W- The independence of Latin America
made by D. A. Brading, The Origins of Mexican Nationalism (Cambridge,

Eng., 1985), and especially The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole
Patriots, and the Liberal State 1492-1867 (Cambridge, Eng., 1991), a
comprehensive search for the origins and nature of Creole identity. On the
process of nation building at independence, see Inge Buisson et al. (eds.),
Problemas de la formacion del estado y de la nacion en Hispanoamerka (Bonn,
1984). A synthesis is suggested by John Lynch, The Spanish American
Revolutions, 1808-1826, 2nd ed. (New York, 1986), 24-34, 341-4.
2. T H E I N D E P E N D E N C E OF M E X I C O A N D
CENTRAL AMERICA
The bibliography on Mexico's struggle for independence is vast, perhaps

the largest in Mexican studies. Published documentary collections are
rich; only the most notable can be mentioned here. The fundamental set is
Juan E. Hernandez y Davalos, Coleccion de documentos para la historia de la
guerra de independencia de Mexico, 6 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 187782). Almost
as useful are Genaro Garcia, Documentos historicos mexicanos, 7 vols. (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1910-12) and El clero de Mexico y la guerra de independencia, vol.
9 in Documentos ineditos 0 muy raros para la historia de Mexico (Mexico, D.F.,
1906); Joaquin Garcia Icazbalceta, Coleccion de documentos para la historia de
Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1925) and Nueva coleccion de documentos, 5 vols.
(Mexico, D.F., 1886). And for Morelos there is Luis Castillo Ledon,
Morelos, documentos ineditos y poco conocidos (Mexico, D.F., 1927). Equally
important are the histories written by participants and observers. The
classic work is Lucas Alaman, Historia de Mejico desde los primeros movimientos
queprepararon su independencia en el ano de 1808 hasta la epocapresente, 5 vols.
(Mexico, D.F., 1849-52). Other very useful works are Carlos Maria
Bustamante, Cuadro historico de la revolucion mexicana, 2 vols., 2nd ed.
(Mexico, D.F., 18434); Anastasio Zerecero, Memoriaspara la historia de
las revoluciones en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1869); Servando Teresa de Mier,
Historia de la revolucion de Nueva Espana (Mexico, D.F., 1822); Jose Maria
Luis Mora, Mexico y sus revoluciones, 3 vols. (Paris, 1836); and Henry
George Ward, Mexico in 1827, 2 vols. (London, 1828). Francisco de Paula
de Arrangoiz y Berzabal, Mejico desde 1808 hasta 1867, 4 vols. (Madrid,
1871), is derivative and generally follows Alaman.
Though always a subject of great fascination to scholars, Mexican late
colonial and independence studies have undergone much recent revision.

2. The independence of Mexico and Central America 225
Some of the most significant later works that trace the political history are
Timothy E. Anna, The Fall of the Royal Government in Mexico City (Lincoln,
Nebr., 1978), Spain and the Loss of America (Lincoln, Nebr., 1983) and The
Mexican Empire oflturbide (Lincoln, Nebr., 1990); the very different interpre-
tation of Romeo Flores Caballero, La contrarevolucion en la independencia: Los
espanoles en la vidapolitica, socialy econdmica de Mexico 18041838 (Mexico,
D.F., 1969); another study of the royalists and their resistance to indepen-
dence, Brian R. Hamnett, Revolucidn y contrarevolucion en Mexico y el Peru:
Liberalismo, realezayseparatismo(i8ooi824)(Mexico, D.F., I978);aswell
as Hamnett, La politica espanola en le epoca revolucionaria (Mexico, D.F.,
1985); the basic study of Hidalgo, Hugh M. Hamill, Jr., The Hidalgo
Revolt: Prelude to Mexican Independence (Gainesville, Fla., 1966); on Morelos,
Anna Macias, Genesis delgobierno constitucional en Mexico, 18081820 (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1973); Virginia Guedea, Jose Maria Morelos y Pavdn: Cronologia
(Mexico, D.F., 1981); Ernesto Lemoine, La revolucidn de independencia,
18081821, vol. 3 of La republica federal mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1974);
Jaime E. Rodriguez O., The Emergence of Spanish America: Vicente Rocafuerte
and Spanish Americanism, 18081832 (Berkeley, 1975); Luis Villoro, El
proceso ideoldgico de la revolucidn de independencia (Mexico, D.F., 1967) and
Jaime E. Rodriguez O. (ed.), The Independence of Mexico and the Creation of the
New Nation (Los Angeles, 1989). Important new institutional and social
studies include Christon I. Archer, The Army in Bourbon Mexico, 17601810
(Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1977) and 'The army of New Spain and the wars of
independence, 17901821', HAHR, 61/4 (1981), 70514; Michael P.
Costeloe, Church Wealth in Mexico, 18001856 (Cambridge, Eng., 1967);
N. M. Farriss, Crown and Clergy in Colonial Mexico, 17591821: The Crisis of
Ecclesiastical Privilege (London, 1968); Doris M. Ladd, The Mexican Nobility
at Independence, IJ801826 (Austin, Tex., 1976); Silvia M. Arrom, The
Women of Mexico City, 17901857 (Stanford, Calif, 1985); Maria del
Refugio Gonzalez (ed.), La formacidn del estado mexicano (Mexico, D.F.,
1984); Ernesto de la Torre Villar (ed.), Los 'Guadalupes' y la independencia
(Mexico, D.F., 1985); Linda Arnold, Bureaucracy and Bureaucrats in Mexico
City, 17421835 (Tucson, Ariz., 1988); and Javier Ocampo, Las ideas de un
dia: El pueblo mexicano ante la consumacion de su independencia (Mexico, D.F.,
1969). Providing much new knowledge about the economic and social
condition of late colonial Mexico are David A. Brading, Miners and Mer-
chants in Bourbon Mexico, 17631810 (Cambridge, Eng., 1971); Enrique
Florescano, Precios del maizy crisis agricolas en Mexico (1708-1810) (Mexico,
D.F., 1969); Brian R. Hamnett, Politics andTrade in Southern Mexico, 1750

226 IV The independence of Latin America
1821 (Cambridge, Eng., 1971) and Roots of Insurgency: Mexican Regions,

1750-1824 (Cambridge, Eng., 1986); Enrique Florescano and Isabel Gill,
17301808: La epoca de las reformas borbonicas y del crecimiento econdmico (Mex-
ico, D. F., 1974); John Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico: Social
Bases of Agrarian Violence, 1750-1940 (Princeton, N.J., 1986); Eric Van
Young, Hacienda and Market in Eighteenth-Century Mexico: The Rural Economy
of the Guadalajara Region, 1675-1820 (Berkeley, 1981); and John J.
Tepaske and Herbert S. Klein, Ingresos y egresos de la Real Hacienda de Nueva
Espana (Mexico, D.F., 1986). David A. Brading's Los origenes del na-
cionalismo mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1973) is perhaps the most thoughtful
study on the origins of creolism. All these works alter earlier views of the
meaning and process of independence, especially clarifying social, economic
and class structures.
At the same time, a number of older works remain invaluable for their
contributions, largely in the fields of narrative history and institutional
studies. These include Nettie Lee Benson (ed.), Mexico and the Spanish
Cortes, 18101822: Eight Essays (Austin, Tex., 1966), and La diputacion
provincial y el federalismo mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1955); Luis Castillo
Ledon, Hidalgo, la vida del heroe, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1948-9); Donald
B. Cooper, Epidemic Diseases in Mexico City, 1761-1813 (Austin, Tex.,
1965); Mariano Cuevas, Historia de la iglesia en Mexico, 5 vols. (El Paso,
Tex., 1928); Lillian Estelle Fisher, The Background of the Revolution for
Mexican Independence (Boston, 1934), and Champion of Reform, Manuel Abad
y Queipo (New York, 1955); Enrique Lafuente Ferrari, El Virrey Iturrigaray
y los origenes de la independencia de Mexico (Madrid, 1941); John Rydjord
Foreign Interest in the Independence of New Spain (Durham, N.C., 1935);
William Spence Robertson, Iturbide of Mexico (Durham, N.C., 1952);
Wilbert H. Timmons, Morelos of Mexico, Priest, Soldier, Statesman (El Paso,
Tex., 1963); and Maria del Carmen Velazquez, El estado de guerra en Nueva
Espana, 1760-1808 (Mexico, D.F., 1950). An insightful interpretive
work is Jose Bravo Ugarte, Historia de Mexico: Independencia, caracterizacion
politica e integration social, 2nd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1953). An important
reference work, dealing with the rebels, is Jose Maria Miquel i Verges,
Diccionario de insurgentes (Mexico, D.F., 1969). For a Soviet historian's
view, see M. S. Al'perovich, Historia de la independencia de Mexico, 1810-
1824 (Mexico, D.F., 1967).
While not as vast or complex as the historiography of Mexican indepen-

dence, Central American historigraphy has also been fascinated by indepen-

2. The independence of Mexico and Central America 227
dence and its impact, though the story there is one of a relatively bloodless
political movement. Particularly notable, however, is the absence of schol-
arly publications on the topic from the 1980s, a reflection of the effects of
civil war in Central America during that decade. Some published collec-
tions of documents are useful. Notable among them are Carlos Melendez,
Textos fundamental de la independencia centroamericana (San Jose, C.R.,
1971); Rafael Heliodoro Valle, Pensamiento vivo dejose Cecilio del Valle, 2nd
ed. (San Jose, C.R., 1971), and La anexidn de Centro America a Mexico, 6
vols. (Mexico, D.F., 19247). The two important periodicals edited dur-
ing the independence era have been reprinted: Pedro Molina's El editor
constitucional, 3 vols. (Guatemala City, 1969), and Jose del Valle's El Amigo
de la Patria, 2 vols. (Guatemala City, 1969). Notable histories written in
the nineteenth century are Lorenzo Montufar, Resena historica de Centro
America, 7 vols. (Guatemala City, 1878-88), and Alejandro Marure,
Bosquejo historico de las revoluciones de Centro America (Guatemala City, 1837).
Important works on the background to independence include Oscar
Benitez Porta, Secesidn pacifica de Guatemala de Espana (Guatemala City,
r
973)> a n d Jorge Mario Garcia Laguardia, Origenes de la democracia constitu-
cional en Centroamerica (San Jose, C.R., 1971). The best modern general
treatment of Central American independence is Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr.,
Central America: A Nation Divided, 2nded. (New York, 1985), chap. 4; this
work also contains the most complete general bibliography. Also notable
are chapters on independence in Franklin D. Parker, The Central American
Republics (London, 1964) and Thomas L. Karnes, The Failure of Union: Cen-
tral America, 18241975, rev. ed. (Tempe, 1976). The most important
monographs are Andres Townsend Ezcurra, Las Provincias Unidas de Centro-
america: Fundacidn de la republica (Guatemala City, 1958; 2nd rev. ed., San
Jose, C.R., 1973); Louis E. Bumgartner, Jose del Valle of Central America
(Durham, N.C., 1963); Mario Rodriguez, The Cadiz Experiment in Central
America, 1808-1826 (Berkeley, 1978), which provides the most complete
study of the influence of Spanish liberal constitutionalism; and Ralph Lee
Woodward, Jr., Class Privilege and Economic Development: The Consulado de
Comercio of Guatemala, 1793-1871 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1966). See also by
R. L. Woodward, 'Economic and social origins of the Guatemalan parties
(1773-1823)', HAHR, 45/4 (1965), 544-66. Other recent works on the
independence period worthy of mention include Jose G. Valverde, Aparien-
cia y realidaden el movimiento emancipador de Centroamerica (Nanterre, 1975);
Francisco J. Monterrey, Historia de El Salvador: Anotaciones cronologicas, vol.
1: 18101842, 2nd ed. (San Salvador, 1977); Francisco Peccorini Letona,

La voluntad del pueblo en la emancipation de El Salvador (San Salvador, 1972);

Chester Zelaya, Nicaragua en la independencia (San Jose, C.R., 1971); Ri-
cardo Fernandez Guardia, La independencia: Historia de Costa Rica, 3rd ed.
(San Jose, C.R., 1971); Rafael Obregon, De nuestra historia patria: los pri-
meros dias de independencia (San Jose, C.R., 1971); and Hector Samayoa, En-
sayos sobre la independencia de Centroamerica (Guatemala City, 1972). On the
Mexican intervention and annexation, see H. G. Peralta, Agustin de Iturbide
y Costa Rica, 2nd ed. (San Jose, C.R., 1968); also Nettie Lee Benson and
Charles Berry, 'The Central American delegation to the First Constituent
Congress of Mexico, 1822-1824', HAHR, 49/4 (1969), 679-701, and
Miles Wortman, 'Legitimidad politica y regionalismo: El imperio mexi-
cano y Centroamerica', HM, 26 (1976), 23862. Separation from Mexico
and creation of the Federation is treated in Pedro Joaquin Chamorro y
Zelaya, Historia de la Federation de la America Central (Madrid, 1951), and
in the very useful work of Alberto Herrarte, La union de Centroamerica (San
Jose, C.R., 1972). See also two arrticles by Gordon Kenyon, 'Mexican
influence in Central America', HAHR, 41/2 (1961), 175-205, and
'Gabino Gainza and Central America's Independence from Spain', TA, 12/
3 (I957)> 2 4 I 54- Some more recent articles on social history are in
Murdo J. MacLeod and Robert Wasserstrom (eds.), Spaniards and Indians in
Southeastern Mesoamerica: Essays on the History of Ethnic Relations (Lincoln,
Nebr., 1983). On the independence of Yucatan, see Paul Joseph Reid,
'The Constitution of Cadiz and the independence of Yucatan', TA, 36/1
(1979), 22-38. Biographies of prominent indiviudals include Cesar
Brafias, Antonio de Larrazabal, un guatemalteco en la historia, 2 vols. (Guate-
mala City, 1969), and Enrique del Cid Fernandez, Don Gabino de Gainz y
otras estudios (Guatemala City, 1959). A book that brings together a num-
ber of biographies of the chief figures of independence is Carlos Melendez
(ed.), Prdceres de la independencia Centroamericana (San Jose, C.R., 1971).
3. T H E I N D E P E N D E N C E OF SPANISH
S O U T H AMERICA
The independence movement of Spanish South America has long been a

favourite topic among conservative historians while attracting rather few
innovative scholars either in Latin America or in other countries. Neverthe-
less, thanks to the efforts of both traditional academicians and official
agencies, the student of the period has available an unusually wide array of

3 . The independence of Spanish South America 229
printed source collections. These range from the classic and misleadingly
titled Memorias del general O'Leary (Caracas, 187988; re-ed., with index
volumes, Caracas, 1981), only three of whose 32 volumes are in fact
devoted to the memoirs of Bolivar's Irish aide, Daniel F. O'Leary, to the
more recent Coleccion documental de la independencia del Peru (Lima, 1971
77), which is an assortment of official documents, newspapers of the
period, writings of'ideologues', memoirs and travel accounts. A gratify-
ing number of newspapers have also been reprinted in their own right, of
which perhaps the most important examples are the Gaceta de Buenos Aires,
6 vols. (Buenos Aires, 191015) and Gaceta de Colombia, 5 vols. (Bogota,
19735), e a c n spanning roughly a decade. Every country except Para-
guay, Bolivia and Ecuador has produced one or more major source compila-
tions, and even they have some lesser ones.
Few top-ranking patriot leaders left autobiographical memoirs, and of
those who did only Jose Antonio Paez produced one that is still a major
source, though certainly to be used with care: Autobiografia, 2nd rev. ed.,
2 vols. (New York, 1871). More valuable are the memoirs left by foreign
adventurers like O'Leary, Bolivar and the War of Independence, Robert F.
McNerney, Jr. (trans, and ed.) (Austin, Tex., 1970); and William Miller,
who served both San Martin and Bolivar, Memoirs of General Miller in the
Service of the Republic of Peru, John Miller (ed.), 2nd ed., 2 vols. (London,
1829). Equally helpful, particularly on the scene behind the lines of battle
or after the fighting was over in a given area, are the accounts of foreign
non-participants. William Duane, A Visit to Colombia in the Years 1822 and
1823, by Laguayra and Caracas, over the Cordillera to Bogota, and Thence by
the Magdalena to Cartagena (Philadelphia, 1826), and Charles Stuart Coch-
rane, Journal of a Residence and Travels in Colombia, during the Years 1823 and
1824, 2 vols. (London, 1825), for Gran Colombia; Maria CaMcott, Journal
of a Residence in Chile during the Year 1822; and a Voyage from Chile to Brazil
in 1823 (London, 1824), for Chile; and the brothers John P. and William
P. Robertson, Letters on South America; Comprising Travels on the Banks of the
Parana and Rio de la Plata, 3 vols. (London, 1843), f r t n e ^'l0 ^ e â Pl ata >
well exemplify this genre.
The secondary literature is mostly less impressive. The pertinent chap-
ters of the survey of John Lynch, The Spanish-American Revolutions: 1808
1826 (London, 1973; 2nd ed., New York, 1986) give an excellent over-
view; no other general account is remotely as good. Nor does there exist
anything approaching a definitive biography of Bolivar, which might
serve as general narrative of the struggle in much of South America,

although vast numbers have been written. Probably most useful are Ger-
hard Masur, Simon Bolivar, rev. ed. (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1969), Salva-
dor de Madariaga, Bolivar (London, 1951), and Augusto Mijares, The
Liberator (trans. John Fisher) (Caracas, 1983), of which the first is pedes-
trian in style but generally balanced in interpretation, the second full of
original insights but tendentiously critical, and the third a highly compe-
tent, if properly respectful, Venezuelan treatment. Also worthwhile are
the essays included in a special number of the Hispanic American Historical
Review, 63/1 (1983) issued to mark Bolivar's bicentennial, which contains
analyses of his domestic and international politics by a group of nonLatin
American historians and a discussion of the patriotic Bolivar 'cult' by the
Venezuelan scholar German Carrera Damas.
Bolivar's southern counterpart, Jose de San Martin, has attracted less
attention from historians in recent years but is well served by the classic
study by Argentina's first 'scientific' historian, Bartolome Mitre, Historia
de San Martin y de la emancipacion sudamericana, 2nd rev. ed., 4 vols.
(Buenos Aires, 1890), and the conscientious work of such twentieth-
century Argentine scholars as Jose Pacifico Otero, Historia del libertadorjose
San Martin, 4 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1932) and Ricardo Piccirilli, San
Martin y lapolitica de lospueblos (Buenos Aires, 1957). There are adequate if
hardly definitive studies of several secondary figures: for example, John P.
Hoover, Admirable Warrior: Marshal Sucre, Fighterfor South American Indepen-
dence (Detroit, 1977). On the whole, however, what has been written on
the heroes of independence in a biographical vein, whether pietistic or
debunking, is somewhat superficial.
Historians who have not been intent on following a single military
figure from one battleground to another have seldom dealt with more than
one country. For Venezuela, the best one-volume survey is no doubt the
Spanish historian, Miguel Izard's El miedo a la revolucion: La lucha por la
libertad en Venezuela ijjj-1830 (Madrid, 1979), whose title reveals its
central thesis that the Creole elite wanted at all costs to avoid a real
revolution. A stimulating brief interpretation is German Carrera Damas,
La crisis de la sociedad colonial venezolana (Caracas, 1976), but it is best
appreciated by someone who already has a general grasp of the period as
obtained from Izard, from a Bolivar biography, or from the competent
studies of the Venezuelan academic historian Caracciolo Parra-Perez: Ma-
rino y la independencia de Venezuela, 4 vols. (Madrid, 1954-6) and Historia
de laprimera republica de Venezuela, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Caracas, 1959).
The literature on Colombian independence is less abundant than that on

j. The independence of Spanish South America 231
Venezuela. Nevertheless, the pertinent volumes of the Historia extensa de

Colombia issued by the Academia Colombiana de Historia particularly
Camilo Riano, Historia militar; la independencia: 18101815 (Bogota,
1971), Guillermo Plazas Olarte, Historia militar; la independencia: 1819
1828 (Bogota, 1971), and Oswaldo Diaz Diaz, La reconquista espanola, 2
vols. (Bogota, 1964 and 1967) give a reasonably complete account of
the struggle in New Granada. Hermes Tovar Pinzon has further provided a
suggestive treatment of popular mobilization and confiscation policy in
'Guerras de opinion y represion en Colombia durante la independencia
(18101820),' Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura, 11
(1983), 187233, while for the years of Gran Colombian union there is
David Bushnell, The Santander Regime in Gran Colombia (Newark, Del.,
1954). A more recent work, Santander: Biografia, by Pilar Moreno de
Angel (Bogota, 1989), traditional in tone but highly detailed, covers the
entire era. In Ecuador disproportionate attention has been devoted to the
first Quito junta, and on it the available literature is mainly of interest to a
few specialists; on the conclusion of the process one can consult the first
part of Mark Van Aken, King of the Night: Juan Jose Flores and Ecuador,
1824-1864 (Berkeley, 1989).
Peruvian historians traditionally have been less fascinated with indepen-
dence than their Gran Colombian or Platine neighbours, but Peru's inde-
pendence sesquicentennial of 1971 righted the balance at least somewhat.
That occasion inspired not just the multi-volume collection noted above
but the wide-ranging interpretative volume by Peru's premier historian
Jorge Basadre, El azar en la historia y sus limites (Lima, 1973). Also highly
suggestive is the essay of Heraclio Bonilla, 'Clases populares y estado en el
contexto de la crisis colonial,' in the volume by Bonilla et al., La
independencia en el Peru, 2nd rev. ed. (Lima, 1981), which reviews the latest
research and considers why Peruvians seemed incapable of gaining 'inde-
pendence' by their own efforts. The latter problem is also dealt with in the
study by Timothy Anna, The Fall of the Royal Government of Peru (Lincoln,
Nebr., 1979), a provocative analysis that speaks well of Viceroy Abascal
but reflects little credit on anybody else. Peru's popular majority, on its
part, has been skillfully treated by Christine Hiinefeldt, Luchapor la tierra
y protesta indigena: Las comunidades indigenas del Peru entre colonia y republica,
1800-1830 (Bonn, 1982).
Chilean scholars, meanwhile, regularly produce fine monographic arti-
cles and special studies on aspects of independence, even though the topic
does not absorb the attention of current scholars to the same extent as it

absorbed that of Chile's great nineteenth-century historians. The ideologi-

cal dimensions, for example, have been well treated in Walter Hanisch
Espfndola, El catecismopolitico-cristiano; las ideas y la epoca: 1810 (Santiago,
Chile, 1970), as well as in Jaime Eyzaguirre, Ideario y ruta de la
emancipation chilena (Santiago, Chile, 1957), and, above all, in Simon
Collier, Ideas and Politics of Chilean Independence, 18081833 (Cambridge,
Eng., 1967). Eyzaguirre's O'Higgins, 6th rev. ed. (Santiago, Chile, 1965)
is one standard modern biography of the Chilean liberator. A later one is
Luis Valencia Avaria, Bernardo O'Higgins, el 'buen genio' de America (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1980).
Bolivian authors have emphasized the junta experience of 1809, as have
the Ecuadorians, and with not much of permanent value resulting. The
best account of Bolivian independence continues to be Charles Arnade,
The Emergence of the Republic of Bolivia (Gainesville, Fla., 1957), and on the
brief government of Sucre a basic source is William L. Lofstrom, The
Promise and Problem of Reform: Attempted Social and Economic Change in the
First Years of Bolivian Independence (Ithaca, N.Y., 1972; Spanish eds., La
Paz, 1983, and Caracas, 1987). For Paraguay there is even less, and
Uruguayan writings on Artigas, though abundant, are somewhat monoto-
nous. An honourable exception is the examination of his social and agrar-
ian policies in Lucia Sala de Touron, Nelson de la Torre and Julio C.
Rodriguez, Artigas y su revolucion agraria, 18111820 (Mexico, D.F.,
1978), which reflects both a Marxist perspective and industrious documen-
tary research. Also valuable is John Street, Artigas and the Emancipation of
Uruguay (Cambridge, Eng., 1959).
Argentine independence, on balance, continues to receive the most
adequate treatment. The tradition begun by Mitre was ably continued in
the first part of the present century by such figures as Ricardo Levene in
his Ensayo historico sobre la Revolucion de Mayo y Mariano Moreno, 4th ed., 3
vols. (Buenos Aires, i960). More recently, the literature on Argentine
independence has been enriched by a plethora of both right- and left-wing
revisionism, e.g., Rodolfo Puiggros, Los caudillos de la Revolucion de Mayo,
2nd rev. ed. (Buenos Aires, 1971); by competent topical treatments of
cultural developments e.g., Oscar F. Urquiza Almandoz, La cultura de
Buenos Aires a traves de su prensa periodica desde 1810 hasta 1820 (Buenos
Aires, 1972), and economic policy, e.g., Sergio Bagu, El plan economico del
grupo rivadaviano (1811-1827) (Rosario, 1966) and Carlos S. A. Segreti,
'La repercusion en Mendoza de la politica comercial portena en la primera
decada revolucionaria.'JG^WGL, 19 (1982), 183-222, which is of inter-

3- The independence of Spanish South America 233
est for much more than the Mendoza case; and by Tulio Halperin Donghi,
Politics, Economics and Society in Argentina in the Revolutionary Period (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1975), whose very title suggests a breadth of approach not
to be found in most older writings. Segreti has further contributed a very
good overview of the first five years of the revolutionary process in La
aurora de la independencia: 18101815, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1976).
Although the analysis of social alignments and economic interests is
still not the dominant tendency in work done on Spanish American inde-
pendence, it has in fact attracted a growing number of scholars. A brief
introduction is provided by the trail-blazing essays of Charles Griffin, Los
temas sociales y economicos en la epoca de la independencia (Caracas, 1962). There
are some good specialized studies on socio-economic aspects, of which a
few have been cited above. Marxist-oriented historians almost by defini-
tion offer some sort of socio-economic emphasis, and several of them have
written on independence. However, apart from German Carrera Damas in
his Boves: Aspectos socioeconomicos de su accion histdrica, 2nd rev. ed. (Caracas,
1968) and La crisis de la sociedad colonial, or the Uruguayan rediscoverers of
Artigas's agrarian populism, they have too often been content to offer
either a mechanical economic determinism or a propagandist effort to co-
opt particular independence heroes for present-day causes. Bolivar is the
one most often presented as precursor of twentieth-century struggles of
national liberation; and probably the least simplistic example of the genre
is by the Venzuelan Miguel Acosta Saignes, Accion y Utopia del hombre de las
dificultades (Havana, 1977). On the other hand, the 'new social history' has
largely passed the independence period by. The short volume by Marie-
Danielle Demelas and Y. Saint-Geours, La vie quotidienne en Amerique du
Sud au temps de Bolivar, 1809-1830 (Paris, 1987) is a series of often
perceptive vignettes rather than an integrated treatment of the subject.
The position of the church has been often treated, though with more
detailed narrative than true analysis, by ecclesiastical historians of the
various countries. Argentina's Americo A. Tonda is especially prolific and
thoroughly competent; a good example is his study of Cordoba's royalist
prelate, El obispo Orellana y la revolucion (Cordoba, Arg., 1981). For conti-
nental overviews, one can turn to Ruben Vargas Ugarte, El episcopado en los
tiempos de la emancipation sudamericana, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1945), and
Pedro de Leturia, Relaciones entre la Santa Sede e Hispanoamerica, 3 vols.
(Rome, 195960), a major contribution on Hispanic America and the
Vatican, two volumes of which are devoted to the independence period.
But the latter falls as much in the area of foreign relations, where a great

part of the literature almost inevitably treats Latin America as a whole vis-
a-vis given outside powers.
4. THE INDEPENDENCE OF HAITI AND THE

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Among contemporary works, Mederic L. E. Moreau de Saint-Mery, De-

scription topographique, physique, civile, politique et historique de la partie fran-
gaise de I'isle de Saint Domingue, 2 vols. (Philadelphia, 1797-8; 3 vols.,
Paris, 1984; English version, abridged, edited and translated by Ivor A.
Spencer, A Civilization That Perished: The Last Years of White Colonial Rule
in Haiti (Lanham, Md., 1985), and Bryan Edwards, An Historical Survey of
the French Colony in the Island of St. Domingo (London, 1797) offer the most
comprehensive view of the economic, social and political problems of
colonial Saint-Domingue in the years immediately before the French Revo-
lution. See also on Haiti before 1808, Thomas Madiou, Histoire d'Haiti,
vols. 13 (18478; Port-au-Prince, 1904). The best and most comprehen-
sive work on the Haitian Revolution continues to be C. L. R. James, The
Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution (New
York, 1938; and numerous later editions). Other, less satisfactory, works
include Jose L. Franco, Historia de la revolution de Haiti (Havana, 1966),
and T. O. Ott, The Haitian Revolution, 1789-1804 (Knoxville, 1973). A
book now out of fashion because of its racism, though still retaining some
interest, is T. Lothrop Stoddard, The French Revolution in San Domingo
(Boston, 1914; reprint, 1982). Among the many biographies of Toussaint
Louverture two are now classics: Victor Schoelcher, Vie de Toussaint-
Louverture (1889; Paris, 1982), and Horace Pauleus Sannon, Histoire de
Toussaint-Louverture, 3 vols. (Port-au-Prince, 1920-33). See also Pierre
Pluchon, Toussaint-Louverture, d'esclavage au pouvoir (Paris, 1979). There
are contrasting accounts of the military side of the Revolution. The one
favourable to Toussaint is Alfred Nemours, Histoire militaire de la Guerre
d'lndependance de Saint-Domingue, 2 vols. (Paris, 1925-8). From the French
point of view there is Henry de Poyen-Bellisle, Histoire militaire de la
Revolution de Saint-Domingue (Paris, 1899), from the Spanish, Antonio del
Monte y Tejada, Historia de Santo Domingo, vols. 3 and 4 (Santo Domingo,
1890-2), and from the British, Sir John Fortescue, History of the British
Army, vol. 4 (London, 1906). See also Thomas P. Howard, The Haitian
Journal of Lieutenant Howard, York Hussars, 1796-1798, Roger Norman

4. The independence of Haiti and the Dominican Republic 235
Buckley (ed.) (Knoxville, Tenn., 1985); Antoine Metral, Histoire de

I'expedition des Francais a Saint-Domingue sous le consular de Napoleon Bona-
parte, 1802-1803 (1825; Paris, 1985). An important modern study is
David P. Geggus, Slavery, War and Revolution: The British Occupation of
Saint-Domingue 1793-1798 (Oxford, 1982). Robert Louis Stein's biogra-
phy of the Jacobin Commissioner, Le'ger Felicite Sonthonax: The Lost Sentinel
of the Republic (Rutherford, N.J., and London, 1985), is a significant
contribution. For a useful guide to archival sources in Spain, the Carib-
bean, Great Britain and the United States, see David Geggus, 'Unex-
ploited sources for the history of the Haitian revolution', LARR, 18/1
(1983), 95103. Mats Lundhal, Toussaint 1'Overture and the war econ-
omy of Saint-Domingue, 17961802', Slavery and Abolition, 6 (1985) is
an important article. The most recent account of the abolition of slavery in
Saint-Domingue is Robin Blackburn, The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery,
1776-1848 (London, 1988), chaps. 5 and 6. See also David Geggus,
'Haiti and the abolitionists: Opinion, propaganda and international poli-
tics in Britain and in France, 18041838', in D. Richardson (ed.), Aboli-
tion and Its Aftermath: The Historical Context, 17901916 (London, 1986)
and 'The French and Haitian revolutions, and resistance to slavery in the
Americas', Revue Francaise d'Histoire d'Outre-mer (1989).
For the impact that the Haitian Revolution had upon Spanish Santo
Domingo, several works are worthy of note: see, for example, Emilio Rodri-
guez Demorizi (ed.), Cesidn de Santo Domingo a Francia (Ciudad Trujillo,
1958) and La era de Francia en Santo Domingo (Ciudad Trujillo, 1955),
Joaquin Marino Inchaustegui Cabral (ed.), Documentospara estudio: Marco de
la epoca y problemas del Tratado de Basilea de 1795 en la parte espanola de Santo
Domingo, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1957), and Manuel Arturo Pefia Batlle, El
Tratado de Basilea (Cuidad Trujillo, 1952). The Haitian invasions of Santo
Domingo are dealt with in Emilio Rodriguez Demorizi (ed.), Invasiones
haitianas de 1801, 1805 y 1822 (Ciudad Trujillo, 1955). On Spain's efforts
to recover the part of Santo Domingo ceded to France in 1795, see Miguel
Artola, 'La guerra de reconquista de Santo Domingo 1808 1809', Revista de
Indias, 11 (1951), 44784. For a modern synthesis of this period in the
history of Santo Domingo, see Frank Moya Pons, Historia colonial de Santo
Domingo (Santiago de los Caballeros, Dom. Rep., 1974).
Some more recent studies have also examined the impact of the Haitian
revolution elsewhere. See, for example, Alfred Hunt, Haiti's Influence on
Antebellum America: Slumbering Volcano in the Caribbean (Baton Rouge, La.,
1988); Paul Lachance, 'The 1809 immigration of Saint-Domingue refugees

to New Orleans: Reception, integration and impact', Louisiana History

(Spring 1988); Paul Verna, Petion y Bolivar (Caracas, 1980) and 'La revolu-
cion haitiana y sus manifestaciones socio-juridicas en el Caribe y Venezuela',
Boletin de la Academia Nacional de Historia, (OctoberDecember 1988); and
Arturo Morales Carrion, 'La revolucion haitiana y el movimiento anti-
esclavista en Puerto Rico', Boletin de la Academia Puertorriquena de la Histo-
ria, 30(1983).
Haiti's evolution in the period 180843 iS chronicled in Thomas
Madiou, Histoire d'Haiti, vols. 47 recently discovered and published for
the first time (Port-au-Prince, 1988). See also Tonnerre Boisrond, Memoires
pour servir a I'histoire d'Haiti (1852; Port-au-Prince, 1981). Interesting and
important accounts by British and North American visitors during the
years immediately following independence are the most trustworthy con-
temporary sources for the period: Jonathan Brown, The History and Present
Condition ofSt. Domingo, 2 vols. (Philadelphia, 1837; repr. London, 1972),
with its ample reporting of Haitian social customs and of the evolution of
the Haitian political system, which Brown termed, on consideration, 'a re-
publican monarchy resting on its bayonets'; John Candler, Brief Notices of
Hayti, with its Conditions, Resources, and Prospects (London, 1842; repr. Lon-
don, 1972), which contains valuable information on the government of
Boyer; James Franklin, The Present State of Hayti (Saint Domingo) (London,
1828; repr. London, 1972) which is excellent for its assessment of the evo-
lution of Haiti's economy and Haitian agriculture in the times of Petion
and Christophe; and, lastly, Charles Mackenzie, Notes on Haiti, Made dur-
ing a Residence in that Republic, 2 vols. (London, 1830; repr. London, 1972),
which comprises notes that the author collected in Haiti as British consul
there (1826-7), in which he presents useful statistics and enlightened
observations on the economic and social differences between the two parts
of the island. The traditional Haitian account of its early independent
history is to be found in the monumental work of Beaubrun Ardouin,
Etudes sur I'histoire d'Haiti, 11 vols. (Paris, 1853-60; 2nd ed., Port-au-
Prince, 1958); this is indispensable for any knowledge of Boyer's regime,
but not always wholly to be relied upon, since it reflects the official point
of view and the ideology of Haiti's mulatto elite. There are few modern
works, but see Hubert Cole, Christophe, King of Haiti (New York, 1967);
Leslie F. Manigat, La Politique agraire du gouvernement d'Alexandre Petion,
18071818 (Port-au-Prince, 1962); David Nicholls, Economic Development
and Political Autonomy: The Haitian Experience (Montreal, 1974) and 'Rural
protest and peasant revolt in Haiti (18041869)', and 'Economic depen-

4. The independence of Haiti and the Dominican Republic 237
dence and political autonomy 18041915', in his collected essays, Haiti in

Caribbean Context: Ethnicity, Economy and Revolt (London: 1985). See also
the series of articles by Benoit Joachim largely drawn from his unpublished
doctoral thesis, 'Aspects fondamentaux des relations de la France avec
Haiti de 1825 a 1874: Le neocolonialisme a l'essai' (University of Paris,
1968), notably 'Le neocolonialism a l'essail: La France et l'independance
d'Haiti', La Pensee (1971), 'La Reconnaissance d'Haiti par la France (1825):
Naissance d'un nouveau type de rapports internationaux', Revue d'Histoire
Modeme et Contemporaine, 22 (1975), 369-96, 'L'Indemnite colonial de
Saint-Domingue et la question des repatries', Revue Historique, 246(1971),
35976, and 'Commerce et decolonisation: L'experience franco-haitienne
auXIX'siecle', AESC, 27(1972), 1497-1525. A useful study of the press
in Haiti up to the mid-nineteenth century is Justin Emmanuel Castera,
Bref coup d'oeil sur les origins de la presse haitienne, IJ64-1850 (Port-au-
Prince, 1986). Other essays on early independent Haiti include: Mats
Lundhal, 'Defense and distribution: Agricultural policy in Haiti during
the reign of Jean Jacques Dessalines, 1804-1806', Scandinavian Economic
History Review, 31 (1984), and Frances MacLean, 'Henry Christophe, leg-
endary king of Haiti', The Smithsonian (October 1987).
The traditional Dominican account of the period can be found in vol-
umes 2 and 3 of Jose Gabriel Garcia, Compendio de la historia de Santo
Domingo, 4 vols. (Santo Domingo, 18931906). The Haitian occupation
of Santo Domingo during the period of Boyer's rule is the subject of Frank
Moya Pons, La domination haitiana, 18221844 (Santiago de los Cabal-
leros, Dom. Rep., 1973). Moya Pons studies the political impact of the
changes Boyer tried to introduce in the agricultural structure of the former
Spanish sector, and the economic decline of Haiti due to the agrarian
policy of the mulatto governments of those years. See also his 'The land
question in Haiti and Santo Domingo: The socio-political context of the
transition from slavery to free labor, 1801 1843', in Manuel Moreno
Fraginals, Frank Moya Pons and Stanley L. Engerman (eds.), Between
Slavery and Free Labor: The Spanish Speaking Caribbean in the Nineteenth
Century (Baltimore, 1985). Roberto Marte, Estadisticas y documentos his-
tdricos sobre Santo Domingo (Santo Domingo, 1984) is a useful compilation.
On Boyer's fall and the proclamation of independence by the Dominican
Republic there are contemporary studies by Thomas Madiou, Histoire
d'Haiti: Vol. 8, Annies 1843-1847 (1847-8; Port-au-Prince, 1904), and
Romuald Lepelletier de Saint-Remy, Saint-Domingue, etude et solution nouvelle
de la question haitienne, 2 vols. (Paris, 1846; Santo Domingo, 1978). See also

H . Pauleus Sannon, Essai bistoriquesur la revolution de 1843 (Lescayes, Haiti,

1905). The events of 18434 have been the subject of hundreds of articles in
the Dominican Republic, but we still lack the great synthesis which is
needed to sum up the materials published in several collections of docu-
ments, especially Emilio Rodriguez Demorizi, 'La Revoluci6n del 1843:
Apuntes y documentos para su estudio', Boletin del Archivo General de la
Nation, 256 (1943) and Correspondencia del Consul de Frantia en Santo Do-
mingo, 2 vols. (Ciudad Trujillo, 19447), ^ w e ' l ^ Correspondencia de
Levasseur y de otros agentes de Frantia relativa a la Proclamation de la Republica
Dominicana, 18431844 (Ciudad Trujillo, 1944) which the government of
the Dominican Republic published upon the centenary of independence.
5. THE INDEPENDENCE OF BRAZIL

The first chronicle of the events of the entire period 1808-31, though
concentrating on the years 182131, is John Armitage, History of Brazil
from the Arrival of the Braganza Family in 1808 to the Abdication ofDom Pedro
the First in 1831, published in London in 1836 when the author, who had
gone to Rio de Janeiro as a young merchant in 1828, was still only 29.
Intended as a sequel to Robert Southey's monumental History of Brazil
(181019), the first general history of Brazil during the colonial period,
Armitage's History has been used and justly praised by every historian of
the independence period in Brazil. Of the many contemporary accounts
perhaps the best known and most valuable is Maria Graham, Journal of a
Voyage to Brazil and Residence There during Part of the Years 1821, 1822,
1823 (London, 1824). The author was resident in Brazil from September
1821 to March 1822 and again from March to October 1823, that is to
say, immediately before and immediately after independence. Indispens-
able for the period of Dom Joao's residence in Brazil (1808-21) is Luiz
Gonc,alves dos Santos, Memorias para servir a historia do reino do Brasil
[1825], 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1943).
The traditional historiography of Brazilian independence is dominated
by four great works, all essentially detailed accounts of political events:
Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen, Historia da independencia do Brasil (Rio de
Janeiro, 1917); Manoel de Oliveira Lima, Domjoao VI no Brasil (1808-
21) (1909; 2nd ed., 3 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1945), the classic study of the
Portuguese court in Rio, and 0 Movimento da Independencia (Sao Paulo,
1922); and Tobias do Rego Monteiro, Histdria do imperio: A elaboraqao da

$. The independence of Brazil 239
independencia (Rio de Janeiro, 1927). And for the story of the independence
of Bahia, there is Braz do Amaral, Historia da independencia na Bahia
(Salvador, 1923).
Caio Prado Junior was the first historian to analyse the internal tensions
and contradictions in the process leading to Brazilian independence. See,
in particular, Evolugdo politica do Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1933 and many later
editions); Formagdo do Brasil contemporaneo: Colonia (Sao Paulo, 1963),
which has been translated as The Colonial Background of Modern Brazil
(Berkeley, 1967); and the introduction to the facsimile edition of 0 Tamoio
(Sao Paulo, 1944). Octavio Tarquinio de Souza, Jose Bonifacio (Rio de
Janeiro, i960) and A vida do Dom Pedro I, 3 vols., 2nd ed. (Rio de Janeiro,
1954) are important biographies.
Among more recent general works on Brazilian independence by lead-
ing Brazilian historians, especially worthy of note are Sergio Buarque de
Holanda (ed.), Historia geral da civilizagdo brasileira, Tomo 2, 0 Brasil
mondrquico, vol. 1, 0 Processo de emancipacdo (Sao Paulo, 1962); Carlos
Guilherme Mota (ed.), 1822: Dimensoes (Sao Paulo, 1972); and, above all,
Jose Honorio Rodrigues, Independencia: Revolugdo e contrarevolugdo, 5 vols.
(Rio de Janeiro, 1975): 1, A evolugdo politica; 2, Economia e sociedade; 3, As
forgas armadas; 4, A lideranga nacional; 5, A politica international. A Portu-
guese perspective is offered by Maria Beatriz Nizza da Silva, Nova histdria
da expansdoportuguesa, vol. 8, 0 Imperio luso-brasileiro, 1730-1822 (Lisbon,
1986). A general account in English is provided by Roderick J. Barman,
Brazil: The Forging of a Nation, 1798-1852 (Stanford, Calif, 1988),
chaps. 3 - 4 . By far the most important and provocative single essay on
Brazilian independence is Emilia Viotti da Costa, 'Introdugao ao estudo da
emancipagao politica do Brasil', in Carlos Guilherme Mota (ed.), Brasil em
perspectiva (Sao Paulo, 1968); revised English versions, 'The political eman-
cipation of Brazil', in A. J. R. Russell-Wood (ed.), From Colony to Nation:
Essays on the Independence of Brazil (Baltimore, 1975), and 'Independence:
The building of a nation', in Emilia Viotti da Costa, The Brazilian Empire:
Myths and Histories (Chicago, 1985). See also three essays by Emilia Viotti
da Costa on Jose Bonifacio: 'Jose Bonifacio: Mito e historia', Anais do
Museu Paulista, 21 (1967); Jose Bonifacio: Homem e mito', in Mota (ed.),
1822, and 'Jose Bonifacio de Andrada e Silva: A Brazilian founding fa-
ther', in The Brazilian Empire. On the role of Dom Pedro, see Neill
Macaulay's biography, Dom Pedro: The Struggle for Liberty in Brazil and
Portugal, 1798-1834 (Durham N.C., 1986), chaps. 3-4. On the indepen-
dence movement in Rio de Janeiro, the essay by Francisco C. Falcon and

Ilmar Rohloff de Mattos, 'O processo de independencia no Rio de Janeiro'

in Mota (ed.), 1822 is particularly interesting. And on the movement in
Bahia, see Luis Henrique Dias Tavares, A independencia do Brasil na Bahia
(Rio de Janeiro, 1977), and F. W. O. Morton, 'The conservative revolu-
tion of independence: Economy, society and politics in Bahia, 1790-
1840' (unpublished D. Phil, thesis, Oxford, 1974).
The outstanding modern work on the late colonial period, in particular
on economic policy-making and on the trade between Brazil, Portugal and
England, is Fernando A. Novais, Portugal e Brasil na crise do antigo sistema
colonial (17771808) (Sao Paulo, 1979). On the balance of trade, see also
Jose Jobson de A. Arruda, 0 Brasil no comercio colonial (Sao Paulo, 1981).
The influence of the Enlightenment on colonial Brazil is examined in
Maria Odila da Silva, 'Aspectos da ilustragao no Brasil', RIHGB, 278
(1968), 10570. Also see Carlos Guilherme Mota, Atitudes de inovagdo no
Brasil (1789-1801) (Lisbon, 1970) and E. Bradford Burns, 'The intellec-
tuals as agents of change and the independence of Brazil, 17241822', in
Russell-Wood (ed.), From Colony to Nation. The best study of the Inconfi-
dencia mineira (1788-9) is to be found in Kenneth R. Maxwell, Conflicts
and Conspiracies: Brazil and Portugal 1750-1808 (Cambridge, Eng.,
1973). See also his essay 'The generation of the 1790s and the idea of Luso-
Brazilian empire' in Dauril Alden (ed.), Colonial Roots of Modern Brazil
(Berkeley, 1973). There are several studies of the Inconfidencia baiana
(1798): Luis Henrique Dias Tavares, Histdria da sedigdo intentada na Bahia
em 1798: A 'conspiracao do alfaiates' (Sao Paulo, 1975); Afonso Ruy, A
primeira revoluqdo social brasileira, 1798, 2nd ed. (Salvador, 1951); Katia
Maria de Queir6s Mattoso, A presenqa francesa no movimento democrdtico
baiano de 1798 (Salvador, 1969); and chap. 4 of Morton, 'Conservative
revolution'. There is a modern edition of the Obras econdmicas of Jose
Joaquim da Cunha de Azeredo Coutinho with an introduction by Sergio
Buarque de Holanda (Sao Paulo, 1966). For a commentary, see E. Brad-
ford Burns, 'The role of Azeredo Coutinho in the enlightenment of Brazil',
HAHR, 44/2 (1964), 145-60.
The transfer of the Portuguese court from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro
(18078) has been thoroughly studied by Alan K. Manchester, British
Preeminence in Brazil: Its Rise and Decline (Durham, N.C., 1933), chap. 3;
'The transfer of the Portuguese court to Rio de Janeiro', in Henry H.
Keith and S. F. Edwards (eds.), Conflict and Continuity in Brazilian Society
(Columbia, S.C., 1969); and 'The growth of bureaucracy in Brazil, 1808-
1821', JLAS, 4/1 (1972), 7 7 - 8 3 . On the opening of Brazilian ports to

jj. The independence of Brazil 241
foreign trade (1808), besides Manchester, British Preeminence, see Manuel

Pinto de Aguiar, A abertura dos portos: Cairit e os ingleses (Salvador, i960)
and Jose Wanderley de Araujo Pinho, 'A abertura dos portos - Cairu',
RIHGB, 243 (April-June 1959). Manchester, British Preeminence, remains
the best study of the Anglo-Portuguese treaties of 1810 and of Portuguese
expansionism in the Banda Oriental. Early attempts at encouraging indus-
trial growth in Brazil are examined in Ni'cia Vilela Luz, A luta pela
industrializacdo do Brasil, 18081930 (Sao Paulo, 1961) and Alice P.
Canabrava, 'Manufacturas e industrias no periodo de D. Joao vi no Brasil',
in Luis Pilla, et al., Uma experiencia pioneira de intercambio cultural (Porto
Alegre, 1963). On internal trade and, in particular, the organisation of
Rio de Janeiro's food supply, see Alcir Lenharo, As tropas da moderacdo da
Corte na formagdo politica do Brasil (18081842) (Sao Paulo, 1979). On the
society of Rio de Janeiro during the period 180821, see Maria Beatriz
Nizza da Silva, Andlise de estratificaqdo social: 0 Rio de Janeiro de 1808 a
1821 (Sao Paulo, 1975) and Cultura e sociedade no Rio de Janeiro, 1808-21
(Sao Paulo, 1977); and Leila Mezan Algranti, 0 Feitor ausente: Estudos sobre
a escravidao urbana no Rio de Janeiro - 1808-1822 (Petropolis, 1988). The
French artistic mission is the subject of Affonso d'Escragnolle Taunay, A
missdo artistica de 1816 (Rio de Janeiro, 1956; Brasilia, 1983). There has
been only one modern study of the revolution of 1817 in Pernambuco:
Carlos Guilherme Mota, Nordeste, 18iy: Estruturas e argumentos (Sao Paulo,
1972), which concentrates on the ideological aspects of the struggle. Still
useful is the account by one of the leading participants: Francisco Muniz
Tavares, Historia da revolucdo de Pernambuco em 1817, 3rd ed. (Recife,
1917). On the armed forces during this period, besides volume 3 of
Rodrigues, Independencia, there is an interesting case study of Bahia, F. W.
O. Morton, 'Military and society in Bahia, 1800-1821', JLAS, 7/2
(1975), 249-69. The Portuguese Cortes, and especially the role of the
Brazilian representatives, is the subject of two essays: George C. A.
Boehrer, 'The flight of the Brazilian deputies from the Cortes Gerais in
Lisbon, 1822', HAHR, 40/4 (i960), 497-512, and Fernando Tomaz,
'Brasileiros nas Cortes Constituintes de 1821-1822', in Mota (ed.), 1822.
The most recent work on the Constituent Assembly is Jose Honorio
Rodrigues, A Constituinte de 1823 (Petropolis, 1974). The question of the
continuation of the slave trade and Brazilian independence has been stud-
ied by Leslie Bethell, The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade (Cambridge,
Eng., 1970), chaps. 1 and 2. See also his article, 'The independence of
Brazil and the abolition of the Brazilian slave trade: Anglo-Brazilian

relations 18221826', JLAS, 1/2(1969), 115147. On AngloBrazilian

relations in general, and British recognition of Brazilian independence,
Manchester, British Preeminence, remains the best study. But see also Caio
de Freitas, George Canning e 0 Brasil, 2 vols. (Sao Paulo, i960).
6. I N T E R N A T I O N A L POLITICS A N D LATIN
AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE
The basic source for British relations with Latin America during the
independence period is C. K. Webster (ed.), Britain and the Independence of
Latin America, 1812-1830: Select Documents from the Foreign Office Archives,
2 vols. (London, 1938; repr. New York, 1970), the introduction to which
provides a valuable overview of British policy. This can be followed in
more detail through its successive phases in J. Lynch, 'British policy and
Spanish America, 1783-1808', JLAS, 1/1 (1969), 1-30; C. M. Crawley,
'French and English influences in the Cortes of Cadiz, 1810-1814', Cam-
bridge Historical Journal, 6 (1939); J. Rydjord, 'British mediation between
Spain and her colonies, 1811-1813', HAHR, 21 (1941); C. K. Webster,
The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812-1815 (London, 1931), and The
Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1813-1822, 2nd ed. (London, 1934); D. A.
G. Waddell, 'British neutrality and SpanishAmerican independence:
The problem of foreign enlistment', JLAS, 19/1 (1987), 1-18, and
'Anglo-Spanish relations and the "Pacification of America" during the
"Constitutional Triennium", 1820-1823', Anuario de Estudios Americanos,
46 (1989); and H. Temperley, The Foreign Policy of Canning, 1822-182 7
(London, 1925; repr. London, 1966). Leslie Bethell, George Canning and
the Emancipation of Latin America (London, 1970), gives a brief re-
evaluation of Canning's role, and J. D. Jaramillo, Bolivar y Canning,
1822-182J: Desde el Congreso de Verona hasta el Congreso de Panama (Bogota,
1983) analyses both Britian's policy in relation to recognition and Boli-
var's policy towards Britain. W. W. Kaufmann, British Policy and the
Independence of Latin America, 18041828 (New Haven, Conn., 1951;
repr. London, 1967) offers an interesting, though idiosyncratic, interpreta-
tion of the whole period, based on printed sources.
British commercial relations are discussed in D. B. Goebel, 'British trade
to the Spanish colonies, 1796-1823', AHR, 43 (1938); R. A. Humphreys,
'British merchants and South American independence', Proceedings of the
British Academy, 51 (1965); J. F. Rippy, 'Latin America and the British

6. International politics and independence 243
investment "boom" of the 1820s'', JournalofModern History, 19(1947);?. G.

Dawson, The First Latin American Debt Crisis: The City of London and the
182225 Loan Bubble (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1990); and the
first part of D. C. M. Platt, Latin America and British Trade, 18061914
(London, 1972). They are documented in R. A. Humphreys (ed.), British
Consular Reports on the Trade and Politics of Latin America, 18241826,
Camden Society, 3rd series, vol. 53 (London, 1940).
The local implementation of British policy in the southern hemisphere
may be followed through the selection of dispatches from British naval
commanders printed in G. S. Graham and R. A. Humphreys (eds.), The
Navy and South America, 180J-1823, Publications of the Navy Records
Society, vol. 104 (London, 1962). British activities in relation to Brazil
and Argentina may be traced in the earlier chapters of A. K. Manchester,
British Preeminence in Brazil: Its Rise and Decline (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1933;
repr. New York, 1964); Leslie Bethell, The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave
Trade: Britain, Brazil and the Slave Trade Question, 18071S69 (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1970); H. S. Ferns, Britain and Argentina in the Nineteenth
Century (Oxford, i960); and V. B. Reber, British Mercantile Houses in
Buenos Aires, 18101880 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979); J. Street, 'Lord
Strangford and Rio de la Plata, 1808-1815', HAHR, 33 (1953); J. C. J.
Metford, 'The recognition by Great Britain of the United Provinces of Rio
de la Plata', and 'The Treaty of 1825 between Great Britain and the
United Provinces of Rio de la Plata', Bulletin of Hispanic Studies 29 (1952)
and 30 (1953); and D. C. M. Platt, 'Foreign finance in Argentina for the
first half-century of independence', JLAS, 15/1 (1983), 23-47.
There is little in English on northern South America, apart from G. E.
Carl, First Among Equals: Great Britain and Venezuela, 18101910 (Ann
Arbor, Mich., 1980), which includes an examination of economic relations
during the independence period and its aftermath. However, material from
British archives is printed in Spanish translation in C. Parra-Perez (ed.),
Documentos de las cancillerias europeas sobre la independencia venezolana, 2 vols.
(Caracas, 1962) and C. L. Mendoza, Las primeras misiones diplomdticas de
Venezuela, 2 vols. (Caracas, 1962). There is much information on British
relations at local level in Carlos Pi Sunyer, El General Juan Robertson: Un
procer de la independencia (Caracas, 1971) and at metropolitan level in the
same author's Patriotas americanos en Londres (Caracas, 1978). D. A. G.
Waddell, Gran Bretana y la independencia de Venezuela y Colombia (Caracas,
1983), is a study of contacts between British authorities and both patriots
and royalists, and E. Lambert, Voluntarios britdnicos e irlandeses en la gesta

244 'V- The independence of Latin America
bolivariana, vol. i (Caracas, 1981), gives a documented account of the

activities of British legionaries in Bolivar's forces until 1819.
AngloMexican negotiations are discussed in the light of Mexican ar-
chive material in Jaime E. Rodriguez O., The Emergence of Spanish America:
Vicente Rocafuerte and Spanish Americanism, 1808-183 2 (Berkeley, 1975), as
are Mexico's early dealings with other European powers. The period before
1810 is explored in J. Rydjord, Foreign Interest in the Independence of New
Spain (Durham, N.C., 1935; repr. New York, 1972).
United States relations are fully documented in W. R. Manning (ed.),
Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States Concerning the Independence of the
Latin American Nations, 3 vols. (New York, 1925), and comprehensively
discussed in A. P. Whitaker, The United States and the Independence of Latin
America, 18001830 (Baltimore, 1941; repr. New York, 1962). C. C.
Griffin, The United States and the Disruption of the Spanish Empire, 1810
1822 (New York, 1937; repr. 1968) is valuable for U.S. relations with
Spain. D. Perkins, The Monroe Doctrine 18231826 (Cambridge, Mass.,
1927) is still the standard work on its subject, though E. R. May, The
Making of the Monroe Doctrine (Cambridge, Mass., 1975) places new empha-
sis on the influence of U.S. domestic politics. North American relations
with particular countries may be followed in W. R. Manning, Early
Diplomatic Relations between the United States and Mexico (Baltimore, 1916;
repr. New York, 1968), in E. B. Billingsley, In Defence of Neutral Rights:
The United States Navy and the Wars of Independence in Chile and Peru (Chapel
Hill, N . C . , 1967), and in the appropriate chapters of H. F. Peterson,
Argentina and the United. States, 1810-1960 (New York, 1964);!. F. Hill,
Diplomatic Relations between the United States and Brazil (Durham, N.C.,
1932; repr. New York, 1969); and E. T. Parks, Colombia and the United
States, 1765-1934 (Durham, N.C., 1935; repr. New York, 1968).
AngloAmerican rivalry is investigated at local level in J. F. Rippy,
Rivalry of the United States and Great Britain over Latin America, 1808-1830
(Baltimore, 1929; repr. New York, 1972); at metropolitan level in Brad-
ford Perkins, Castlereagh and Adams: England and the United States, 1812
1823 (Berkeley, 1964); and in a perceptive essay by R. A. Humphreys,
'AngloAmerican rivalries and Spanish American emancipation', Transac-
tions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th Series, 16 (1966). P. K. Liss,
Atlantic Empires: A Network of Trade and Revolution, 1713-1826 (Balti-
more, 1983), is an ambitious attempt to relate the independence move-
ments to intellectual and economic developments in the Atlantic world of
the United States and Great Britain, and of Spain and her colonies.

6. International politics and independence 245
Much information on the attitudes and policies of all the European

powers can be gleaned from the large collection of documents printed in A.
Filippi (ed.), Bolivar y Europa en las cronicas, el pensamiento politico y la
historiografia, vol. 1 (Caracas, 1986). The standard work on French policy is
W. S. Robertson, France and Latin American Independence (Baltimore, 1939;
2nd ed., New York, 1967). H Temperley, 'French designs on Spanish
America in 182025', English Historical Review, 40 (1925) deals with a
controversial period. Russian relations have been the subject of a modern
study by R. H. Bartley, Imperial Russia and the Struggle for Latin American
Independence, 1808-1828 (Austin, Tex., 1978). The policy of the central
European powers is well covered in M. Kossok, Historia de la Santa Alianzay
la emancipacion de America Latina (Buenos Aires, 1968), and illustrated in K.
W. Korner, La independencia de la America espanola y la diplomacia alemana
(Buenos Aires, 1968) with documents from a variety of European archives.
W. S. Robertson, 'Metternich's attitude towards revolutions in Latin Amer-
ica', HAHR, 21 (1941) provides a few basic facts. J. Lloyd Mecham, 'The
papacy and Spanish American independence', HAHR, 9 (1929) is asuccinct
survey.

V
LATIN AMERICA: ECONOMY,
SOCIETY, POLITICS,
c. 1820 to c. 1870
1. P O S T - I N D E P E N D E N C E S P A N I S H
AMERICA: E C O N O M Y A N D SOCIETY
Roberto Cortes Conde and Stanley J. Stein (eds.), Latin America: A Guide
to Economic History (18301930) (Berkeley, 1977) is a comprehensive sur-
vey of existing secondary literature which concentrates on Argentina,
Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Peru and Mexico. Ciro F. S. Cardoso and Hector
Perez Brignoli, Historia Economica de America Latina, 2 vols. (Barcelona,
1979) is a general economic history of Latin America which includes a
valuable chapter (vol. 2, ch. 4) on the post-independence period. See also
Tulio Halperin Donghi, Historia contempordnea de America Latina (Madrid,
1969; Eng. trans., Durham, N.C., 1993), chaps. 3 and 4 and The After-
math of Revolution in Latin America (New York, 1973).
On the commercial and financial relations between the new Spanish
American states and Britain in the period after independence, besides the
classic The Migration of British Capital to 1875, by Leland H. Jenks (New
York, 1927; reissued London, 1971) and J. Fred Rippy, British Investment
in Latin America, 1822-1949 (Minneapolis, Minn., 1959), see D. C. M.
Platt, Latin America and British Trade, 1806-1914 (London, 1973). Sergio
Villalobos R., El comercio y la crisis colonial: Un mito de la independencia
(Santiago, Chile, 1968), goes further than Platt in limiting the impact of
the opening of trade after independence. The collection of articles edited
by Reinhard Liehr, America Latina en la epoca de Simon Bolivar: Laformacion
de las economias nacionales y los intereses economicos europeos, 18001850 (Ber-
lin, 1989), while taking into account the larger European background,
puts most of its emphasis on the national and even local socio-economic
transitions during the early nineteenth century.
A pioneering study of the impact of the Wars of Independence on the
247

248 V. Economy, society, politics, c. 1820 to c. 1870
economy and society of Spanish America is Charles C. Griffin, 'Economic

and social aspects of the era of Spanish American independence', HAHR,
29/2 (1949), 17087, revised and expanded in Los temassocietiesy economicos
en la era de la Independencia (Caracas, 1962). R. A. Humphreys (ed.),
British Consular Reports on the Trade and Politics of Latin America, 182426
(London, 1940), covers in considerable detail the situation in the different
ports, and reflects the impact on them and the new nations generally of
the still recent political and military crisis. The role and attitude of the
different strata of Mexican society during the independence struggle is the
subject of Luis Villoro's insightful La revolucion de independencia: Ensayo de
interpretacidn historica (Mexico, D.F., 1953). For Argentina, see Tulio Hal-
perin Donghi, Politics, Economics and Society in Argentina in the Revolutionary
Period (London, 1975). For Peru, see the controversial collection of essays
edited by Heraclio Bonilla, La independencia en el Peril, 2nd enlarged ed.
(Lima, 1981) and the pertinent sections of Alberto Flores Galindo,
Independencia y revolucion, 17801840, 2 vols. (Lima, 1987). The agrarian
dimension of the independence struggle in Venezuela was the subject of
the extensive introductory study in German Carrera Damas's Materiales
para el estudio de la cuestion agraria en Venezuela (18001830) (Caracas,
1964), and in Uruguay has been explored by L. Sala de Touron, N. de la
Torre and J. C. Rodriguez, La revolucion agraria artiguista (Montevideo,
1969; abridged version under the title Artigas y su revolucion agraria,
1811-1820, Mexico, D.F., 1978).
For many aspects of the post-independence period much can be found
in works that cover a larger time-span. A necessarily incomplete list
should include Carlos Marichal, A Century of Debt Crises in Latin America:
From Independence to the Great Depression, 18201930 (Princeton, N.J.,
1988); for Mexico, John Coatsworth, Growth Against Development: The
Economic Impact of Railroads in Profirian Mexico (De Kalb, 111., 1981);
Friedrich Katz (ed.), Riot, Rebellion and Revolution: Rural Social Conflict in
Mexico (Princeton, N.J., 1988); and John Tutino, From Insurrection to
Revolution in Mexico: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence 11^,01940 (Prince-
ton, N.J., 1986); for the Andean area and southern South America,
Carlos Sempat Assadourian, El sistema de la economia colonial: Mercado
interno, regiones y espacio economico (Lima, 1982); for Peru, Manuel Burga,
De la encomienda a la hacienda capitalista: El valle de Jequetepeque del siglo
XVI al XX (Lima, 1976) and Florencia E. Mallon, The Defense of Commu-
nity in Peru's Central Highlands: Peasant Struggle and Capitalist Transition
1860-1940 (Princeton, N.J., 1983); for Bolivia, Brooke Larson, Colonial-

i . Spanish America: economy and society 249
ism and Agrarian Transformation in Bolivia: Cochabamba, 15501900

(Princeton, N.J., 1988), Tristan Platt, Estado boliviano y ayllu andino:
Tierra y tributo en el Norte de Potosi (Lima, 1982) and Enrique Tandeter, La
rente comme rapport de production et comme rapport de distribution: he cos de
I'industrie miniere de Potosi, IJ501826 (3rd cycle thesis, Ecole des Hautes
Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris, 1980); for Chile, Arnold J. Bauer,
Chilean Rural Society from the Spanish Conquest to 1930 (London, 1975).
On the new economic and social order and political reconstruction after
independence, once again the most important contributions concern spe-
cific countries or regions. This is even the case for Diana Balmori, Stuart
F. Voss and Miles Wortman, Notable Family Networks in Latin America
(Chicago, 1984), a collection of pioneer studies on a subject better devel-
oped by Brazilian historians that targets northwest Mexico, Central Amer-
ica and Buenos Aires. David Bushnell, The Santander Regime in Gran
Colombia (Newark, Del., 1954) is an exemplary study of the new state in
the face of problems by no means exclusive to Colombia; William Lee
Lofstrom, The Problem and Promise of Reform: Attempted Social and Economic
Change in the First Years of Bolivian Independence (Cornell University Disser-
tation Series, 33, Ithaca, N.Y., 1972) explores similar issues for Bolivia.
The study of the political economy of the new states in the aftermath of
independence has also advanced mostly in a national framework. For
Argentina, Miron Burgin, The Economic Aspects of Argentine Federalism,
182052 (Cambridge, Mass., 1946) offers a scholarly exploration of is-
sues already studied somewhat impressionistically, but nonetheless percep-
tively, in Juan Alvarez's Ensayo sobre las guerras chiles argentinas (Buenos
Aires, 1914). For Chile, Francisco Encina's no less impressionistic and
even more influential Nuestra inferioridad economica (Santiago, Chile, 1911)
offered a rosy view of the immediate post-independence period as part of a
plea for economic independence through protectionist policies. Encina's
views influenced the historical assumptions of the ECLA economists (wit-
ness Anibal Pinto Santa Cruz's equally influential Chile, un caso de
desarrollo frustrado [Santiago, Chile, 1959]) notwithstanding the indirect
but devastating rebuttal offered by Claudio Veliz in his Historia de la
marina mercante de Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1961). As Veliz convincingly
demonstrates, the rise and fall of a vigorous native merchant marine, that
according to Encina offered one of the most impressive examples of the
negative consequences of the abandonment of protectionism, is a wholly
imaginary episode, based on a hasty misreading of the documentary
sources. More recently a less engaged (and more promising) approach to

the same issues has begun to emerge. See, for example, Paul Gootenberg's
extremely suggestive Between Silver and Guano: Commercial Policy and the
State in Post-Independence Peru (Princeton, N.J., 1989). Among the studies
that concentrate on the later part of the period, as Spanish America moved
towards the new era of export-led expansion, those linked with the export
sector take of course pride of place; thus for the River Plate states, H. S.
Ferns, Britain and Argentina in the XlXth Century (Oxford, i960), a
convincing presentation of Argentina's entry in the railway age, J. P.
Barran and Benjamin Nahum's monumental Historia rural del Uruguay
moderno, vol. 1, 1851-1885 (Montevideo, 1967) and more recently Hilda
Sabato, Agrarian Capitalism and the World Market: Buenos Aires in the
Pastoral Age, 18401890 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1990; Sp. orig. Capital-
ismo y ganaderia en Buenos Aires: La fiebre del lanar 1850-1890, Buenos
Aires, 1989).
The covering of both elites and subordinate classes is equally patchy.
For the first, Carlos Real de Aziia, Elpatriciado Uruguay0, 2nd. ed. (Monte-
video, 1981) is exceptional in its ambition to offer a total image of the
patriciado social group. Most studies concentrate on the elite groups' role
in defining and influencing public policy. This is the case, for instance,
with Heraclio Bonilla's Guano y burguesia en el Peru (Lima, 1974), and for
Chile, Alberto Edwards Vives's classic, La fronda aristocrdtica (Santiago,
Chile, 1927) and Maurice Zeitlin's more recent and equally controversial,
The Civil Wars in Chile (or the Bourgeois Revolutions that Never Were) (Prince-
ton, N.J., 1984). Only recently has the study of the subordinate classes
begun to look beyond the policy issues created by them, and even here
mostly on subjects already explored in the past. Not surprisingly, the
subject of slaves and slavery dominates the field, and again not
surprisingly Cuba offers the theme for the most substantial contribu-
tions, notwithstanding John Lombardi's The Decline and Abolition of Negro
Slavery in Venezuela, 18101854 (Westport, Conn., 1971). See Franklin
W. Knight, Slave Society in Cuba during the Nineteenth Century (Madison,
Wis., 1970) and Manuel Moreno Fraginals, El ingenio (Havana, 1964;
Eng. translation, The Sugarmill, New York, 1978) and more recently,
Rebecca J. Scott, Slave Emancipation in Cuba: The Transition to Free Labor,
1860-1899 (Princeton, N.J., 1985).
Some recent studies have started a more systematic exploration of a
subject closely linked to that of public policy, namely that of state fi-
nances. See Barbara A. Tenenbaum, The Politics of Penury: Debts and Taxes

i. Spanish America: economy and society 251
in Mexico, 18211856 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1986), Alfonso W.

Quiroz, La deuda defraudada: Consolidacion de 1850 y dominio economico en el
Peru (Lima, 1987), Tulio Halperin Donghi, Guerra y finanzas en laforma-
cion del estado argentino, 17911850 (Buenos Aires, 1982), and the perti-
nent sections of El Uruguay comercial, pastoril y caudillesco: Tomo I: Economia
(Montevideo, 1986) by Lucia Sala de Touron and Rosa Alonso Eloy, with
the collaboration of Julio C. Rodriguez, especially part 2, chap. 3, 'La
acumulacion basada en los "grandes negocios" con el estado'.
The history of ideologies and collective mentalites is also slowly disengag-
ing itself from that of policy issues. The limited production can only cover
in the most partial way the vast field thus opened to the historian's
curiosity; its heterogeneity is still its most conspicuous feature, as re-
flected in the distance between the approach of Frank Safford in The Ideal
of the Practical: Colombia's Struggle to Form a Technical Elite (Austin, Tex.,
1976), with its subtle view of a progressivism that deliberately takes its
distance from liberalism, and Mark D. Szuchman's Order, Family and
Community in Buenos Aires, 18101860 (Stanford, Calif., 1988).
The vast travel literature of the period is listed in Bernard Naylor,
Accounts of Nineteenth Century South America: An Annotated Checklist of Works
by British and United States Observers (London, 1969). Worthy of special
mention is H. G. Ward, Mexico in 182J, 2 vols. (London, 1828), a
systematic presentation of the country by a well-informed and astute, if
not disinterested, observer. To this should be added the critical analyses
by locally born authors: for example Jose Antonio Saco's outstanding
Memoria sobre la vagancia en la isla de Cuba (Havana, 1832) and Mariano
Otero, Ensayo sobre el verdadero estado de la cuestion social y politica que se agita
en la Republica Mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1842). This period also witnessed
the publication of exhaustive descriptions of the geography and socio-
economic characteristics of the new countries, along the lines of a pioneer
study by Agostino Codazzi, published in Caracas in 1842 under the title
Resumen de la geografia de Venezuela. In Colombia the 'comision geografica',
directed by Codazzi, produced Manuel Ancizar's Peregrinacion de Alpha por
laprovincia del norte de la Nueva Granada, en 1850 y 1851 (Bogota, 1853).
In Peru, there was the monumental work by the Italian geographer,
Antonio Raimondi, El Peru, 3 vols. (Lima, 187480); in Chile, the even
more ambitious Historia fisica y politica de Chile (Paris and Santiago,
184471), by the French botanist Claude Gay, of which the two volumes
on La agricultura, published in 1862 and 1865, are of particular interest;

252 V. Economy, society, politics, c. 1820 toe. I8JO
and in Argentina, the French geographer Jean-Antoine-Victor Martin de

Moussy's Description geographique et statistique de la Confederation Argentine,
3 vols. (Paris, 1860-73).
2. P O S T - I N D E P E N D E N C E SPANISH
AMERICA: SOCIETY A N D POLITICS
In addition to works treating political themes for Spanish America as a

whole, this bibliographical essay touches on some works on individual
countries that have wider significance, either because their conclusions are
broadly applicable or because they may be taken as models for study in
other places.
David Bushnell and Neill Macaulay, The Emergence of Latin America
(New York, 1988) is a general survey of Latin America in the nineteenth
century full of interesting detail and gracefully written. Stanley J. Stein
and Barbara H. Stein, The Colonial Heritage of Latin America: Essays on
Economic Dependence in Perspective (New York, 1970), as its title suggests,
interprets Latin American history from the vantage point of dependency
analysis. Its exposition includes political as well as economic features of
the nineteenth century, both sketched rather schematically. Tulio Hal-
perin Donghi deals with the society and politics of the post-independence
period era in a perspicacious and sophisticated way in two texts: chaps. 3
and 4 of his Historia contempordnea de America Latina (Madrid, 1969; Eng.
trans., 1993) and The Aftermath of Revolution in Latin America (New York,
1973). Finally, E. Bradford Burns, in The Poverty of Progress: Latin America
in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley, 1980), offers another general interpreta-
tion much influenced by the perspective of dependency analysis, which
stresses the conflict between an exploitative Europe-oriented dominant
class and a resistant 'folk.' Burns's observations about the dominant class
generally are more persuasive than his account of the 'folk,' about whose
attitudes there is still rather little solid information.
On the initial formation of new states in Spanish America, David
Bushnell's The Santander Regime in Gran Colombia (Newark, Del., 1954) is
a model monograph dealing with political issues and administrative reali-
ties. On the birth of the republic in Bolivia, see William L. Lofstrom, La
presidencia de Sucre en Bolivia (Caracas, 1987); 'Attempted economic reform
and innovation in Bolivia under Antonio Jose de Sucre, 18251828/
HAHR, 50/2 (1970), 279-99; a n d 'From colony to republic: A case study

2. Spanish America: society and politics 253
in bureaucratic change', JLAS, 5/2 (1973), 177-97. Michael P. Costeloe,

Laprimera republica federal de Mexico (1824-1835): Un estudio de lospartidos
politicos en el Mexico independiente (Mexico, D.F., 1975) gives a marvelous
picture of political factions and cross-currents in early republican Mexico.
Spanish American legal scholars and historians have compiled national
constitutional histories for most of the countries in the region; they are too
numerous to list here. There is no single work on the constitutional
history of Spanish America as a whole. Mario Rodriguez, The Cadiz Experi-
ment in Central America, 18081826 (Berkeley, 1978) is a case study of
more general interest because of the widespread influence of the Cadiz
constitution (1812) through much of Spanish America.
A general view of elite ideologies in the nineteenth century may be
found in Leopoldo Zea, The Latin American Mind (Norman, Okla., 1949).
William Rex Crawford, A Century of Latin American Thought (Cambridge,
Mass., 1961) provides a brief introduction to some of the ideas of salient
thinkers. Works on particular countries that are more broadly suggestive
include Simon Collier, Ideas and Politics of Chilean Independence: 18081833
(Cambridge, Eng., 1967) and Jaime Jaramillo Uribe, El pensamiento colom-
biano en el siglo XIX (Bogota, 1964). Charles Hale, Mexican Liberalism in
the Age of Mora: 18211833 (New Haven, Conn., 1968) usefully sets
Mora and his contemporaries in the broad context of received European
thought; nonetheless the views of Mora and others discussed by Hale were
in important ways peculiar to the Mexican situation. Also for intellectual
history, see E. Bradford Burns, 'Ideology in nineteenth-century Latin
American historiography,' HAHR, 58/3 (1978), 40931, and Allen
Woll, A Functional Past: The Uses of History in Nineteenth-Century Chile
(Baton Rouge, La., 1982), which explore the ideological cargo of the
writings of nineteenth-century Spanish American historians. In a rather
different vein, Frank Safford, The Ideal of the Practical: Colombia's Struggle to
Form a Technical Elite (Austin, Tex., 1976) discusses, among other themes,
the role in national politics of policies in higher education.
Fiscal weakness as an obstacle to the development of stable Spanish
American republics (18201870) is the topic of a growing literature.
Much of the work to date deals with Mexico: see, for example, Jan Bazant,
Historia de la deuda exterior de Mexico (1823-1946) (Mexico, D.F., 1968);
Marcello Carmagnani, 'Finanzas y estado en Mexico, 18201880,' l-AA,
9 (1983), 279317; Barbara A. Tenenbaum, The Politics of Penury: Debt
and Taxes in Mexico, 1821-1856 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1986). Two
important analyses bear on fiscal problems in Argentina: Miron Burgin,

The Economic Aspects of Argentine Federalism, 1820-1852 (Cambridge,

Mass., 1946), and Tulio Halperin Donghi, Guerra yfinanzas en los origenes
del estado argentino (1791-1850) (Buenos Aires, 1982). For the northern
Andes there are Malcolm Deas, 'The fiscal problem of nineteenth century
Colombia,' JLAS, 14 (1982), 287-328, and Linda Alexander Rodriguez,
The Search for Public Policy: Regional Politics and Government Finances in
Ecuador, 1830-1940 (Berkeley, 1985).
General cultural explanations of political instability are perhaps less in
favour now than structural approaches, but no one should ignore the
striking formulations of Richard M. Morse, which emphasize the persis-
tence of Spanish royal patrimonial-authoritarian patterns. Morse has reiter-
ated and reformulated his thesis several times, in 'Toward a theory of
Spanish American government,' Journal of the History of Ideas, 15 (1954),
7 1 - 9 3 ; 'The heritage of Latin America,' in Louis Hartz (ed.), The Founding
of New Societies (New York, 1964), 12377; and, more recently, in chap. 3
of New World Soundings: Culture and Ideology in the Americas (Baltimore,
1989). Morse's ideas are applied to the case of Chile in Francisco Antonio
Moreno, Legitimacy and Stability in Latin America: A Study of Chilean Politi-
cal Culture (New York, 1969). Another sort of cultural interpretation of
Spanish American politics, emphasizing Roman Catholic 'monism' and the
drive for individual dominance in Spanish American culture, is offered by
Glen Caudill Dealy, 'The tradition of monistic democracy in Latin Amer-
ica,' in Politics and Social Change in Latin America, edited by Howard J.
Wiarda (Amherst, Mass., 1974), and The Public Man: An Interpretation of
Latin American and Other Catholic Countries (Amherst, Mass., 1977). Two
earlier cultural interpretations, apparently no longer much read, are Fran-
cisco Garcia Calderon, Latin America: Its Rise and Progress (New York,
1913) and Lionel Cecil Jane, Liberty and Despotism in Spanish America (Lon-
don, 1929).
Although many current scholars tend to look to enduring cultural pat-
terns rather than to structural characteristics in interpreting nineteenth-
century politics in Spanish America, a persuasive overall structural analysis
remains to be formulated. Eric R. Wolf and Edward C. Hansen, 'Caudillo
politics: A structural analysis,' CSSH, 9/2 (1967), 16879, is much cited
and has been very influential. But their analysis is vitiated by a faulty
understanding of both economic and social structures. Other sources with
useful perspectives on nineteenth-century caudillismo include Hugh M.
Hamill, Jr. (ed.), Dictatorship in Spanish America (New York, 1965) and
Robert L. Gilmore, Caudillism and Militarism in Venezuela, 18101910

(Athens, Ohio, 1964). One of the more useful contributions is the analysis
of a single case (Martin Giiemes in the province of Salta, Argentina) by
Roger Haigh, 'The creation and control of a caudillo," HAHR, 44/4
(1964), 48190. John Lynch, Argentine Dictator: Juan Manuel de Rosas,
18291852 (Oxford, 1981) is a masterful treatment of that important
candillo. Lynch has now written a broader analysis of Spanish American
caudillismo, focusing upon the cases of Rosas, Jose Antonio Paez of Venezu-
ela, General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna of Mexico, and Jose Rafael
Carrera of Guatemala: Caudillos in Spanish America, 18001850 (Oxford,
1992).
A number of structural analyses of politics focus upon conflicting re-
gional economic interests or at least differentiation among regional econo-
mies. As the economic structures of the countries vary, so also do the
analyses of the roles of regional economic interest (or other regional identi-
fications) in shaping politics. Because of both variations among the coun-
tries and variations of analysis within individual countires, developing an
overall interpretive structure from the individual cases presents a chal-
lenge. The classic study of conflicting regional economic interests as a
factor in politics is Miron Burgin's Economic Aspects of Argentine Federalism
(cited above); Burgin's picture of the Argentine economy has been chal-
lenged and revised by Jonathan Brown, A Socioeconomic History of Argentina,
IJJ6I86O (Cambridge, Eng., 1979), and regional economic experience
is treated with sophistication and nuance in various works of Tulio Hal-
perin Donghi, e.g. Politics, Economics and Society in Argentina in the Revolu-
tionary Period (Cambridge, Eng., 1975). Differing regional economic inter-
ests play a central role in Paul Gootenberg's impressive interpretation of
Peruvian politics, Between Silver and Guano: Commercial Policy and the State
in Post-independence Peru (Princeton, N.J., 1989) as well as in various
shorter essays. Gootenberg's construction may be thought of as a lineal
descendant of Burgin's analysis of Argentine politics, but the regional
economic structures, and thus the socio-political consequences, appear to
be substantially different. Conveniently brief treatments pointing up the
contrast between the structural conditions and political outcomes in Co-
lombia and Peru may be found in Frank Safford, 'The emergence of
economic liberalism in Colombia,' and Paul Gootenberg, 'Beleaguered
liberals: The failed first generation of free traders in Peru,' both in Joseph
L. Love and Nils Jacobsen (eds.), Guiding the Invisible Hand: Economic.
Liberalism and the State in Latin American History (New York, 1988).
Two striking, but flawed, analyses of regional conflict in Colombian

politics are German Colmenares, Partidos politicos y clases sociales (Bogota,

1968), which empahsizes contrasting socio-political mentalities created by
different regional economies, and Maria Teresa Uribe de Hincapie and
Jesus Maria Alvarez, Poderes y regiones: Problemas en la constitucion de la nacion
colombiana (Medellin, 1987), which stresses conflicting regional economic
interests. Colmenares identifies Colombian conservatism with the aristoc-
racy of the Cauca, ignoring the developing bourgeoisie of Antioquia,
while Uribe de Hincapie and Alvarez, for their part, exaggerate the impor-
tance of Antioquia's economic grievances as a source of political conflict.
The role of region in political alignments in Colombia after 1850 is an
important theme in Helen Delpar, Red against Blue: The Liberal Party in
Colombian Politics, 1863JS99 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1981) and James Wil-
liam Park, Rafael Nunez and the Politics of Colombian Regionalism, 1863
1886 (Baton Rouge, La., 1985). Regional differentiation also figures in
some salient interpretations of Mexican politics. A brief, yet nuanced,
anaylsis, stressing both regional and social factors, is Francois Chevalier,
'Conservateurs et liberaux au Mexique: Essaie de sociologie et geografie
politiques de l'independance a l'intervention franchise,' Cahiers d'Histoire
Mondiale, 8 (1964), 45774. David A. Brading, Los origenes del nacional-
ismo mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1973) sketches an opposition between conser-
vative strength in and around Mexico City and liberal provinces in a ring
from San Luis Potosi and Zacatecas in the north, to Guadalajara in the
west, to Oaxaca to the south. Donald Fithian Stevens, employing statisti-
cal analysis, questions this formulation, as well as other standard views, in
Origins of Instability in Early Republican Mexico (Durham, N.C., 1991).
Some authors see class differences as the motor of political conflict in
Spanish America. Many textbooks, often apparently taking Mexico as a
model, describe political elites in Spanish America as being divided be-
tween a Conservative bloc of large landowners, clergy, and military and
Liberal professionals, intellectuals, and merchants. Such formulations are
to be found even in more imaginative interpretive essays, such as John J.
Johnson, Political Change in Latin America: The Emergence of the Middle
Sectors (Stanford, Calif., 1958) and Stanley and Barbara Stein, The Colonial
Heritage of Latin America. These notions are questioned in Frank Safford,
'Bases of political alignments in early republican Spanish America,' in
Richard Graham and Peter H. Smith (eds.), New Approaches to Latin Ameri-
can History (Austin, Tex., 1974).
On the role of the church in Spanish-American politics, J. Lloyd Mecham
provides a country-by-country survey in Church and State in Latin America

(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1934; 2nd ed., 1966); the first edition offers some
material on the nineteenth century that is deleted in the second edition.
Mexico, one of the scenes of greatest conflict over the church, is the subject
of a number of studies. Michael P. Costeloe in Church Wealth in Mexico: A
Study of the'Juzgadode Capellanias' in the Archbishopric of Mexico 18001856
(Cambridge, Eng., 1967), as well as in various related articles, sheds much
light on the roles of the church in economy and politics. See also Costeloe's
Church and State in Independent Mexico: A Study of the Patronage Debate, 1821
1857 (London, 1978). T. G. Powell, 'Priests and peasants in Central Mex-
ico: Social conflict during la Reforma," HAHR, 57/2 (1977), 296-313,
explains peasant indifference to defending the church when it was under
attack. Jan Bazant, Alienation of Church Wealth in Mexico: Social and Economic
Aspects of the Liberal Revolution, 1856-187 5 (Cambridge, Eng., 1971) ana-
lyzes the characteristics of church property and of the people who bought it.
Bazant's argument that purchases of church property absorbed capital that
might have been better invested elsewhere is more generally expounded in
Arnold Bauer, 'The church and Spanish American agrarian structure,
17651865,' TA, 28/1 (1971). Bauer also clarifies the differences among
various sorts of debts to the church in 'The church in the economy of Spanish
America: Censos and Depositos in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,'
HAHR, 63/4 (1983), 7O7-34-
The political polarization in the middle of the nineteenth century is
treated for Mexico in Hale's Mexican Liberalism and in Moises Gonzalez
Navarro, Anatomia delpoder en Mexico, 18481853 (Mexico, D.F., 1977),
the latter a loosely constructed work but one rich in suggestive detail. On
the same phenomenon in Colombia, see the account of a contemporary,
Jose Maria Samper, Historia de un alma (Medellin, 1971), as well as various
later analyses for example, Colmenares's Partidos politkos y clases sociales;
Robert L. Gilmore, 'Nueva Granada's socialist mirage,' HAHR, 36/2
(1956), 190210, and J. Leon Helguera, 'Antecedentes sociales de la
revolucion de 1851 en el sur de Colombia (18481851),' Anuario Colom-
biano de Historia Social y de la Cultura, 5 (1970), 5363. On Chile, see a
nineteenth-century account, Benjamin Vicuna MacKenna, Historia de la
Jornada del 20 de abril de 1851; Una batalia en las calles de Santiago (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1878) and a more recent monograph, Luis Alberto Romero,
La Sociedad de la Igualdad: Los artesanos de Santiago de Chile y sus primeras
experiencias politicas, 1820-1851 (Buenos Aires, 1978).
Recent research has begun to extend our knowledge of political topics
beyond the realm of national elites in national capitals, exploring politics

258 V. Economy, society, politics, c. 1820 toe. 1870
in the provinces and rural communities and the relationship of provincial
communities with national politics. Such research apparently is being
carried furthest in Mexico and Peru. On Mexico, Charles H. Harris III, A
Mexican Family Empire: The Latifundio of the Sanchez Navarro Family, 1765
1867 (Austin, Tex., 1975) provides a glimpse of the politics of Coahuila
and its relationship to national politics. Stuart F. Voss, On the Periphery of
Nineteenth-Century Mexico: Sonora andSinaloa, 18101877 (Tucson, Ariz.,
1982) is a much more purposive analysis of provincial politics and its
relation to the national state. Another work dealing with provincial poli-
tics in Mexico is Charles R. Berry, The Reform in Oaxaca, 185676 (Lin-
coln, Nebr., 1981). T. G. Powell, El liberalismo y el campesinado en el centro
de Mexico (1850 a 8176) (Mexico, D.F., 1974) is particularly informative
at the level of the peasant community. Florencia Mallon has explored
dimensions of peasant actions in local politics and the interaction between
peasant communities and national politics, among other places, in The
Defense of Community in Peru's Central Highlands: Peasant Struggle and Capital-
ist Transition, i8601940 (Princeton, N.J., 1983) and 'Peasants and state
formation in nineteenth-century Mexico: Morelos, 18481858', Political
Power and Social Theory, 7 (1988), 154.
The relationship of Indian peasants to the state in the nineteenth cen-
tury is a subject of continuing research, in Peru and Bolivia as well as
Mexico. But scholars are not finding a single pattern. Tristan Platt, Estado
boliviano y ayllu andino: Tierra y tributo en el norte de Potosi (Lima, 1982)
perceives the continuance in the nineteenth century of the colonial pattern
of relations between Bolivian peasants and the state, with peasants cooper-
ating in tribute payments and labor drafts in return for security of land
tenure and exemption from other taxes. Scholars are divided as to whether
this pattern may be applied to Peru; some believe the state was too weak to
collect tribute, or indeed to make any kind of bargain with the indigenes.
See, for example, Paul Gootenberg, 'Population and ethnicity in early
republican Peru: Some revisions,' LARR, 26/3 (1991), 109-58. Similar
variations may be found in attitudes of political elites toward Indian
community lands. Mexican Conservatives are said to have attempted to
protect Indian community lands from Liberal depredations. On this, see
Andres Lira, Comunidades indi'genas frente a la ciudadde Mexico: Tenochtitldn y
Tiatelolco, sus pueblos y sus barrios, 18121919 (Zamora, 1983). Frank
Safford in 'Race, integration, and progress: Elite attitudes and the Indian
in Colombia, 17501870,' HAHR, 71/1 (1991), 133, finds divisions
among Colombian elites on this issue varied less by party than by region.

3- Mexico 259
Interesting work is being done on rural rebellion, particularly in Mex-

ico. See especially a number of splendid essays in Friedrich Katz (ed.),
Riot, Rebellion and Revolution: Rural Social Conflict in Mexico (Princeton,
N.J., 1988). See also Leticia Reina, Las rebeliones campesinas en Mexico
(1819-1906), 3rd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1986). Paul J. Vanderwood, Disor-
der and Progress: Bandits, Police and Mexican Development (Lincoln, Nebr.,
1981) offers a number of arresting insights into rural disorder, politics,
and the state. On rural society in the Argentine pampa, see two differing
perspectives in John Lynch, Argentine Dictator, and Richard W. Slatta,
Gauchos and the Vanishing Frontier (Lincoln, Nebr., 1983). While rural
society appears to preoccupy many scholars working on popular history in
the nineteenth century, a significant effort to analyze the urban bases
support for the Rosas regime in Argentina has appeared in Mark D.
Szuchman, Order, Family and Community in Buenos Aires, 1810i860 (Stan-
ford, Calif., 1988). As scholars continue to explore the local and regional
bases of politics, the picture becomes ever more complicated, and general-
ization about patterns in Spanish American society and politics becomes
ever more difficult.
3. MEXICO
Ernesto de la Torre Villar et al. (eds.), Historia documentalde Mexico, 2 vols.

(Mexico, D.F., 1964) is an important documentary collection. F. Tena
Ramirez (ed.), Leyes fundamental de Mexico 1808-19J3, 5 t n rev - e ^-
(Mexico, D.F., 1973), reproduces all the constitutions and their drafts as
well as the most important laws and decrees. Guides to the records of the
Archivo General de Notarfas, Mexico City, for the year 1829 (Amherst,
Mass., 1982) and for the year 1847 (Amherst, Mass., 1983) have been
compiled by Robert A. Potash in collaboration with Jan Bazant and
Josefina Z. Vazquez, and for the years 1836-43 - one volume for each
year - by Josefina Z. Vazquez and Pilar Gonzalbo Aizpuru (Mexico, D.F.,
1985-90). For economic and social aspects of the period from around
1800 to 1852, L. Chavez Orozco (ed.), Coleccion de documentos para la
historia del comercio exterior de Mexico, in two series: series 1 in 7 vols.
(Mexico, D.F., 1958-62); series 2 in 4 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1965-7)
should be consulted; it covers much more ground than the title indicates.
Documentation on the Juarez era can be found in J. L. Tamayo (ed.),
Benito Juarez, documentos, discursos y correspondencia, 14 vols. (Mexico, D.F.,

1964-70), and Secretaria de la Presidencia (ed.), La administration publica

en la epoca de Juarez, 3 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1973). For foreign relations,
see L. Diaz (ed.), Version francesa de Mexico: Informes diplomatics 1853
I86J, 4 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1963-7), and L. Diaz (ed.), Version francesa
de Mexico 1851-6j; Informes economicos (consular reports), 2 vols. (Mexico,
D.F., 1974).
There are a number of general works which include substantial treat-
ment of Mexican history in the period after independence. Most notable
among older works are Lucas Alaman, Historia de Mexico, 18081849,
2nd ed., 5 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1942-8), vol. 5; Vicente Riva Palacio
(ed.), Mexico a traves de los siglos (1889; facsimile ed., Mexico, D.F., 1958),
vols. 4 and 5; Francisco de Paula de Arrangoiz, Mexico desde 1808 hasta
I86J, 4 vols. (1871-2; 2nd ed., Mexico, D.F., 1974). More recently Luis
Gonzalez y Gonzalez (ed.), Historia general de Mexico, 4 vols. (Mexico,
D.F., 1976), vol. 3 (1821-1910), and Jan Bazant, A Concise History of
Mexico from Hidalgo to Cardenas (Cambridge, Eng., 1977), chaps. 2 and 3,
have provided valuable syntheses. See also Franc.ois-Xavier Guerra, Le
Mexique: De I'ancien regime a la revolution, 2 vols. (Paris, 1985), an excellent
analytical work, the first volume of which deals with the nineteenth
century; W. Dirk Raat (ed.), Mexico: From Independence to Revolution, 1810-
1910 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1982); Bernardo Garcia Martinez, Historia de Mex-
ico (Mexico, D.F., 1985); and Michael C. Meyer and William L. Sherman,
The Course of Mexican History, 4th ed. (Oxford, 1991). Still useful is Justo
Sierra, Evolution politica del pueblo mexicano, available in English as The
Political Evolution of the Mexican People (Austin, Tex., 1970).
There are two collections of essays on aspects of the economic and social
history of Mexico in the nineteenth century edited by Ciro F. S. Cardoso:
Formation y desarrollo de la burguesia en Mexico: Siglo XIX (Mexico, D.F.,
1978) and Mexico en el siglo XIX (1821-1910): Historia economica y de la
estructura social (Mexico, D.F., 1980). John M. Coatsworth, 'Obstacles to
economic growth in nineteenth-century Mexico', AHR, 83/1 (1978), 8 0 -
roo, and 'The Decline of the Mexican economy, 1800-1860' in Reinhard
Liehr (ed.), America Latina en la epoca de Simon Bolivar: ha formation de las
economias nacionales y los intereses economicos europeos, 1800-1850 (Berlin,
1989), are excellent essays dealing with the causes of the backwardness of
the Mexican economy. Richard J. Salvucci, Textiles and Capitalism in Mex-
ico: An Economic History of the Obrajes, 1539-1840 (Princeton, N.J., 1987)
is a well-documented history of the first Mexican textile manufacturers.
See also Guy P. C. Thomson, 'Traditional and modern manufacturing in

3- Mexico 261
Mexico, 1821 1850', in R. Liehr (ed.), America Latina en la epoca deSimon

Bolivar and Puebla de los Angeles: Industry and Society in a Mexican City
(Boulder, Colo., 1989). R. W. Randall, Real del Monte, a British Mining
Venture in Mexico (Austin, Tex., 1972), is one of the few books on mining.
Robert A. Potash, Mexican Government and Industrial Development in the
Early Republic: The Banco de Avio (Amherst, Mass., 1983), a revised edition
of an older work (Mexico, D.F., 1959) available only in Spanish, is
essential for the history of manufacturing and government banking.
Leonor Ludlow and Carlos Marichal (eds.), Bancay poder en Mexico (1800-
1925) (Mexico, D.F., 1985), is a selection of essays dealing with different
aspects of banking in Mexico (mainly in the nineteenth century). For the
financial history of Mexico in the decades immediately following indepen-
dence, see Barbara Tenenbaum, The Politics of Penury: Debts and Taxes in
Mexico, 1821-1856 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1986). J. Bazant, Historia de
la deuda exterior de Mexico 18231946 (Mexico, D.F., 1968), replaces the
older book by Edgar Turlington, Mexico and Her Foreign Creditors (New
York, 1930). See also the relevant sections of Carlos Marichal, Historia de
la deuda externa de America Latina (Madrid, 1988); Eng. trans. A Century of
Debt Crises in Latin America (Princeton, N.J., 1989).
Charles A. Hale, Mexican Liberalism in the Age of Mora, 18211853
(New Haven, Conn., 1968) is essential for the study of ideas. Michael P.
Costeloe, Church and State in Independent Mexico: A Study of the Patronage
Debate 1821-1857 (London, 1978), is an excellent study of church-state
relations. On the difficult question of Church wealth and its disposal, see
Michael P. Costeloe, Church Wealth in Mexico (Cambridge, Eng., 1967)
and J. Bazant, Alienation of Church Wealth in Mexico: Social and Economic
Aspects of the Liberal Revolution 1856-1875 (Cambridge, Eng., 1971; 2nd
revised ed. in Spanish, Los bienes de la iglesia en Mexico, Mexico, D.F.,
1977). Jean Pierre Bastian, Historia del Protestantismo en America Latina
(Mexico, D.F., 1990) is the first well-documented book on the subject.
On agrarian structures and the history of the hacienda, see Charles H.
Harris III, A Mexican Family Empire: The Latifundio of the Sanchez Navarros
1765-1867 (Austin, Tex., 1975); J. Bazant, Cinco haciendas mexicanas:
Tres siglos de vida rural en San Luis Potosi, 1600-1910 (Mexico, D.F.,
1975), a summary of parts of which was published in English in K.
Duncan and I. Rutledge, Land and Labour in Latin America: Essays on the
Development of Agrarian Capitalism in the 19th & 20th Centuries (Cambridge,
Eng., 1977); David A. Brading, Haciendas andRanchos in the Mexican Bajio
(Cambridge, Eng., 1978); Raymond Buve (ed.), Haciendas in Central Mex-

ico from Late Colonial Times to the Revolution (Amsterdam, 1984), a collec-
tion of essays dealing especially with labour conditions, hacienda manage-
ment and its relation to the state; Herbert J. Nickel, Soziale Morphologie der
mexikanischen Hacienda (Wiesbaden 1978; Sp. trans. Morfologia social de la
hacienda mexicana, Mexico, D.F., 1988), one of the best hacienda studies
so far published, and Relaciones de trabajo en las haciendas de Puebla y
Tlaxcala (1J40-1914) (Mexico, D.F., 1987). See the first part (on the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries) of Heriberto Moreno Garcia (ed.),
Despues de los latifundos: La desintegracion de la propiedad agraria en Mexico
(Zamora, 1982); and Juan Felipe Leal and Mario Juacuja Rountree,
Economia y sistema de haciendas en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1982), which deals
with the history of pulque haciendas from the eighteenth to the twentieth
centuries. Manuel Plana, // regno del cotone in Messico: La struttura agraria de
La Laguna (18551910) (Milan, 1984) describes the beginning and devel-
opment of cotton farming in northern Mexico. Andres Lira, Comunidades
indigenas frente a la ciudad de Mexico (Zamora, 1983) describes the struggle
of Indian villages against the encroachment of Mexico City; Rodolfo Pas-
tor, Campesinos y reformas: La mixteca, ijoo1856 (Mexico, D . F , 1987)
describes village life in a part of the state of Oaxaca. John Tutino, From
Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence, 1750
1940 (Princeton, N.J., 1986) is an important study which provides a fresh
look at much-discussed problems and events.
For the period 182135, contemporary descriptions include J. Poin-
sett, Notes on Mexico (London, 1825) and H. G. Ward, Mexico in 1827, 2
vols. (London, 1828). Giinter Kahle, Militar and Staatsbildung in den
Anfdngen der Unabhdngigkeit Mexikos (Cologne, 1969), is a pioneer study of
the formation of the Mexican army through the amalgamation of guerrilla
fighters for independence and former royalist officers. Michael P. Costeloe,
Laprimera republica federal de Mexico 1824-1835 (Mexico, D.F., 1975), is a
study of political parties, based on research in the press and pamphlets.
Also worthy of note are R. Flores Caballero, Counterrevolution: The Role of
the Spaniards in the Independence of Mexico 1804-1838 (Lincoln, Nebr.,
1974); and Brian R. Hamnett, Revolucion y contrarevolucion en Mexico y el
Peru (Mexico, D.F., 1978), for the difficult first years of independent
Mexico. See also by Brian Hamnett, 'Benito Juarez, early liberalism and
the regional politics of Oaxaca, 18281853, BLAR, 10/1 (1991). Michael
P. Costeloe, Response to Revolution: Imperial Spain and the Spanish American
Revolutions, 1810-1840 (Cambridge, Eng., 1986), offers a new look at the
relations between Spain and her rebellious provinces in America. Harold

3. Mexico 263
D. Sims, The Expulsion of Mexico's Spaniards, 1821-1836 (Pittsburgh, Pa.,
1990) is an important work on a little-known subject. Also worthy of note
is David J. Weber, The Mexican Frontier, 1821-1846: The American South-
West under Mexico (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1982). On the Yucatan Caste
War, there are three well-researched articles by Howard F. Cline: 'The
"Aurora Yucateca" and the spirit of enterprise in Yucatan, 1821-1847',
HAHR, 27 (1947), 30-60; 'The sugar episode in Yucatan, 1825-1850',
Inter-American Economic Affairs, 1/4 (1948), 79-100; 'The Henequen epi-
sode in Yucatan', Inter-American Economic Affairs, 2/2 (1948), 3 0 - 5 1 . See
also Moises Gonzalez Navarro, Raza y Tierra (Mexico, D.F., 1970), and
N. Reed, The Caste War of Yucatan (Stanford, Calif., 1964).
The Texas revolution and the Mexican war have naturally received a
great deal of attention from U.S. and Mexican historians, contemporary
and modern. See R. S. Ripley, The War with Mexico, 2 vols. (New York,
1849; reprinted 1970); R. Alcaraz et al., The Other Side: Or Notes for the
History of the War between Mexico and the United States (trans, and ed. by A.
C. Ramsey) (New York, 1850), in which 15 prominent Mexicans describe
the war; Carlos E. Castarieda (ed. and trans.), The Mexican Side of the Texan
Revolution 1836 (Washington, D.C., 1971) contains accounts by five chief
Mexican participants, including Santa Anna; J. F. Ramirez, Mexico during
the War with the United States, ed. by W. V. Scholes, trans, by E. B. Sherr
(Columbia, Mo., 1950); G. M. Brack, Mexico Views Manifest Destiny
18211846, An Essay on the Origins of the Mexican War (Albuquerque,
N.Mex., 1975), a sympathetic account, well documented from Mexican
newspapers and pamphlets; Charles H. Brown, Agents of Manifest Destiny:
The Lives and Times of the Filibusters (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980), a very
useful study of these adventurers. Finally, on U.S.-Mexican relations after
the war, see Donathan C. Olliff, Reforma Mexico and the United States: A
Search for Alternatives to Annexation, 1854-61 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1983).
For Mexico in the period after 1848 there are two studies of the later
years of Santa Anna: F. Diaz D., Caudillosy caciques (Mexico, D.F., 1972)
and M. Gonzalez Navarro, Anatomia delpoder en Mexico 1848-1853 (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1977). On the career of Santa Anna, see also John Lynch,
Caudillos in Spanish America, 1800-1850 (Oxford, 1992), chap. 8. On
liberal politics, see W. V. Scholes, Mexican Politics during the Juarez Regime
1855-1872, 2nd ed. (Columbia, Mo., 1969); Richard N. Sinkin, The
Mexican Reform, 18551876: A Study in Liberal Nation-Building (Austin,
Tex., 1979) and Charles R. Berry, The Reform in Oaxaca, 1856-76: A
Micro-History of the Liberal Revolution (Lincoln, Nebr., 1981), a detailed

regional study of the question. On French intervention, see J. A. Dabbs,

The French Army in Mexico I86II86J, a Study in Military Government (The
Hague, 1963); and on the empire, Alfred Jackson Hanna and Kathryn
Abbey Hanna, Napoleon III and Mexico: American Triumph over Monarchy
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1971).
A number of political biographies are worthy of note: W. S. Robertson,
Iturbide of Mexico (Durham, N.C., 1952) which is heavily based on archi-
val materials (see also Memoirs of Agustin de Iturbide [Washington, D.C.,
I
97 I 3); J- E. Rodriguez O., The Emergence of Spanish America: "Vicente
Rocafuerte and Spanish Americanism 18081832 (Berkeley, 1975), a fine
biography of an Ecuadorean liberal who took part in the struggle for the
Mexican republic; Wilfrid H. Callcott, Santa Anna (Norman, Okla.,
1936) and O. L. Jones, Jr., Santa Anna (New York, 1968), which should
be read together with A. F. Crawford (ed.), The Eagle: The Autobiography of
Santa Anna (Austin, Tex., 1967); Thomas E. Cotner, The Military and
PoliticalCareer ofJose'Joaquin de Herrera, 17921854 (Austin, Tex., 1949);
Frank A. Knapp, The Life of Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, 1823-1899 (Aus-
tin, Tex., 1951) and C. G. Blazquez, Miguel Lerdo de Tejada (Mexico,
D.F., 1978); I. E. Cadenhead, Jr., BenitoJuarez (New York, 1973), which
to a considerable extent replaces the older and more voluminous biography
by R. Roeder, Juarez and His Mexico, 2 vols. (New York, 1947); also by
Cadenhead, Jesus Gonzalez Ortega and Mexican National Politics (Fort Worth,
Tex., 1972); G. A. Hutchinson, Valentin Gomez Farias (Guadalajara,
1983), a biographical study of the leading liberal; Jan Bazant, Antonio
Haro y Tamariz y sus aventuras politicas (Mexico, D.F., 1985), the life of a
conservative, then liberal and finally reactionary politician. Finally, see
Joan Haslip, The Crown of Mexico, Maximilian and His Empress Carlota
(New York, 1971), a comprehensive biography, both personal and politi-
cal, of the two tragic figures.
4. CENTRAL AMERICA
A comparison of Lazaro Lamadrid, 'A survey of the historiography of

Guatemala since 1821: Part I The nineteenth century', TA, 8/2 (1951),
189202; W. J. Griffith, 'The historiography of Central America since
1830', HAHR, 40/4 (i960), 548-69; and R. L. Woodward, Jr., 'The
historiography of modern Central America since i960', HAHR, 67/3
(1987), 46196, reflects the rapid growth of historical publication on

4- Central America 265
Central America in the second half of the twentieth century. For publica-
tions since c. 1970 in particular, see the extensive bibliographical essay in
R. L. Woodward, Jr., Central America, a Nation Divided, 2nd ed. (New
York, 1985), 278-312.
While earlier general works continue to have utility, Woodward, Central
America, Ciro Cardoso and Hector Perez, Centroamerica y la economia occidental
(15301930) (San Jose, C.R., 1977), and James Dunkerley, Power in the
Isthmus: A Political History of Modern Central America (London, 1988) incorpo-
rate much of the recent scholarship on the first half-century of indepen-
dence. Edelberto Torres Rivas, Interpretation del desarrollo social centro-
americano (San Jose, C.R., 1971) has provided much of the inspiration for
serious recent historical research in the social sciences in Central America.
Histories of individual states that reflect recent scholarship on the nine-
teenth century include Narda Dobson, A History of Belize (London, 1973);
O. N. Bolland, The Formation of a Colonial Society: Belize from Conquest to
Crown Colony (Baltimore, 1977); Hector Lindo-Fuentes, Weak Foundations:
The Economy of El Salvador in the Nineteenth Century, 1821 -1898 (Berkeley,
1991); David Luna, Manual de historia economica (San Salvador, 1971); and
E. Bradford Burns, Patriarch and Folk: The Emergence of Nicaragua, 1798
1858 (Cambridge, Mass., 1991). For reference, although uneven in qual-
ity, the Historical Dictionary series published in Metuchen, N.J., is useful:
Philip Flemion, El Salvador (1972); H. K. Meyer, Nicaragua (1972) and
Honduras (1976); R. E. Moore, Guatemala, rev. ed. (1973); and Theodore
Creedman, Costa Rica (1977). Also useful are the volumes in the World
Bibliographical Series (Oxford): R. L. Woodward, Jr., Belize (1980), El
Salvador (1988), Guatemala (1992) and Nicaragua (1994); Charles Stansifer,
Costa Rica (1991); and Pamela Howard, Honduras (1992).
Several recent studies deal with specific aspects of the post-independence
period: D. R. Radell, Historical Geography of Western Nicaragua: The Spheres of
Influence of Leon, Granada and Managua, 1519-1965 (Berkeley, 1969);
David Browning, El Salvador, Landscape and Society (Oxford, 1971); Alberto
Saenz M., Historia agricola de Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1970); Carolyn
Hall, El cafe y el desarrollo historico-geogrdfico de Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R.,
1976); Lowell Gudmundson, Costa Rica before Coffee (Baton Rouge, La.,
1986); Constantino Lascaris, Historia de las ideas en Centroamerica (San Jose,
C.R., 1970); Carlos Gonzalez, Historia de la educacion en Guatemala, 2nd ed.
(Guatemala, 1970); Otto Olivera, La literatura en publicaciones periodicas de
Guatemala: Siglo XIX (New Orleans, 1974); Arturo Castillo, Historia de la
moneda de Honduras (Tegucigalpa, 1974); Samuel Stone, La dinastia de los

266 V. Economy, society, politics, c. 1820 to c. I8JO
conquistadores (San Jose, C.R., 1975) and The Heritage of the Conquistadors:
Ruling Classes in Central America from Conquest to the Sandinistas (San Jose,
C.R., 1990); Cleto Gonzalez Viquez, Capitulos de un libro sobre historia
financiera de Costa Rica, 2nd ed. (San Jos, C.R., 1977); and R. L. Wood-
ward, J r . , Privilegio de clases y el desarrollo economico: El consulado de comercio de
Guatemala, 17931871 (San Jose, C.R., 1981), which contains extensive
documentary appendices not included in the 1966 English edition.
Among the most noteworthy articles in Central American journals are
Ciro Cardoso, 'La formacion de la hacienda cafetalera en Costa Rica (siglo
XIX),' ESC, 2/6 (1973), 22-50; Carlos Araya, 'La mineria y sus relaciones
con la acumulacion de capital y la clase dirigente de Costa Rica, 1 8 2 1 -
1841', ESC, 2/5 (1973), 31-64, and 'La mineria en Costa Rica, 1 8 2 1 -
1843', Revista Historia, 1/2 (1976), 83-125; Eugenio Herrera Balharry,
'Los inmigrantes y el poder en Costa Rica,' Revista Historia, 6/11 (1985),
13159; Jose Antonio Salas Viquez, 'La privatizacion de los baldios
nacionales en Costa Rica durante el siglo XIX: Legislacion y pro-
cedimientos utilizados para su ajudicacion', Revista Historia, 15/1 (1987),
6 3 - 1 1 8 ; Hector Perez Brignoli, 'Economia y sociedad en Honduras du-
rante el siglo XIX: Las estructuras demograficas', ESC, 2/6 (1973), 5 1 -
82; Guillermo Molina, 'Estructura productiva e historia demografica
(Economia y desarrollo en Honduras)', Anuario de Estudios Centroamericanos,
3 (1977), 16173; and Alberto Lanuza, 'Nicaragua: Territorio y poblacion
( 1 8 2 1 1875)', Revista del Pensamiento Centroamericano, 31/151 (1976), 1
22, 'Comercio exterior de Nicaragua (1821 1875)', ESC, 5/14 (1976),
10936, and 'La mineria en Nicaragua (1821 1875)', Anuario de Estudios
Centroamericanos, 3 (1977), 21524. R. L. Woodward, Jr., has reviewed
the literature on the demographic history of the period in 'Crecimiento de
poblacion en Centroamerica durante la primera mitad del siglo de la
independencia nacional', Mesoamerka, ill (1980), 21931. Although he
overlooks some of the work already done, Thomas Schoonover, 'Central
American commerce and maritime activity in the nineteenth century:
Sources for a quantitative approach', LARR, 13/2 (1978), 157-69, pro-
vides some guidance in this area.
Among recent works dealing with the establishment of Central Ameri-
can independence, clearly the most important is Mario Rodriguez, The
Cadiz Experiment in Central America, 1808-1826 (Berkeley, 1978), but
also excellent for its structural analysis of Central American society and
politics in the period is Julio Cesar Pinto Soria, Centroamerica, de la
colonia al estado nacional, 1800-1840 (Guatemala City, 1986). While

4. Central America 267
Louis Bumgartner, Jose del Valle of Central America (Durham, N.C., 1963)
remains the definitive work on that important political figure, Ramon
Lopez, Jose Cecilio del Valle, Fouche de Centra America (Guatemala City,
1968) offers some new insights, and Rafael Heliodoro Valle, Pensamiento
vivo de Jose Cecilio del Valle, 2nd ed. (San Jose, C.R., 1971), is an
excellent anthology of his writings and synthesis of his ideas. The role of
the first Central American Constituent Assembly is dealt with in detail
by Andres Townsend, Las Provincias Unidas de Centroamerica: Fundacion de
la Republica, 2nd ed. (San Jose, C.R., 1973) in a substantial amplifica-
tion of his 1958 edition. Two revisionist articles on the Federation period
are Philip Flemion, 'States' rights and partisan politics: Manuel Jose Arce
and the struggle for Central American union', HAHR, 53/4 (1973),
60018, and Mauricio Dominguez, 'El Obispado de San Salvador: Foco
de desavenencia politico-religiosa', Anuario de Estudios Centroamericanos, 1
(1974), 87133. Francisco Morazan's Memorias, written following his
defeat in 1840 and published in Paris in 1870, were reprinted in Teguci-
galpa in 1971, and a collection of his personal papers have appeared in
W. J. Griffith, 'The personal archive of Francisco Morazan', Philological
and Documentary Studies, II (New Orleans, 1977), 197-286.
For the post-independence period, see T. L. Karnes, The Failure of
Union: Central America, 1824I8J 1, rev. ed. (Tempe, Ariz., 1976) and
Alberto Herrarte, El federalismo en Centroamerica (San Jose, C.R., 1972), a
condensation of his Union de Centroamerica (Guatemala City, 1964). F. D.
Parker, Travels in Central America, 18211840 (Gainesville, Fla., 1970),
deals with a number of the perceptive travel accounts of this period.
Reflecting substantial new research are the articles on Guatemala by Mario
Rodriguez, Miriam Williford, R. L. Woodward, Jr., and W. J. Griffith,
in Applied Enlightenment: 19th Century Liberalism (New Orleans, 1972).
Griffith's article in that volume, 'Attitudes toward foreign colonization:
The evolution of nineteenth-century Guatemalan immigration', expands
upon the ideas earlier presented in his Empires in the Wilderness (Chapel
Hill, N . C , 1966). See also Williford's 'The educational reforms of Dr.
Mariano Galvez', JIAS, 10/3 (1968), 46173. For the diplomatic history
of the period, in addition to Mario Rodriguez's excellent Palmerstonian
Diplomat in Central America: Frederick Chatfield, Esq. (Tucson, Ariz.,
1964), see R. A. Humphreys, 'Anglo-American rivalries in Central Amer-
ica', in Tradition and Revolt in Latin America, and Other Essays (London,
1969), 154-85; David Waddell, 'Great Britain and the Bay Islands,
1821 61', Historical Journal, 2/1 (1959), 5977; C. L. Stansifer, 'Ephra-

im George Squier: Diversos aspectos de su carrera en Centroamerica',

Revista Conservadora del Pensamiento Centroamericano, 20/98 (1968); Cyril
Allen, France in Central America (New York, 1966), which concentrates on
canal agent Felix Belly; and Andres Vega Bolarios, Los atentados del superin-
tendente de Belice (Managua, 1971), which focuses on British activities of
1840-2. The most detailed work on British commercial penetration of the
isthmus has been done by Robert A. Naylor: 'The British role in Central
America prior to the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850', HAHR, 40/3
(i960), 36182, Influencia britdnka en el comercio centroamericano durante las
primeras decadas de la independencia (18211851) (Antigua Guatemala,
1988), and Penny Ante Imperialism: The Mosquito Shore and the Bay of Hondu-
ras, 16001914 (Rutherford, N J . , 1989). Jose Ramirez described the
career of an early Nicaraguan diplomat in Jose Marcoleta: Padre de la di-
plomacia nicaraguense, 2 vols. (Managua, 1975). Chester Zelaya and L.F.
Sibaja treat Costa Rican acquisition of Guanacaste in La anexion del partido
de Nicoya (San Jose, C.R., 1974). Zelaya has also elucidated the career ofJ.
F. Osejo in El bachillerOsejo, 2 vols. (San Jose, C.R., 1971).
Traditional liberal condemnations of Rafael Carrera, the leading caudillo
of the period, have been challenged by Luis Beltranena Sinibaldi, Fundacion
de la Republica (Guatemala City, 1971), and Keith Miceli, 'Rafael Carrera:
Defender and promoter of peasant interests in Guatemala, 1837-1848',
TA, 31/1 (1974), 72-95, as well as by R. L. Woodward, Jr., "Liberalism,
conservatism and the response of the peasants of La Montana to the govern-
ment of Guatemala, 1821-1850,' in Plantation Society in the Americas, 1/1
(I97S>)> 109-30, and Juan Carlos Sol6rzano F., 'Rafael Carrera, ^reaction
conservadora o revolution campesina? Guatemala 1837-1873', Anuario de
Estudios Centroamericanos, 13/2(1987), 5-35. See also Pedro Tobar Cruz, Los
montaneses: La faccion de los Lucios y otros acontecimientos histdricos de 1846 a
1851 (Guatemala City, 1971). R. L. Woodward, Rafael Carrera and the
Emergence of the Republic of Guatemala, 1821-1871 (Athens, Ga., 1993)
provides a more comprehensive treatment of the first half-century of Guate-
malan independence. On Rafael Carrrera, see also John Lynch, Caudillos in
Spanish America, 1800-1850 (Oxford, 1992), chap. 9. David Chandler,
Juan Jose de Aycinena, idealista conservador de la Guatemala del siglo XIX
(Antigua Guatemala, 1988), with its documentary appendices, describes
the career of one of Guatemala's most influential conservatives. See also
Chandler's 'Peace through disunion: Father Juan Jose de Aycinena and the
fall of the Central American federation,' TA, 46/2 (1989), 137-57. Also
useful, if unanalytical, are the series of works on Guatemalan field marshals

4- Central America 269
by Manuel Rubio Sanchez, Los mariscales de campo (Guatemala City, 1982

7). Jose Reina Valenzuela has recorded a biography of one of Carrera's chief
opponents in Honduras, Jose Trinidad Cabanas: Estudio biogrdfico (Teguci-
galpa, 1984), while Alberto Saenz M. sympathetically deals with the Costa
Rican caudillo, Braulio Carrillo, reformador agricola de Costa Rica (San Jose,
C.R., 1987). An important memoir of the period has been republished in
Francisco Ortega, Cuarenta anos (18381878) de historia de Nicaragua, 2nd
ed. (Managua, 1974).
The Anglo-American rivalry for a transoceanic route and the William
Walker episode continue to attract historical writings at all levels. Enrique
Guier, William Walker (San Jose, C.R., 1971), offers nothing new but is a
competent work, while Frederic Rosengarten, Freebooters Must Die! (Wayne,
Pa., 1976) combines a lively account with many contemporary illustrations
and maps. A new, abridged edition of Albert Z. Carr's The World and
William Walker (1963) has appeared in a volume by Rudy Wurlitzer featur-
ing the motion picture 'Walker' (1987): Walker: The True Story of the First
American Invasion of Nicaragua (New York, 1987). More scholarly are the
works of David Folkman, The Nicaragua Route (Salt Lake City, 1972); R. E.
May, The Southern Dream of a Caribbean Empire, 1854-1861 (Baton Rouge,
La-. I 973); a d German Tjarks et al., 'La epidemia del colera de 1856 en el
Valle Central: Analisis y consecuencias demograficas', Revista de Historia,
2/3 (1976); 81-129. Alejandro Bolanos Geyer has published a series of
works on the Walker period based on the enormous volume of materials he
has been accumulating. Of the first volumes to appear, perhaps the most in-
teresting was his Elfilibustero Clinton Rollins (Masaya, Nic., 1976), in which
he exposes Rollins, supposedly an associate of Walker, as the pseudonym of
H. C. Parkhurst and his account of Walker as fiction. Bolanos's ambitious
biography of Walker, William Walker: The Gray-Eyed Man ofDestiny, begins
with The Crescent City (St. Louis, Mo., 1988), describing Walker's early
career. Subsequent volumes, The Californias (vol. 2), Nicaragua (vol. 3), and
War of Liberation (vol. 4) treat the remainder of his colourful career.
For the close of the period, Wayne Clegern, author of British Honduras:
Colonial Dead End (Baton Rouge, La., 1967), suggests a transitional role
for the Vicente Cerna administration in 'Transition from conservatism to
liberalism in Guatemala, 18651981,' in William S. Coker (ed.), His-
panic American Essays in Honor of Max Leon Moorhead (Pensacola, Fla.,
1979), also published in Spanish in the Revista del Pensamiento Centro-
americano, 31/151 (1976), 605. His views are corroborated in the work of
J. Castellanos Cambranes, Coffee and Peasants: The Origins of the Modern

Plantation Economy in Guatemala, 1853-1897 (Stockholm, 1985). There

are studies of major figures in Costa Rica and El Salvador during this
period: Carlos Melendez, Dr. Jose Maria Montealegre (San Jose, C.R.,
1968), and Italo Lopez Vallecillos, Gerardo Barrios y su tiempo, 2 vols. (San
Salvador, 1965). Finally, valuable contempoary impressions of the period
have been reprinted: Lorenzo Montiifar, Memorias autobiogrdficas (Guate-
mala City, 1988), Francisco Lainfiesta, Apuntamientos para la historia de
Guatemala, periodo de 20 anos corridos del 14 de abril de 1865 al 6 de abril de
1885 (Guatemala City, 1975), and Pablo Levy, Notas geogrdficasy economicas
sobre la Republica de Nicaragua, 2nd ed. (Managua, 1976).
5. HAITI AND THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
On Haiti immediately after its independence from France, the Haitian

occupation of Santo Domingo, 182244, and the independence of the
Dominican Republic, see essay IV:4.
For the Haitian government after 1843, a n d on Faustin Soulouque
especially, Gustave d'Alaux, L'Empereur Soulouque et son empire (Paris, 1856)
continues to be useful, but should be used with caution: it is reportedly
really the work of Maxime Raybaud, consul-general of France in Haiti. Sir
Spenser Buckingham Saint John, Hayti, or the Black Republic (London,
1884; repr. 1972) has a very informative explanation of Haiti's economic
decadence in the second half of the nineteenth century, although its point
of view is totally anti-Haitian. The essays of David Nicholls and Benoit
Joachim cited in essay IV:4 are valuable for Haiti in the middle decades of
the nineteenth century. An interesting work that deals with a short period
of the second half of the nineteenth century is Andre-Georges Adam, Une
crise haitienne, 1867-1869 (Port-au-Prince, 1982-3).
On the Dominican Republic and Dominican-Haitian relations after
1844, Emilio Rodriguez Demorizi has published a long series of documen-
tary volumes, some of which are prefaced by important introductions; the
most useful are Documentos para la historia de la Republica Dominicana, 3
vols. (Ciudad Trujillo, 1944-7), Guerra Dominico-Haitiana (Ciudad Tru-
jillo, 1957), Antecedentes de la anexion a Espana (Ciudad Trujillo, 195 5), and
Relaciones Dominico-Espanolas (1844-1859) (Ciudad Trujillo, 1955). See
also William Javier Nelson, 'The Haitian political situation and its effect
on the Dominican Republic, 1849-1877', TA, 104/2 (1987), 19-29.
In 'Datos sobre la economia dominicana durante la Primera Republica',

.5. Haiti and the Dominican Republic 271
Eme-Eme Estudios Dominicanos, 4 (1976), Frank Moya Pons reconstructs the

economic evolution of Santo Domingo in the years following indepen-
dence, from the reports of the British consuls of the period. On Santo
Domingo's annexation by Spain, and the Haitian reaction to it, see Ramon
Gonzalez Tablas, Historia de la domination y ultima guerra de Espana en Santo
Domingo (Madrid, 1870), the (critical) war memoirs of an officer in the
Spanish army who served in Santo Domingo, and from the commander-in-
chief of the Spanish troops during Santo Domingo's 'War of Restoration',
Jose de la Gandara y Navarro, Anexidn y guerra de Santo Domingo, 2 vols.
(Madrid, 1884). The Dominican version of the period is given by Grego-
rio Luperon, Notas autobiograficas y apuntes historicos (18956; 3 vols.,
Santiago de los Caballeros, 1939), the work of one of the outstanding
generals in the struggle against the Spaniards. See also Manuel Rodriguez
Objio, Gregorio Luperon e historia de la restauracidn, 2 vols. (Santiago de los
Caballeros, 1939), written by another participant in the war. Pedro Maria
Archambault, Historia de la restauracidn (Paris, 1938) is a modern but
'traditional' account of the war. More recent and satisfactory is Jaime de
Jesus Domfnguez, La anexidn de Santo Domingo a Espana, 18611863
(Santo Domingo, 1979). On the Dominican Republic in the middle de-
cades of the nineteenth century, see also Julio A. Cross Beras, Sociedad y
desarrollo en la Republica Dominicana, 18441899 (Santo Domingo, 1984);
Jaime de Jesus Dominguez, Notas economicas y politicas dominicanas sobre el
periodo julio 1885julio 1886, 2 vols. (Santo Domingo, 19834); Emilio
Rodriguez Demorizi, ed., Papeles del General Santana, (Santo Domingo,
1982), for the period 18615; and William Javier Nelson, 'The crisis
of liberalism in the Dominican Republic, 1865-1882', RHA (July-
December 1987). For the Dominican Republic in the second half of the
nineteenth century, Harry Hoetink, El pueblo dominicano: 18501900:
Apuntes para su sociologia historica (Santiago de los Caballeros, 1972); Eng.
trans. The Dominican people: 18501900 (Baltimore, 1982) offers an intelli-
gent examination of the social, economic and institutional changes that
occurred.
Either because of the relative size of the island of Hispaniola, or because
of the primitive state of its historiography, or perhaps because documenta-
tion on some periods is still scarce, the best treatments of the histories of
Haiti and Santo Domingo often appear within general works, whose titles
should not mislead the reader into thinking they are superficial accounts.
For example, James G. Leyburn, The Haitian People (New Haven, Conn.,
1941; rev. ed. 1966 with a lengthy introduction by Sidney W. Mintz and

an updated bibliography) has still not been surpassed as the best ethno-
historical introduction to the study of Haitian society. See also Dantes
Bellegarde, La Nation haitienne (Paris, 1938; revised version, Histoire du
peuple haitien: 14921952, Port-au-Prince, 1953), the work of an outstand-
ing Haitian intellectual, and T. Lepkowski, Haiti, 2 vols. (Havana,
19689), the work of a Polish historian. A history of Haiti containing an
abundance of fresh data is Robert Debs Heinl, Jr. and Nancy Gordon
Heinl, Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People, 1492-1971 (New
York, 1978), a book marred, however, by the manifest antipathy of the
authors towards all Haitian politicians. A major work by the English
historian, David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour and
National Independence in Haiti (Cambridge, Eng., 1979) displays much
greater perception. The most comprehensive history of the Dominican
Republic remains Frank Moya Pons, Manual de historia dominicana (Santo
Domingo, 1977). A book excellent for its period, though anti-Haitian in
tone, and still providing a useful introduction to the history of the Repub-
lic, is Sumner Welles, Naboth's Vineyard: The Dominican Republic, 1844
1924, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1966) which was first published in
1928 as a history of the relations of the Dominican Republic with the
United States. But for a more comprehensive view of the subject, see
Charles Callan Tansill, The United States and Santo Domingo, 17S91873
(Glouchester, Mass., 1967). For Haiti's relations with the United States,
see Rayford W. Logan, The Diplomatic Relations of the United States with
Haiti, 17761891 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1941) and Ludwell Lee Monta-
gue, Haiti and the United States, 1714-1938 (Durham, N.C., 1940).
Finally, two efforts to study the history of both peoples in parallel should
be mentioned. Jean Price Mars, La Ripublique d'Haiti et la Ripublique
Dominicaine: Les aspects divers d'un probleme d'histoire, de geographie et
d'ethnologie, 2 vols. (Port-au-Prince, 1953), contains an interpretation dic-
tated by intense resentment at the Dominicans for not having wanted to
stay united to Haiti. Rayford W. Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic
(London, 1968) provides an interesting synthesis that is accurate, but
lacks the brilliance of his earlier work on U.S.-Haitian relations.
6. C U B A , c. 1 7 6 0 - ^ . 1 8 6 0
Hugh Thomas, Cuba or the Pursuit of Freedom (London, 1971), is a general

history of Cuba since 1762. Raymond Carr, Spain 1808-1939 (Oxford,

6. Cuba, C.1760-C.1860 273
1966), is the best general history of Spain for this period. On the Bourbon
reforms in Cuba, see Allan J. Kuethe, Cuba, 1753-1815: Crown, Military
and Society (Knoxville, Tenn., 1986). Ramiro Guerra y Sanchez, Sugar and
Society in the Caribbean: An Economic History of Cuban Agriculture, trans.
Marjorie Urquidi (New Haven, Conn., 1964) and Fernando Ortiz, Cuban
Counterpoint: Tobacco and Sugar, trans. Harriet de Onis (New York, 1947),
are brilliant and suggestive essays by great Cuban writers. Planter society
is well analysed in Roland Ely, Cuando reinaba su majestad el azucar: Estudio
histdrico-sociologico de una tragedia latinoamerkana (Buenos Aires, 1963), a
major work of historical reconstruction largely based on the papers of the
Drake and Terry families. See also Franklin W. Knight, 'Origins of wealth
and the sugar revolution in Cuba, 1750-1850', HAHR, 57/2 (1977),
236-53. Laird W. Bergad, Cuban Rural Society in the Nineteenth Century:
The Social and Economic History of Monoculture in Matanzas (Princeton, N.J.,
1990) is an important provincial study. The sugar industry is best studied
from a technical point of view in Manuel Fraginals, El ingenio, 1 (Havana,
1964), Eng. trans. The Sugarmill: The Socioeconomic Complex of Sugar in Cuba
17601860 (New York, 1976). The slave trade to Cuba in the nineteenth
century, and its abolition, has been adequately covered in David Murray,
Odious Commerce: Britain, Spain and the Abolition of the Cuban Slave Trade
(Cambridge, Eng., 1980), while the Spanish side of the abolition of both
the slave trade and slavery has been analysed in Arthur F. Corwin, Spain
and the Abolition of Slavery in Cuba 18171886 (Austin, Tex., 1967). See
also Raul Cepero Bonilla, Azucar y abolicion (Havana, 1948) and Levi
Marrero, Cuba, Economia y sociedad: Azucar, ilustracidn y conciencia, 1763
1868, 4 vols. (Madrid, 19835). Anuario de Estudios Americanos, 43 (1986)
is devoted to slavery and abolition in Cuba and Puerto Rico. Important
studies of slavery in Cuba include: H. H. S. Aimes, A History of Slavery in
Cuba, 1511 to 1868 (New York, 1907), a workmanlike, if occasionally
misleading, pioneering work of scholarship; Herbert S. Klein, Slavery in
the Americas: A Comparative Study of Virginia and Cuba (Chicago, 1967),
which suffers from a disposition to believe Spanish slave laws meant what
they said; Franklin W. Knight, Slave Society in Cuba during the Nineteenth
Century (Madison, Wis., 1970); Gwendolyn Hall, Social Control in Slave
Plantation Societies: A Comparison of Saint Domingue and Cuba (Baltimore,
197i); Verena Martinez-Alier, Marriage, Class and Colour in Nineteenth-
Century Cuba: A Study of Racial Attitudes and Sexual Values in a Slave Society
(Cambridge, Eng., 1974); and J. Perez de la Riva, El Barrracon: Esclavitud
y capitalismo en Cuba (Barcelona, 1978). On slavery in Cuba, see also essay

274 V- Economy, society, politics, c. 1820 to c. 1870
V I : i 3 . Kenneth F. Kiple, Blacks in Colonial Cuba, 1774-1899 (Gaines-

ville, Fla., 1976) is a rich compilation of census data on blacks, slave and
free. See also several essays in Manuel Moreno Fraginals, Frank Moya Pons
and Stanley L. Engerman (eds.), Between Slavery and Free Labor: The
Spanish-Speaking Caribbean in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1985). On
U.S. attitudes toward Cuba in the middle of the nineteenth century, see
Basil Rauch, American Interests in Cuba, 18481855 (New York, 1948)
and Robert E. May, The Southern Dream of a Caribbean Empire, 185461
(Baton Rouge, La., 1973). A history of U.S.Cuban relations (to 1895),
coloured by twentieth-century guilt, is Philip S. Foner, A History of Cuba
and Its Relations with the United States, 2 vols. (New York, 19623).
7. VENEZUELA, COLOMBIA AND ECUADOR
GENERAL
For Gran Colombia, see D. Bushnell, The Santander Regime in Gran Colom-
bia (Newark, N.J., 1954); J. M. Restrepo, Historia de la revolucion de la
Republica de Colombia en la America meridional, 8 vols. (Bogota, 194250);
R. M. Barak and R. Diaz, Resumen de la historia de Venezuela desde el ano de
1797 hasta el de 1830, 2 vols. (Bruges, 1939). Also very useful for its
collapse are two volumes by C. Parra-Perez, Marino y la independencia de
Venezuela, 4 vols. (Madrid, 195460), vol. 4, and La monarquia en la Gran
Colombia (Madrid, 1957). C. A. Gosselman, Informes sobre los estados sud-
americanos en los anos de 1837 y 1838 (Stockholm, 1962) and M. M. Lisboa,
Barao de Japura, Relacion de un viaje a Venezuela, Nueva Granada y Ecuador
(Caracas, 1954), a description of a journey in 18523, are valuable ac-
counts of the whole area. A useful contemporary series of constitutional
studies is J. Arosemena, Estudios constitucionales sobre los gobiernos de la
America Latina, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Paris, 1878).
VENEZUELA
J. V. Lombardi et al., Venezuelan History: A Comprehensive Working Bibliogra-

phy (Boston, 1977), is indispensable. So is the excellent Diccionario de
Historia de Venezuela, 3 vols. (Caracas, 1989), published by the Fundaci6n
Polar under the direction of Manuel Perez Vila. All its entries carry
bibliographical notes.

j . Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador 275
The following collections of documents also serve the period well: P.

Grases and M. Perez Vila (eds.), Pensamiento politico venezolano del siglo
XIX, 15 vols. (Caracas, 19602); T. E. Carillo Batalla (comp.), Historia
de las finanzas publicas en Venezuela, 23 vols. to date (Caracas, 1969 );
Biblioteca de la Academia de la Historia, Las fuerzas armadas de Venezuela
en el siglo XIX, 12 vols. to date (Caracas, 1963 ); C. Gomez R. (ed.),
Materiales para el estudio de la cuestion agraria en Venezuela (18291860):
Enajencion y arrendamiento de tierras baldias (Caracas, 1971); R. J. Velas-
quez (introd.), Decretos del poder ejkutivo de Venezuela por el Despacho del
Interior y Justicia, 18311842 (Caracas, 1973); A. L. Guzman, Causa
celebre por su iniquidad de la supuesta conspiracidn del redactor de 'El Venezo-
lano' Antonio L. Guzman en 1846, 6 vols. (Caracas, 1884).
Contemporary memoirs and diaries are not as abundant as they are in
Colombia, but see J. A. Paez, Autobiografia, 2 vols. (Caracas, 1973); J. M.
de Rojas, Tiempo perdido (Caracas, 1967); W. Dupuy (ed.), Sir Robert Ker
Porter's Caracas Diary, 18251842 (Caracas, 1966); C. Parra-Perez (ed.),
La cartera del Coronel Conde de Adlercreutz (Paris, 1928); L. Level de Goda,
Historia contempordnea de Venezuela politico, y militar, 18581886 (Caracas,
1976). There is much of interest in B. Bruni Celli (comp.), Jose Maria
Vargas Obras completas, 7 vols. in 10 (Caracas, 195866); J. A. Cova,
(ed.), Archivo del MariscalJuan Crisostomo Falcon, 5 vols. (Caracas, 1957
60) is confused and disappointing; R. R. Castellanos V., Guzman Blanco
intimo (Caracas, 1969), contains selections from a large surviving archive;
see also his Pdez, proscrito y peregrino (18481851) (Caracas, 1976). Guz-
man Blanco's archive has more recently received systematic study in T.
Polanco Alcantara, Guzman Blanco: Tragedia en trespartes y un epilogo (Cara-
cas, 1992).
Other useful biographical studies are C. Parra-Perez, Marino y las
guerras chiles, 3 vols. (Madrid, 195860) and R. Diaz Sanchez, Guzman:
Elipse de una ambicion de poder, 2 vols. (Caracas, 1968). Both of these are
well documented 'lives and times', the Diaz Sanchez work dealing with
both Guzmans. F. Brito Figueroa's Tiempo de Ezequiel Zamora (Caracas,
1975) invited the scrupulously researched and ironically understated ri-
poste of A. Rodriguez's Ezequiel Zamora (Caracas, 1977). The earlier lives
of Zamora by M. Landaeta Rosales and L. Villanueva (both reprinted,
Caracas, 1975) are still worth reading, as is J. R. Pachano, Biografia del
Mariscal Juan C. Falcon, 2nd ed. (Caracas, i960). See also J. A. de Armas
Chitty, Fermin Toro y su epoca (Caracas, 1966); R. E. Castillo Blomquist,
Jose Tadeo Monagas: Augey consolidacion de un caudillo (Caracas, 1984); R. A.

Rondon Marquez, Guzman Blanco, 'el Autocrata Civilizador', 2 vols. (Cara-

cas, 1944).
Of the older histories, F. Gonzalez Guinan, Historia contempordnea de
Venezuela, 2nd ed., 15 vols. (Caracas, 1954), still contains much that is
not easily found elsewhere; J. Gil Fortoul, Historia constitucional de Venezu-
ela , 5th ed., 3 vols. (Caracas, 1967) and E. Gonzalez, Historia de Venezu-
ela, III: 1830-1858 (Buenos Aires, 1944) are both lucid. J. S. Rodriguez,
Contribucion al estudio de la guerra federal en Venezuela, 2nd ed., 2 vols.
(Caracas, i960), and L. Alvarado, Historia de la revolucidn federal en Venezu-
ela, vol. 5 of his Obras completas, 8 vols. (Caracas, 19538) are both still
essential. Of the 'positivists', the most rewarding is L. Vallenilla Lanz.
Two volumes of a new edition of his Obras completas have so far appeared.
The writings of P. M. Arcaya are also still valuable.
The evolution of Venezuelan historiography can be traced in G. Carrera
Damas (comp.), Historia de la historiografia venezolana: Textospara su estudio
(Caracas, 1961). A more recent general history is John V. Lombardi,
Venezuela (Oxford, 1982).
An introduction to the recent historiography of nineteenth-century
Venezuela is provided in the essays of M. Perez Vila, R. P. Matthews, B.
A. Frankel, M. B. Floyd and N. Harwich in M. Izard et al., Politica y
economia en Venezuela, 1810-19J6 (Caracas, 1976). The best short survey
of the century by a single author is J. A. de Armas Chitty, Vida politica de
Caracas en el siglo XIX (Caracas, 1976). A guide to parties and factions,
which includes some provincial activity, is M. V. Magallanes, Los partidos
politicos en la evolucion historica venezolana (Caracas, 1973). M. Watters, A
History of the Church in Venezuela, 1810-1930 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1934) is
likely to remain the standard survey of its subject. Among other more
recent monographs and articles, J. V. Lombardi, The Decline and Abolition
of Negro Slavery in Venezuela (Westport, Conn., 1971), goes well beyond its
immediate subject; R. P. Matthews, Violencia rural en Venezuela, 1840
1858, antecedentes socio-economicos de la Guerra Federal (Caracas, 1977), sheds
more light on the llanos in those years than on the Federal War; for the war
itself, see S. Thompson, 'The Federal Revolution in Venezuela, 1858
1863' (unpublished D.Phil, thesis, Oxford, 1983). R. L. Gilmore's Cau-
dillism and Militarism in Venezuela (Athens, Ohio, 1964) seems uncertain
about the precise nature of its subject. See also B. A. Frankel, Venezuela y
los Estados Unidos, 1810-1888 (Caracas, 1977); R. W. Butler, 'The origins
of the Liberal Party in Venezuela, 18301848' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
University of Texas, 1972); L. F. Snow, Jr., "The Paez Years Venezuelan

economic legislation, 18301846' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University

of North Carolina, 1970); G. E. Carl, First Among Equals: Great Britian
and Venezuela, 18101910 (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1980); J. V. Lombardi and
J. A. Hanson, 'The first Venezuelan coffee cycle, 18301855', Agricul-
tural History, 44 (1970) D. Bushnell, 'La evoluci6n del derecho de sufragio
en Venezuela', Boletin Historico, 39 (1972) A. Lemmo B., La educacion en
Venezuela en 1870 (Caracas, 1971).
The most famous early republican geography is A. Codazzi, Resumen de
la geografia de Venezuela (Venezuela en 1841), 3 vols. (Caracas, 1940).
Outstanding travel books which describe the country in this period are K.
F. Appun, En los tropicos (Caracas, 1961); E. B. Eastwick, Venezuela or
Sketches of Life in a South American Republic (London, 1868); P. Rosti,
Memorias de un viaje por America (Caracas, 1968). A complete list is pro-
vided by M. L. Ganzenmuller de Blay, Contribucion a la bibliografia de viajes
y exploraciones de Venezuela (Caracas, 1964).
The paintings of Anton Goering have been reproduced in Venezuela de
hace un siglo (Caracas, 1969); no. 52 conveys more about a civil war army
than could be put into many words. Another German was the outstanding
painter of the Venezuela landscape in the last century: see R. Loschner
(prologue by A. Boulton), Bellermann y el paisaje venezolano, 1842-1845
(Caracas, 1977).
The following statistical compilations are available: M. Izard, Series
estadtsticas para la historia de Venezuela (Merida, 1970); A. A. Moreno
(comp.), Las estadtsticas de lasprovincias en la epoca de Pdez (Caracas, 1973);
M. Landaeta Rosales, Gran recopilacion geogrdfica, estadistica e historica de
Venezuela, 2 vols. (Caracas, 1889; 2nd ed., Caracas, 1963); R. Veloz,
Economiay finanzas de Venezuela, 1830-1944 (Caracas, 1945).
COLOMBIA
There is unfortunately no Colombian equivalent to J. V. Lombardi and

his team's working bibliography of Venezuela, nor of the Venezuelan
Diccionario.
The work of Colombia's first bibliographer, I. Laverde Amaya, Apuntes
sobre la bibliografia colombiana con muestras escogidas en prosa y verso (Bogota,
1882) is still a valuable guide to the authors of this period. See also G.
Giraldo Jaramillo, Bibliografia de bibliografias colombianas, 2nd ed., cor-
rected and updated by R. Perez Ortiz (Bogota, i960), and Bibliografia
colombiana de viajes (Bogota, 1957); S. Bernal, Guia bibliografia de Colombia

de interes para el antropologo (Bogota, 1970), invaluable for local history; H.

H . Orjuela, Fuentes generates para el estudio de la literatura colombiana, guia
bibliogrdfica (Bogota, 1968); E. Ortega Ricaurte, Bibliografia academica,
19021952 (Bogota, 1953); M. G. Romero et al., Papeletas bibliograficas
para el estudio de la historia de Colombia (Bogota, 1961).
The following printed personal archives are particularly recommended:
R. Cortazar (comp.), Cartas y mensajes del General Francisco de Paula
Santander, 10 vols. (Bogota, 19536) and Correspondencia dirigida al general
Francisco de Paula Santander, 14 vols. (Bogota, 1964-7). Recently the
Fundacion Francisco de Paula Santander has issued over fifty volumes
relating to Santander. Most refer to the period prior to 1830, but for early
New Granada, see M. Deas and E. Sanchez (eds.), Santander y los ingleses,
1832-1840, 2 vols. (Bogota, 1991). See also L. A. Cuervo (comp.),
Epistolario del doctor Rufino Cuervo, 3 vols. (Bogota, 191822); J. L.
Helguera and R. H. Davis (eds.), Archivo epistolar del General Mosquera, 3
vols. to date (Bogota, 1966 ); H. Rodriguez Plata, Jose Maria Obando
intimo: Archivo epistolario comentarios (Bogota, 1958); S. E. Ortiz and
L. Martinez Delgado (comps.), Documentos y correspondencia del general Jose
Maria Obando, 4 vols. (Bogota, 1973); E. Lemaitre (introd.), Epistolario de
Rafael Nunez con Miguel Antonio Caro (Bogota, 1977); G. Hernandez de
Alba (ed.), Epistolario de Rufino Jose Cuervo con Luis Maria Lleras y otros
amigos y familiares (Bogota, 1970); G. Hernandez de Alba et al. (comps.),
Arcbivo epistolar del General Domingo Caycedo, 3 vols. (Bogota, 19437).
S. Camacho Roldan, Escritos varios, 3 vols. (Bogota, 18925), M.
Samper, Escritos politico-economicos, 4 vols. (Bogota, 19257), and R. Nu-
nez, La reformapolitica en Colombia, 7 vols. (Bogota, 194650), are funda-
mental commentaries on Colombia in the nineteenth century. An isolated
Chilean diplomatic report of great sensitivity, describing the Colombian
political scene in the early 1880s, is contained in R. Donoso, Jose Anto-
nio Soffia en Bogota', Thesaurus 31/1 (1976).
For memoirs, see J. M. Restrepo, Autobiografia (Bogota, 1957), and
Diario politico y militar, 4 vols. (Bogota, 1954); J. M. Cordovez Moure,
Reminiscencias de Santa Fe y Bogota, ed. E. Miijica (Madrid, 1962);
Cordovez Moure was a pioneer of all sorts of social history, and the riches
of his work are only now beginning to receive their due recognition from
modern historians. See also F. de P. Borda, Conversaciones con mis hijos, 3
vols. (Bogota, 1974); A. Parra, Memorias (Bogota, 1912); S. Camacho
Roldan, Memorias, 2 vols. (Bogota, 1945); J. M. Samper, Historia de una
alma (Bogota, 1971); J. M. Obando, Apuntamientospara la historia, 2 vols.

j. Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador 279
(Bogota, 1945); J. Posada Gutierrez, Memorial bistorico-politicas, 4 vols.

(Bogota, 1929). Among numerous contemporary accounts of civil wars see
A. Cuervo, Como se evapora un ejercito (Bogota, 1953); M. Briceno, La
revolution, I8J6-I8JJ: Recuerdos para la historia (Bogota, 1947); J. M.
Vargas Valdez, A mipasopor la tierra (Bogota, 1938); V. Ortiz, Historia de
la revolution del ij de abril de 1854 (Bogota, 1972).
Biographies include C. Cuervo Marquez, Vida del doctor Jose Ignacio de
Mdrquez, 2 vols. (Bogota, 1917); E. Posada and P. M. Ibanez, Vida de
Herrdn (Bogota, 1903); E. Gomez Barrientos, Don Mariano Ospina y su
epoca, 2 vols. (Medellin, 191315), continued as Veintitinco anos a traves del
estado de Antioquia, 2 vols. (Medellin, 1918); A. and R. J. Cuervo, Vida de
Rufi.no Cuervo y noticias de su epoca, 2 vols. (Paris, 1892); I. Gutierrez
Ponce, Vida de Ignacio Gutierrez Vergara, 2 vols. (London, 1900, and
Bogota, 1973); J. M. Arboleda Llorente, Vida del llmo. Senor Manuel Jose
Mosquera, Arzobispo de Santa Fe de Bogota, 2 vols. (Bogota, 1956); A. J.
Lemos Guzman, Obando (Popayan, 1959); F. U. Zuluaga R., Jose Maria
Obando, De so/dado realista a caudillo republicano (Bogota, 1984); D.
Castrillon Arboleda, Mosquera (Bogota, 1979); I. Lievano Aguirre, Nunez
(Bogota, 1944); G. Otero Munoz, La vida azarosa de Rafael Nunez (Bo-
gota, 1951).
G. Arboleda, Historia contempordnea de Colombia, 6 vols. (Bogota, 1918
35) is the most complete of older works, but unfortunately runs only to
1861. Valuable for the later years of this period are E. Rodriguez Pineres,
El olimpo radical, 18641884 (Bogota, 1950) and J. W. Park, Rafael
Nunez and the Politics of Colombian Regionalism, 18631886 (Baton Rouge,
La., 1985).
A comprehensive and magnificently documented study of its subject is
J. L. Helguera, 'The first Mosquera administration in New Granada,
184599' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of North Carolina,
1950). See also his 'Liberalism versus Conservatism in Colombia, 1849
1885', in F. B. Pike (ed.), Latin American History: Select Problems (New
York, 1969). For mid-century see G. Colmenares, Poder politico y clases
sotiales (Bogota, 1965); and David Sowell, The Early Latin American Labor
Movement: Artisans and Politics in Bogota, 1832-1919 (Philadelphia, Pa.,
1992). For intellectual currents, see J. Jaramillo Uribe, El pensamiento
colombiano en el sigh XIX (Bogota, 1964); G. Molina, Las ideas liberates en
Colombia, 1849-1914 (Bogota, 1970); M. Deas, 'Miguel Antonio Caro y
amigos: Poder y gramatica', in Poder, gramdtica, pobreza, guerra civil:
Ensayos de historia, politica y literatura colombiana (Bogota, 1992), and, on

government finance and its context, his 'The fiscal problems of nineteenth
century Colombia', JLAS, 14/2(1982).
On economic history the fundamental work remains L. Ospina Vas-
quez, Industria y protection en Colombia, 1810-1930 (Medellfn, 1955),
which is to be preferred to the more speculative W. P. McGreevey, An
Economic History of Colombia, 1845-1930 (Cambridge, Eng., 1971).
Ospina Vasquez can be supplemented by J. A. Ocampo (ed.), Historia
econdmica de Colombia (Bogota, 1987); J. A. Ocampo, Colombia y la economia
mundial, 18301910 (Bogota, 1984); and S. Kalmanovitz, Economia y
nation (Bogota, 1985), a readable Marxist account. Frank Safford in The
Ideal of the Practical (Austin, Tex., 1975) explores many themes via a
consideration of technical education. His unpublished Ph.D. thesis, 'Com-
merce and enterprise in central Colombia, 1821-1870' (Columbia Univer-
sity, 1965) remains essential reading, as are his essays collected in Aspectos
del siglo XIX en Colombia (Medellin, 1977). So too are J. P. Harrison, 'The
Colombian tobacco industry from government monopoly to free trade,
17781876' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of California, 1951);
L. F. Sierra, El tabaco en la economia colombiana del siglo XIX (Bogota, 1971);
J. A. Bejarano y O. Pulido, Notas sobre la historia de Ambalema (Ibague,
1982); R. C. Beyer, 'The Colombian coffee industry: Origin and major
trends 17401940 (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Minnesota,
1947); Marco Palacios, Coffee in Colombia 18501970; An Economic, Social
and Political History (Cambridge, Eng., 1980). V. Restrepo, Estudio sobre
las minas de oroy deplata en Colombia (Bogota, 1882) is still the best source
of republican mining history up to the date of its publication.
On transport see R. L. Gilmore and J. P. Harrison, 'Juan Bernardo
Elbers and the introduction of steam navigation on the Magdalena River',
HAHR, 28 (1948); and H. Horna, 'Francisco Javier Cisneros: A pioneer in
transportation and economic development in Colombia' (unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, Vanderbilt University, 1970).
Outstanding regional studies are J. J. Parsons, Antioqueno Colonization in
Western Colombia (Berkeley, 1968); R. J. Brew, El desarrollo economico de
Antioquia desde la independencia hasta 1920 (Bogota, 1977); J. O. Melo
(ed.), Historia de Antioquia (Bogota, 1988). J. Friede, El indio en la lucha
por la tierra (Bogota, 1944), and O. Fals Borda, El hombre y la tierra en
Boyoca (Bogota, 1975) treat aspects of highland agrarian history in the
south and centre respectively. For Santander, see D. C. Johnson, Santander
siglo XIX: Cambios socio-economicos (Bogota, 1984); and R. J. Stoller, 'Liber-
alism and conflict in Socorro, 18301870' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis,

Duke University, 1991); for the Atlantic Coast, G. Bell (ed.), El Caribe
colombiano, Selection de textos historicos (Barranquilla, 1988); T. E. Nicholls,
Tres puertos de Colombia (Bogota, 1973); see also A. Garcia, Legislation
indigenista en Colombia (Mexico, D.F., 1952).
For general reference, see A. Pardo Pardo, Geografia econdmica y humana de
Colombia (Bogota, 1972). M. Urrutiaand M. Arrubla, Compendio de estadis-
ticas histdricas de Colombia (Bogota, 1970), contains series on population,
wages, prices, foreign trade, tobacco, coffee and presidential elections.
For nineteenth-century geography, the reports of A. Codazzi are in
Comision Corografica, Geografia fisica y politica de las provincias de la Nueva
Granada, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (Bogota, 1957-8); F. Perez, Geografia general de
los Estados Unidos de Colombia (Bogota, 1883), derives from the same source,
and M. Ancizar, Peregrination de Alpha (Bogota, 1956), from the same
travels. R. Gutierrez, Monografias, 2 vols. (Bogota, 19201) contains much
useful material from the 1880s. Other valuable accounts are C. Gosselman,
Viajepor Colombia, 1825 y 1826 (Bogota, 1981); J. Stewart, Bogota in 1836-
7 (New York, 1838); I. Holton, New Granada: Twenty Months in the Andes
(New York, 1857); E. Rothlisberger, El Dorado (Bogota, 1963); F. Von
Schenk, Viajes por Antioquia en el ano 1880 (Bogota, 1952); A. Hettner,
Viajes por los Andes colombianos, 1882-1884 (Bogota, 1976).
Early costumbrista painting in Colombia is illustrated in M. Deas, E.
Sanchez and A. Martinez, Types and Customs of New Granada: The Picture
Collection and Diary of Joseph Brown (Bogota, 1989); E. Sanchez, Ramon
Torres Mendez, pintor de la Nueva Granada (Bogota, 1987). The series of
watercolours reproduced in Album de la Comision Corografica suplemento de
'Hojas de cultura popular colombiana' (Bogota, n.d.) republished with addi-
tional material in J. Ardila and C. Lleras (eds.), Batalla contra el olvido
(Bogota, 1985), are an extraordinary record of types, scenes, landscapes
and activities at mid-century.
ECUADOR
The problems of Ecuadorian historiography were set out in A. Szaszdi,

"The historiography of the Republic of Ecuador', HAHR, 44/4 (1964).
Some have been remedied since but not all: see R. E. Norris, Guia
bibliogrdfica para el estudio de la historia ecuatoriana (Austin, Tex., 1978);
see also the short article and shorter bibliography by J. Maiguashca in E.
Florescano, (ed.), La historia econdmica en America Latina, 2 vols. (Mexico,
D.F., 1972), and M. T. Hamerly, 'Quantifying the nineteenth century:

The ministry reports and gazettes of Ecuador as quantitative sources',

LARR, 13/2 (1978). C. M. Larrea's Bibliografia cientifica del Ecuador (Ma-
drid, 1952) lists 9,300 items, but many in the historical sections are
virtually unobtainable.
The best introduction is now the Nueva Historia del Ecuador (Quito,
1988 ; planned in 15 vols. ) For a stimulating introduction to nineteenth-
century politics, see E. Ayala, Luchapolitica y origen de los partidos en Ecuador
(Quito, 1978).
Among older works the following deserve mention: P. F. Ceballos,
Resumen de la historia del Ecuador desde su origen hasta 1845, 5 vols. in 3
(Lima, 1870); R. Andrade, Historia del Ecuador, 2nd ed., introd. M.
Chiriboga, 4 vols. (Quito, 1982-4); P. Moncayo, El Ecuador de 1825 a
1875: Sus hombres, sus instituciones y sus leyes (Santiago, Chile, 1885). I.
Robalino Davila's Origines del Ecuador de hoy, collected ed., 7 vols. (Puebla,
194870) is a series of well-documented politico-biographical studies
running from the ascendency of Flores to the career of Alfaro; a conserva-
tive bias is increasingly apparent and the volume on Garcia Moreno is
much more successful than the treatment of Alfaro. The series still repre-
sents the most ambitious effort of traditional historiography, and is less
partisan than J. M. Le Gouhir y Rodas, Historia de la republica del Ecuador,
3 vols. (Quito, 192038), a Jesuit work still useful for its documentation.
J. Tobar Donoso, Monografias histdricas (Quito, 1937) and his La iglesia
ecuatoriana en el sigh XIX: De 1809 a 1845 (Quito, 1934) are still valu-
able. Cultura, 2/6 (1980), a journal published by the Banco Central del
Ecuador, Quito, is entirely devoted to 'El Ecuador en 1830: Ideologia,
economfa, politica'.
There is now a useful biography of Flores: M. J. Van Aken, King of the
Night: Juan Jose Flores and Ecuador, 1824-1864 (Berkeley, 1989). On
Rocafuerte, see J. E. Rodriguez O. (ed.), Estudios sobre Vicente Rocafuerte
(Guayaquil, 1975) and N. Zuniga (ed.), Coleccion Rocafuerte, 16 vols.
(Quito, 1947). Rocafuerte's Ecuadorian career is not covered in J. E.
Rodriguez O., The Emergence of Spanish America: Vicente Rocafuerte and
Spanish Americanism, 18081832 (Berkeley, 1975). The Banco Central del
Ecuador has begun publishing Rocafuerte's Epistolario (Quito, 1991 ).
On Garcia Moreno, see M.-D. Demelas and Y. Saint-Geours, Jerusalen y
Babilonia: Religion y politica en el Ecuador 1780-1880 (Quito, 1988); vol. 4
of Robalino Davila's Origines; R. Pattee, Gabriel Garcia Moreno y el Ecuador
desu tiempo, 3rd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1962). On Montalvo, see O. E. Reyes,
Vida de Juan Montalvo, 2nd ed. (Quito, 1943). Veintemilla's years pro-

8. Peru and Bolivia 283
duced a spirited defence from his niece Marieta: M. Veintemilla, Paginas

del Ecuador (Lima, 1890), and a reply from Flores's son Antonio: A. Flores,
Para la bistoria del Ecuador, 2 vols. (Quito, 1891). See also J. L. Mera, La
dictadura y la restauracion en la republica del Ecuador, edition and introduc-
tion by R. Quintero (Quito, 1982). For the late nineteenth-century
church, see F. Gonzalez Suarez, Memorias intimas (Quito, 1944).
The collections of Garcia Moreno's writings are listed in Robalino
Davila's biography; the largest published collection of letters is that edited
by Wilfredo Loor, Cartas de Garcia Moreno, 4 vols. (Quito, 19535), but
it is far from complete.
There are few modern monographs. Most notable is M. T. Hamerly,
Historia social y economica de la antigua provincia de Guayaquil, 17631842
(Guayaquil, 1973). See also M. Chiriboga, Jornaleros y gran propietarios en
135 anos de exportacion cacaotera (17901925) (Quito, 1980); L. Alexander
Rodriguez, The Search for Public Policy: Regional Politics and Government
Finances in Ecuador, 1830-1940 (Berkeley, 1985). The agrarian history of
the sierra in the last century still awaits systematic exploration. There are
leads in R. Baraona, Tenencia de la tierra y desarrollo socio-economico del sector
agricola - Ecuador (Washington, D.C., 1965), and in A. Rubio Orbe,
Legislacion indigenista del Ecuador (Mexico, D.F., 1954).
C. M. Larrea's bibliography lists travellers and geographical studies.
The earliest comprehensive national geography is M. Villavicencio, Geo-
grafia de la republica del Ecuador (New York, 1858). Of foreign observers,
two of the more accessible and informative are F. Hassaurek, Four Years
Among Spanish Americans (New York, 1867) and A. Holinski, L'Equateur
Scenes de la vie Americaine (Paris, 1861).
8. PERU AND BOLIVIA
PERU
For the entire period from independence to the War of the Pacific, Jorge
Basadre's great work, Historia de la Republica del Peru, 5th ed., 10 vols.
(Lima, 1962-4), undoubtedly constitutes the most important source of
reference. His earlier works, Peru, problema y posibilidad (Lima, 1931), and
La multitud, la ciudad y el campo (Lima, 1947), have not only maintained
their freshness but were responsible for pioneering the study of Peru's
history. Apart from Basadre's classic works, another summary of this

period written by Emilio Romero, Historia economica del Peru (Buenos

Aires, 1949) contains information which is still of value. More recently,
Ernesto Yepes del Castillo, Peru 1820-1920: Un sigh de desarrollo capital-
ista (Lima, 1972) has provided an overall interpretation of the nineteenth
century, while Julio Cotler, in Clases, estadoy nacion en el Peru (Lima, 1978)
discusses and explains the persistence of the colonial character of Peruvian
society and the state after 1821. A useful general history in English is
Fredrick B. Pike, The Modern History of Peru (London, 1967). Heraclio
Bonilla, Un siglo a la deriva (Lima, 1980), chaps. 1 and 2, and Shane
Hunt, Price and Quantum Estimates of Peruvian Exports, 18301962 (Prince-
ton, N.J., Woodrow Wilson School, Discussion Paper 33, 1973) have
suggested the division of the nineteenth century into economic periods, on
the basis of the country's export performance.
The years between 1821 and 1840 were decisive in the process of
disengagement from the colonial system and in the emergence of a new
national order. On this period see the important book of Paul Gootenberg,
Between Silver and Guano: Commercial Policy and the State in Post-Independence
Peru (Princeton, N.J., 1989) and an article by the same author, 'North-
South: Trade policy, regionalism and caudillismo in post-independence
Peru'.yiAS 1 , 23/2 (1991), 273-308. Heraclio Bonilla, Gran Bretana y el
Peru: Los mecanismos de un control econdmico (Lima, 1977), examines the
conditions and effects of the British presence in post-independence Peru.
The unique economic and social characteristics of the Andean region have
been dealt with in John F. Wibel, 'The evolution of a regional community
within the Spanish empire and the Peruvian nation: Arequipa, 1780
1845' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, 1975) and Alberto
Flores Galindo, Arequipa y elSur Andino, siglos XVIH-XX (Lima, 1977).
Relations between the communities and haciendas and the process of
decomposition and recovery within the former during this period are the
subject of Christine Hiinefeldt, Lucha por la tierra y protesta indigena (Bonn,
1982). Two general works on the army and on the church contain useful
information on this period: Victor Villanueva, Ejercito peruano: Del caudi-
llaje andrquico al militarismo reformista (Lima, 1973) and Jeffrey Klaiber,
Religion and Revolution in Peru, 1824-1976 (Notre Dame, Ind., 1976). On
the PeruBolivian Confederation, that is to say, the failed attempt to
unite the two countries, the following are worth consulting: L. C. Ken-
dall, 'Andres Santa Cruz and the PeruBolivian Confederation', HAHR,
16 (1936), 2948; Robert Burr, By Reason or Force: Chile and the Balancing
of Power in South America, 18301905 (Berkeley, 1965); Carlos Ortiz de

Zevallos Paz Soldan, Confederation Peru-Boliviana, 1835-1839, 2 vols.

(Lima, 1972-4).
Jonathan Levin, The Export Economies: Their Pattern of Development in
Historical Perspective (Cambridge, Mass., i960), inaugurated the modern
debate on the impact of guano on the Peruvian economy. Levin's thesis
that the guano boom produced in Peru a typical enclave economy was
questioned by Shane Hunt in 'Growth and guano in nineteenth-century
Peru', in Roberto Cortes Conde and Shane Hunt (eds.), Latin American
Economies: Growth and the Export Sector, 18801930 (New York, 1985),
255318. On the other hand, William M. Mathew, in 'Anglo-Peruvian
commercial and financial relations, 1820-1865' (unpublished Ph.D. the-
sis, University of London, 1964), and in 'Peru and the British guano
market, 18401870', Economic History Review, 2nd series, 23 (1970), has
shown, by basing himself on the private papers of Antony Gibbs & Sons,
the mechanics by which guano was marketed, and the considerable auton-
omy enjoyed by the Peruvian government. See also by W. M. Mathew,
'The imperialism of free trade, Peru 18201870', Economic History Review,
2nd series, 21 (1968); 'The first Anglo-Peruvian debt and its settlement,
1822 49', JLAS, 2/1 (1970); 'Foreign contractors and the Peruvian gov-
ernment at the outset of the guano trade', HAHR, 52/4 (1972); 'A primi-
tive export sector: Guano production in mid-nineteenth century Peru',
JLAS, 9/1 (1977); 'Antony Gibbs & Sons, the guano trade and the Peru-
vian government 18421861', in D. C. M. Platt (ed.), Business Imperial-
ism 18401930 (Oxford, 1977); and The House of Gibbs and the Peruvian
Guano Monopoly (London, 1981).
The attitude of the ruling class regarding the policy to be pursued
with resources from guano, and the process by which the international
crisis of 1872 affected Peruvian finances, are themes examined in Juan
Maiguashca, 'A reinterpretation of the Guano age, 18401880' (unpub-
lished D.Phil, thesis, University of Oxford, 1967). See also R. Miller
and R. Greenhill, 'The Peruvian government and the nitrate trade,
1873-1879', JLAS, 41 (1973). Heraclio Bonilla, Guano y burguesia en el
Peru (Lima, 1974), examines the collapse of the Peruvian economy dur-
ing the guano period in terms of the characteristics of the ruling class
and the limitations of the internal market. Alfonso Quiroz, in La deuda
defraudada: consolidatidn de 1850 y dominio economico en el Peru (Lima,
1987), has questioned the idea that the 'consolidation of the internal
debt', that is to say, the fraudulent payment of guano revenue to large
numbers of the state's local creditors, was responsible for the economic

recovery of the Peruvian elite. The role of guano in the growth of

productive capital for export agriculture has been examined in the follow-
ing: Pablo Macera, 'Las plantaciones azucareras andinas, 1821-1875',
Trabajos de Historia 4 (1977); Manuel Burga, De la encomienda a la haci-
enda capitalista (Lima, 1976); Juan R. Engelsen, 'Social aspects of agricul-
tural expansion in coastal Peru, 1825-1878' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
University of California, Los Angeles, 1977). In contrast to the direct
links with agriculture on the coast, the agrarian sector of the Andean
highlands grew independently of the effects of guano. The reasons for
this are analysed in Florencia E. Mallon, The Defense of Community in
Peru's Central Highlands: Peasant Struggle and Capitalist Transition, 1860-
1940 (Princeton, N.J., 1982), Nelson Manrique, El desarrollo del mercado
interno en la sierra central (Lima, 1978), and Martha Giraldo and Ana
Lizia Franch, 'Hacienda y gamonalismo, 1850-1920' (unpublished mas-
ter's dissertation, Universidad Catolica de Lima, 1979). Other changes
associated with the overall effects of guano were the mobilization of
capital and the creation of the banking system, the importation of Chi-
nese workers in massive numbers and the construction of the Peruvian
rail network. On the banks, Carlos Camprubi Alcazar, Historia de los
bancos del Peru, 1860-/879 (Lima, 1957) vol. 1, is still useful. On the
Chinese 'coolies', Watt Stewart's pioneer work, Chinese Bondage in Peru: A
History of the Chinese Coolie in Peru, 18491874 (Durham, N.C., 1951),
can be supplemented by a later, albeit more general, study by Arnold J.
Meagher, 'The introduction of Chinese laborers to Latin America: The
coolie trade, 18471874' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of
California, Davis, 1975). A study of the railways has not yet been
undertaken. The only work of any relevance is Watt Stewart's biography
of the American contractor who put down the first lines: Henry Meiggs: A
Yankee Pizarro (Durham, N.C., 1946). It is now well known that guano
produced wealth and poverty at the same time. Gigantic price increases
in cities like Lima in the early 1870s caused one of the first important
mass uprisings. Its composition and objectives are the subject of a careful
study by Margarita Giesecke, Masas urbanas y rebelidn en la historia: Golpe
de estado, Lima 1872 (Lima, 1978).
The demographic history of the period has been largely ignored. Al-
though some important research is being carried out on the whole Cuzco
region, the only basic work of reference currently available is George
Kubler, The Indian Caste of Peru, 1795-1940 (Washington, D.C., 1950).
An interesting discussion of the politics of this period and especially the

role of the state can be found in Ronald H. Berg and Frederick Stirton
Weaver, 'Towards a reinterpretation of political change in Peru during the
first century of independence', JIAS, 20/1 (1978), 6 9 - 8 3 , and Stephen
M. Gorman, 'The state, elite and exports in nineteenth century Peru',
JIAS, 21/3 (1979), 395-418.
Many books of differing quality have been produced on the war with
Chile. Henri Favre was the first scholar to draw attention to the need to
examine the conflict from a new perspective: 'Remarques sur la lutte des
classes au Perou pendant la Guerre du Pacifique', in Literature et societe au
Perou du XIX siecle a nos jours (Grenoble, 1975). The war is also the starting
point for analysing problems such as the issue of national identity and the
colonial tradition in modern Peru. Heraclio Bonilla, 'The War of the
Pacific and the national and colonial problem in Peru', Past and Present, 81
(1978), sets out the guidelines for a re-examination of both issues. The
most important work since then is Nelson Manrique, Campesinado y nacion:
La sierra central durante la Guerra del Pacifico (Lima, 1981).
BOLIVIA
The bibliography on Bolivian history between 1825 and 1879 is unfortu-

nately still very weak. General works which offer coverage of this period
include Herbert S. Klein, Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society
(Oxford, 1982); J. Valerie Fifer, Bolivia: Land, Location and Politics since
1825 (Cambridge, Eng., 1972) and Luis Pefialoza, Historia economica de
Bolivia, 2 vols. (La Paz, 19467). Estudios bolivianos en homenaje a Gunner
Mendoza L. (La Paz, 1978) is an interesting collection of essays.
The transition from colony to republic is the subject of William L.
Lofstrom, 'The promise and problem of reform: Attempted social and
economic change in the first years of Bolivian independence' (unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, Cornell University, 1972); Charles Arnade, The Emergence of
the Republic of Bolivia (Gainesville, Fla.; 1957); and Alberto Crespo et al.,
La vida cotidiana en La Paz durante la Guerra de la Independencia (La Paz,
1975). The state of the country's resources at the time of independence
were described in J. B. Pentland, 'Report on Bolivia 1827', ed. J. Valerie
Fifer, Royal Historical Society, London, Camden Miscellany, 35 (1974).
There is a more complete version in Spanish: J. B. Pentland, Inform sobre
Bolivia, 1827 (Potosi, 1975), a unique and indispensable collection of
demographic and economic data on Bolivia in the middle of the nine-
teenth century. Fernando Cajias, La provincia de Atacama, 1825-1842 (La

Paz, 1975), is a valuable regional study. On the survival of the Indian

tribute system, see Nicolas Sanchez-Albornoz, Indios y tributes en el Alto
Peru (Lima, 1978). The standard work on Santa Cruz, who dominated the
political life of Bolivia in the post-independence period, is Alfonso
Crespo, Santa Cruz, el condor indio (Mexico, D.F., 1944). Also see Oscar de
Santa Cruz (ed.), El General Santa Cruz, Gran Mariscal de Zepita y el Gran
Peru (La Paz, 1924). Manuel Cartasco,Jose Ballividn, 1805-1852 (Buenos
Aires, i960), is a biography of the third most important of the early
presidents (after Sucre and Santa Cruz). An interesting discussion of Boliv-
ian politics in this period can be found in James Dunkerley, 'Reassessing
caudillismo in Bolivia, 1825-79', BLAR, ill (1981). The complicated
relations between Great Britain and Bolivia at this time have been de-
scribed, in a rather heavy-handed way, by Roberto Querejazu C , Bolivia y
los ingleses (La Paz, 1973). An important contribution on mining in the
nineteenth century has been made by Antonio Mitre in Los patriarcas de la
Plata (Lima, 1981) and El monedero de los Andes (La Paz, 1986).
On the Indian communities in the nineteenth century, Erwin P. Greis-
haber, 'Survival of Indian communities in nineteenth century Boliva' (un-
published Ph.D. thesis, University of North Carolina, 1977), and 'Survival
of Indian communities in nineteenth century Bolivia: A regional compari-
son', JLAS, 12/2 (1980), 22369 are important. A useful monograph on
Melgarejo's policies is Luis Antezana, El feudalismo de Melgarejo y la reforma
agraria (La Paz, 1970). Relations between haciendas and communities in
the highlands are examined in an important article by Silvia Rivera C., 'La
expansi6n del latifundio en el altiplano boliviano', Avances, 2 (1978), 95
118. See also Tristan Platt, Estado boliviano y ayllu andino (Lima, 1982);
Erick D. Langer, Economic Change and Rural Resistance in Southern Bolivia
(Stanford, Calif., 1988); and Brooke Larson, Colonialism and Agrarian Trans-
formation in Bolivia: Cochabamba, 1550-1900 (Princeton, N.J., 1988).
9. CHILE
Invaluable work has been done since the late 1950s by the journal Historia
(published by the Institute of History, Catholic University of Chile, Santi-
ago), in keeping a detailed record of all materials published on Chilean
history (in Chile and abroad) from year to year. These are listed in the
journal's regular Fichero bibliogrdfico. The first such bibliographies were
usefully collected in Horacio Aranguiz Donoso (ed.), Bibliografia historica,

9. Chile 289
1959-1967 (Santiago, Chile, 1970). Subsequent ficheros have been pub-

lished in each issue oiHistoria except for 21 (1986), the first of two special
memorial issues for Mario Gongora, whose tragic death at the end of 1985
deprived Chile of one of its most respected twentieth-century scholars.
The publications appearing in Chile during the period from indepen-
dence to the War of the Pacific are listed (though not in accordance with
modern bibliographical criteria) in Ramon Briseno (ed.), Estadistica bib-
liogrdfica de la literatura chilena, 3 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1965-6).
Briseiio's two original volumes were printed in 1862 and 1879. Vol. 3,
produced under the auspices of the Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago, con-
tains much-needed amendments and additions, compiled by Raul Silva
Castro. The Oficina Central de Estadfstica was founded in Chile in 1843,
though it only began work four years later; thereafter the government
became reasonably assiduous in collecting statistical information, much of
it subsequently published in the Anuario estadistico from 1861 onwards.
Commercial statistics were published (after 1844), as were the censuses of
1854, 1865 and 1875. Statistical material from this period, however, has
to be used with critical awareness of its inadequacies. For a detailed list of
Chilean government publications, including statistics, see Rosa Quintero
Mesa (ed.), Latin American Serial Documents, No. 7, Chile (New York,
1973). Markos Mamalakis (ed.), Historical Statistics of Chile, 6 vols. (West-
port, Conn., 1978-89), provides much valuable material.
Traditional historical scholarship in Chile, which produced some memo-
rable narratives between the mid-nineteenth century and the mid-
twentieth, tended to focus less on the post-independence decades - 'the
early republic' - than on the colonial era and the wars of independence.
The great nineteenth-century historians played a part in the history of
their own time, as is well illustrated in Allen Woll, A Functional Past: The
Uses of History in Nineteenth Century Chile (Baton Rouge, La., 1982), but
they did not usually write about it. This also tended to be true, with
certain notorious exceptions, of their successors between 1900 and 1950.
Recent work by scholars has begun to fill in some of the gaps in our
knowledge of the period. Simon Collier, 'The historiography of the "Por-
talian" period in Chile, 1830-1891,' HAHR, 57/4 (1977), 660-90,
reviews the literature as it existed in the mid-1970s. Some of the hopes for
future research expressed in that article have now been fulfilled: since that
time there have been very positive signs of a substantial new interest in the
early republic.
The most extensive single description of the period as a whole is still the

one to be found in Francisco Antonio Encina, Historia de Chile desde la

prehistoria hasta 1891, 20 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1942-52), vols. 9 - 1 7 .
This huge and idiosyncratically conservative work has not lacked critics: it
is instructive when using it to consult the relevant passages of Ricardo
Donoso's sustained attack, Francisco A. Encina, simulador, 2 vols. (Santi-
ago, Chile, 196970).
In older works, the years from independence to 1833 are narrated in
copious detail in Diego Barros Arana, Historia general de Chile, 16 vols.
(Santiago, Chile, 1884-1902), vols. 9 - 1 6 , while good narratives of spe-
cific presidencies include Ramon Sotomayor Valdes Chile bajo el gobierno del
general don Joaquin Prieto, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1905-6);
Diego Barros Arana, Un decenio de la historia de Chile, 1841-1851, 2 vols.
(Santiago, Chile, 1905-6), the greatest Chilean historian's serene swan-
song; Alberto Edwards Vives, El gobierno de don Manuel Montt (Santiago,
Chile, 1932); and, on the four administrations between 1841 and 1876,
Agustin Edwards, Cuatropresidentes de Chile, 2 vols. (Valparaiso, 1932). A
very early political narrative that continues to repay close attention is
Isidoro Errazuriz, Historia de la administration Errdzuriz, precedida de una
introduccion que contiene la resena del movimiento y lucha de los partidos desde
1823 hasta I8JI (Valparaiso, 1877). All the works mentioned show tradi-
tional Chilean historical writing at its best.
There are few extensive printed documentary collections for this period of
the kind available for colonial times and the wars of independence. Congres-
sional debates, however, were printed as Sesiones del Congreso Nacional from
1846 onwards, while congressional papers (and selected debates) from be-
fore that date may be found in Valentin Letelier (ed.), Sesiones de los cuerpos
legislatives de la Republka de Chile, 18111845, 37 vols. (Santiago, Chile,
1887-1908). Complete lists of the names and dates of the presidents,
cabinet ministers, senators and deputies for the years 1823-83 are printed
in Luis Valencia Avaria (ed.), Anales de la Republica, 2nd ed., 2 vols. in 1
(Santiago, Chile, 1986), vol. 1, 448503 and vol. 2, 22281.
On the general political framework of the period, the stimulating essay
(1928) of Alberto Edwards Vives, Lafronda aristocratica en Chile, 10th ed.
(Santiago, Chile, 1987), remains a classic source for its many asides and
insights. Also still well worth consulting is the account of the ideological
battles of the period provided by the doyen of mid-twentieth-century
Chilean historians, Ricardo Donoso, in his Las ideas politicas en Chile, 3rd
ed. (Buenos Aires, 1975). Valuable introductory texts by modern scholars,
giving general coverage of the period, include Sergio Villalobos R., Fer-

9. Chile 291
nando Silva V., Osvaldo Silva G. and Patricio Estelle M., Historia de Chile,
4 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1974-76), vol. 3, 404-578 and vol. 4, 5 8 0 -
761; Gonzalo Izquierdo F., Historia de Chile, 3 vols. (Santiago, Chile,
198990), vol. 2, 83309; and Brian Loveman, Chile, The Legacy of
Hispanic Capitalism, 2nd ed. (New York, 1988), chaps. 4 - 5 ; this last is
the best one-volume history of Chile in English to date. The older essay by
Julio Cesar Jobet, Ensayo critico del desarrollo economico-social de Chile (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1955), still merits a perusal. Luis Vitale, Interpretation marxista
de la historia de Chile, vol. 3 (Santiago, Chile, 1971), re-works the period
up to 1859 from a further perspective. General ideas about the early
republic along differing lines are offered in Sergio Villalobos R., 'Sugeren-
cias para un enfoque del siglo XIX,' Estudios CIEPLAN, 12 (1984), 9 - 3 6 ;
Mario Gongora, Ensayo histdrico sobre la notion de estado en Chile en los siglos
XIX y XX (Santiago, 1981), 1-28; Simon Collier, 'Gobiemo y sociedad
en Chile durante la repiiblica conservadora,' Boletin del Instituto de Historia
Argentina y Americana 'Dr. Emilio Ravignani,' 3rd series, 1 (Buenos Aires,
1989), 115-26.
Political history in the traditional sense has attracted little attention
since i960; Chilean historians may still be unconsciously overreacting to
the giants of the past. A promising line of inquiry into the political elite of
the period has been opened up in Gabriel Marcella, 'The structure of
politics in nineteenth-century Spanish America: The Chilean oligarchy,
18331891' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Notre Dame University, 1973).
The politics of the 1820s and early 1830s are analysed in Simon Collier,
Ideas and Politics of Chilean Independence, 18081833 (Cambridge, Eng.,
1967), chaps. 69, and Julio Heise Gonzalez, Anos de formation y aprendi-
zaje politicos, 18101833 (Santiago, Chile, 1978), part 4, chaps. 16.
The life and work of the supposed 'organizer of the republic,' Diego
Portales, have been re-evaluated, mildly in Jay Kinsbruner, Diego Portales:
Interpretive Essays on the Man and His Times (The Hague, 1967), and more
critically in Sergio Villalobos R., Portales, una falsification histdrica (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1989). Whatever is said or written about him, the shade of the
'omnipotent minister' continues to haunt us: see the interesting collection
of essays, Bernardino Bravo Lira (ed.), Portales: El hombre y su obra: La
consolidation del gobierno civil (Santiago, Chile, 1989). Roberto Hernandez
P., Diego Portales, vida y tiempo (Santiago, Chile, 1974) is a rare example of
a modern 'straight' biography of any of the major politicians of the period:
several others cry out for one. At the other end of the period, Anibal
Pinto's presidency (187681) receives a re-examination in Cristian Zegers

A., Anibal Pinto, historiapolitica desugobierno (Santiago, Chile, 1969). An

important episode in the liberalization of the republic after 1861 is stud-
ied in Patrick) Estelle M., 'El club de la reforma de 1868-71: Notas para
el estudio de una combinacion politica del siglo XIX," Historia, 9 (1970),
i n 3 5 . Estelle's tragically premature death in 1975 cut short an espe-
cially promising scholarly career.
On the political ideas and attitudes of the Conservative party during its
lengthy hegemony, see Simon Collier, 'Conservatismo chileno, 1830
i860: Temas e imagenes,' Nueva Historia, 2/7 (1983), 14363. An inter-
esting new approach to liberalism in this period may be found in Alfredo
Jocelyn-Holt L., 'Liberalismo y modernidad: Ideologia y simbolismo en el
Chile decimononico: Un marco teorico,' in Ricardo Krebs and Cristian
Gazmuri (eds.), La revolution francesa y Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1990), 303
33. For a study of the outstanding liberal of the time, see Bernardo
Subercaseaux, Cultura y sociedad liberal en el siglo XIX: Lastarria, ideologia y
literatura (Santiago, Chile, 1981). The ideas of the two most prominent
mid-century radicals are analysed in Alberto J. Varona, Francisco Bilbao,
revolutionary de America (Panama, 1973), and Cristian Gazmuri, 'El pensa-
miento politico y social de Santiago Arcos', Historia, 21 (1986), 249-74.
Gazmuri has also edited a valuable reprint of Arcos's best-known essay in
Carta a Francisco Bilbao y otros escritos (Santiago, Chile, 1989).
Chile was three times at war during the early republic: against the
Peru-Bolivian Confederation (1836-39), against Spain (1865-66), and
once more against Peru and Bolivia in the War of the Pacific (1879-83).
These conflicts have not aroused very much scholarly interest in recent
times. For the brief war with Spain, the older account by W. C. Davis, The
Last Conquistadores: The Spanish Intervention in Peru and Chile, 1863-1866
(Athens, Ga., 1950), is unlikely to be much improved on. The classic
narrative of the War of the Pacific remains Gonzalo Bulnes, La guerra del
Pacifico, 3 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1911-19). Numerous documents on the
war were collected soon after it ended, as a gesture of national pride, in
Pascual A h u m a d a Moreno (ed.), Guerra del Pacifico: Recopilacion completa de
todos los documentos oficiales, correspondmcias y demas publicaciones referentes a la
guerra, 9 vols. (Valparaiso, 1884-90), while more recently there has been
a good facsimile edition of the official Boletin de la Guerra del Pacifico
(187981; Santiago, Chile, 1979). A solid technical description of the
early land campaigns of the war may be found in Augusto Pinochet U., La
Guerra del Pacifico: Campana de Tarapacd, 2nd ed. (Santiago, Chile, 1979).
William F. Sater, Chile and the War of the Pacific (Lincoln, Nebr., 1986) is

o. Chile 293
not a military history so much as an exhaustively detailed account of the

impact of the war on different parts of the national life. Sater's earlier
book, The Heroic Image in Chile: Arturo Prat, Secular Saint (Berkeley, 1973),
analyses the treatment accorded by later generations to Chile's supreme
hero of the war.
It must be noted here that there are few if any serious institutional
studies of the nineteenth-century Chilean armed forces. Frederick M.
Nunn, The Military in Chilean History (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1976),
chapters 1-4, sketches civil-military relations over our period, but its
main concern is with later times. Carlos Lopez Urrutia, Historia de la
marina de Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1969), chaps. 1-14, offers a history of
the navy anecdotal rather than analytical from its foundation to the
War of the Pacific. The key institution of the national (or civic) guard is
studied such studies are long overdue in Roberto Hernandez P., 'La
Guardia Nacional de Chile: Apuntes sobre su origen y organizaciones,
1808-1848,' Historia, 19(1984), 53-113.
Some very interesting work on nineteenth-century economic history has
been done in recent times: a suitable synthesis must surely now be within
reach. For reviews of the available literature up to the 1970s, see Sergio
Villalobos R., 'La historiografia econ6mica de Chile: Sus comienzos,' Histo-
ria, 10 (1971), 7 - 5 6 , and Carmen Cariola and Osvaldo Sunkel, 'Chile,' in
Roberto Cortes Conde and Stanley J. Stein (eds.), Latin America: A Guide
to Economic History, 1830-1930 (Berkeley, 1977), 275-363. An excellent
overview of the period is given in Luis Ortega, 'Economic policy and
growth in Chile from independence to the War of the Pacific,' in Christo-
pher Abel and Colin Lewis (eds.), Latin America: Economic Imperialism and
the State (London, 1985), 147-71. Markos Mamalakis, The Growth and
Structure of the Chilean Economy (New Haven, Conn., 1976), 3 - 8 5 , deals
with the period 1840-1930 in a single sweep. Also well worth consulting
are the relevant sections of Marcello Carmagnani, Sviluppo industrial e
sotto-sviluppo economico: II caso cileno, i860-1920 (Turin, 1971) and Jose
Gabriel Palma, 'Growth and structure of Chilean manufacturing industry
from 1830 to 1935' (unpublished D.Phil, thesis, Oxford, 1979). The
industrial growth of the later part of the period is well examined in a
pioneering study by Luis Ortega, 'Acerca de los origenes de la indus-
trializacion chilena, i86079,' Nueva Historia, 1/2(1981), 354.
Two valuable monographs that throw much-needed light on the mecha-
nisms of external trade the motor of Chilean economic change and the
all-important role of British trading houses are Eduardo Cavieres F.,

294 ^ Economy, society, politics, c. 1820 to c. 1870
Comercio chileno y comerciantes ingleses, 18201880: Un ciclo de historia eco-

nomica (Valparaiso, 1988), and John Mayo, British Merchants and Chilean
Development, 1851-1886 (Boulder, Colo., 1987). The theme of the eco-
nomic consequences of independence is neatly explored by John L. Rector
in two articles: 'El impacto economico de la independencia en America
Latina: El caso de Chile,' Historia, 20 (1985), 295-318, and Trans-
formaciones comerciales producidas por la independencia de Chile,' Revista
Chilena de Historia y Geografia, 143 (1975), 107-27. John Mayo's article,
'Before the nitrate era: British commission houses and the Chilean econ-
omy, 1851-1880,'yLAS, 11/2 (1979), 263-303, is useful. The role of
Valparaiso as an entrepot is sketched in Jacqueline Garreaud, 'La form-
acion de un mercado de transito, Valparaiso, 18171848,' Nueva Historia,
3/11 (1984), 15794. The operations of the commercial firms in the port
itself are intelligently surveyed by Eduardo Cavieres F. in his 'Estructura y
funcionamiento de las sociedades comerciales de Valparaiso durante el
siglo XIX (1820-1880),' Cuadernos de Historia, 4 (1984), 6 1 - 8 6 . Thomas
M. Bader, 'Before the gold fleets: Trade and relations between Chile and
Australia, 1830-1848,' JLAS, 6/1 (1974), 35-58, looks at early trans-
pacific links. A study is needed for the years after 1848. The French
trading connection is well illustrated in M. Barbance, Vie commerciale de la
route du Cap Horn au XIXe siecle: L'armement de A. D. Bordes etfils (Paris,
1969). On foreign investment, in addition to the books by Cavieres and
Mayo mentioned above, see Manuel A. Fernandez, 'Merchants and bank-
ers: British direct and portfolio investment in Chile during the nineteenth
century," I-AA, 9/3-4 (1983), 349~79-
The long-neglected theme of agriculture has been taken up in Bauer's
first-class study, Chilean Rural Society from the Spanish Conquest to 1930
(Cambridge, Eng., 1975), which, despite its title, largely focusses on or
near this period. An interesting picture of one large hacienda and its
subdivisions in the nineteenth century is Jorge Valladares, 'La hacienda
Longavi, 1639-1959,' Historia, 14 (1979), 117-93. Landowners' atti-
tudes are examined in Gonzalo Izquierdo F., Un estudio de las ideologias
chilenas: La Sociedad de la Agricultura en el siglo XIX (Santiago, Chile,
1968). Much more needs to be known about copper and silver mining, so
immensely profitable in this period, but L. R. Pederson, The Mining
Industry of the Norte Chico, Chile (Evanston, 111., 1966), remains a good
introduction, which can now be usefully complemented by Pierre Vays-
siere, Un siecle de capitalism minier au Chili, 18301930 (Paris, 1980),
chaps. 1-5. See also John Mayo, 'Commerce, credit and control in Chilean

9. Chile 295
copper mining before 1880,' in Thomas Greaves and William W. Culver

(eds.), Miners and Mining in the Americas (Manchester, Eng., 1985), 2 9 -
46, and William W. Culver and Cornel J. Reinhart, 'The decline of a
mining region and mining policy: Chilean copper in the nineteenth cen-
tury,' in the same collection, 6881. Labour discipline in the northern
mines is sketched in Maria Angelica Illanes, 'Disciplinamiento de la mano
de obra minera en una formacion social en transition: Chile, 18401850,'
Nueva Historia, 3/11 (1984), 195224. For coal-mining in the south, see
the good, detailed study by Luis Ortega, 'The first four decades of the
Chilean coal-mining industry, 1840-1879,' JLAS, 14/1 (1982), 1-32.
The story of nitrates to the end of the War of the Pacific can be followed in
Oscar Bermiidez, Historia del salitre desde sus origenes hasta la Guerra del
Pacifico (Santiago, Chile, 1963), the classic work, and Thomas F. O'Brien,
The Nitrate Industry and Chile's Critical Transition, 1870-1891 (New York,
1982). See also O'Brien's article, 'The Antofagasta company: A case study
in peripheral capitalism,' HAHR, 60(1980), 131.
The standard work on the ups and downs of Chile's merchant navy in
this period remains Claudio Veliz, Historia de la marina mercante de Chile
(Santiago, Chile, 1961). Railway-building and its economic context are
intelligently covered in Robert B. Oppenheimer, 'Chilean transportation
development: The railroads and socio-economic change in the Central
Valley' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Los Angeles,
1976). See also the same author's articles: 'Chile's central valley railroads
and economic development in the nineteenth century,' Proceedings of the
Pacific Coast Council on Latin American Studies, 6 (1977-9), 73~86, and
'National capital and national development: Financing Chile's railroads in
the nineteenth century,' BHR, 56 (1982), 54-75. Especially interesting
on regional issues is John Whaley, 'Transportation in Chile's Bio-Bio
region, 18501915' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Indiana University,
1974). A newer and highly valuable source on the 'infrastructure' and
technology in general is Sergio Villalobos R. and others, Historia de la
ingenieria en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1990), chap. 3.
Commercial policies in the early part of the period are discussed in John
L. Rector, 'Merchants, trade and commercial policy in Chile, 18101840'
(unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Indiana University, 1976), 88112, and in
the later part by William F. Sater in his 'Economic nationalism and tax
reform in late nineteenth-century Chile,' TA, 33 (1976), 311-35. Sergio
Villalobos R. and Rafael Sagredo B . , El proteccionismo economico en Chile,
siglo XIX (Santiago, Chile, 1987), looks at the tension between protection-

ism and free trade in economic legislation. The issues here are by no means
wholly resolved. Perhaps the best recent summary of monetary problems
in the period prior to the decree of 1878 is that of Pierre Vayssiere, 'Au
Chili: De 1'economie coloniale a l'inflation,' Cahiers des Ameriques Latines, 5
(1970), 5 - 3 1 . No close study of the recession at the end of the 1850s yet
exists, but the altogether more severe crisis of the 1870s is covered in
William F. Sater, 'Chile and the world depression of the 1870s,' JLAS,
11/1 (1979), 6799, an<3 " also receives careful consideration in Luis
Ortega, 'Change and crisis in Chile's economy and society, 1865-1879'
(unpublished Ph.D. thesis, London University, 1979).
Social history, however broadly or narrowly one defines the term, still
needs an appreciable amount of research; there are some large gaps in our
knowledge of particular social groups. Gabriel Salazar, Labradores, peones y
proletarios (Santiago, Chile, 1985), gives a stimulating account of the
'popular classes' in this period (and in the decades to either side of it), with
suggestive detail. Bauer, Chilean Rural Society, presents information about
the rural labouring classes. Valuable findings about a traditional rural
locality in the first part of our period (and the century preceding it) are
offered in the highly rigorous study by Rolando Mellafe and Rene Salinas,
Sociedad y poblacion rural en la formacidn de Chile actual: La Ligua, 1700
1850 (Santiago, Chile, 1988): it would be splendid to have a dozen studies
of this sort, focussing on different regions the mining north, the for-
ested south, Chiloe, etc.
Urban artisans and craftsmen up to the 1850s are studied in Luis
Alberto Romero, La Sociedad de la Igualdad: Los artesanos de Santiago de
Chile y sus primeras experiencias politicas (Buenos Aires, 1978): see also
Romero's well-researched articles on the urban lower classes in general,
mentioned below. Sergio Villalobos R. offers a sprightly portrait of the
'new rich' entering the upper class in his Origen y ascenso de la burguesia
chilena (Santiago, Chile, 1987). The importance of family links for the
upper class is shown in Diana Balmori and Robert Oppenheimer, 'Family
clusters: Generational nucleation in nineteenth-century Argentina and
Chile,' CSSH, 21 (1979), 2 3 1 - 6 1 . More studies of family links are
needed, in the manner o f - a l t h o u g h it touches only the edge of the
period - Mary Lowenthal Felstiner, 'The Larrain family in the indepen-
dence of Chile, 1789-1830' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford
University, 1970).
Other distinctive groups in the nineteenth-century pattern have not
been ignored in recent research. Jean-Pierre Blancpain, Les allemands au

9. Chile 297
Chile, 18161945 (Cologne, 1974), a magnificent piece of research in the

modern French style, provides a fine picture of the German 'micro-society'
in the south after 1850. See also George Young, The Germans in Chile:
Immigration and Colonization, 18491914 (New York, 1974), not as de-
tailed as Blancpain but a worthwhile account. For the British presence,
not least in Valparaiso, see John Mayo, 'The British community in Chile
before the nitrate age,' Historia, 22 (1987), 135-50, as well as the mono-
graphs by Mayo and Cavieres mentioned above.
The decline and fall of the Araucanian Indian enclave is summarized
neatly in Jacques Rossignol, 'Chiliens et indiens araucans au milieu du
XIXe siecle,' Cahiers du Monde Hispanique et Luso-Bresilien, 20 (1973), 69
98, and thoroughly explored in Jose Bengoa, Historia del pueblo mapuche
(Santiago, Chile, 1985), chaps. 4 - 9 , an account that uses oral histories
and goes well beyond the older (but nonetheless useful) work of Tomas
Guevara, Historia de la civilization de la Araucania, 3 vols. (Santiago,
1900-2), vol. 3. See also Leonardo Leon S., 'Alianzas militares entre los
indios araucanos y los grupos indios de las pampas:'La rebelion araucana de
186772 en Argentina y Chile,' Nueva Historia, ill (1981), 349. The
first phase of the advance of the huinca (white man) south of the traditional
frontier is well examined in Arturo Leiva, El primer avance a la Araucania:
Angol 1862 (Temuco, 1984).
Urban histories are in general deficient in their coverage of the early
republic. On Santiago, two works by Rene Leon Echaiz, Historia de
Santiago, 2 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1975) and Nunohue (Buenos Aires,
1972), the latter dealing with the nowadays affluent eastern suburbs, can
be seen as useful introductions but not much more. That research in this
area is expanding can be seen in Armando de Ramon, 'Estudio de una
periferfa urbana: Santiago de Chile, 18501900,' Historia, 20 (1985),
199-284, and Luis Alberto Romero, 'Condiciones de vida de los sectores
populares en Santiago de Chile, 1840-1895: vivienda y salud,' Nueva
Historia, 3/9 (1984), 3-86. The latter is also a real contribution to social
history as such, as is the same author's 'Rotos y garianes: Trabajadores no
calificados en Santiago, 1850-1895,' Cuadernos de Historia, 8 (1988),
35-71-
Work on the demographic history of the period has made some good
advances in recent times, though here, as with social history in general,
the chronological boundaries have to be seen as very flexible. Robert
McCaa, 'Chilean social and demographic history: Sources, issues and meth-
ods,' LARR, 13/2 (1978), 10426, and Eduardo Cavieres F., 'Poblacion y

sociedad: Avance de la demografia historica de Chile,' Cuadernos de Histo-

ria, 5 (1985), 105-20, both give intelligent surveys of the issues. Good
case studies may be found in McCaa's book, Marriage and Fertility in Chile:
Demographic Turning Points in the Petorca Valley, 18401976 (Boulder,
Colo., 1983), and in Ann Hagerman Johnson, 'The impact of market
agriculture on family and household structure in nineteenth-century
Chile,' HAHR, 58 (1978), 6 2 5 - 4 8 , as well as in the relevant sections of
Mellafe and Salinas, Sociedady poblacion rural, mentioned above.
The progress of education in the early republic, such as it was, is briefly
summarized in Fernando Campos Harriet, Desarrollo educacional, 1810-
1960 (Santiago, Chile, i960), though the larger and older work by
Amanda Labarca, Historia de la ensenanza en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1939)
remains a basic source. The role of the University of Chile, a key institu-
tion, has been re-examined by Ivan Jaksic and Sol Serrano, in 'In the
service of the nation: The establishment and consolidation of the Univer-
sity of Chile, 1842-1879,' HAHR, 70 (1990), 139-71. See also Sol
Serrano's essays, 'Los desafios de la Universidad de Chile en la consolida-
tion del Estado, 1842-1879,' in Juan Ricardo Couyoumdjian et al.,
Refkxiones sobre historia, politica y religion: Homenaje a Mario Gongora (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1988), i n 2 9 , and 'De la academia a la especializacion: La
Universidad de Chile en el siglo XIX,' Opciones, 13 (1988), 934. For the
'uses of history' in education, see Allen Woll, A Functional Past, cited
above, chap. 8. The role of philosophy and philosophers is sketched in
Ivan Jaksic, Academic Rebels in Chile: The Role of Philosophy in Higher Educa-
tion and Politics (Albany, N.Y., 1989), chap. 1, though the book's main
emphasis is on later periods. On the influence of Andres Bello, see the
essays collected in La Casa de Bello, Bello y Chile: Tercer Congreso del
Bicentenario, 2 vols. (Caracas, 1981).
Ecclesiastical history has long been cultivated in Chile as a fairly special-
ized sub-discipline, but there have been no major recent investigations into
the institutional history of the Catholic Church in the early republic or into
church-state relations: for some useful suggestions, see Sergio Vergara
Quiroz, 'Iglesia y estado en Chile, 1750-1850,' Historia, 20(1985), 3 1 9 -
62. The study of freemasonry has not advanced since the standard account
was published: Benjamin Oviedo, La masoneria en Chile (Santiago, Chile,
1929), written from a rather starry-eyed masonic standpoint.
Chile's international relations and the development of diplomacy can
best be followed in Robert N. Burr, By Reason or Force: Chile and the
Balancing of Power in South America, 1830-1905 (Berkeley, 1965), and in

io. The River Plate republics 299
Mario Barros's compendious account, Historia diplomdtica de Chile, 1541

1938 (Barcelona, 1970), 63440. The vexed question of the northern
frontier is covered in Eduardo Tellez L., Historia general de la frontera de
Chile con Peru y Bolivia, 1825-1929 (Santiago, Chile, 1989). The diplo-
macy of the first Chilean cabinet minister to hold the separate foreign
affairs portfolio is analysed in Ximena Rojas V., Don Adolfo Ibdnez: Su
gestion con el Peru y Bolivia, 7870-1879 (Santiago, Chile, 1970). For a
mere recent general view of early Chile-U.S. relations, see William F.
Sater, Chile and the United States (Athens, Ga., 1990), 9-50.
10. THE RIVER PLATE REPUBLICS
ARGENTINA
The bibliography of nineteenth-century Argentina can be approached

through Joseph R. Barager, 'The historiography of the Rio de la Plata area
since 1930', HAHR, 39 (1959), 588-642, and James R. Scobie, Argen-
tina: A City and a Nation (New York, 1964), 248-74. A more specialised
work is Julio O. Chiappini, Bibliografia sobre Rosas (Rosario, 1973).
Public documents are reproduced in a number of collections. The for-
mal policy reviews of the executive are given in H. Mabragana, Los
Mensajes, 1810-1910, 6 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1910); for the governors of
Buenos Aires a better version is provided by Archivo Historico de la
Provincia de Buenos Aires, Mensajes de los gobernadores de la provincia de
Buenos Aires 1822-1849, 2 vols. (La Plata, 1976). Basic legislative, consti-
tutional and inter-provincial texts are to be found in Emilio Ravignani
(ed.), Asambleas constituyentes argentinas, 6 vols. (Buenos Aires, 19379).
The main documentation concerning Rosas is that of Adolfo Saldias (ed.),
Papeles de Rosas, 2 vols. (La Plata, 1904-7), which can be supplemented by
two convenient compilations of his thought and policy, Andres M.
Carretero, El pensamiento politico dejuan M. de Rosas (Buenos Aires, 1970)
and Arturo Enrique Sampay, Las ideas politicas de Juan Manuel de Rosas
(Buenos Aires, 1972), and by a further collection of his correspondence,
Juan Carlos Nicolau, ed., Correspondent inedita entrejuan Manuel de Rosas
y ManuelJose Garcia (Tandil, 1989). Aspects of the opposition to Rosas are
documented in Gregorio F. Rodriguez (ed.), Contribucion historicay documen-
tal, 3 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1921-2), and Archivo Historico de la Provincia
de Buenos Aires, La campana libertadora del general Lavalle (1838-1842)

(La Plata, 1944). Amidst other and smaller collections the monumental
writings of Argentina's three most eminent figures of politics and letters
stand out, beginning with Juan B. Alberdi, Obras completas, 8 vols. (Bue-
nos Aires, 1876#6) and Escritos pdstumos, 16 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1895
1901). Bartolom6 Mitre, Archivo del General Mitre: Documentos y corre-
spondencia, 28 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1911-14), can be supplemented by
Correspondencia literaria, histdrica y politica del General Bartolome Mitre, 3
vols. (Buenos Aires, 1912) and Correspondencia MitreElizalde (Documentos
para la historia argentina, 26) (Buenos Aires, i960). Domingo F. Sar-
miento, Obras completas, 52 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1887-1902), is an
indispensable source for Argentine history, together with Sarmiento-Mitre:
Correspondencia, 18461868 (Buenos Aires, 1911), Facundo (La Plata,
1938), and Epistolario entre Sarmiento y Posse, 18451888, 2 vols. (Buenos
Aires, 19467).
The subject is rich in narrative sources, and the following is no more
than a brief selection. Sir Woodbine Parish, Buenos Ayres and the Provinces of
the Rio de la Plata, 2nd ed. (London, 1852), a work first published in
1838, is an objective and scholarly account by the former British charg
d'affaires. William MacCann, Two Thousand Miles' Ride through the Argen-
tine Provinces, 2 vols. (London, 1853), brings the economy and the people
of the pampas to life. One of the first approaches to quantification is
provided by Victor Martin de Moussy, Description geographique et statistique
de la confederation argentine, 3 vols. (Paris, 18604). Thomas Joseph Hutch-
inson, Buenos Ayres and Argentine Gleanings (London, 1865), is a less accu-
rate account, by the British consul at Rosario, but takes the story to
1 8 6 2 - 3 . Wilfred Latham, The States of the River Plate, 2nd ed. (London,
1868), is an amplified version of a book first published in 1866 and
written from the author's 'home in the campo', a large sheep farm.
General histories are headed by the Academia Nacional de la Historia,
Historia de la naci6n argentina, 2nd ed., 10 vols. (Buenos Aires, 193950),
with its sequel, Historia argentina contempordnea, 18621930 (Buenos
Aires, 1963 ). These are composite works, uneven in quality. Tulio
Halperin Donghi, Argentina: De la revolucidn de independencia a la confedera-
cion rosista (Buenos Aires, 1972) is analytically superior, as is his masterly
essay introducing Proyecto y construccion de una nacidn (Argentina 1846
1880) (Caracas, 1980), a selection of texts from major writers of Argen-
tina's age of nation-building. Haydee Gorostegui de Torres, Argentina: La
organizacidn nacional (Buenos Aires, 1972), gives a balanced account of the
period 1852-74.

Study of the economy can begin with Jonathan C. Brown, A Socioeco-

nomic History of Argentina, iyj6-i86o (Cambridge, Eng., 1979), which
combines synthesis, original research and a sense of chronology. Miron
Burgin, The Economic Aspects of Argentine Federalism 1820-1852 (Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1946), is still unsurpassed for data and interpretation.
Tulio Halperin Donghi, Guerra y finanzas en los origenes del estado argentino
(1791-1850) (Buenos Aires, 1982) studies the role of the state as a
participant as well as a policy-maker in the economy. Juan Carlos Nicolau,
Rosas y Garcia (182935): La economia bonaerense (Buenos Aires, 1980),
concentrates on financial and fiscal policy, while his La reforma economico-
financiera en la provincia de Buenos Aires (18211825): Liberalism) y economia
(Buenos Aires, 1988) includes new research on merchants and artisans,
liberal economic policy and the origins of emphyteusis. The basic institu-
tional account of landowning is Miguel A. Carcano, Evolution histdrica del
regimen de la tierrapublica, 18101916, 3rd ed. (Buenos Aires, 1972), first
published in 1917. Further details on land acquisition and concentration
are provided by Jacinto Oddone, La burguesia terrateniente argentina, 3rd
ed. (Buenos Aires, 1956), but for more accurate data see Andres M.
Carretero, 'Contribuci6n al conocimiento de la propiedad rural en la
provincia de Buenos Aires para 1830', Boletin del Instituto de Historia
Argentina 'Doctor Emilio Ravignani', 2nd series, 13/2223 (1970), 246
92; and La propiedad de la tierra en la epoca de Rosas (Buenos Aires, 1972).
Cattle-raising can be studied in Horacio C. E. Giberti, Historia economica
de la ganaderia argentina (Buenos Aires, 1961), and the processing plants in
Alfredo J. Montoya, Historia de los saladeros argentinos (Buenos Aires, 1956)
and La ganaderia y la industria de salazon de carnes en el periodo 18101862
(Buenos Aires, 1971). Aspects of early industrial development are covered
in Jose M. Mariluz Urquijo, Estado e industria, 18101862 (Buenos Aires,
1969), a collection of texts; Juan Carlos Nicolau, Antecedentes para la
historia de la industria argentina (Buenos Aires, 1968), and Industria argen-
tina y aduana, 18351854 (Buenos Aires, 1975); and Clifton Kroeber,
The Growth of the Shipping Industry in the Rio de la Plata Region, 17941860
(Madison, Wis., 1957). Foreign trade and its participants are studied in a
useful article and two important books: Juan Carlos Nicolau; 'Movimiento
maritimo exterior del puerto de Buenos Aires (18101854)', Nuestra Histo-
ria, 12 (1973), 35161; H. S. Ferns, Britain and Argentina in the Nine-
teenth Century (Oxford, i960); Vera Blinn Reber, British Merchant Houses in
Buenos Aires, 1810-1880 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979). For the wool cycle
and the economy in transition, see Jos Carlos Chiaramonte, Nacionalismo y

liberalismo economicos en la Argentina, i8601880 (Buenos Aires, 1971),

Hilda Sabato, 'Wool trade and commercial networks in Buenos Aires,
1840s to 1880s,' JLAS, 15/1 (1983), 4 9 - 8 1 , and the now classic H.
Gibson, The History and Present State of the Sheepbreeding Industry in the
Argentine Republic (Buenos Aires, 1893). Finally, see Hilda Sabato, Agrar-
ian Capitalism and the World Market: Buenos Aires in the Pastoral Age, 1840
1890 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1990).
Society in its demographic aspect is well described by Ernesto J. A.
Maeder, Evolucion demogrdfica argentina de 1810 a 1869 (Buenos Aires,
!969), while for a shorter period population change is measured by
Susana R. Frias, Cesar A. Garcia Belsunce, et al., Buenos Aires: Su gente,
18001830 (Buenos Aires, 1976), based on censuses of the city of
Buenos Aires. These should be supplemented by George Reid Andrews,
The Afro-Argentines of Buenos Aires, 1800-1900 (Madison, Wis., 1980).
On immigration, see Juan Antonio Oddone, La emigracion europea al Rio
de la Plata (Montevideo, 1966). New research on the life and labour of
the Irish is provided by Juan Carlos Korol and Hilda Sabato, Como fue la
inmigracion irlandesa en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1981). The most
powerful social group is studied by Maria Saenz Quesada, Los estancieros
(Buenos Aires, 1980). Gauchos, peons and vagrants are placed in their
historical context by Gaston Gori, Vagos y mal entretenidos, 2nd ed. (Santa
Fe, Arg., 1965), and Ricardo Rodriguez Molas, Historia social del gaucho
2nd ed. (Buenos Aires, 1982), and Richard W. Slatta, Gauchos and the
Vanishing Frontier (Lincoln, Neb., 1983). Mark D. Szuchman, Order,
Family, and Community in Buenos Aires 1810-1860 (Stanford, 1988) uses
family history in a search for the responses of the masses to political
leadership. On Indian society, Raul Mandrini, 'La sociedad indigena de
las pampas en el siglo XIX', in Mirta Lischetti (ed.), Antropologia (Bue-
nos Aires, 1985) is the surest guide. Ruben H. Zorrilla, Extraccion social
de los caudillos, 1810-18-70 (Buenos Aires, 1972), discusses the social
base of caudillismo.
Political history can be divided into three periods, comprising Riva-
davia, Rosas and national organization. On the first, Ricardo Piccirilli,
Rivadavia y su tiempo, 2nd ed., 3 vols. (Buenos Aires, i960) is a work of
scholarship, and Sergio Bagu, El plan economico del grupo Rivadaviano,
1811182J (Rosario, 1966) a cogent interpretation with documents. The
enormous bibliography on Rosas is a hindrance rather than a help to
understanding. Adolfo Saldias, Historia de la Confederacidn Argentina: Rosas
y su epoca, 9 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1958), a work first published in 1881-7

from official Rosas sources, is a useful chronicle of events. Roberto Etche-

pareborda, Rosas: Controvertida historiografia (Buenos Aires, 1972), is a
modern survey of the "problems'. Enrique M. Barba, Como llegd Rosas al
poder (Buenos Aires, 1972), explains the conquest of power. Among the
rosista historians, Carlos Ibarguren, Juan Manuel de Rosas, su vida, su
drama, su tiempo (Buenos Aires, 1961), first published in 1930, provides a
well-documented political biography; and Julio Irazusta, Vida politica de
Juan Manuel de Rosas, a traves de su correspondencia, 2nd ed., 8 vols. (Buenos
Aires, 1970), supplies much detail and documentation. Ernesto H.
Celesia, Rosas, aportes para su historia, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Buenos Aires,
1968), is hostile but well researched. Benito Diaz, Juzgados de paz de
campana de la provincia de Buenos Aires (18211854) (La Plata, 1959),
studies a vital agency of the regime. On the foreign blockades and other
forms of intervention, see John F. Cady, Foreign Intervention in the Rio de la
Plata, 1838-50 (Philadelphia, 1929), and Nestor S. Colli, La politica
francesa en el Rio de la Plata: Rosas y el bloqueo de 18381840 (Buenos Aires,
1963), as well as the work by Ferns already cited. The international
context of the fall of Rosas is explored by the rosista historian Jose Maria
Rosa, La caida de Rosas: El imperio de Brasil y la Confederacion Argentina
(18431851), 2nd ed. (Buenos Aires, 1968). For a modern history of
Rosas, his power base and his policy, see John Lynch, Argentine Dictator:
Juan Manuel de Rosas 1829-1852 (Oxford, 1981) and Caudillos in Spanish
America, 1800-1850 (Oxford, 1992), chap. 6. The period contained a
history of reform as well as reaction, expertly studied in its legislation by
David Bushnell, Reform and Reaction in the Platine Provinces 1810-1852
(Gainesville, Fla., 1983). And in the Littoral alternative forms of political
control developed, investigated by Jose Carlos Chiaramonte, 'Finanzas
piiblicas de las provincias del Litoral, 1821-1841', Anuario del IEHS, 1
(Tandil, 1986), 159-98, and 'Legalidad constitucional o caudillismo: El
problema del orden social en el surgimiento de los estados autonomos del
Litoral argentino en la primera mitad del siglo XIX', Desarrollo Economico,
26/102 (1986), 175-96.
In the period of national organization the transitional figure is Urquiza:
see Beatriz Bosch, Urquiza y su tiempo (Buenos Aires, 1971). Older ac-
counts of the decade after Rosas are superseded by James R. Scobie, La
lucha por la consolidation de la nacionalidad argentina, 18521862 (Buenos
Aires, 1964). The great constitutional statesmen have attracted a number
of biographies, of which Jorge M. Mayer, Alberdi y su tiempo (Buenos Aires,
1963) is outstanding. Sarmiento receives scholarly attention from Ricardo

Rojas, El prof eta de la pampa: Vida de Sarmiento (Buenos Aires, 1945), Paul
Verdevoye, Domingo Faustino Sarmiento: Educateur et publiciste entre 1839 et
1852 (Paris, 1963), and Jose S. Campobassi, Sarmiento y su epoca, 2 vols.
(Buenos Aires, 1975).
URUGUAY
The history of Uruguay in the nineteenth century has an established

framework of political narrative and documentation in Eduardo Acevedo,
Anales historicos del Uruguay, vols. 2 and 3 (Montevideo, 1933), which
should be supplemented for the mid-century by Juan E. Pivel Devoto, El
fin de la Guerra Grande (Montevideo, 1953)- An excellent analysis of
economy, society and politics is provided by Jose Pedro Barran, Apogeo y
crisis del Uruguay pastoral y caudillesco, 1838-18-75 (Montevideo, 1974).
On the rural structure, see Jose Pedro Barran and Benjamin Nahum,
Historia rural del Uruguay moderno. Tomo 1 (18511895) (Montevideo,
1967), a work of basic scholarship. Juan Antonio Oddone, Economia y
sociedad en el Uruguay liberal, 1852-1904: Antologia de textos (Montevideo,
1967), is a collection of documents preceded by a valuable introduction.
For an analysis of the social structure, see Carlos M. Rama, Historia social
del pueblo uruguayo (Montevideo, 1972).
PARAGUAY
The best approach to understanding the history of Paraguay in the nine-

teenth century is provided by John Hoyt Williams, The Rise and Fall of the
Paraguayan Republic, I8OO-I8JO (Austin, Tex., 1979), a work of research
and interpretation. Richard Alan White, Paraguay's Autonomous Revolution,
1810-1840 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1978), takes a new, though partial,
look at Francia. For a Paraguayan view, see Julio Cesar Chavez, El supremo
dictador: Biografia dejose Gaspar de Francia, 4th ed. (Madrid, 1964). The
same author has written the history of Francia's successor, El Presidente
Lopez: Vida y gobierno de Don Carlos, 2nd ed. (Buenos Aires, 1968); see also
Juan F. Perez Acosta, Don Carlos Antonio Ldpez, 'Obrero Maximo' (Buenos
Aires, 1948). For the demographic and developmental history of the
period, see John Hoyt Williams, 'Observations on the Paraguayan Census
of 1846', HAHR, 56 (1976), 424-37, and 'Foreign tecnicos and the
modernization of Paraguay, 1840-1870', JIAS, 19/2 (1977), 233-57.
The latter subject is explored in further detail by Josefina Pla, The British

ii. Brazil, 1822-18^,0 305
in Paraguay (1830-70) (London, 1976). On the Paraguayan War, Pelham

Horton Box, The Origins of the Paraguayan War (Urbana, 111., 1929) is still
worth reading, but should be supplemented by Efraim Cardozo, Visperas
de la guerra del Paraguay (Buenos Aires, 1954) and El Imperio del Brasily el
Rio de la Plata (Buenos Aires, 1962). The same author's Hace cien anos, 8
vols. (Asuncion, 1967-72), is a useful chronicle of events based on con-
temporary Paraguayan newspapers. For a history of the war in English see
Charles Kolinski, Independence or Death: The Story of the Paraguayan War
(Gainesville, Fla., 1965). Ramon J. Carcano, Guerra del Paraguay, 3 vols.
(Buenos Aires, 193840), still has value as a work of reference. There is an
expert survey of Paraguayan bibliography by John Hoyt Williams, 'Para-
guayan historical resources, Part Four: A selective Paraguayan historiogra-
phy', TA, 34 (1978), 1-20.
11. BRAZIL, 1822-1850
Two volumes of the Historia geral de civilizagdo brasileira (ed. Sergio Buarque
de Holanda) cover the period 182248: Tomo 2, 0 Brasil mondrquico: Vol.
1, 0processo de emancipagdo (Sao Paulo, 1962) and Vol. 2, Dispersdo e unidade
(Sao Paulo, 1964). A general history in English, sensible and well orga-
nized, but somewhat superficial and now out of date, is C. H. Haring,
Empire in Brazil: A New World Experiment with Monarchy (Cambridge,
Mass., 1958). For a more recent general survey of the period 182252, see
Roderick J. Barman, Brazil: The Forging ofa Nation, 17981852 (Stanford,
Calif., 1988), chaps. 4 - 8 . Still valuable is Stanley J. Stein, 'The historiog-
raphy of Brazil, 1808-1889', HAHR, 40/2 (i960), 234-78. For the
period 182231 Tobias do Rego Monteiro, Historia do imperio: 0 primeiro
reinado (Rio de Janeiro, 1939), remains the most detailed account of politi-
cal events. An indispensable contemporary account is John Armitage, His-
tory of Brazil from the Arrival of the Braganza Family in 1808 to the Abdication
of Dom Pedro the First in 1831, 2 vols. (London, 1836). Other important
nineteenth-century accounts include Joao Manuel Pereira de Silva, Historia
do Brasil de 1831 a 1840 (Rio de Janeiro, 1868), Manuel Duarte Moreira de
Azevedo, Historia Pdtria: 0 Brasil de 1831 a 1840 (Rio de Janeiro, 1884)
and Heinrich Handelmann, Geschichte von Brasilien (Berlin, i860; Portu-
guese translation, Historia do Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, 1931).
Nicia Vilela Luz, 'Brazil' in Stanley J. Stein and Roberto Cortes Conde
(eds.), Latin America: A Guide to Economic History, 1830-1930 (Berkeley,

1977), 163272, is a useful guide to the secondary literature on Brazilian

economic history. There are two general economic histories of Brazil, both
now classics, which touch on this period: Caio Prado Junior, Historia
economica do Brasil, 6th ed. (Sao Paulo, 1959), and Celso Furtado, Formacdo
economica do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1959); English translation, The Economic
Growth of Brazil: A Survey from Colonial to Modern Times (Berkeley, 1963).
The most comprehensive (and provocative) study of Brazil's economic
history after independence is Nathaniel H. Leff, Underdevelopment and Devel-
opment in Brazil, vol. 1, Economic Structures and Change 18221947; vol. 2,
Reassessing the Obstacles to Economic Development (London, 1982). On the
beginnings of the coffee boom, see Stanley J. Stein, Vassouras: A Brazilian
Coffee County, 18501900 (Cambridge, Mass., 1957), Warren Dean, Rio
Claro: A Brazilian Plantation System, 18201920 (Stanford, Calif., 1976),
and, still useful, Affonso d'Escragnolle Taunay, Historia do cafe, 15 vols.
(Rio de Janeiro, 1939-43). On sugar, see Maria Teresa Schorer Petrone, A
Lavoura canavieira em Sao Paulo: Expansdo e declinio, 1765-1861 (Sao Paulo,
1968), and Peter L. Eisenberg, The Sugar Industry in Pernambuco: Modernisa-
tion Without Change, 18401910 (Berkeley, 1974). For two different views
on the impact made by British imperial preference, especially the sugar du-
ties, on Brazilian economic development or underdevelopment, see Paulo
Nogueira Batista, Jr., 'Politica tarifaria britanica e evoluc,ao das exporta-
c.6es brasileiras na primeira metade do seculo XIX', RBE, 34/2 (1980),
20339, a n < l Roberta M. Delson, 'Sugar production for the nineteenth
century British market: Rethinking the roles of Brazil and the British
West Indies', in A. Graves and B. Albert (eds.), Crisis and Change in the In-
ternational Sugar Economy, 1860-1914 (Norwich, Eng., 1984). The out-
standing work on Anglo-Brazilian commercial and financial (as well as
diplomatic and political) relations in the first half of the nineteenth cen-
tury is Alan K. Manchester, British Preeminence in Brazil: Its Rise and De-
cline (Durham, N . C . , 1933). Brazil's failure to industrialize in the period
after independence is examined in the early chapters of Nicia Vilela Luz, A
luta pela industrializacdo no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1961). On the financial his-
tory of the period, see Carlos Manuel Pelaez and Wilson Suzigan, Historia
monetdria do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1976). On government income and
expenditure in particular, Liberato de Castro Carreira, 0 orqamento do impe-
rio desde a sua fundaqdo (Rio de Janeiro, 1883) and Historiafinanceirae orga-
mentdria do imperio do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1889) remain indispensable.
See also Amaro Cavalcanti, Resenha financeira do ex-imperio do Brasil em
1889 (Rio de Janeiro, 1890). A monograph which breaks new ground by

ii. Brazil, 1822-1850 307
examining internal trade, and in particular the organization of Rio de Ja-
neiro's food supply, is Alcir Lenharo, As tropas da moderagdo: 0 abastecimento
da Corte na formaqdo politica do Brasil (1808-1842) (Sao Paulo, 1979).
The most wide-ranging study of the political system of the empire is
Jose Murilo de Carvalho's unpublished Ph.D. thesis, 'Elite and state build-
ing in imperial Brazil' (Stanford University, 1974). The first part, revised
and expanded, has been published in A construgdo da ordem: A elite politica im-
perial (Rio de Janeiro, 1980), and the second part, also revised and ex-
panded, in Teatro de sombras: A politica imperial (Rio de Janeiro, 1988). See
also his article, 'Political elites and state building: The case of nineteenth
century Brazil', CSSH, 24/3 (1982). Three other important contributions
are Fernando Uricoechea, The Patrimonial Foundations ofthe Brazilian Bureau-
cratic State (Berkeley, 1980), which examines in particular the National
Guard, Thomas Flory, Judge and Jury in Imperial Brazil, 1808I8JI: Social
Control and Political Stability in theNewState (Austin, Tex., 1981), which ex-
amines the political and administrative role of the judges, and Richard
Graham, Patronage and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Brazil (Stanford, Ca-
lif. , 1990), a wide-ranging exploration of the role of patronage in the politi-
cal life of the Empire which includes the best available study of imperial
elections. On the National Guard, see also Jeanne Berrance de Castro, A
milicia cidadd: A Guarda Nacionalde 1831 a 1850 (Sao Paulo, 1977). There
is no study of the army in this period, but see the early chapters of John H.
Schulz, 'The Brazilian army in politics, 18501894', (unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, Princeton University, 1973). Joao Camilo de Oliveira Torres, A
democracia coroada (teoria politica do imperio do Brasil) (Rio de Janeiro, 1957)
remains valuable for the political history of the empire. Indispensable as a
reference work is Organizagoes e programas ministeriais: Regime parlamentar no
imperio, 2nd ed. Arquivo Nacional (Rio de Janeiro, 1962). The electoral
legislation of the period can be found in Francisco Belisario Soares de
Souza, 0 sistema eleitoral no imperio (1892; Brasilia, 1979). Also useful are
Jose Honorio Rodrigues (ed.), 0 Parlamento e a evoluqdo nacional, 8 vols.
(Brasilia, 1972), which covers the period 1826-40, Jose Honorio Rodri-
gues (ed.), Atas do Conselho de Estado, 14 vols. (Brasilia, 1973), and Au-
gusto Tavares de Lyra, Instituiqoes politicas do imperio (Brasilia, 1979).
There are a number of biographies of leading politicians in this period,
notably those written by Octavio Tarquinio de Sousa: Jose Bonifacio (Rio de
Janeiro, 1945), A vida de D. Pedro I, 3 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1952),
Bernardo Pereira de Vasconcelos e seu tempo (Rio de Janeiro, 1937), Evaristo da
Veiga (Sao Paulo, 1939) and Diogo Antonio Feijd (1784-1843) (Rio de

Janeiro, 1942), republished as vols. 17 of Histdria dos fundadores do

imperio do Brasil, 10 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 19578). Neill Macaulay, Dom
Pedro: The Struggle for Liberty in Brazil and Portugal, 1798-1834 (Durham,
N . C . , 1986) is a useful biography in English.
An excellent well-documented study of the political mobilization at the
beginning of the regency is Augustin Wernet, Sociedades politicas (1831
1832) (Sao Paulo, 1978). A major study of conservative ideology and the
origins of the Conservative party is Ilmar Rohloff de Mattos, 0 tempo
saquarema (Sao Paulo, 1987).
On the provincial revolts of the 1830s and 1840s, besides the various
regional histories in the Histdria geral da civilizagao brasileira, 2, vol. 2, and
chaps. 3 and 4 of Caio Prado Junior, Evolugao politica do Brasil (Sao Paulo,
r
933)> a number of works deserve mention. The best available study of the
War of the Cabanos is Manuel Correia de Andrade, A Guerra dos Cabanos
(Rio de Janeiro, 1965) which is partly summarized in 'The social and
ethnic significance of the War of the Cabanos', in Ronald H. Chilcote
(ed.), Protest and Resistance in Angola and Brazil: Comparative Studies (Berke-
ley, 1972). A more recent study by Dirceu Lindoso, A Utopia armada:
Rebelioes de pobres nas matas do Tombo Real (Rio de Janeiro, 1983), empha-
sizes the ideological and cultural aspects of the war. See also, Manuel
Correia de Andrade, Movimentos nativistas em Pernambuco: Setembrizada e
Novembrada (Recife, 1971), for the smaller rebellions in Pernambuco dur-
ing the regency. Astolfo Serra, A Balaiada (Rio de Janeiro, 1946) and
Maria Juanuaria Vilela Santos, A Balaiada e a insurreigao dos escravos no
Maranhdo (Sao Paulo, 1983) are the best studies of this movement. On the
Sabinada, see Luis Viana Filho, A Sabinada (A Republica Bahiana de 183 7)
(Rio de Janeiro, 1938), Paulo Cesar Souza, A Sabinada: A revolta separatista
da Bahia (1837) (Sao Paulo, 1987) and F. W. O. Morton, 'The Conserva-
tive revolution of independence: Economy, society and politics in Bahia,
17901840' (unpublished D.Phil, thesis, Oxford, 1974), chap. 11. Al-
though very disorganized, Domingos Antonio Rayol, Motins politicos ou
historia dos principais acontecimentos politicos da provincia do Para desde 0 ano de
1821 ate 1835, 3 vols. (Belem, 1970), is still the best study of the
Cabanagem. The best-documented study of the Farroupilha is Alfredo
Varela, Histdria da grande revolugdo, 6 vols. (Porto Alegre, 1925). Walter
Spalding, A revoluqdo Farroupilha: Historia popular do grande decenio (Sao
Paulo, 1939), is also valuable. A study which emphasizes the economic
roots of the rebellion is Spencer L. Leitman, 'Socio-economic roots of the
Ragamuffin War: A chapter in early Brazilian history' (unpublished Ph.D.

ii. Brazil, 1822-1850 309
thesis, University of Texas, Austin, 1972), published as Raizes socio-

economicas da Guerra dos Farrapos (Rio de Janeiro, 1979). The only modern
work on the liberal revolts in Minas Gerais and Sao Paulo is Victor M.
Filler, 'Liberalism in imperial Brazil: The regional rebellions of 1842'
(unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, 1976). For the view of a
participant, see Jose Antonio Marinho, Historia do movimento politico que no
ano de 1842 teve lugar na provincia de Minas Gerais (Conselheiro Lafaiete,
1939). Apart from the Farroupilha, the Praieira is the best-studied rebel-
lion of the period. See Izabel Andrade Marson, Movimento Praieiro, 1842
184c); Imprensa, ideologia epoder politico (Sao Paulo, 1980) and 0 Imperio do
progresso: A revoluqdo praieira em Pernambuco (18421855) (Sao Paulo,
1987), and Nancy Priscilla Naro, 'The 1848 Praieira revolt in Brazil'
(unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Chicago, 1981). Katia M. de
Queiros Mattoso, Bahia, seculo XIX: Uma provincia do imperio (Rio de
Janeiro, 1992) is the best general history of any province in the nineteenth
century.
Useful information on the population of Brazil (as well as on slavery
and immigration) in the decades after independence can be found in T.
W. Merrick and D. H. Graham, Population and Economic Development in
Brazil, 1808 to the Present (Baltimore, 1979). See also Maria Luiza
Marcilio, 'Evolugao da populagao brasileira atraves dos censos ate 1872',
Anais de Historia 6 (1974), 115-37. The best study of immigration before
the beginnings of mass European immigration is George P. Browne,
'Government immigration policy in imperial Brazil 18221870' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. thesis, Catholic University of America, 1972). A critical
view of Senator Vergueiro's free labour policies by a GermanSwiss colono,
which tells us much about rural Sao Paulo in the middle of the nineteenth
century, is Thomas Davatz, Memdrias de urn colono no Brasil (1850), edited
with an introduction by Sergio Buarque de Holanda (Sao Paulo, 1941).
Land policy, and especially the origins of the law of 1850, is examined in
Warren Dean, 'Latifundia and land policy in nineteenth century Brazil',
HAHR, 51/4 (1971), 606-25; Jose Murilo de Carvalho, 'A Modernizac.ao
frustrada: A politica de terras no Imperio', Revista Brasileira de Historia,
ill (1981), and Emilia Viotti da Costa, 'Land policies: The Land Law,
1850, and the Homestead Act, 1862', in The Brazilian Empire: Myths and
Histories (Chicago, 1985). More generally, Ruy Cirne Lima, Pequena histo-
ria territorial do Brasil: Sesmarias e terras devolutas (Porto Alegre, 1954),
remains useful. On urban growth in this period, see Mary Karasch, 'Rio
de Janeiro: From colonial town to imperial capital (18081850)', in

310 V. Economy, society, politics, c. 1820 toe. 1870
Robert J. Ross and G.J. Telkamp (eds.), Colonial Cities (Dordrecht, 1985)
and the works by Richard Morse, Emilia Viotti da Costa, Eulalia Maria
Lahmeyer Lobo and Katia M. de Queiros Mattoso cited in essay V:i2.
The bibliography on slavery in nineteenth-century Brazil is also discussed
in bibliographical essay V:i2. But on slavery in Rio de Janeiro in this
period, see Mary C. Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 18081850
(Princeton, N.J., 1987) and Luis Carlos Soares, 'Urban slavery in
nineteenth-century Rio de Janeiro', (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Univer-
sity of London, 1988). The slave uprising in Bahia in 1835 is the subject
of an important book by Joao Jose Reis, Rebelido escrava no Brasil: A
historia do levante dos males (Sao Paulo, 1986); Eng. trans., Slave Rebellion in
Brazil. The Muslim Uprising 0/1835 in Bahia (Baltimore, 1993). See also
Joao Jose Reis and Eduardo Silva, Negociaqdo e conflito: A resistencia negra no
Brasil escravista (Sao Paulo, 1989) and Joao Jose Reis, 'Um balanc,o dos
estudos sobre as revoltas escravas da Bahia', in Joao Jose Reis (ed.),
Escraviddo e invengdo da liberdade: Estudos sobre 0 negro no Brasil (Sao Paulo,
1988). On the nineteenth-century slave trade, see Robert Conrad, World
of Sorrow: The African Slave Trade to Brazil (Baton Rouge, La., 1986). The
slave trade question in AngloBrazilian relations and the final abolition
of the slave trade in 1850 1 are thoroughly examined in Leslie Bethell,
The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade: Britain, Brazil and the Slave Trade
Question, 18071869 (Cambridge, Eng., 1970). The best diplomatic
history of the period is still Joao Pandia Cal6geras, A politica externa do
imperio, 3 vols. (Sao Paulo, 192733), vol. 2, 0 primeiro reinado, vol. 3,
Da regencia a queda de Rosas. For Brazil's relations with its neighbours
during the First Empire, see Ron Seckinger, The Brazilian Monarchy and
the South American Republics, 1822-1831: Diplomacy and State Building
(Baton Rouge, La., 1984).
An important source for the social history of Brazil in the period after
independence are the accounts of the many European travellers, scientists
and artists who visited the country: for example, Maria Graham, Auguste
de Saint-Hilaire, Jean Baptiste Debret, Johann-Moritz Rugendas, Alcide
d'Orbigny. They are listed in Bernard Naylor, Accounts of Nineteenth Cen-
tury South America (London, 1969). See also Gilberto Freyre, Sobrados e
mucambos: Decadencia do patriarcado rural e desenvolvimento do urbano, 2nd
ed., 3 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1951; English translation, The Mansions and
the Shanties: The Making of Modern Brazil, [New York, 1963]), a continua-
tion into the nineteenth century of his more famous The Masters and the
Slaves; and his 'Social life in Brazil in the middle of the nineteenth cen-

12. Brazil, 1850I8JO 311
tury', HAHR, 5/4 (1922), 597630. A pioneer work which makes good
use of judicial records is Patricia Ann Aufderheide, 'Order and violence:
Social deviance and social control in Brazil, 17801840' (unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1976). Joao Jose Reis, A Morte e
umafesta: Ritos funebres e revoltaspopulares no Brasil do seculo XIX (Sao Paulo,
1991) is a study of a revolt against the secularisation of the cemeteries in
Salvador with original (for Brazil) analysis of attitudes toward death and
funeral rites.
12. BRAZIL, 1850-1870
Two broad interpretive studies of Brazilian history that give prominent

attention to the political circumstances of mid-century are Raymundo
Faoro, Os donos dopoder, 2nd ed. (Porto Alegre and Sao Paulo, 1975), and
Florestan Fernandes, A revolugdo burguesa no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1975).
Both are concerned with tracing the connection between social structure
and political institutions and events. Both are heavily influenced by We-
berian typologies, although Fernandes also includes a certain amount of
Marxist thought in his scheme. Faoro stresses the emergence of a strong
state bureaucracy allegedly victorious over the landed class, while Fer-
nandes sees the seigneurial, supposedly status-oriented slave owners as
dominating the state. Less ambitious and more mechanically Marxist is
Nelson Werneck Sodre, Historia da burguesia brasileira (Rio de Janeiro,
1964). Caio Prado Junior's Historia economica do Brasil, 5th ed. (Sao Paulo,
X
959). ' s n o t s o rigid as is Sodre in the economic interpretation of society
and politics, but gives less attention to the nineteenth century. His
Evoluqdo politica do Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1957) stresses the struggle between
merchants and landowners for control of the state.
The first historian of the Empire, who still exerts great influence on our
understanding of the period, was Joaquim Nabuco, whose biography of
his father, Dm estadista do imperio, 3rd ed. (Rio de Janeiro, 1975), first
published in 1897-1900, dealt chronologically with politicians and politi-
cal events without neglecting the larger social setting within which they
acted. Nabuco's conservative, pro-imperial point of view can be contrasted
with the critical stance adopted in 1909 by Euclides da Cunha in A margem
da historia, 2nd ed. (Oporto, 1913); da Cunha felt much more clearly than
Nabuco the Empire's failure to change. A defence of the Empire that plays
down the role of the emperor and stresses the responsiveness of the system

312 V. Economy, society, politics, c. 182010 c. i8jo
to the shifting tempers of social and economic elites is Jose Maria dos
Santos, A politica geral do Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1930).
A more recent political history, this one built around the theme of
legislation regarding slavery and slave trade, is Paula Beiguelman's
Formacdo politica do Brasil, I: Teoria e agdo no pensamento abolicionista (Sao
Paulo, 1967). C. H. Haring prepared the only chronological account of
the entire period in English, Empire in Brazil (Cambridge, Mass., 1958).
Based as it was on his reading of standard works up to that time, it can be
used to measure the changes in the understanding of the empire during
the next ten to fifteen years, when contrasted with the various essays in
Sergio Buarque de Holanda (ed.), Histdria geral da civilizacdo brasileira,
Tomo II: 0 Brasil monarquico, vols. 3, 4 and 5 (Sao Paulo, 19671972).
The political events leading to the initial consolidation of central state
authority are ably surveyed by Roderick J. Barman in Brazil: The Forging of
a Nation, 1798-1852 (Stanford, Calif., 1988).
Several works consider the inner workings of the imperial political sys-
tem. Richard Graham, in Patronage and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Brazil
(Stanford, Calif., 1990) provides a detailed look at the system's internal
mechanisms and their relation to the social structure, stressing political
action and its meaning for participants. Two Brazilian scholars one a
political scientist, the other a sociologist have also produced impressively
detailed studies of political life in nineteenth-century Brazil: Jose Murilo de
Carvalho used printed sources to construct composite biographies of the
political elite in his A construcdo da ordem (Rio de Janeiro, 1980) and Teatro de
sombras (Rio de Janeiro, 1988); Fernando Uricoechea went to the manuscript
sources to explore the values and social relationships displayed in the life of
the National Guard in his The Patrimonial Foundations ofthe Brazilian Bureau-
cratic State (Berkeley, 1980). On this institution, also see Jeanne Berrance de
Castro, A milicia cidadd (Sao Paulo, 1977). A number of insightful and
provocative essays are included in Emilia Viotti da Costa, The Brazilian
Empire: Myths and Realities (Chicago, 1985).
A less sophisticated but nevertheless still useful description of political
institutions during the empire is Joao Camilo de Oliveira Torres, A demo-
cracia coroada (Rio de Janeiro, 1957). His conservative, pro-monarchical
point of view is also found in Affonso d'Escragnolle Taunay's two studies
of members of the houses of parliament: 0 senado do imperio (Sao Paulo,
1942) and 'A Camara dos Deputados sob o imperio', Anais do Museu
Paulista, 14 (1950), 1252. The Council of State part legislature, part
court has been ably studied by Jose Honorio Rodrigues in 0 Conselho de

12. Brazil, 7 8 5 0 - 1 8 7 0 313
Estado: A quinto poder? (Brasilia, 1978). Although most of Thomas Flory's

Judge andJury in Imperial Brazil (Austin, Tex., 1981) deals with the period
before 1850, the final chapter is a fine discussion of changes in the place of
magistrates within the social, political and ideological system of imperial
Brazil to 1871. Also provocative is Eul-Soo Pang and Ron L. Seckinger,
'The Mandarins of Imperial Brazil', CSSH, 14/2 (1972), 215-44. There
has been as yet no significant study of the provincial presidents who so
importantly shaped the course of the empire's political history, although
the principal policies pursued by those in Minas Gerais are examined by
Francisco Iglesias in his Politica economica do governo provincial mineiro (Rio
de Janeiro, 1958).
Of the many biographies of the Emperor Pedro II the best remains
Heitor Lyra, Historia de Dom Pedro II, 1825-1891, 2nd rev. ed., 3 vols.
(Belo Horizonte and Sao Paulo, 1977). Mary W. Williams presented a
romanticized account in her Dom Pedro the Magnanimous (Chapel Hill,
N.C., 1937). Of the triumvirate - Eusebio, Itaborai and Uruguai - who
defined what could be called the far right at mid-century, only the last has
received a worthy biography: Jose Antonio Soares de Souza, A vida do
visconde do Uruguai {Paulino Jose Soares de Souza) (18071866) (Sao Paulo,
1944). The more creative conservatives at the centre-right Rio Branco
and Cotegipe have been more fortunate: see, for example, Jose Wan-
derley Pinho, Cotegipe e seu tempo: Primeira phase, 1815186J (Sao Paulo,
1937), which was unfortunately not continued by the author; Jose Maria
da Silva Paranhos, 2nd baron Rio Branco, 0 visconde do Rio Branco, 2nd ed.
(Rio de Janeiro, 1943); and, more interestingly interpretive, Lidia
Besouchet, Jose Ma. Paranhos, visconde do Rio Branco: Ensaio historico-
biogrdfico (Rio de Janeiro, 1945). At the centre-left stood Jose Nabuco de
Araiijo, whose biography by his son Joaquim Nabuco was mentioned
earlier. Teofilo Ottoni defended the most reformist measures of the period;
see Paulo Pinheiro Chagas, Teofilo Ottoni, ministro dopovo, 2nd rev. ed. (Rio
de Janeiro, 1956).
Alongside the debates in parliament, pamphlets formed central pieces
of political discourse in the nineteenth century. Many of these have been
reprinted. See, for example, Raymundo Magalhaes Junior, Tres panfletdrios
do segundo reinado: Francisco de Sales Torres Homem e 0 'Libelo do povo'; Justin-
iano Jose da Rocha e 'Aqdo, reagdo, transaqdo'; Antonio Ferreira Vianna e 'A
conferencia dos divinos (Sao Paulo, 1956). Also reprinted have been some
classic juridical works, such as Jose Antonio Pimenta Bueno, Direito pub-
lico brasileiro (Brasilia, 1978), Zacarias de Goes e Vasconcelos, Da natureza

e limites do poder moderador (Brasilia, 1978), Braz Florentino Henriques de

Souza, Do poder moderador (Brasilia, 1978) and, most important, Agos-
tinho Marques Perdigao Malheiro, A escraviddo no Brasil, 2 vols. (Petr6po-
lis, 1976). Still missing are modern versions of Jose Paulino Soares de
Sousa, Ensaio sobre 0 direito administrativo (1862) and Estudos prdticos sobre a
administragdo das provincias do Brasil (1865). These works and others like
them provide the principal raw material for the magisterial study carried
out by Ilmar RohlofF de Mattos of the emerging mid-century conservative
ideology: 0 tempo saquarema (Sao Paulo, 1987).
On the Paraguayan War the literature is still unsatisfactory except on its
military aspects. John Hoyt Williams, The Rise and Fall of the Paraguayan
Republic, 18001870 (Austin, Tex., 1979), provides the necessary back-
ground, while Pelham Horton Box, The Origins of the Paraguayan War
(Urbana, 111., 1930) examines its immediate causes. The point of view of
Paraguay is ably presented by Efraim Cardozo, El imperio del Brasily el Rio
de la Plata (Buenos Aires, 1961). The best military history of the war is
Augusto Tasso Fragoso, Historia da guerra entre a Triplice Alianga e 0
Paraguai, 5 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1956-60). The Brazilian military itself
is provocatively discussed in Nelson Werneck Sodre, Historia militar do
Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1965).
A study of Brazil's economic history for the period must begin with the
historiographical chapter on Brazil by Nicia Vilela Luz in Stanley J. Stein
and Roberto Cortes Conde (eds.), Latin America: A Guide to Economic
History, 18301930 (Berkeley, 1977), 163-272. Celso Furtado presents a
general interpretive survey in The Economic Growth of Brazil: A Survey from
Colonial to Modern Times, translated by Ricardo W. de Aguiar and Eric
Charles Drysdale (Berkeley, 1963). Furtado's knowlegde of Keynesian
economic theory enlightens rather than beclouds his treatment. A contrast-
ing Marxist perspective can be found in Caio Prado Junior's Historia
economica, already mentioned. Older, but still useful, is J. F. Normano,
Brazil, A Study of Economic Types (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1935). Nathaniel H.
Leff, Underdevelopment and Development in Brazil, 2 vols. (London, 1982)
indicts the imperial government for its policy failures and draws attention
to the maldistribution of wealth as an important retardant in the process of
economic development.
Particular sectors of the economy have not been studied in sufficient
detail. Notable on the sugar economy is Peter L. Eisenberg, The Sugar
Industry in Pernambuco: Modernization Without Change, 18401910 (Berke-
ley, 1974), although Eul-Soo Pang argues an alternative point of view in

12. Brazil, 1850-1870 315
"Modernization and slavocracy in nineteenth century Brazil', Journal of

Interdisciplinary History, 9/4 (1979), 667-88. A detailed study of the sugar
economy in one small province is Moacir Medeiros de Sant'Ana, Contrib-
uicdo a historia do acucar em Alagoas (Recife, 1970). The classic account
regarding coffee, which includes the transcription of many documents, is
the Historia do cafe prepared in fifteen volumes by Affonso d'Escragnolle
Taunay (Rio de Janeiro, 1939-43). It is said that the author was paid by
the word and wrote as many of these as he could; fortunately, he also
prepared a summary entitled Pequena historia do cafeno Brasil (17271937)
(Rio de Janeiro, 1945). A more lively and still briefer account can be
found in Odilon Nogueira de Matos, Cafe eferrovias: A evolucdo ferrovidria
de Sao Paulo e 0 desenvolvimento da cultura cafeeira, 2nd ed. (Sao Paulo,
1974). On coffee, see also the books by Richard Graham, Stanley J. Stein,
Warren Dean, and Emilia Viotti da Costa cited below. Two families who
prospered from coffee have received detailed study: the Werneck family of
Rio de Janeiro is examined by Eduardo Silva in Baroes e escraviddo (Rio de
Janeiro and Brasilia, 1984), and the Prado family of Sao Paulo, whose
interests also included internal trade and merchandising, is the subject of
Darrell E. Levi, The Prados ofSdo Paulo, Brazil {Athens, Ga., 1987). The
Brazilian part of the coffee trade and its financing is studied by Joseph E.
Sweigart, Coffee Factorage and the Emergence of a Brazilian Capital Market,
1850-1888 (New York, 1987).
In contrast to the many studies on coffee and sugar, there are relatively
few on the production of other crops or on the cattle economy. Still useful,
after more than a century, however, is the work of Brazil's first statistician,
Sebastiao Ferreira Soares, especially his Notas estatisticas sobre a produgdo
agricola e a carestia dos generos alimenticios no imperio do Brasil, 2nd ed. (Rio
de Janeiro, 1977). Also see a chapter on the economy of Rio Grande do Sul
in Jose Hildebrando Dacanal and Sergius Gonzaga (eds.), RS: Economia &
politica (Porto Alegre, 1979), and the first part of Barbara Weinstein's The
Amazon Rubber Boom, 1850-1920 (Stanford, Calif, 1983). Also see Alice
Canabrava's discussion of the brief period of cotton production in Sao
Paulo province, Desenvolvimento da cultura do algoddo na provincia de Sao
Paulo (Sao Paulo, 1951).
There are a number of works on transport in nineteenth-century Brazil.
Almost folkloric, but with some useful data on muletrains, is Jose Alipio
Goulart, Tropas e tropeiros naformgdo do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1961). Much
more detailed, and at times even erudite, is Jose B. Sousa's book on ox-carts,
Ciclo do carro de bois no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1958). The early history of railways

in Brazil is discussed in Richard Graham, Britain and the Onset of Moderniza-

tion in Brazil, 18501914 (Cambridge, Eng., 1968). Subsequent works
include the book by Odilon Nogueira de Matos, already mentioned, and
Robert H. Mattoon, Jr., 'Railroads, coffee, and the growth of big business
in Sao Paulo, Brazil', HAHR, 57/2 (1977), 273-95.
Richard Graham, Britain and the Onset of Modernization, also explores
foreign control of the export and import business and foreign investments
in railroads, utilities, and manufacturing. The longest lasting foreign-
owned business in Brazil is the subject of Marshall C. Eakin's business
history: British Enterprise in Brazil: The St. John d'el Rey Mining Company
and the Morro Velho Gold Mine, 1830-1860 (Durham, N.C., 1989). Ana
Celia Castro, As empresas estrangeiras no Brasil, i8601913 (Rio de Janeiro,
1979), provides a brief summary of foreign investments. To place this
trade and investment in a larger context, consult D. C. M. Platt, Latin
America and British Trade, 1806-1914 (London, 1972), which shows how
small a part they played in the British world-wide presence, as well as
Irving Stone's two articles: 'British long-term investment in Latin Amer-
ica, 1865-1913', BHR, 42/3 (1968), 311-39, and 'La distribuzione
geografica degli investimenti inglesi neh"America Latina (1825-1913)',
Storia Contemporanea, 2/3 (1971), 495-518, which puts that investment in
the context of the region as a whole. These works suggest the need for
revisions in J. Fred Rippy, British Investments in Latin America, 18221949
(Minneapolis, Minn., 1959).
First steps toward modern manufacturing in Brazil are closely tied to
the figure of Maua. Unfortunately, no satisfactory account of his life has
yet been written. Anyda Marchant's Viscount Maud and the Empire of Brazil
(Berkeley, 1965) does not seek to explain entrepreneurial success or fail-
ure, attributing Maua's problems as he did to the personal enmity of
others. Her omission of all footnotes advances scholarship no further than
did Alberto de Faria, Maud: Ireneo Evangelista de Souza, bardo e visconde de
Maud, 3rd ed. (Sao Paulo, 1946). The best study of textile mills, really a
collection of provocative essays, is Stanley J. Stein's The Brazilian Cotton
Manufacture: Textile Enterprise in an Underdeveloped Area, 18501950 (Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1957). Also see the essays in Frederic Mauro (ed.), La
preindustrialisation du Bresil (Paris, 1984). On the legislative battles to
erect a protective staff one must consult Nicia Vilela Luz, A luta pela
industrializaqdo do Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1975).
Slavery shaped Brazilian life both in the cities and the countryside. It
has consequently been the subject of a large number of studies. Robert

12. Brazil, 1850-1870 317
Conrad, Brazilian Slavery (Boston, 1977) is a useful bibliography. On the

ending of slave trade Leslie Bethell has written the major study, The
Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade (Cambridge, Eng., 1970). Another
approach is that of Robert Conrad, World of Sorrow (Baton Rouge, La.,
1986). For the abolition of slavery itself, beginning with the 1860s efforts
to free the children born to slave mothers, see Robert Conrad, The Destruc-
tion of Brazilian Slavery, 18501888 (Berkeley, 1972). But the most im-
portant study is Emilia Viotti da Costa, Da senzala a colonia (Sao Paulo,
1966), the major work on slavery and abolition in Sao Paulo, and one that
gives considerable attention to the efforts to substitute free workers for
slaves in the 1850s. An impressively detailed quantitative analysis of the
demographic and economic aspects of slavery is Robert W. Slenes, 'The
demography and economics of Brazilian slavery, 1850-1888' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, 1975). The commercial produc-
tion of foodstuffs is put forward as the major occupation of slaves in Minas
Gerais by Amilcar Martins Filho and Roberto B. Martins in their article,
'Slavery in a non-export economy: Nineteenth-century Minas Gerais re-
visited', HAHR, 63/3 (1983), 56990 (but see the ensuing comments in
the same journal issue).
All works on Brazilian slavery respond in one way or another to the
views of Gilberto Freyre on the colonial plantation system and its subse-
quent effect on Brazil's urban society. His The Mansions and the Shanties,
translated by Harriet de Onis (New York, 1963), dealt especially with the
cities in the nineteenth century. In sharp contrast to his favourable view of
the paternalistic relationship between master and slave stands Stanley J.
Stein's brilliant Vassouras: A Brazilian Coffee County, 18507900 (Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1957). A similar approach focused on a region that turned
to coffee only later is Warren Dean, Rio Claro: A Brazilian Plantation
System, 1820-1920 (Stanford, Calif, 1976). Both authors suggest that
the profit-making rural enterprise left little room for paternalism toward
slaves. The same point is driven home by Suely Robles Reis de Queiroz,
Escravidao negra em Sao Paulo (Rio de Janeiro, 1977). In his useful collec-
tion of documents on slavery, Children of God's Fire (Princeton, N.J.,
1983), Robert Conrad introduces each item with a brief statement that
stresses the victimization of the slaves. Mary Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de
Janeiro, 1808-50 (Princeton, N.J., 1987) transfers the theme of unmiti-
gated suffering to the urban setting. Most recently still, a third trend in
slave studies is emerging that, while fully acknowledging the destructive
effects of enslavement, nevertheless finds the slaves to be more than vie-

tims, certainly resilient and tenacious, but even active agents, ready to
explore those few spaces left open to them in order to create their own
culture, family relationships, and religion. Sandra Lauderdale Graham
does this for the domestic servants (both free and slave) of Rio de Janeiro
from the 1860s to the early twentieth century in House and Street: The
Domestic World of Servants and Masters in Nineteenth Century Rio de Janeiro,
(Cambridge, Eng., 1988). Joao Jose Reis and Eduardo Silva explore the
same theme in Negociagao e conflito (Sao Paulo, 1989). This tendency to-
ward seeing slaves as creators and actors in their own right suffered a sharp
rebuke in Jacob Gorender's A escravidao reabilitada (Sao Paulo, 1990).
The free poor are only now beginning to receive attention from histori-
ans, partly because the sources are less abundant. Maria Sylvia de Carvalho
Franco noted their importance in rural areas of the province of Rio de
Janeiro in her Homens livres na ordem escravocrata, 2nd ed. (Sao Paulo, 1974)
as does Hebe Maria Mattos de Castro in Ao Sul da historia: Lavradores pobres
na crise do trabalho escravo (Sao Paulo, 1987) and 'Beyond masters and
slaves: Subsistence agriculture as survival strategy', HAHR, 68/3 (1988),
46189. Eni de Mesquita Samara noted the complexities besetting the
study of the free poor in her article 'O papel do agregado na regiao de Itii
17801830', Colegdo Museu Paulista, 6 (1977), 13121. Another sugges-
tive study of the free poor in rural areas is Joan E. Meznar, 'Deference and
dependence: The world of small farmers in a northeastern Brazilian com-
munity, 18501900' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of
Texas, Austin, 1986). Their condition was shaped primarily by Brazil's
land tenure system; on the 1850 land law, see the essays by Warren Dean,
Jose Murilo de Carvalho, and Emilia Viotti da Costa cited in essay V : n .
Important points on how the state prevented agricultural workers from
acquiring land are raised by Jose de Souza Martins, 0 cativeiro da terra (Sao
Paulo, 1979). In the cities the free poor did not fare much better. Sandra
Lauderdale Graham, in the work mentioned above, dealt with free female
domestics, both former slaves and immigrants, in the city of Rio de
Janeiro. Free salaried workers in mines, foundries, and textile mills in the
province of Minas Gerais are examined by Douglas Cole Libby in his
Transformaqdo e trabalho em uma economia escravista (Minas Gerais no siculo
XIX) (Sao Paulo, 1988), although the book is also important for its
discussion of slave labour and the region's demography.
The issues of population and urban life have not received the attention
they deserve. Maria Luiza Marcilio notes the various estimates for Brazil's
population at mid-century in 'Evolugao da populac.ao brasileira atraves dos

12. Brazil, 1850-1870 319
censos ate 1872', Anais de Historia, 6 (1974), 115-37. Richard Morse

makes stimulating suggestions regarding the relationship of villages, rural
estates and cities in his 'Cities and society in nineteenth-century Latin
America: The illustrative case of Brazil', in Richard Schaedel, Jorge Hardoy
and Nora Scott Kinzer (eds.), Urbanization in the Americas from its Beginnings
to the Present Day (The Hague, 1978). See also Emilia Viotti da Costa,
'Urbanizagao no Brasil no seculo XIX', in Da monarquia a republica: Momentos
decisivos (Sao Paulo, 1971), revised and republished as 'Town and country',
in The Brazilian Empire: Myths and Histories. Rich statistical information on
the city of Rio de Janeiro is included in Eulalia Maria Lahmeyer Lobo,
Historia do Rio deJaneiro {do capital comercial ao capital industrial efinanceiro), 2
vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1978). The social life of Rio de Janeiro is examined in
the books by Mary Karasch and Sandra Lauderdale Graham, both men-
tioned above, as well as in the latter's 'Slavery's impasse: Slave prostitutes,
small-time mistresses, and the Brazilian law of 1871', CSSH, 33/4 (1991).
Thomas Holloway presents a rich study of the efforts to exert social control
over slave and free poor in the city as well as their resistance to that effort in
his Policing Rio deJaneiro: Repression and Resistance in a Nineteenth Century City
(Stanford, Calif., 1993). Katia M. de Queiros Mattoso discusses the social
and economic life of Salvador (Bahia) in Bahia: A cidade do Salvador e seu
mercado no seculo XIX (Sao Paulo, 1978). Urban women are the subject of
June E. Hahner's A mulher brasileira e suas lutas sociais e politicas, 1850
*937i translated by Maria Theresa P. de Almeida and Heitor Ferreira da
Costa (Sao Paulo, 1981).
The literary history of the period is ably surveyed in the relevant sec-
tions of Antonio Candido de Mello e Souza, Formagdo da literatura bra-
sileira, 2 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1959). He is careful to suggest the connections
between the larger society and trends in literature. More attentive to
stylistic criticism is Jose Guilherme Merquior, De Anchieta a Euclides: Breve
historia da literatura brasileira, I (Rio de Janeiro, 1977). A quick reference
work is Alfredo Bosi's Historia concisa da literatura brasileira (Sao Paulo,
I
97) while much greater detail can be found in Afranio Coutinho (ed.),
A Literatura no Brasil, Vol. 1, Tomo 2: Romantismo, 2nd ed. (Rio de
Janeiro, 1968). Jose de Alencar, Brazil's most famous mid-century
novelist also a politician has been the subject of several biographies;
see, for instance, Raimundo Magalhaes Junior, Jose de Alencar e sua epoca,
2nd ed. (Rio de Janeiro, 1977).
Philosophy and music are other topics that provide an insight into the
nineteenth-century ethos. Joao Cruz Costa, A History of Ideas in Brazil,

translated by Suzette Macedo (Berkeley, 1964), like the work of Antonio

Candido, relates intellectual life to social and economic change. The ideas
of political thinkers are explored in Nelson Saldanha, 0 pensamento politico
no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1979). Finally, Gerard Behague, Music in Latin
America, An Introduction (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1979), makes important
observations on Antonio Carlos Gomes, the composer whose // Guarany
excited the opera world in 1870.

VI
SOCIETY, POLITICS,
c. 1870 to 1930
1. LATIN AMERICA AND THE

INTERNATIONAL ECONOMY, 1 8 7 0 - 1 9 1 4
Scholars working on the economic history of Latin America in the period

18701914 are singularly fortunate in that much, indeed most, of what
they need to locate is identified in Roberto Cortes Conde and Stanley J.
Stein (eds.), Latin America: A Guide to Economic History, 1830-1930
(Berkeley, 1977). The editors, in their introduction, provide a helpful
overview of problems and issues, while each country section of the master-
fully annotated bibliographies on Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia,
Mexico and Peru is also prefaced by an interpretive and evaluative essay
from a noted scholar. With such an exceptionally valuable resource listing
over 4,500 items already available, this essay will concentrate on studies
from the more recent years which deal with the international matrix of
Latin American regional development, with occasional mention of works
written earlier but not included in the aforementioned comprehensive
bibliography. There are a number of other bibliographies which deal with
individual countries: for example, Enrique Florescano et al. (eds.), Bib-
liografia general del desarrollo economico de Mexico, 15001976 (Mexico,
D.F., 1980), an excellent work. Mention should also be made of a num-
ber of statistical publications which provide historical data on Latin Amer-
ica. See, for example, B. R. Mitchell, International Historical Statistics:
Australasia and Americas (London, 1983); also Paul Bairoch and Bouda
Etemad, Commodity Structure of Third World Exports, 1830-1937 (Geneva,
1985)-
A very good place to begin understanding the period is with more
general works on the engagement of Latin America in the international
economy. Pascal Arnaud, Estado y capitalismo en America Latina: Casos de
321

322 VI. Economy, society, politics, c. I8JO to 1930
Mexico y Argentina (Mexico, D.F., 1981) represents one type of approach;

based on the experience of two large countries in the 18201910 era, the
author attempts to develop a general, perhaps too sweeping, picture of the
transition to capitalism in Latin America. More satisfying, for being closer
to the evidence, are the eleven studies contained in D. C. M. Platt (ed.),
Business Imperialism, 18401930: An Inquiry Based on British Experience in
Latin America (New York, 1977). See also Irving Stone, 'The composition
and distribution of British investment in Latin America, 1865 to 1913'
(unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, 1962). A major work on
the export economies, containing articles on Argentina, Brazil, Chile,
Colombia and Peru, is Roberto Cortes Conde and Shane Hunt (eds.), The
Latin American Economies (New York, 1985). Interesting studies that com-
pare Latin America with other parts of the world include Magnus
Blomstrom and Patricio Meller (eds.), Diverging Paths: Comparing a Century
of Scandinavian and Latin American Development (Washington, D.C., 1991);
D. C. M. Platt and Guido di Telia (eds.), Argentina, Australia and Canada:
Studies in Comparative Development, 18701965 (London, 1985); and Carl
Solberg, The Prairies and the Pampas: Agrarian Policy in Canada and Argen-
tina, 1880-1930 (Stanford, Calif., 1987).
Useful statistics and interpretation relevant to the international economy
and Mexico, Argentina, Brazil and Peru appear in the four volumes of Laura
Randall, A Comparative Economic History of Latin America (Ann Arbor,
Mich., 1977). These are complemented, for Brazil, by Instituto Brasileiro
de Geografia e Estatistica (IBGE), Estatisticas historicas do Brasil (Rio de
Janeiro, 1987) and for Colombia, by Miguel Urrutia and Mario Arrubla
(eds.), Compendio de estadisticas historicas de Colombia (Bogota, 1970). Also on
Brazil, see Nathaniel Leff, Underdevelopment and Development in Brazil, vol. 1,
Economic Structure and Change, 18221947 (London, 1982) and Winston
Fritsch, External Constraints on Economic Policy in Brazil (London, 1988).
And on Colombia, see Jose Antonio Ocampo, 'Desarrollo exportador y
desarrollo capitalista colombiano en el siglo XIX', in Desarrollo y Sociedad
(1979), 13944, "Las exportaciones colombianas en el siglo XIX',
Desarrollo y Sociedad (1980), 165-226 and Colombia y la economia mundial
(Bogota, 1984); and Frank Safford, Aspectos del siglo XIX en Colombia
(Medellin, 1977) and The Ideal ofthe Practical(Austin, Tex., 1976), both of
which stress the Colombian response to external stimuli. On Mexico, see
Stephen Haber, Industry and Underdevelopment: The Industrialization of Mex-
ico: 1890-1940 (Stanford, Calif., 1989) and Fernando Rosenzweig Hernan-

i. Economy, 1870-1914 323
dez, El desarrollo economico de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1989). On Argentina,

see in particular Roberto Cortes Conde, El progreso argentino, 18801914
(Buenos Aires, 1978). Vera B. Reber, British Mercantile Houses in Buenos
Aires, 18101880 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), just reaches into the decades
under review, but provides a particularly clarifying view of the preparatory
period for the fm-de-siecle expansion. On Peru, see Heraclio Bonilla, Gran
Bretdna y el Peru: Los mecanismos de un control economico (Lima, 1977); Rose-
mary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 18901977: Growth and Policy in
an Open Economy (London, 1978); and Alfonso W. Quiroz, Domestic and
Foreign Finance in Modern Peru, 18501950 (Basingstoke, 1992). George E.
Carl, First Among Equals: Britain and Venezuela 18101910 (Ann Arbor,
Mich., 1980) shows how foreign interest in Venezuela centered, before the
rise of a major export enclave, on the local market for imports and on
transport, banking and public utilities.
Although major countries have understandably tended to receive the
bulk of scholarly attention, the experience of some of the smaller countries
has also been examined. For example, on Central America, see Thomas L.
Karnes, Tropical Enterprise: The Standard Fruit and Steamship Company in
Latin America (Baton Rouge, La., 1978), which deals mainly with Hondu-
ras in years after 1923; Kenneth V. Finney, 'Rosario and the election of
1887; The political economy of mining in Honduras,' HAHR, 59/1
( I 979). 81-107; David J. McCreery, Development and the State in Reforma
Guatemala, 1871-1885 (Athens, Ohio, 1983); Mitchell A. Seligson, Peas-
ants of Costa Rica and the Development of Agrarian Capitalism (Madison,
Wis., 1980); Hector Lindo-Fuentes, Weak Foundations: The Economy of El
Salvador in the 19th Century 1821-1898 (Berkeley, 1990); and Victor
Bulmer-Thomas, The Political Economy of Central America since 1920 (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1987). On Uruguay, see Henry Finch, A Political Economy of
Uruguay since 1870 (London, 1981), and on Paraguay, Diego Abente,
'Foreign capital, economic elites and the state in Paraguay during the
Liberal Republic (1870-1936)', JLAS, 21/1 (1989).
The transport sector, and especially railways, which attracted so much
foreign capital and entrepreneurship, has not surprisingly been the focus
of much research. See, for instance, Paul B. Goodwin, 'The Central
Argentine Railway and the economic development of Argentina, 1854
1881', HAHR, 57/4 (1977), 613-32; Colin Lewis, British Railways in
Argentina, 1857-1914 (London, 1983); Robert H. Mattoon, Jr., 'Rail-
roads, coffee, and the growth of big business in Sao Paulo, Brazil',

324 VI. Economy, society, politics, c. 1870 to 1930
HAHR, 57/2 (1977), 273-95; a n d , most notably, John H. Coatsworth,

Growth Against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porfirian
Mexico (De Kalb, 111., 1981).
Other sectors, especially export industries, have also attracted the atten-
tion of scholars. On the mining sector, see for example Marshall Eakin,
British Enterprise in Brazil: The St. John d'el Rey Mining Company and the
Morro Velho Gold Mine, 1830-/960 (Durham, N.C., 1989); Kenneth V.
Finney, In Quest of El Dorado: Precious Metal Mining and the Modernization of
Honduras, 18801900 (New York, 1987); and Harry E. Cross, 'The min-
ing economy of Zacatecas, Mexico, in the nineteenth century' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1976). The Chil-
ean nitrate experience has been a particularly favoured field of study. See,
for example, Markos J. Mamalakis, 'The role of government in the re-
source transfer and resource allocation process: The Chilean nitrate sector,
18801930', in Gustav Ranis (ed.), Government and Economic Development
(New Haven, Conn., 1971); Thomas F. O'Brien, Jr., The Nitrate Industry
and Chile's Critical Transition, 7870-/891 (New York, 1982), 'The
Antofagasta Company: A case study of peripheral imperialism', HAHR,
60/1 (1980), 131, and 'Chilean elites and foreign investors: Chilean
nitrate policy 1880-2', JLAS, 11/1 (1979), 101-21; Michael Monteon,
Chile in the Nitrate Era: The Evolution of Economic Dependence, 1880-1930
(Madison, Wis., 1982); and Harold Blakemore, British Nitrates and Chil-
ean Politics, 1886-1896 (London, 1974). Pierre Vayssiere, Un siecle de
capitalisme minier au Chile, 1830-1930 (Paris, 1980) is broader in scope
but deals with some of the same themes.
On export agriculture, Charles W. Bergquist, Coffee and Conflict in
Colombia, 1886-1910 (Durham, N.C., 1978) examines the stresses gener-
ated when the export sector is domestically owned. Marco Palacios, Coffee
in Colombia 28501970: An Economic, Social, and Political History (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1980) shows the constant need for disaggregation in analy-
sis by portraying the different impacts on land tenure the coffee boom had
in different regions of the same countries. Other inquiries into Latin
American export agriculture in the period before the First World War
include Hilda Sabato, Agrarian Capitalism and the World Market: Buenos
Aires in the Pastoral Age, 1840-1890 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1991); Da-
vid A. Denslow, Jr., 'Sugar production in Northeastern Brazil and Cuba,
18581908' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Yale University, 1974); Thomas
H. Holloway, The Brazilian Coffee Valorization 0/1906: Regional Politics and

i. Economy, 1870-1914 325
Economic Dependence (Madison, Wis., 1975). Also useful are Ivar Erneholm,
Cacao Production of South America: Historical Development and Present Geo-
graphical Distribution (Gothenburg, 1948) and Warren Dean, Brazil and
the Struggle for Rubber: A Study in Environmental History (Cambridge, Eng.,
1987).
At times almost the same as a sectoral study but often more complex in
scope of coverage are a number of regional histories that illuminate the
empirical aspects of export expansion theories and caution against pre-
mature or unqualified generalizations. Three such studies which were
planned as deliberate parallels have to do with Brazil: Robert M. Levine,
Pernambuco in the Brazilian Federation, 1S897937 (Stanford, Calif.,
1978); Joseph L. Love, Sao Paulo in the Brazilian Federation, 18891937
(Stanford, Calif., 1980); and John D. Wirth, Minas Gerais in the Brazilian
Federation, 1889-193J (Stanford, Calif., 1977). No such comparative
analyses like these have yet been made at the regional level elsewhere in
Latin America, but local and regional histories rich in insight have been
done for other parts of the continent: on Mexico, for example, see Mark
Wasserman, Capitalists, Caciques and Revolution: Elite and Foreign Enterprise
in Chihuahua, 1854-1911 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1984); Allen Wells, Yuca-
tan's Gilded Age: Haciendas, Henequen and International Harvester, i860
1915 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1985); and Cross, 'The mining economy of
Zacatecas', mentioned above; and, on Colombia, David C. Johnson, 'So-
cial and economic change in nineteenth-century Santander, Colombia'
(unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Berkeley, 1975); and Richard P. Hyland, 'A
fragile prosperity: Credit and agrarian structure in the Cauca Valley, Co-
lombia, 1851-87, HAHR, 62/3 (1982), 369-406.
Still another group of works deals with the widespread changes in
labour and working conditions, partly from the effects of immigration and
partly attributable to the nature of the new patterns of economic activity.
Friedrich Katz, La servidumbre agraria en Mexico en la epoca porfiriana (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1977) and 'Labor conditions on haciendas in Porfirian Mexico',
HAHR, 54/1 (1974), 1-47, are model studies. See also, for example, Jean
Stubbs, Tobacco on the Periphery: A Case Study in Cuban Labour History
(Cambridge, Eng., 1985). For a more detailed discussion of the bibliogra-
phy on rural labour in Spanish America in this period, see essay VI: 4. On
Brazil, see in particular Thomas H. Holloway, Immigrants on the Land:
Coffee and Society in Sao Paulo, 1886-1934 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980).
Finally, there are important contributions in Kenneth Duncan and Ian

Rutledge (eds.), Land and Labour in Latin America: Essays on the Development
of Agrarian Capitalism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Cambridge,
Eng., 1977).
2. LATIN AMERICA AND THE

INTERNATIONAL ECONOMY, 1914-1929
This essay concentrates on material concerning Latin America as a whole,

and on certain works of particular use from a comparative point of view.
The period is one of increasing integration with the world economy,
particularly in the 1920s. It is therefore no surprise to find that most of
the richest contemporary material is foreign in origin, and produced in
English. It is also, typically, only the foreigner who perceived 'Latin
America' as a whole. Both factors are reflected in this review of the
secondary literature; the material of foreign origin is exceptionally valu-
able as long as its context is borne in mind.
The outstanding modern book on U.S. expansion in this period is Bar-
bara Stallings, Banker to the Third World: U.S. Portfolio Investment in Latin
America, 1900-1986 (Berkeley and Los Angeles 1987). The 'classic' and
still invaluable sources are Cleona Lewis, America's Stake in International
Investments (Washington, D.C., 1938), M. Winkler, Investments of U.S.
Capital in Latin America (Boston, 1929), J. F. Normano, The Struggle for
South America (Boston, 1931), H . Feis, The Diplomacy of the Dollar (Balti-
more, 1950) and M. Wilkins, The Maturing of Multinational Enterprise:
American Business Abroadfrom 1914 to 1970 (Cambridge, Mass., 1974). An
excellent comparative study is ECLA, Foreign Capital in Latin America (New
York, 1955). On the expansion of banking, C. W. Phelps, The Foreign
Expansion of American Banks (New York, 1927) and David Joslin, A Century
of Banking in Latin America (London, 1963) are the key secondary sources. A
brilliant more recent study is Carlos Marichal, A Century of Debt Crisis in
Latin America: From Independence to the Great Depression 1820-1930 (Prince-
ton, N.J., 1989). Excellent sources on Kemmerer's role in several Latin
American countries are Paul W. Drake, The Money Doctor in the Andes: The
Kemmerer Missions, 1923-1933 (Durham, N.C., 1989) and R. N. Seidel,
'American reformers abroad: The Kemmerer missions in South America,
19231931' ,Journal ofEconomic History, 32/2 (1972). M. Marsh, TheBank-
ers in Bolivia (New York, 1928) is worth mentioning for the exceptional
interest of the work, though it covers only one country.

2. Economy, 1914-1929 327
Underpinning foreign interest was a great expansion in the flow of

information from the U.S. Department of Commerce. There are countless
handbooks and special studies of this period which are invaluable and,
since the same author often studied several different countries, of great
comparative use. Special mention should be made of the 'Commercial and
Industrial Handbooks' in the 1920s, the various country studies by C. A.
McQueen published in the Trade Promotion Series, e.g., Peruvian Public
Finance (Washington, D.C., 1926), which were followed by various 'Tariff
Handbooks'. Commerce Reports are less ample in the 1920s than the 1930s
but worth using. On the British side, the Department of Overseas Trade
Reports ('Economic Conditions in . . .') are one of the best sources of
information on economic conditions in individual countries, with a fair
amount of statistical information. In many countries the local English-
speaking community had a flourishing business periodical in this period,
which is worth seeking out (e.g., Review of the River Plate, West Coast
Leader). The South American Journal published in London is an invaluable
source of financial and commercial data.
There are two pathbreaking general economic histories of Latin Amer-
ica as a whole which include some discussion of this period: W. P.
Glade, The Latin American Economies (New York, 1969) and Celso Fur-
tado, The Economic Development of Latin America (Cambridge, Eng., 1970).
An exceptional book for its combination of conceptual framework, inter-
disciplinary character and empirical content remains F. H. Cardoso and
E. Faletto, Dependencia y desarrollo en America Latina (Mexico, D.F.,
1971); Eng. trans., Dependency and Development in Latin America (Berke-
ley, 1979). A useful, brief introduction is Bill Albert, South America and
the World Economy from Independence to 1930 (London, 1983). A series
useful for comparative work because of the similar methodology is U.N.,
Andlisis y proyecciones; the different country studies were published in the
1950s and early 1960s and contain excellent statistical appendixes.
ECLA, Economic Survey of Latin America 1949 is a particularly useful
volume because of its long historical series. J. W. Wilkie, Statistics and
National Policy, supplement 3, UCLA, Statistical Abstract of Latin America
(1974), also provides a good and uniform data source. Books specifically
on industrialization include: U.N., Process of Industrialisation in Latin
America (1966), G. Wythe, Industry in Latin America, 2nd ed. (New
York, 1949), D. M. Phelps, Migration of Industry to South America (New
York, 1936) and F. S. Weaver, Class, State and Industrial Structure: The
Historical Process of South American Industrial Growth (Westport, Conn.,

1980). The impact of the First World War on Brazil, Argentina, Peru
and Chile has been studied by Bill Albert, South America and the First
World War (Cambridge, Eng., 1988).
Some studies of the 1929 Depression are worth mentioning for the
attention to the years leading up to 1929. R. Thorp (ed.), Latin America in
the 1930's: The Role of the Periphery in the World Crisis (London, 1984)
contains much material on the two preceding decades and attempts to
combine comparative analysis with detailed country studies by Enrique
Cardenas and E. V. K. Fitzgerald on Mexico, Victor Bulmer-Thomas on
Central America, Flavio Versiani and Marcelo de Paiva Abreu on Brazil,
Arthur O'Connell on Argentina, Jose Antonio Ocampo, Rosemary Thorp
and Carlos Londono on Colombia and Peru and Gabriel Palma on Chile.
B. Eichengreen and P. Linden (eds.), The International Debt Crisis in
Historical Perspective (Cambridge, Mass., 1989), contrasts the debt crisis of
the 1980s with earlier episodes going back to the 1880s. A. Maddison,
Two Crises: Latin America and Asia 192038, 197383 (Paris, 1985), is an
illuminating comparative study.
A number of macro-economic country studies look at the relationship
to the international economy and give enough attention to this period to
be particularly useful for a comparative perspective. On Brazil, see War-
ren Dean, The Industrialization of Sao Paulo 18801945 (Austin, Tex.,
1969); Celso Furtado, Formacdo economica do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1959;
Eng. trans., The Economic Growth of Brazil, Berkeley, 1963); Stanley J.
Stein, The Brazilian Cotton Manufacture (Cambridge, Mass., 1957); A. V.
Villela and W. Suzigan, Politica do governo e crescimento da economia bra-
sileira, 18891945 (Rio de Janeiro, 1973; Eng. trans. 'Government
policy and the economic growth of Brazil 18891945', Brazilian Eco-
nomic Studies, 3, IPEA (Rio de Janeiro, 1975)); C. M. Pelaez, 'An eco-
nomic analysis of the Brazilian coffee support program 19061945:
Theory, policy and measurement', in C. M. Pelaez (ed.), Coffee and
Economic Development (Sao Paulo, 1961); N. Villela Luz, A luta pela indus-
trializagdo no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1961); F. R. Versiani and M. T. R. O.
Versiani, 'A industrializagao brasileira antes de 1930: Uma contribuicao',
Estudos Economicos, 5/1 (1975); F. R. Versiani, 'Industrial investment in
an "export" economy: The Brazilian experience before 1914', Journal of
Development Studies, 7/3 (1980); A. Fishlow, 'Origins and consequences of
import substitution in Brazil', in L. Di Marco (ed.), International Econom-
ics and Development; Essays in Honor of Raul Prebisch (New York, 1974);
Wilson Cano, Raizes da concentragdo industrial em Sao Paulo (Sao Paulo,

2. Economy, 1914-1929 329
1977); and W. Fritsch, External Constraints on Economic Policy in Brazil
1889-1930 (Basingstoke, Eng., 1988).
On Argentina, see C. Diaz-Alejandro, Essays on the History of the Argen-
tine Republic (New Haven, Conn., 1970); G. Di Telia and M. Zymelman,
Las etapas del desarrollo economico argentino (Buenos Aires, 1967); J. Fodor
and A. O'Connell, 'La Argentina y la economia atlantica en la primera
mitad del siglo XX', Desarrollo Economico, 13 (1973), 1365; E. Gallo,
'Agrarian expansion and industrial development in Argentina 1880
1930' in Raymond Carr (ed.), Latin American Affairs, St. Antony's Papers,
no. 22 (Oxford, 1970); G. Di Telia and D. C. M Platt (eds.), The Political
Economy of Argentina 18801946 (New York, 1985); and D. J. Guy,
'Dependency, the credit market and Argentine industrialization, i860
1940', BHR, 58/4(1984).
On Mexico, see John Womack, Jr., 'The Mexican economy during the
Revolution, 19101920: Historiography and analysis', Marxist Perspec-
tives, 1/4 (1978), a superb guide and survey article of an extensive litera-
ture; Clark W. Reynolds, The Mexican Economy: Twentieth Century Structure
and Growth (New Haven, Conn., 1970), L. Soli's, La realidad mexicana
(Mexico, D.F., 1970); E. Cardenas, La industrializacion mexicana durante la
gran depresidn (Mexico, D.F., 1987); Lorenzo Meyer, Mexico y los Estados
Unidos en el conflicto petrolero, 191J1942 (Mexico, D.F., 1972; Eng.
trans., Mexico and the United States in the Oil Controversy, 191J1942 [Aus-
tin, Tex., 1977]).
On Chile, see O. Munoz, Crecimiento industrial de Chile 19141965
(Santiago, Chile, 1968); J. G. Palma, 'Growth and structure of Chilean
manufacturing industry from 1830 to 1935' (unpublished D.Phil, thesis,
Oxford, 1979); H. W. Kirsch, Industrial Development in a Traditional Soci-
ety: The Conflict between Entrepreneurship and Modernisation in Chile (Gaines-
ville, Fla., 1977).
On Colombia, see L. Ospina Vasquez, Industria y proteccidn en Colombia
1810-1930 (Medellfn, 1955); M. Palacios, El cafe en Colombia 1850-
1970: Una historia economica, social y politica (Bogota, 1979; Eng. trans.,
Coffee in Colombia 18^01970; An Economic, Social and Political History,
Cambridge, Eng., 1980); J. A. Ocampo and S. Montenegro, 'La crisis
mundial de los anos treinta en Colombia', Desarrollo y Sociedad, 8 (1982);
S. Montenegro, 'Historia de la industria textil en Colombia, 1900
1945' (unpublished master's thesis, Universidad de los Andes, Bogota,
1982); J. A. Bejarano, 'El fin de la economia exportadora y los origenes
del problema agrario', Cuadernos Colombianos, 6 - 8 , (Medellin, 1975); W.

33 VZ. Economy, society, politics, c. I8JO to 1930
McGreevey, An Economic History of Colombia, 1845-1930 (Cambridge,

Eng., 1971), and R. Thorp, Economic Management and Economic Develop-
ment in Peru and Colombia (London, 1991).
On Peru, see R. Thorp and G. Bertram, Peru 1890-1977: Growth and
Policy in an Export Economy (London, 1978); P. Klaren, Modernisation,
Dislocation and Aprismo: Origins of the Peruvian Aprista Party (Austin, Tex.,
X
973)i C. Bolona, 'Protectionism and liberalism in Peru, 18801980'
(unpublished D. Phil, thesis, Oxford, 1981); R. Miller, 'British business
in Peru 18831930' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Cambridge, 1979); and
R. Thorp, Economic Management and Economic Development.
On Venezuela, see B. S. McBeth, Juan Vicente Gomez and the Oil Compa-
nies in Venezuela, 1908-1935 (Cambridge, Eng., 1983). On Cuba, see H.
C. Wallich, Monetary Problems of an Export Economy: The Cuban Experience,
19141947 (Cambridge, Mass., 1950). On Bolivia, see L. Whitehead,
'El impacto de la Gran Depresion in Bolivia', Desarrollo Econdmico, 12/45
(1972), 4980. On Uruguay, see M. H. J. Finch, A Political Economy of
Uruguay since 1870 (London, 1981). On Ecuador, see Wilson Mino
Grijalva, 'La economia ecuatoriana de la gran recesi6n a la crisis bananera',
in E. Ayala (ed.) Nueva historia del Ecuador, vol. 10 (Quito, 1990), and
Linda Alexander Rodriguez, The Search for Public Policy: Regional Politics
and Government Finances in Ecuador, 18301940 (Berkeley, 1985). And on
Central America, see Victor Bulmer-Thomas, The Political Economy of Cen-
tral America since 1920 (Cambridge, Eng., 1987) and Ciro F. S. Cardoso
and H. Perez Brignoli, Centroamerica y la economia occidental (15201930)
(San Jose, C.R., 1977).
A relatively unexplored area is the role of the state. But, on Brazil, see,
for example, Steven Topik, 'The evolution of the economic role of the
Brazilian state, 1889-1930', JLAS, 2/2 (1979), 'State intervention in a
liberal regime: Brazil 1889-1939', HAHR, 60/4 (1980) and The Political
Economy of the Brazilian State, 18891930 (Austin, Tex., 1987), and S.
Schwartzman, 'Empresarios y politica en el proceso de industrializacion:
Argentina, Brazil, Australia', Desarrollo Econdmico, 13I49 (1973), 6789.
Two interesting studies on Mexico are S. Haber, Industry and Underdevelop-
ment: The Industrialization of Mexico, 18901940 (Stanford, Calif., 1989)
and R. Camp, Entrepreneurs and Politics in Twentieth Century Mexico (Oxford,
1989X
A similar neglect is typical of many issues concerning Latin America's
links with the international economy. There is virtually no material of a
comparative or continental basis - partly because the secondary material

3. Population 331
on individual countries is not yet very strong for this period. The number
of solid individual case studies is growing fast, however, as the biblio-
graphical essays for individual countries make clear. On the international
economy itself in this period there is a rich secondary literature. See, for
example, G. Hardach, The First World War 1914-1818 (London, 1977);
D. H. Aldcroft, From Versailles to Wall Street 1919-1929 (London, 1977);
and C. P. Kindleberger, The World in Depression 1929-1939 (London,
1973). The bibliographical references in each are an excellent source for
earlier works. Standard books which have made major contributions are
M. T. Copeland, A Raw Commodity Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1938);
H. B. Lary, The United States in the World Economy (Washington, D.C.,
1943); J. F. Rowe, Primary Commodities in International Trade (Cambridge,
Eng., 1965); and P. L. Yates, Forty Years of Foreign Trade: A Statistical
Handbook with Special Reference to Primary Products and Underdeveloped Coun-
tries (London, 1959). An older study of special value for the 1920s is W.
A. Lewis, Economic Survey 19191939 (London, 1949).
3. POPULATION
In the absence of a general analysis, except for the relevant chapters of

(Berkeley, 1974); 2nd Spanish ed., Lapoblacion de America Latina: Desde los
tiempos precolombinos al ano 2000 (Madrid, 1977), the reader should follow
the development of the population of Latin America in the period from
1870 to 1930 in books and articles on the individual countries. For
Argentina, CELADE (Centro Latinoamericano de Demograffa), Temas de
poblacion de la Argentina: Aspectos demograficos (Santiago, Chile, 1973) and
Zulma Recchini de Lattes and Alfredo E. Lattes (eds.), La poblacidn de
Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1975) have compiled parallel studies which
provide an overall view of the principal demographic variables since
1889. La poblacion de Cuba (Havana, 1976) was conceived in the same
way, but is not backed up by such detailed previous research. For Brazil,
T. W. Merrick and D. H. Graham, Population and Economic Development in
Brazil: 1800 to the Present (Baltimore, 1979) attempts to achieve a balance
between chronological presentation and a diachronic discussion of themes.
The Centro de Estudios de Poblacion y Desarrollo in Lima has, for its
part, made a notable attempt at historical reconstruction in its Informe
demogrdfico del Peru: 1970 (Lima, 1972). However, there was not one

single census report in Peru between 1876 and 1940, which means that
the study can only be of limited use. On Mexico the two volumes by
Moises Gonzalez Navarro, Poblacidn y sociedad en Mexico (7900-1970)
(Mexico, D.F., 1974), although amply documented, lack the analytical
technique used by demographers in the other books already mentioned.
On Uruguay, see J. Rial, Poblacidn y desarrollo de un pequeno pats: Uruguay
1850-1930 (Montevideo, 1983).
The first population history of a Latin American country, El Salvador,
was written as early as 1942: R. Baron Castro, La poblacidn de El Salvador:
Estudio acerca de su desenvolvimiento desde la epoca prehispanica hasta nuestros
dias (Madrid, 1942; repr. San Salvador, 1978). Although the work is
dated, it has not yet been replaced. Panama has a general study by O. Jaen
Suarez, La poblacidn del istmo de Panama del siglo XVI al XX: Estudio sobre la
poblacidn y los modos de organizacidn de las economias, las sociedades y los espacios
geogrdficos (Panama City, 1978). For the other Central American countries,
see Ciro F. S. Cardoso and H. Perez Brignoli, Centroamerica y la economia
occidental (15201930) (San Jose, C.R., 1977). For Venezuela, J. Paez
Celis, Ensayo sobre la demografia econdmica de Venezuela (Direction General de
Estadistica y Censos Nacionales, Caracas, 1974), though dealing specifi-
cally with more recent years, contains some retrospective references. F.
Moya Pons, 'Nuevas consideraciones sobre la historia de la poblacion
dominicana: Curvas, tasas y problemas', in Seminario sobre problemas de
poblacidn en la Republica Dominicana (Santo Domingo, 1975), 3763, deals
briefly with the population growth of Santo Domingo, while A. Averanga
Mollinedo, Aspectos generates de la poblacidn boliviana (La Paz, 1974) does the
same for Bolivia. D. M. Rivarola et al., La poblacidn del Paraguay
(Asuncion, 1974) provides, somewhat unsystematically, precise data on
Paraguay.
The following studies have rectified various previous estimates of the
population of Latin America for 1850, 1900 and 1930: R. Baron Castro,
'El desarrollo de la poblacion hispanoamericana (14921950)', Journal of
World History, 5 (1959), 32543; C. A. Mir6, La poblacion de America
Latina en el siglo XX (Santiago, Chile, 1965); CELADE, 'America Latina:
Poblacion total por paises, Aiio 1970', Boletin Demogrdfico, 6 (1970); see
also Boletin Demogrdfico, 32 (1983).
Among the components of demographic change, the factor of interna-
tional migration has attracted most research. Much of this literature is of a
commemorative type and is mostly of marginal interest. A general survey
is M. Morner, Adventurers and Proletarians: The Story of Migrants in Latin

3 . Population 333
America (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1985). B. Leander, Europea, Asia y Africa en

America latina y el Caribe (Mexico, D.F., 1989), while offering a broad
survey of all overseas migrations, emphasizes the Asian contribution. With
regard to the size of the flow, W. F. Willcox, International Migrations (New
York 1929), though dated, is still useful, but should be complemented by
more recent research, such as Z. L. Recchini de Lattes and A. E. Lattes, La
poblacion de Argentina, for Argentina, and M. S. Ferreira Levi 'O papel da
migragao internacional na evolugao de popula$ao brasileira (18721972)',
Revista de Saude Publica, 8 (suppl.) (1974), 4990, for Brazil. Giorgio
Mortara, 'Pesquisas sobre populates americanas', Estudos Brasileiros de
Demografia 1 (1947), 1227, a n d Gino Germani, 'Mass immigration and
modernization in Argentina', in I. L. Horowitz (ed.), Masses in Latin
America (New York, 1970), 289330, among others, have discussed nu-
merically various aspects of the effect which immigration had on the
demography of Latin America. Chiara Vangelista, 'Immigrazione, strut-
tura produttiva e mercato del lavoro in Argentina ed in Brasile (1876-
1914)', Annali della FondazioneLuigi Einaudi, 10 (1975), 197-216, and Le
braccia per la fazenda: Immigrati e 'caipiras' nella formazione del mercato del
lavoro paulista (i8j>o1930) (Milan, 1982), R. Cortes Conde, El progreso
argentino, 18801914 (Buenos Aires, 1979), and S. Baily, 'Marriage pat-
terns and immigrant assimilation in Buenos Aires', HAHR, 60/1 (1980),
3248. also explore the socio-economic conditions which prompted Euro-
pean emigration. Although all three authors rely on information from one
country, namely Italy, their approach is a general one. Thomas H. Hollo-
way, Immigrants on the Land: Coffee and Society in Sao Paulo, 18861934
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980), for its part, examines immigration in the
specific context of Sao Paulo.
Migration studies referring to ethnic groups are plentiful, although in
an inverse proportion to their importance as a group. A general overview
of Spanish migration to Latin America is N. Sanchez-Albornoz (ed.),
Espanoles hacia America: La emigracion en masa (18801930) (Madrid,
1988). Italian migration has been studied for individual countries: on
Brasil, G. F. Rosoli (ed.), Emigrazione europea e popolo brasiliano (Rome,
1987) and A. Trento, Do outro lado de Atlantico: Um seculo de imigraqao
italiana no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1989); on Argentina, F. Devoto and G. F.
Rosoli (eds.), La inmigracion italiana en Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1985) and
L'ltalia nella societa argentina (Rome, 1988). See also S. Beretta, La co-
lonizzazione italiana nel Rio Grande do Sul (Brasile) (Pavia, 1976). On
German immigration, see J. Roche, A colonizagao alemd no Rio Grande do

334 V/. Economy, society, politics, c. 1870 to 1930
Sul, 2 vols. (Porto Alegre, 1969) and G. F. W. Young, The Germans in

Chile: Immigration and Colonization (New York, 1974). On the Welsh to
Patagonia, see G. Williams, 'The structure and process of Welsh emigra-
tion to Patagonia', Welsh History Review, 8 (1976), 4274; on the Irish to
the province of Buenos Aires, see J. C. Korol and H. Sabato, 'The Camps':
Inmigrantes irlandeses en la provincia de Buenos Aires, I8JO1890 (Buenos
Aires, 1979); and on the French to Uruguay, see M. Marenales Rossi and
G. Bourde, 'L'immigration franchise et le peuplement de l'Uruguay
(18301860)', Cahiers des Ameriques Latines, 16(1977), 732.
Among the migration of non-Europeans, a considerable amount of
research has been devoted to the Japanese, above all in Brazil: Hiroshi
Saito, 0 japones no Brasil: Estudo de mobilidade efixagdo (Sao Paulo, 1961),
Teiiti Suzuki, The Japanese Immigrant in Brazil, 2 vols. (Tokyo, 1969), J. T.
Cintra, La migracion japonesa en Brasil (1908-1958) (Mexico, D.F., 1971),
and A. Rocha Nogueira, A imigraqao japonesa para a lavoura cafeira paulista
(19081922) (Rio de Janeiro, 1973). On Japanese immigration to Peru,
see A. Morimoto, Los inmigrantes japoneses en el Peru (Lima, 1979). Chinese
settlement in Latin America has also been the subject of several articles: for
example, E. Chang-Rodriguez, 'Chinese labor migration into Latin Amer-
ica in the nineteenth century', RHA, 4 5 - 6 (1958), 375-97, and J. Perez
de la Riva, 'Demografia de los culies chinos en Cuba (1853-1874)',
Revista de la Biblioteca NacionalJose Marti, 57 (1966), 3-22. On immigra-
tion from the Middle East, see J. O. Bestene, 'La inmigraci6n sirio-
libanesa en la Argentina: Una aproximacion', Estudios Migratorios La-
tinoamericanos, 9 (1988), 239-67. Although the focus of his work is
centered on Santo Domingo, Jose del Castillo, La inmigracion de braceros
azucareros en la Republka Dominicana, 1900-1930 (Santo Domingo, 1978),
offers a general panorama of migration in the Antilles at the beginning of
the present century. For Cuba, this should be complemented with J. Perez
de la Riva, 'La inmigraci6n antillana en Cuba durante el primer tercio del
siglo XX', Revista de la Biblioteca Nacional Jose Marti, 66 (1975), 75-88.
With regard to African immigration during the last century, apart from
the estimates in Philip D. Curtin, The African Slave Trade: A Census
(Madison, Wis., 1969), see Franklin W. Knight, Slave Society in Cuba
during the Nineteenth Century (Madison, Wis., 1970), for Cuba; Robert
Conrad, The Destruction of Brazilian Slavery, 1850-1888 (Berkeley, 1972),
for Brazil; and J. V. Lombardi, The Decline and Abolition of Negro Slavery in
Venezuela 18201854 (Westport, Conn., 1971), for Venezuela. In addi-
tion, R. W. Slenes, 'The demography and economics of Brazilian slavery:

3- Population 335
18501888' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, 1976) has

studied internal migration and the demographic characteristics of black
slaves in Brazil.
Among the various works on Mexican emigration to the United States,
the most detailed study on the period prior to 1930 is Lawrence A.
Cardoso, Mexican Emigration to the United States, 18971931: Socio-economic
Patterns (Tucson, Ariz., 1980).
In the absence of figures for internal migration, as precise as those which
exist for international flows, scholars need to reconstruct this internal flux.
Either one begins by examining the discrepancy between place of birth and
residence, as recorded in census forms, or one starts with the tables of
survival, or, finally, one compares growth rates between two censuses. All
these methods require the existence of census reports, which were not
always carried out. So far these methods have been applied to only two
countries, Argentina and Brazil; see Z. L. Recchini de Lattes and A. E.
Lattes, Migraciones en la Argentina: Estudio de las migraciones internets e in-
ternacionales, basado en datos censales, 18691960 (Buenos Aires, 1969) and
D. H. Graham and S. Buarque de Hollanda Filho, Migration, Regional and
Urban Growth and Development in Brazil: A Selective Analysis of the Historical
Record, 1872-1970 (Sao Paulo, 1971). Jorge Balan deals with internal
migration from a comparative point of view in 'Migragoes internas no
desenvolvimento capitalista no Brasil: Ensaio historico-comparativo', in J.
Balan (ed.), Centro eperiferia no desenvolvimento brasileiro (Sao Paulo, 1974),
100-84, a n d considers one region in 'Migraciones, mano de obra y
formacion de un proletariado rural en Tucuman, Argentina, 18701914',
Demografiay Economia, 10/2 (1976), 201-34. On Chile, see Ann Hagerman
Johnson, 'Internal migration in Chile to 1920: Its relationship to the labor
market, agricultural growth, and urbanisation' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
University of California, Davis, 1978). M. E. Castellanos de Sjostrand, 'La
poblacion de Venezuela: Migraciones internas y distribuci6n espacial,
1908-1935', Semestre Histdrico, 1 (1975), 5-62, examines the issue in
relation to Venezuela.
With respect to the determinants of natural growth, the evolution of
life expectancy has permitted Eduardo A. Arriaga, at first with the col-
laboration of Kingsley Davis and later alone, to follow the course of
mortality in Latin America: see E. A. Arriaga and K. Davis, 'The pattern
of mortality change in Latin America', Demography, 6 (1969), 22342,
and E. A. Arriaga, Mortality Decline and Its Effects in Latin America (Berke-
ley, 1970). Using the same method, Jorge L. Somoza has focussed on

Argentina in La mortalidad en la Argentina entre 1869 y i960 (Buenos

Aires, 1971). For the great epidemics of cholera and yellow fever, see J. S.
Ward, Yellow Fever in Latin America: A Geographical Study (Liverpool,
1972), and D. B. Cooper, 'Brazil's long fight against epidemic disease,
1849-1917, with special emphasis on yellow fever', Bulletin of the New
York Academy of Medicine, 51 (1975), 672-96 and 'The new 'black death':
Cholera in Brazil, 1855-1856', Social Science History, 10 (1986), 4 6 7 - 8 8 .
There is a lack of detailed research on nutrition, as well as on the inci-
dence of the most common diseases and the progress in medicine and
sanitation. On fertility, O. Andrew Collver, Birth Rates in Latin America:
New Estimates of Historical Trends and Fluctuations (Berkeley, 1965), elabo-
rates a general scheme for the twentieth century, but there is nothing on
the nineteenth century. On a national level, it is worth noting Maria S.
Miiller's work on Argentina, La mortalidad en Buenos Aires entre 1855 y
i960 (Buenos Aires, 1974) and H. Perez Brignoli, 'Costa Rica, 1866
1973: Tablas de mortalidad', Siglo XIX, 7 (1989), 271314. On a fron-
tier area, see N. Alvarez and E. Miguez, 'Patrones de mortalidad en las
tierras nuevas de la provincia de Buenos Aires: Tandil (i8601895)', Sigl
XIX, 7 (1989), 9 - 6 9 .
The interaction of several demographic variables in a specific area has
not been studied to any great extent. But see, for example, J. Casey
Gaspar, Limon: 18801940: Un estudio de la industria bananera en Costa Rica
(San Jose, C.R., 1979), on the area of Limon in Costa Rica, and Z. L.
Recchini de Lattes, Lapoblacion de Buenos Aires: Componentes demograficos del
crecimiento entre 1855 y i960 (Buenos Aires, 1971), on the city of Buenos
Aires.
4. RURAL SPANISH AMERICA
The study of Spanish American rural history, virtually ignored after a

short burst of work in the 1930s, expanded impressively from the 1960s.
This was due, in the first instance, to an enthusiasm for the process of
modernization and later to laying bare the roots and mechanisms of depen-
dency. Then, as money for field research dried up, there was a certain lull
in foreign scholarship, while at the same time a new generation of Latin
Americans, many of them trained abroad, brought renewed energy and
subtlety to the field. The colonial epoch, from the sixteenth to the eigh-
teenth centuries, has attracted the most attention and frequently the best

4- Rural Spanish America 337
scholars. The postSecond World War period became the scene of intense
work by anthropologists, economists and sociologists as well as historians
inspired in part by the interest in agrarian reform and peasant movements.
In between, the understanding of nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century
rural history improves but remains relatively undeveloped; it is, however,
now on a sufficiently firm footing to permit discussion.
Very few scholars, undoubtedly humbled by the formidable variety and
discontinuity of Latin America, have attempted broad, comparative analy-
ses of rural history. Although not of course limited to rural history,
Roberto Cortes Conde and Stanley Stein (eds.), Latin America: A Guide to
Economic History 1830-1930 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1977) has excel-
lent annotated bibliographies on several countries together with invariably
perceptive interpretative essays by a series of distinguished academics.
Jeffrey M. Paige, Agrarian Revolution: Social Movements and Export Agricul-
ture in the Underdeveloped World (New York, 1975) includes discussion of
Latin America; David Goodman and Michael Redclift, From Peasant to
Proletarian: Capitalist Development and Agrarian Transitions (New York,
1982) has case studies of Mexico and Brazil within a broad discussion of
theory; and Alain de Janvry, The Agrarian Question and Reformism in Latin
America (Baltimore, 1981) focusses on recent years but raises wide-ranging
historical questions. Eric Wolf and Sydney Mintz in 'Haciendas and planta-
tions in Middle-America and the Antilles', Social and Economic Studies, 6/1
(1957), 380-412, and Cristobal Kay in 'Comparative development of the
European manorial system and the Latin American hacienda system', Jour-
nal of Peasant Studies, 2/1 (1974), 6 9 - 9 8 , are among those who have
endeavoured to rise to a level of abstraction above the monograph. Magnus
Morner has been concerned with the broad view and his 'The Spanish
American hacienda: A survey of recent research and debate', HAHR, 53/2
( I 973). 183-216, and 'A comparative study of tenant labor in parts of
Europe, Africa and Latin America, 1700-1900', LARR, 5/2 (1970), are
points of departure. A. J. Bauer, 'Rural workers in Spanish America:
Problems of peonage and oppression', HAHR, 59/1 (1979), 3 4 - 6 3 , and
the discussion which follows in the Forum section of HAHR, 59/3 (1979),
reviews some of the issues and recent work.
Three international congresses have yielded collections of papers with
broad coverage: Centre Nacional de la Recherche Scientifique, Lesproblemes
agraires des Ameriques Latines (Paris, 1967); Enrique Florescano (ed.), Haci-
endas, latifundios y plantaciones en America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1975); and
Kenneth Duncan and Ian Rutledge (eds.), Land and Labour in Latin Amer-

tea (Cambridge, Eng., 1977). Several other conferences have been devoted
to individual countries: Reunion de historiadores mexicanos y norteameri-
canos, El trabajo y los trabajadores en la historia de Mexico (Mexico, D. F., and
Tucson, Ariz., 1979) and R. Buve (ed.), Haciendas in Central Mexico from
Late Colonial Times to the Revolution (Amsterdam, 1984); the excellent
collection in F. Katz, (ed.), Riot, Rebellion and Revolution: Rural Social
Conflict in Mexico (Princeton, N.J., 1988); Olivia Harris, Brooke Larson
and Enrique Tandeter, La participacidn indigena en los mercados sur andinos
(La Paz, 1987) and Proposiciones (Santiago, Chile), 19 (1990). There is also,
of course, a multitude of specialized work on specific regions, much of
which is covered in the bibliographies devoted to individual countries in
this section of this volume. The following titles represent some of the
more innovative and original work on the period 18701930 published
since c. i960.
In Mexico good work on rural history turned for a long time around the
Instituto Nacional de Antropologfa e Historia (INAH) in Mexico City; its
Informes Generates are good guides to publications. Revista Mexicana de
Ciencias Politicas y Sociales, 91 (1978) is devoted to the Mexican hacienda in
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The essays by John Womack, Jr.
and Enrique Florescano in El trabajo y los trabajadores are valuable. D. A.
Brading (ed.), Caudillo and Peasant in the Mexican Revolution (Cambridge,
Eng., 1980) is an important contribution as is the following sampling of
monographs and articles: Arturo Warman, Y venimos a contradecir: Los
campesinos de Morelos y el estado nacional (Mexico, D.F., 1976), Eng. trans.,
We Come to Object: The Peasants of Morelos and the National State (Baltimore,
1980); Jan Bazant, Cinco haciendas mexicanas (Mexico, D.F., 1975); John
Womack, Jr., Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (New York, 1969): Jean
Meyer, La cristiada, 3 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1974); Luis Gonzales, Pueblo en
vilo: Microhistoria de San Jose de Gracia. (Mexico, D.F., 1972; Eng. trans,
San Jose de Gracia: Mexican Village in Transition, Austin, Tex., 1974); Paul
Friedrich, Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican Village (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,
1970); Frans J. Schryer, The Rancheros ofPisaflores (Toronto, 1980); Moises
Gonzales Navarro, 'La vida social' in Daniel Cosio Villegas, Historia mod-
erna de Mexico, el Porfiriato (Mexico, D.F., 1957); John Tutino, From
Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico (Princeton, N.J., 1986); Herbert Nickel
(ed.), Paternalismo y economia moral en las haciendas mexicanas del Porfiriato
(Mexico, D.F., 1989) and Morfologia social de la hacienda mexicana, trans-
lated from the German by Angelica Scherp (Mexico, D.F., 1988); Simon
Miller, 'Mexican junkers and capitalist haciendas 1810 igio',JLAS, 22/

4. Rural Spanish America 339
2 (1990), 22963, and 'The Mexican hacienda between the Insurgency

and the Revolution', JLAS, 16/2 (1984), 309-36. Finally, see a typically
insightful and elegant article by Alan Knight, 'Land and society in revolu-
tionary Mexico: The destruction of the great haciendas', Mexican Studies!
Estudios Mexicanos, 7/1 (1991), 73104.
Scholarly work on rural Guatemala and Central America is often not
possible and understandably not abundant. But see Julio Castellanos
Cambranes, Aspectos del desarrollo economico y social de Guatemala a la luz de
fuentes alemanes (Guatemala City, 1975) and David McCreery, 'Coffee and
class: The structure and development in liberal Guatemala', HAHR, 56/3
(1976). For El Salvador, see David Browning's excellent El Salvador:
Landscape and Society (Oxford, 1971) and Hector Lindo-Fuentes, Weak
Foundations, The Economy of El Salvador in the 19th Century, 18211898
(Berkeley, 1990). For Costa Rica, see Ciro Cardoso, 'The formation of the
coffee estate in nineteenth century Costa Rica', in Duncan and Rutledge,
Land and Labour; Carolyn Hall, El cafe y el desarrollo historico-geografico de
Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1976) and Formacion de una hacienda cafetera
(San Jose, C.R., 1978) and the special number of Revista de Historia
(Heredia, 1985) devoted to 'Historia, problemas y perspectiva agraria en
Costa Rica'.
On Colombia, see Catherine LeGrande, Frontier Expansion and Peasant
Protest in Colombia, 1850-1936 (Albuquerque, N.M. 1986); Marco
Palacios, Coffee in Colombia, 18501970: An Economic, Social and Political
History (Cambridge, Eng., 1980); Charles Bergquist, Coffee and Conflict in
Colombia, 1886-1910 (Durham, N.C., 1978); W. McGreevey, An Economic
History ofColombia (Cambridge, Eng., 1971); David C.Johnson, 'Economic
and social change in nineteenth century Colombia: Santander, 18451930'
(unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Berkeley, 1977); Michael Taussig, 'The evolu-
tion of rural wage labour in the Cauca Valley of Colombia, 17001970' and
Malcolm Deas, 'A Colombian coffee estate: Santa Barbara, Cundinamarca,
1870-1912', both in Duncan and Rutledge, Land and Labour; D. Fajardo,
Campesinadoy capitalismo en Colombia (Bogota, 1981); O. Fals Borda, Histo-
ria de la cuestion agraria en Colombia (Bogota, 1975). On Ecuador, see Rafael
Baraona, 'Una tipologia de haciendas en la sierra ecuatoriana', in Oscar
Delgado (ed.), Las reformas agrarias in la America Latina (Mexico, D.F.,
1965).
Work on Peru benefited from the creation of the Archivo del Fuero
Agrario (AFA) in Lima, a repository of hacienda and plantation records
confiscated during the 1969 agrarian reform, and the scholarly leadership

of Pablo Macera at the University of San Marcos, Jose Matos Mar at the
Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, and the late Alberto Flores Galindo.
Because the best records in the AFA were kept by the north-coast
sugarcane plantations, work has tended to concentrate on that zone; but
students from France, Britain and the United States and especially from a
new generation of Peruvians, have created a rural history where none
existed. Among the most useful are: Henri Favre, Colin Delavaud and Jose
Matos Mar, La hacienda en el Peru (Lima, 1967); Juan Martinez-Alier,
Haciendas, Plantations and Collective Farms (London, 1977); B. S. Orlove
and Glynn Custred, Land and Power in Latin America: Agrarian Economies
and Social Processes in the Andes (New York, 1980); Jean Piel, 'Apropos d'un
soulevement rural peruvien au debut de vingtieme siecle: Tocroyoc
(1921)', Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, 14 (1967) and 'The place
of the peasantry in the national life of Peru in the nineteenth century', Past
and Present, 46 (1970), 10833; Wilfredo Kapsoli, Los movimientos
campesinos en Cerro de Pasco 18801963 (Lima, 1972). For the north-coast
plantation, see Pablo Macera, Cayalti 18751920: Organizacion del trabajo
en unaplantacion azucarera del Peril (Lima, 1975); Michael Gonzalez, Planta-
tion Agriculture and Social Control in Northern Peru, 18751933 (Austin,
Tex., 1984); Bill Albert, The Peruvian Sugar Industry 1880-1920 (Nor-
wich, Eng., 1976); Peter Klaren, 'The social and economic consequences
of modernization in the Peruvian sugar industry, 18701930', in Duncan
and Rutledge, Land and Labour; Peter Blanchard, 'The recruitment of
workers in the Peruvian sierra at the turn of the century: The enganche
system', Inter-American Economic Affairs 33/3 (1980); Manuel Burga, De la
encomienda a la hacienda capitalista: El valle de Jequetepeque del siglo XVI al
XX (Lima, 1976). For the southern highlands, see Nils Jacobsen's massive
study of the Department of Puno, Mirages of Transition: The Peruvian
Altiplano, 17801930 (Berkeley, 1992). For the Mantaro valley, an out-
standing study is Florencia Mallon, The Defense of Community in Peru's
Central Highlands: Peasant Struggle and Capitalist Transition, i8601940
(Princeton, N.J., 1984).
Research on Bolivia is reviewed in the comprehensive bibliography in
Herbert Klein, Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society (New York,
1982). Studies specifically on the countryside include: Ramiro Condarco
Morales, Zarate 'El Temible' Wilke: Historia de la rebelion indigena de 1899
(La Paz, 1965); Erwin Greishaber, 'Survival of Indian communities in
nineteenth century Bolivia, a regional comparison', JLAS, 12/2 (1980);
Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui, 'La expansion del latifundio en el altiplano

3. The growth of cities 341
boliviano: Elemento para la caracterizacion de una oligarqui'a regional',
Avarices, 2 (1978); Andrew Pearse, 'Peasants and revolution: The case of
Bolivia', Economy and Society, 1I5 (1972); Brooke Larson, Colonialism and
Agrarian Transformation in Bolivia: Cochabamba, 15501900 (Princeton,
N.J., 1988); and Eric D. Langer, Economic Change and Social Resistance in
Southern Bolivia, 1880-1930 (Stanford, Calif., 1988).
Two good regional studies of rural Chile are Rafael Baraona, Roberto
Santana and Ximena Aranda, Valle de Putaendo (Santiago, Chile, 1961) and
Jean Borde and Mario Gongora, El valle del Puangue, 2 vols. (Santiago,
Chile, 1966). Brian Loveman's Struggle in the Countryside: Politics and Rural
Labor in Chile, 19191973 (Bloomington, Ind., 1976) emphasizes the
later years of that span; landowners, rural workers and agrarian structure
are treated in A. J. Bauer, Chilean Rural Society from the Spanish Conquest to
1930 (Cambridge, Eng., 1975) and in 'La hacienda "el Huique" ', in E.
Florescano (ed.), Haciendas, latifundios y plantaciones. In recent years several
important works have appeared to amplify our knowledge of Chilean rural
history. Among the best are: Gabriel Salazar, Labradores, peones y proletarios
(Santiago, Chile, 1985); Jose Bengoa, Elpoder y la subordinacion (Santiago,
Chile, 1988) and Haciendas y campesinos (Santiago, Chile, 1990); Roberto
Santana, Paysans domines: Lutte sociale dans les campagnes chiliennes, 1920
1970 (Paris, 1980); Ximena Valdes et al., Historias testimonial de mujeres
del campo (Santiago, Chile, 1983).
5. THE GROWTH OF CITIES
By way of introduction, several important studies on Latin American

cities, which range beyond the period 18701930, are particularly useful:
Jorge E. Hardoy and Carlos Tobar (eds.), La urbanizacion en la America
Latina (Buenos Aires, 1969), especially the essay on Argentina by Jose
Luis Bacigalupo; Jorge E. Hardoy (ed.), Urbanization in Latin America:
Approaches and Issues (New York, 1975), especially the articles by Hardoy
himself and by Richard M. Morse; Richard M. Morse (ed.), Las ciudades
latinoamericanas, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1973), 1, Antecedentes, 2, Desar-
rollo historico; and Jose Luis Romero, Latinoamerica: Las ciudades y las ideas
(Mexico, D.F., 1976). In addition, useful items appear in the following
collections: Institut des Hautes Etudes de l'Amerique Latine, Villes et
regions en Amerique Latine (Paris, 1970; Spanish trans., Mexico, D.F.,
1973), with studies on Cuzco, Medellin, Guadalajara and the cities of

342 VI. Economy, society, politics, c. i8yo to 1930
Minas Gerais, Brazil; Richard P. Schaedel, Jorge E. Hardoy and Nora

Scott Kinzer (eds.), Urbanization in the Americas from Its Beginnings to the
Present (The Hague, 1978), especially the articles by Alejandro Rofman,
Richard M. Morse, James R. Scobie, Roberto Cortes Conde and Nancy
Lopez de Nisnovich, Spencer L. Leitman and Jorge Balan; and Francisco
de Solano (ed.), Historia y futuro de la ciudadiberoamericana (Madrid, 1986),
especially the essay by Rolando Mellafe, 'La desruralizacion de la ciudad
hispanoamericana en el siglo XIX', 7 5 - 8 8 .
Because of the complex, multidimensional nature of the urban experi-
ence, historical scholarship on the problems and issues of urbanization has
drawn heavily on the insights of disciplines outside history. The sociolo-
gists have been the most productive, starting with early influential studies
such as Andrew H. Whiteford, Two Cities of Latin America: A Comparative
Description of Social Classes (Beloit, Wis., i960), a stimulating comparison
of Popayan, Colombia, and Queretaro, Mexico, which has since been
refocused on Popayan alone in An Andean City at Mid-Century: A Tradi-
tional Urban Society (East Lansing, Mich., 1977); Phillip M. Hauser and
Leo F. Schnore (eds.), The Study of Urbanization (New York, 1965), espe-
cially the chapters by Gideon Sjoberg and by Schnore; and Gerald Breese
(ed.), Urbanization in Newly Developing Countries (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,
1969). Other significant work by sociologists includes John Walton, Elites
and Economic Development: Comparative Studies on the Political Economy of Latin
American Cities (Austin, Tex., 1977), and Bryan Roberts, Cities of Peasants:
The Political Economy of Urbanization in the Third World (London, 1978), as
well as the more specialized studies of Jose Luis de Imaz, Estructura social de
una ciudad pampeana, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1965) and Mary C. Megee,
Monterrey, Mexico: Internal Patterns and External Relations (Chicago, 1958).
Useful case studies by economists that measure contemporary develop-
ments against an historical background include Arthur S. Morris, 'Urban
growth patterns in Latin America with illustrations from Caracas', Urban
Studies, 15/3 (1978), 299312; Pedro Pinchas Geiger, Evolucdo da rede
urbana brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1963), and Martin T. Katzman's chapter
in John D. Wirth and Robert L. Jones (eds.), Manchester and Sao Paulo:
Problems of Rapid Urban Growth (Stanford, Calif, 1977). Anthropological
insights are effectively summarized in Richard P. Schaedel, "The anthropo-
logical study of Latin American cities in intra- and interdisciplinary per-
spective', Urban Anthropology, 3/2 (1974), 13970. In an important early
work, Town and Country in Brazil (New York, 1956), Marvin Harris made
interesting use of anthropological field work to produce an historical

$. The growth of cities 343
analysis of society in a small Brazilian town. Similar studies include

Ruben Reina's analysis of a provincial capital in Parana: Social Boundaries
in an Argentine City (Austin, Tex., 1973) and Eugene A. Hammel, Power
in lea: The Structural History of a Peruvian Community (Boston, 1969).
Another model case study has been provided by a geographer, Charles S.
Sargent, The Spatial Evolution of Greater Buenos Aires, 1870-1930 (Tempe,
Ariz., 1974). Studies by architects and city planners naturally contribute
valuable information on urban developments. Representative studies in-
clude Peter W. Amato, An Analysis of the Patterns of Elite Residential Areas
in Bogota, Colombia (Ithaca, N.Y., 1968); Carlos Altezar and Hugo
Barachini, Historia urbanistica y edilicia de la ciudad de Montevideo desde su
fundacion colonial hasta nuestros dias (Montevideo, 1971); Jose Xavier Mar-
tini and Jose Maria Peria, ha ornamentacion en la arquitectura de Buenos Aires,
2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1966-7), vol. 1, 1800-1900, vol. 2, 1900-1940;
and Carlos Martinez, Bogota: Sinopsis sobresu evolucion urbana, 15361900,
1 (Bogota, 1976).
Extremely useful for orientation, both for bibliography and for thematic
and methodological suggestions, are the series of articles by Richard M.
Morse in LARR: 1/1 (1965), 3574; 6/1 (1971), 352; and 6/2 (1971),
1975. Several other helpful articles by Morse include 'The development
of urban systems in the Americas in the nineteenth century', JIAS, 17/1
(1975), 426; 'Latin American cities; aspects of function and structure',
CSSH, 4 (19612), 47393, and 'Trends and patterns of Latin American
urbanization, 17501920', CSSH, 16/4 (1974), 41647; 'Primacia, re-
gionalizacion, dependencia: Enfoques sobre las ciudades latinoamericanas
en el desarrollo nacional', Desarrollo Economico, 11/41, (1971), 5585; 'A
prolegomenon to Latin American urban history', HAHR, 52/3 (1972),
35994; ' "Peripheral" cities as cultural arenas (Russia, Austria and Latin
America)', Journal of Urban History, 10 (1984), 42352. Eugene F. Sofer
and Mark D. Szuchman have added another provocative piece with 'City
and society: Their connection in Latin American historical research',
LARR, 14/2 (1979), 11329. An important departure point for general
bibliographical information is provided by Martin H. Sable, Latin Ameri-
can Urbanization (Metuchen, N.J., 1971). The investigator needs to refer
to Latin American Urban Research, 6 vols. (Beverly Hills, 1971-8) and also
to ongoing publications, including Urban History Yearbook (Leicester,
I
9 7 4 ~ ); Urbanism Past and Present (Milwaukee, 1976- ); and the
Journal of Urban History (Beverly Hills, 1974- )
The numbers of definitions for urban populations, as has been sug-

gested (see CHLA IV, chap. 7, note 2), prove exasperatingly elusive. The
investigator will first want to consult the following valuable efforts to
piece together sources and evaluate materials: the previously mentioned
vol. 2 of Las ciudades latinoamericanas, edited by Morse, which provides
information on the major cities of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia,
Cuba, Mexico, Peru and Venezuela between 1750 and 1920; Richard E.
Boyer and Keith A. Davies, Urbanization in Nineteenth-Century Latin Amer-
ica: Statistics and Sources (Los Angeles, 1973), with data on major cities in
Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, and Peru; and Jorge E. Hardoy and Maria
Elena Langdon, 'Analisis estadistico preliminar de la urbanizacion de
America Latina entre 1850 y 1930', Revista Paraguaya de Sociologia, 423
(1978), 11573, which provides discussion and tables of average national
growth rates, growth of major cities and indexes of primacy involving the
four largest cities. Nicolas Sanchez-Albornoz, The Population of Latin Amer-
ica: A History (Berkeley, 1974) is a thorough analysis by an outstanding
historian and demographer of general population trends. Other useful
guides to more specialized problems include Alejandro Moreno Toscano,
'Cambios en los patrones de organizacion en Mexico, 1810-1910', HM,
22/2 (1972), 16087; Richard E. Boyer, 'Las ciudades mexicanas:
Perspectivas de estudios en el siglo XIX', appearing in the same issue of
HM, 22/2 (1972), 142-59; Richard W. Wilkie, 'Urban growth and the
transformation of the settlement landscape of Mexico, 19101970', in
James W. Wilkie, Michael C. Meyer and Edna Monzon de Wilkie (eds.),
Contemporary Mexico (Berkeley, 1976), 99-134; Keith A. Davies, 'Tenden-
cias demograficas urbanas durante el siglo XIX en Mexico', HM, 21/3
(1972), 481524; and Zulma L. Recchini de Lattes, Aspectos demogrdficos de
la urbanizacion en la Argentina, 1869-1960 (Buenos Aires, 1973).
General works on individual Latin American countries often contain
considerable information on urbanization patterns. Among works that
should be consulted in this regard are William P. McGreevey, An Economic
History of Colombia, 18451930 (Cambridge, Eng., 1971); Rory Miller,
Clifford T. Smith and John Fisher (eds.), Social and Economic Change in
Modern Peru (Liverpool, 1976), especially the articles by Rosemary Thorp
and Geoffrey Bertram, and by Bryan Roberts; Carlos F. Diaz-Alejandro,
Essays on the Economic History of the Argentine Republic (New Haven, Conn.,
1970); Ricardo M. Ortiz, Historia economica de la Argentina, 18501930, 2
vols. (Buenos Aires, 1955); James R. Scobie, Argentina: A City and a
Nation, 2nd ed. (New York, 1971); Manuel Diegues Junior, Imigraqdo,
urbanisagdo e industrializagdo (Sao Paulo, 1964); Richard Graham, Britain

j>. The growth of cities 345
and the Onset of Modernization in Brazil, 18501914 (Cambridge, Eng.,

1968); Tulio Halperin Donghi, Historia contempordnea de America Latina
(Madrid, 1969; Eng. trans., 1993); and T. Lynn Smith, Brazil, People and
Institutions, 4th ed. (Baton Rouge, La., 1972).
A number of urban histories of Latin American cities cover a more
extended period than that treated in this essay. Among those that have
chapters or sections dealing with the years 1870 to 1930 are Richard M.
Morse, From Community to Metropolis: A Biography of Sao Paulo (Gainesville,
Fla., 1958; reprint, New York, 1971; Portuguese trans., Sao Paulo,
1970); Guy Bourde, Urbanisation et immigration en Amerique Latine: Buenos
Aires (Paris, 1974); the works by Jose Luis de Imaz and Ruben Reina,
already cited, dealing with the Argentine cities of Rio Cuarto and Parana;
Claude Bataillon, Ville et campagnes dans la region de Mexico (Paris, 1971;
Spanish trans., Mexico, D.F., 1973); Claude Bataillon and Helene Riviere
d'Arc, Les grandes villes du monde: Mexico (Paris, 1973; Spanish trans.,
Mexico, D.F., 1973); Helene Riviere d'Arc, Guadalajara et sa region
(Paris, 1971; Spanish trans., Mexico, D.F., 1973); Theodore E. Nicholls,
Tres puertos de Colombia: Estudio sobre el desarrollo de Cartagena, Santa Marta,
y Barranquilla (Bogota, 1973); and Yves Leloup, Les villes du Minas Gerais
(Paris, 1970).
Books which deal largely with the years 1870 to 1930 include Warren
Dean, The Industrialization of Sao Paulo, 1880-1945 (Austin, Tex., 1969);
Mark D. Szuchman, Mobility and Integration in Urban Argentina: Cordoba in
the Liberal Era (Austin, Tex., 1980); Richard M. Morse (ed.), Lima en
1900: Estudio critico y antologia (Lima, 1973), which focuses on excerpts
from Joaquin Capelo's major study, Sociologia de Lima, 4 vols. (Lima,
1895-1902); and James R. Scobie, Buenos Aires, Plaza to Suburb, 1870-
1910 (New York, 1974; Spanish trans., Buenos Aires, 1977). See also the
following articles: on Sao Paulo, Gerald M. Greenfield, 'Dependency and
the urban experience: Sao Paulo's public service sector, 1885-1913',
JLAS, 10/1 (1978), 3759, 'Privatism and urban development in Latin
America: The case of Sao Paulo, Brazil'', Journal of Urban History, 8 (Au-
gust 1982), 397426, and 'Patterns of enterprise in Sao Paulo: Prelimi-
nary analysis of a late nineteenth century city', Social Science History, 8
(Summer 1984), 291312; on Brazil generally, Emilia Viotti da Costa,
'Urbanizacion en el Brasil del siglo XIX', in Francisco de Solano (ed.),
Estudios sobre la ciudad iberoamericana (Madrid, 1975), 399432, and
'Town and country', in her collection of essays, The Brazilian Empire:
Myths and Histories (Chicago, 1985); and on Caracas, E. Jeffrey Stann,

'Transportation and urbanization in Caracas, 1891 1936', JIAS, 17/1

(1975), 82-100.
Too frequently research on urban history in Latin America places empha-
sis on the capital city at the expense of important urban centres in the
country's hinterland. Argentine historiography has begun to break away
from that mould with publications centred on provincial areas. See, for
example, Lilian Betty Romero, 'Cordoba en el decenio anterior a la
Revolucion del 90', in Homenaje al Dr. Ceferino Garzon Maceda (Cordoba,
Arg., 1973), 3 7 5 - 9 2 , which depicts the social and labour conditions of
Argentina's second largest city during the export-led boom era of mass
immigration. It can be profitably read in conjunction with James Scobie,
'Changing urban patterns: The Porteno case, 1880-1910', in Elproceso de
urbanization en America desde sus origenes hasta nuestros dias, edited by Jorge
E. Hardoy and Richard P. Schaedel (Buenos Aires, 1969), 32338. James
Scobie's last research effort specifically addressed the urban development of
interior regions. Completed and edited by Samuel L. Baily, it was pub-
lished posthumously as Secondary Cities of Argentina: The Social History of
Corrientes, Salta andMendoza, 18501910 (Stanford, Calif., 1988).
The involvement of Latin American cities with the regional develop-
ment of their hinterlands has also formed part of the investigation into
secondary cities. On the subject of regionalism, or sub-national develop-
ment, scholars have been able to trace the often tense relationships be-
tween regional centres and the national capitals. Some of these issues are
explored in three independent, but coordinated, studies of Brazilian re-
gionalism: Joseph L. Love, Sao Paulo in the Brazilian Federation, 1889
I
931 (Stanford, Calif., 1980); John D. Wirth, Minas Gerais in the Brazil-
ian Federation, 1889193-/ (Stanford, Calif., 1978); and Robert M. Le-
vine, Pernambuco in the Brazilian Federation, 1889193-/ (Stanford, Calif,
1978). More recently, the regional fortunes of southern Bolivia and the
role performed by the city of Sucre and its elites' calculations in contrast to
those of La Paz, are examined in Erick D. Langer, Economic Change and
Rural Resistance in Southern Bolivia, 18801930 (Stanford, Calif., 1988).
Also in the Andean region, we can find the subject of urban and regional
development in Clifford Smith's study of the late nineteenth century,
'Patterns of urban and regional development in Peru on the eve of the
Pacific War', in Region and Class in Modern Peruvian History, edited by Rory
Miller (Liverpool, 1987).
The Mexican literature offers an exceptionally rich and overarching
study of the village of San Jose de Gracia in the state of Michoacan: Luis

5. The growth of cities 347
Gonzalez, San Jose de Gracia: Mexican Village in Transition (Austin, Tex.,

1972) modelled on the Aw/Wer-inspired microhistories. Sweeping in the-
matic scope and temporal framework, San Jose de Gracia has few counter-
parts in Latin American historiography.
The subject of migration is frequently addressed from both the internal
and the transatlantic perspectives. See also essay VI:4. Many of the titles
on the period of European mass migration address the cases of Argentina
and Brazil. The historical literature on immigrants offers glimpses into
the experiences of specific groups. Among them are the following: Samuel
L. Baily, 'The adjustment of Italian immigrants in Buenos Aires and New
York, 18701914', AHR, 88/2 (1983), 281305, which gives a rare
comparative approach and should be read in conjunction with Herbert S.
Klein, 'The integration of Italian immigrants into the United States and
Argentina: A comparative analysis', AHR, 88/3 (1983), 30629; Samuel
L. Baily, 'Marriage patterns and immigrant assimilation in Buenos Aires,
1882-1923', HAHR, 60/1 (1980), 32-48; Fernando J. Devoto, 'The
origins of an Italian neighbourhood in Buenos Aires in the mid-XIX
Century'', Journal of European Economic History, 18/1 (1989), 37-64. See
also Eugene F. Sofer, From Pale to Pampa: The Jewish Immigrant Experience in
Buenos Aires (New York, 1980).
The evolution of voluntary associations accompanied the growth and
development of cities in this period. Michael Conniff explores this phe-
nomenon for Brazil in 'Voluntary associations in Rio, 18701945: A new
approach to urban social dynamics', JIAS, 17/1 (1975). Eugene F. Sofer
and Mark D. Szuchman investigate the role of voluntary associations in
the socialization process of European immigrants in two Argentine cities
in 'Educating immigrants: Voluntary association in the acculturation pro-
cess', in Educational Alternatives in Latin America: Social Change and Social
Stratification, edited by Thomas J. La Belle (Los Angeles, 1975), 33459-
For a Mexican view of voluntary associations, see Reynaldo Sordo Cedeno,
'Las sociedades de socorros mutuos, 1867-1880', HM, 33 (1983), 7296.
From the sociological perspective, see Jorge Balan, 'Migrant-native
socioeconomic differences in Latin American cities: A structural analysis',
LARR, 4/1 (1969), 3 - 5 1 . Lois B. De Fleur analyses the rates and the
behavioral components of criminality, particularly among juveniles in an
industrial urban environment in Delinquency in Argentina (Pullman,
Wash., 1970). One of the more probing studies of the historically con-
stant cityward migration in Latin America deals with the social anthropol-
ogy of urban lower classes in Lima: see Susan Lobo, A House of My Own:

Social Organization in the Squatter Settlements of Lima (Tucson, Ariz., 1982).

The social anthropologist Scott Whiteford applies a historical lens to his
work in the context of inter-American migration in Workers from the North:
Plantations, Bolivian Labor, and the City in Northwest Argentina (Austin,
Tex., 1981).
The economic determinants of internal migration are explored in Den-
nis Conway and Juanita Brown, 'Intra-urban relocation and structure:
Low-income migrants in Latin America and the Caribbean', Current Perspec-
tives in Latin American Urban Research, edited by Alejandro Portes and
Harley L. Browning (Austin, Tex., 1976), 13350. Larissa Lomnitz has
explored the notion of clientage in Mexican cities in 'Horizontal and
vertical relations and the social structure of urban Mexico', LARR, 17/2
(1982), 5174, and, with an extensive longitudinal analysis in collabora-
tion with Marisol Perez-Lizaur, in 'The history of a Mexican urban fam-
ily ', Journal of Family History, 3(1978), 392409. On the Brazilian North-
east, see Bainbridge Cowell, Jr., 'Cityward migration in the nineteenth
century: The case of Recife, Brazil', J1AS, 17/1 (1975), 4 3 - 6 3 .
The urban experiences in working-class districts, including urban la-
bour conditions and organization, are explored in, for example, Peter De
Shazo, Urban Workers and Labor Unions in Chile, 19021927 (Madison,
Wis., 1983) which provides excellent depictions of urban living condi-
tions in Santiago at the turn of the century. For comparison, on Rio de
Janeiro, see Maria Eulalia Lahmeyer Lobo, 'Condiciones de vida de los
artesanos y de la clase obrera en Rio de Janeiro, 1880-1920', HISLA:
Revista Latinoamericana de Historia Economica y Social, 5 (1985), 5590; on
Mexico City, John Hart, 'The urban working class and the Mexican Revo-
lution: The case of the Casa del Obrero Mundial, HAHR, 58 (1978), 1-21
and on Bogota, David Sowell, 'The 1893 Bogotazo: Artisans and public
violence in late nineteenth-century Bogota', JLAS, 21/2 (1989), 267-82.
Diego Armus (ed.), Mundo urbano y cultura popular: Estudios de historia
argentina (Buenos Aires, 1990) contains essays on housing, artisans, ethnic
communities and women and child workers.
The era of export-led growth and modernization in the context of
urban and demographic growth led to new considerations by the elites
on the historical problematic of social control, especially in major urban
areas. The issue of social control focussing on women, morality and
crime is analyzed in Donna Guy, 'Prostitution and female criminality in
Buenos Aires, 18751937', m The Problem of Order in Changing Societies:
Essays on Crime and Policing in Argentina and Uruguay, 17501940, edited

6. Industry 349
by Lyman L. Johnson (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1990), 89116. On social

control in Mexico, see Pedro Santoni, 'La policfa de la Ciudad de Mexico
durante el Porfiriato', HM, 33 (1983), 97129. On the urban working
class and its living and working conditions, the early labour movements
and the attitude of the state to urban workers, see essay vi: 7. Unusual
for its attention to a sector of the urban working class that had no
organisation or institutional activism is Sandra Lauderdale Graham's
House and Street: The Domestic World of Servants and Masters in Nineteenth-
Century Rio de Janeiro (Cambridge, Eng., 1988). It offers a rare glimpse
into the interior of households in a city where domestic servants repre-
sented the largest single group of labourers in the period i8601910.
Rio de Janeiro has received a good amount of attention recently. Three
studies that focus on the turn of the century are worthy of note: Teresa
Meade, ' "Civilizing Rio de Janeiro": The public health campaign and
the riot of 1904', Journal of Social History, 20 (1986), 301-22 and
"Living worse and costing more": Resistance and rand in Rio de Ja-
neiro, 1890-1917', JLAS, 21 (1989), 241-66; and notably Jeffrey D.
Needell, A Tropical Belle Epoque: Elite Culture and Society in Turn-of-the-
Century Rio de Janeiro (Cambridge, Eng., 1988).
6. INDUSTRY
Interest in the early history of industry in Latin America emanates from
three distinct approaches, all of which may be depicted as challenges to
liberal orthodoxy. The first, promoted by the United Nations Economic
Commission for Latin America (Comision Economica para America Latina),
emerged during the 1950s and was consolidated in the 1960s as policies of
import-substituting industrialization held sway as the solution to the conti-
nent's post-1940s economic problems. The second, associated with the
dependency debate of the 1960s and the 1970s, was to some extent pro-
voked by perceived flaws in ECLA (CEPAL) structuralist historical analyses
and policy prescriptions. The most recent, most tentative approach is
linked to the discussion about late (or rather very late) development elabo-
rated from the Gershenkronian concept of institutional substitutability
during the early stages of industrialization in backward economies.
Celso Furtado's Economic Development of Latin America: Historical Back-
ground and Contemporary Problems, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, Eng., 1977) re-
mains the most succinct statement of the cepalista hypothesis. Establishing

the primacy of the 1930s as a departure point in Latin America's process of

industrialization, Furtado absorbs part of the revisionist challenge to this
chronology and demonstrates the achievements of industry in the larger
economies by 1929. This text reflects the centrality of the emphasis upon
industrialization in ECLA approaches to development, a focus which also
dominates comprehensive national historical studies of the same school: A.
Ferrer, The Argentine Economy (Berkeley, 1967); C. Furtado, Economic
Growth of Brazil (Berkeley, 1965); A. Pinto, Chile: Un caso de desarrollo
frustrado (Santiago, Chile, 1962). An early strident presentation of the
dependency perspective is set out in A. G. Frank, Capitalism and Underde-
velopment in Latin America: Historical Studies of Chile and Brazil (New York,
1969). While he has since modified some of his observations on the
subject, Frank long held the view that modern manufacturing could only
develop after the crash of 1929, when economic collapse in the metropoli-
tan capitalist economies permitted the emergence in Latin America of a
new social formation that shattered the anti-industry bias explicit in the
economic and institutional structures forged during the phase of export-
led growth. See also the classic study, J. V. Levin, The Export Economies:
Their Pattern of Development in Historical Perspective (Cambridge, Mass.,
i960). Orthodox Marxist expressions of this thesis which shaped the
dependency approach may be found in J. C. Mariategui, Ensayos de inter-
pretacion de la realidadperuana (Lima, 1928), H. Ramirez Necochea, Histo-
ria del imperialismo en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1970), J. Cadematori, La
economia chilena: Una enfoque marxista (Santiago, Chile, 1968), and F.
Hinkelmert, El subdesarrollo latinoamericano: Un caso de desarrollo capitalista
(Santiago, Chile, 1970). However, a seminal dependista text by F. H.
Cardoso and E. Faletto, Dependency and Development in Latin America (Berke-
ley, 1979) rejects the central thrust of these works and, while in other
respects not disputing the importance of 1930, stresses formative develop-
ments in manufacturing in distinct national contexts during the phase of
export-led growth. Writing within the late development school of industri-
alization is less continental in scope. To date clearly articulated interpreta-
tions based on the analysis of Alexander Gerschenkron have only been
elaborated for Brazil and Colombia. See J. M. Cardoso de Mello, 0 capital-
ismo tardio (Sao Paulo, 1982) and S. Kalmanovitz, El desarrollo tardio del
capitalismo: Un enfoque critico de la teoria de la dependencia (Bogota, 1983).
Perhaps the most complete expression of this approach is associated with
the research output of the so-called Campinas School, a great part of which
contributes directly to the discussion about pre-1930 industrial expansion

6. Industry 351
in Brazil. See, in particular, two excellent research monographs, W. Cano,

Raizes da concentragdo industrial em Sao Paulo (Sao Paulo, 1981) and W.
Suzigan, Industria brasileira: Origem e desenvolvimento (Sao Paulo, 1986), and
the narrower but no less challenging Z. M. Cardoso de Mello, Metamorfoses
da riqueza: Sao Paulo, 1845-1895 (Sao Paulo, 1990). S. Haber, Industry
and Underdevelopment: The Industrialization of Mexico, 18901940 (Stan-
ford, Calif, 1989) also draws on the Gerschenkron approach.
Much of this scholarship addresses themes far beyond industry and
industrialization. However, structuralist and dependency theories pro-
voked a response from all sides. Rooted in classical economics and copi-
ously endowed with statistical data is the ad hoc series published at New
Haven by the Yale University Press under the auspices of the Economic
Growth Centre: W. Baer, Industrialization and Economic Development in
Brazil (New Haven, Conn., 1965), now superseded by The Brazilian
Economy: Growth and Development (New York, 1989); T. B. Birnberg and S.
A. Resnick, Colonial Development: An Econometric Study (New Haven,
Conn., 1975), C. F. Diaz Alejandro, Essays of the Economic History of the
Argentine Republic (New Haven, Conn., 1970); M. J. Mamalakis, The
Growth and Structure of the Chilean Economy: From Independence to Allende
(New Haven, Conn., 1976); C. W. Reynolds, The Mexican Economy:
Twentieth-Century Structure and Growth (New Haven, Conn., 1970). These
texts offer detailed sectorally organized historical perspectives of the Latin
American economies and include chapters on manufacturing.
The new revisionism in the debate about industry and industrialism in
Latin America can be precisely dated with the appearance of the seminal
text by Warren Dean, The Industrialization of Sao Paulo, 18801945 (Aus-
tin, Tex., 1969). Dean argued plausibly that the pace of pre-Second
World War industrialization proceeded most rapidly during periods of
export-led growth which, rather than inhibiting the development of manu-
facturing, fostered the market and institutional basis within which indus-
try flourished and determined also the drift of sectoral diversification.
Since 1969 a corpus of literature has evolved from the Dean hypothesis
concerned either to elaborate and refine his statement or to vindicate even
earlier views. In addition to studies of the Campinas School listed above,
notable contributions have been made by A. Fishlow 'Origins and conse-
quences of import substitution in Brazil' in L. E. Di Marco (ed.), Interna-
tional Economics and Development: Essays in Honor of Raul Prebisch (New York,
1972), and F. R. Versiani, 'Before the Depression: Brazilian industry in
the 1920s', in R. Thorp (ed.), Latin America in the 1930s: The Role of the

Periphery in World Crisis (London, 1984). Also linking the emergence of a

manufacturing base to the dynamic coffee export sector are two descriptive
studies: A. C. Castro, As empresas estrangeiras no Brasil, i8601913 (Sao
Paulo, 1979) and S. Silva, Expansdo cafeeira e origens da industria no Brasil
(Sao Paulo, 1976). See also F. R. Versiani and J. R. Mendonca de Barros
(eds.), Formagdo economica do Brasil: A experiencia da industrializagdo (Sao
Paulo, 1977). These works represent an advance upon dated but valued
examples of an earlier historiography, such as N. Vilela Luz, A luta pela
industrializacdo do Brasil, 1808 a 1930 (Sao Paulo, 1961). The new revi-
sionism has produced also some noteworthy industrial case studies, not
least that by E. Weid and A. M. Rodrigues Bastos, 0 fio da meada:
Estrategia de expansdo de uma industria textil (Rio de Janeiro, 1986), which
extends the pioneering work of Stanley J. Stein, The Brazilian Cotton
Manufacture: Textile Enterprise in an Underdeveloped Area, 18501950 (Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1957), and A. P. Canabrava, 0 desenvolvimento do algoddo na
provincia de Sao Paulo, 1861-1875 (Sao Paulo, 1951).
As will be clear from the above remarks, most early revisionist writing
was focussed on Brazil. Only with respect to Chile and Mexico does the
quality of the discourse and indeed the length of the bibliography ap-
proach that for Brazil. Since the 1960s a number of texts have appeared
detailing the pre-1929 antecedents of Chilean manufacturing. Most,
though not all, maintain that the First World War was an important
watershed: several studies may be described as either neo-structuralist or
as 'late' dependista. Arguably, the most outstanding text, H. W. Kirsch,
Industrial Development in a Traditional Society: The Conflict of Entrepreneurship
and Modernization in Chile (Gainsville, Fla., 1977), states that the process
of industrialization was already well established in Chile before the First
World War. Equally provocative are J. G. Palma, 'External disequilib-
rium and internal industrialization: Chile, 19141935', and L. Ortega,
'Economic policy and growth in Chile from independence to the War of
the Pacific', in C. Abel and C M . Lewis (eds.), Latin America, Economic
Imperialism and the State: The Political Economy of the External Connection from
Independence to the Present (London, 1985). See also C. Hurtado, Concen-
tration de la poblacion y desarrollo econdmico: El caso chileno (Santiago, Chile,
1966); R. Lagos, La industria en Chile: Antecedentes estructurales (Santiago,
Chile, 1966); O. Mufioz, Crecimiento industrial de Chile, 19141965 (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1968) and Proceso de la industrializacion chilena (Santiago,
Chile, 1972); M. Carmagnani, Sviluppo industrial e sottosviluppo economico:
II caso chileno, i8601930 (Turin, 1971) and R. Garcia, Incipient Industrial-

6. Industry 353
ization in an Underdeveloped Society: The Case of Chile, 1845-1879 (Stock-
holm, 1989).
Some recent writing on Mexico is also directly focussed on the pre-1930
origins of manufacturing. This work has superseded established general
studies which contain some discussion about early industrial expansion:
W. P. Glade and C. W. Anderson, The Political Economy of Mexico (Madison,
Wis., 1963); S. Mosk, Industrial Revolution in Mexico (Berkeley,
1950); L. Solis, La readidad economica mexicana: Retrovisidn y perspectivas
(Mexico, D.F., 1970); R. Vernon, The Dilemma of Mexico's Development: The
Roles of the Private and Public Sector (Cambridge, Mass., 1963); and M. S.
Wionczek, El nacionalismo mexicano y la inversion extranjera (Mexico, D.F.,
1967). Probably the best of the new analyses is Haber, cited above. Chap-
ters containing some historical discussion appear in E. H. Laos, prod-
uctividady el desarrollo industrial en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1985), D. Story,
Industry, the State and Public Policy in Mexico (Austin, Tex., 1986) and E.
Cardenas, La industrializacidn mexicana durante la Gran Depresion (Mexico,
D.F., 1987). In addition, two excellent collections of essays, written from
different perspectives, contain valuable information or manufacturing: C.
Cardoso (ed.), Mexico en el siglo XIX (1821-1910) (Mexico, D.F., 1980)
and E. Cardenas (ed.), Historia economica de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1989),
especially vols. 2 and 3. For an earlier period the exemplary studies by
R. A. Potash, Mexican Government and Industrial Development in the Early
Republic: El Banco de Avio (Amherst, Mass., 1983) and G. P. C. Thomson,
Puebla de los Angeles: Industry and Society in a Mexican City (Boulder, Colo.,
1989), indicate what may be accomplished. As in Brazil, the textile indus-
try has absorbed scholarly interest, for example, D. Keremetsis, La in-
dustria textil en el siglo XIX (Mexico, D.F., 1973) and R. J. Salvucci,
Textiles and Capitalism in Mexico: An Economic History of the Obrajes, 1539
1840 (Princeton, N.J., 1988). In addition, see S. Haber, 'Industrial con-
centration and the capital market: A comparative study of Brazil, Mexico
and the USA, 18301930', Journal of Economic History, 51/3(1991).
Diffusionist precepts permeate much of the fairly recent general work
on Argentina, specifically the writing of Diaz Alejandro, cited above; R.
Cortes Conde, El progreso argentino, 1880-1914 (Buenos Aires, 1979); R.
Cortes Conde and E. Gallo, La formacion de la Argentina moderna (Buenos
Aires, 1967); E. Gallo, 'Agrarian Expansion and Industrial Development
in Argentina, 1880-1930', in Raymond Carr (ed.), Latin American Af-
fairs: St Antony's Papers, No. 22 (Oxford, 1970); V. Vazquez-Presedo, El
caso argentino: Migracion defactores, comercio exterior y desarrollo, 1875-1914

354 V7. Economy, society, politics, c. 1870 to 1930
(Buenos Aires, 1971) and Crisis y retraso: Argentina y la economia in-

ternational entre las guerras (Buenos Aires, 1978); and G. Di Telia and M.
Zymelman, Las etapas del desarrollo economico argentino (Buenos Aires,
1967). These works locate the modern origins of Argentine industry
firmly in the phase of export expansion. Di Telia and Zymelman, drawing
upon modernization theories prevalent during the 1950s and early 1960s,
attempt to create a revised Rostovian stage theory for Argentina, arguing
that the pre-conditions for industrialization already existed by 1914, but
that self-sustained development did not take place until after 1930. Al-
though much of this writing only obliquely addresses the subject of indus-
trial growth and the formation of conditions essential for modern manufac-
turing, as J. C. Korol and Hilda Sabato in 'Incomplete industrialization:
An Argentine obsession', LARR, 25/1 (1990), 7-30 show for a later
period, these debates underpin much of the Argentine development litera-
ture. Perhaps the most direct and most extensive discussion is to be
encountered in the perceptive study by Paul W. Lewis, The Crisis of
Argentine Capitalism (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990). Lewis provides several
chapters on industrial growth and structures during the pre-1930 period.
For other countries, the literature is more fragmented and even less
explicit. Until recently, and reflecting the small size of the manufacturing
sector, there was little specific material on the period in an otherwise excel-
lent collection of monographs about Colombia, for example: R. Brew, El
desarrollo economico de Antioquia desde la independencia hasta 1920 (Bogota,
1977); D. Chu, The Great Depression and Industrialization in Colombia (Santa
Monica, Calif., 1977); W. P. McGreevey, Economic History of Colombia,
1845-1930 (Cambridge, Eng., 1971); M. Palacios, Coffee in Colombia,
1S70-1970; An Economic, Social and Political History (Cambridge, Eng.,
1980); Frank Safford, The Ideal of the Practical: Colombia's Struggle to Form a
Technical Elite (Austin, Tex., 1976). Newer publications feature extensive
discussion about the theme. See J. A. Ocampo, Colombia y la economia
mundial, 1830-1910 (Bogota, 1984); S. Kalmanovitz, Economia y nation:
Una breve historia de Colombia (Bogota, 1986); and J. A. Ocampo (ed.),
Historia economica de Colombia (Bogota, 1987). For Uruguay there are sev-
eral references to manufacturing in multivolume historical studies by Jose
Pedro Barran and Benjamin Nahum, but the most direct discussion can be
found in the carefully researched monograph by L. Bertola, The Manufac-
turing Industry of Uruguay, 1913-1961: A Sectoral Approach to Growth,
Fluctuations and Crisis (Goteborg and Stockholm, 1990). Bertola provides
a comprehensive survey of the literature and attempts to reconstruct data

6. Industry 355
on pre-1930 industrial production. Disputing the Levin hypothesis, S. J.

Hunt, Growth and Guano in Nineteenth-Century Peru (Princeton, N.J.,
1972) presents a more positive analysis of the environment within which
manufacturing may have emerged in Peru by the turn of the century.
Differing assessments of Peru's industrial potential are available in H.
Bonilla, Guanoy burguesia (Lima, 1973); E. Yepes del Castillo, Peru 1820-
1920: Un siglo de desarrollo capitalista (Lima 1972) and P. Gootenberg,
Between Silver and Guano: Commercial Policy and the State in Post-Independence
Peru (Princeton, N.J., 1989). R. Thorp and G. Bertram, Peru, 1890
1977: Growth and Policy in an Open Economy (London, 1978) provides,
however, the most complete statement on manufacturing in Peru.
Tentative moves to synthesise early approaches constitute a fairly new
trend in the historiography. Various authors have sought to integrate
structuralist and dependency maxims with post-Dean revisionism and
even earlier descriptive accounts of manufacturing and industrialization.
Arguably, theories of late industrialization will further invigorate this
process. To date F. S. Weaver, Class, State and Industrial Structure: The
Historical Process of South American Industrial Growth (Westport, Conn.,
1980) remains the most successful attempt at a near continent-wide synthe-
sis. See also C. M. Lewis, 'Industry in Latin America', in W. L. Bernecker
and H. W. Tobler (eds.), Development and Underdevelopment in America (New
York, 1993). Equally successful, though less directly focussed on issues of
industrialization, is C. F. S. Cardoso and H. Perez Brignoli, Historia econd-
mica de America Latina: Vol. II (Barcelona, 1979). Modern revisionist texts
have given new prominence to 'contemporary' accounts of manufacturing
or works advocating programmes in support of industry - works often
ignored or dismissed by those writing from dependency and structuralist
positions. A small body of descriptive accounts of industry - individual
case studies and national 'surveys' - existed in English by the inter-war
years and was supplemented by works which appeared before the creation
of ECLA. See, for example, F. L. Bell, Colombia: A Commercial and Indus-
trial Handbook (Washington, D.C., 1923); L. J. Hughlett (ed.), Industriali-
zation of Latin America (New York, 1946); A. W. Kimber, Latin American
Industrialization (New York, 1946); W. H. Koebel, South America: An
Industrial and Commercial Field(London, I 9 I 9 ) ; D . M. Phelps, Migration of
Industry to South America (New York, 1936); and G. Wythe, Industry in
Latin America (New York, 1945). Books such as these were often indebted
to official surveys and reports of the period produced by the British Board
of Trade and the U.S. Department of Commerce or to commercial guides

and handbooks that were widely published during the 1900s and again in
the mid 1920s. Primarily 'business' oriented, these works were inclined to
catalogue either the presence, or opportunities for the establishment, of
branch factories of North Atlantic-based corporations in Latin America.
Usually this writing displayed little awareness of prescient earlier or paral-
lel studies by Latin American authors which also detailed areas of manufac-
turing activity or, castigating the export bias of national economies, advo-
cated policies to promote industrialization. Notable examples of such
scholarship include A. E. Bunge, La economia argentina, 4 vols. (Buenos
Aires, 192830) and Los problemas economicos del presente (Buenos Aires,
1920); F. A. Encina, Nuestra inferioridadeconomica (Santiago, Chile, 1912);
and A. Molina Enriquez, Los grandes problemas nacionales (Mexico, D.F.,
1909), which commanded continent-wide attention. Of national signifi-
cance were works such as L. Alayza Paz Soldan, La industria: Estudio
economico, tecnko y social (Lima, 1933); P. L. Gonzalez, Chile industrial
(Santiago, Chile, 1919) and, in association with C. Silva Cortez and E.
Gajardo Cruzet, El esfuerzo nacional: Estudio de lapolitka industrial; resena de
las industrias nacionales; rol de industrias (Santiago, Chile, 1916); A. Gar-
land, Resena industrial del Peru (Lima, 1902); J. Martinez Lamas, Riqueza y
pobreza del Uruguay (Montevideo, 1930); and O. Morato, La industria
manufacturera en el Uruguay (Montevideo, 1927). Later publications in-
cluded A. Dorfman, Evolucion de la economia industrial argentina (Buenos
Aires, 1938) and R. C. Simonsen, A industria em face da economia nacional
(Sao Paulo, 1937). In constructing their analyses, authors like Bunge and
Encina drew upon a newly available body of statistical material.
A number of specific themes tend to dominate revisionist or new syn-
cretic approaches to the subject. Much has been written, for example, about
the consequences of the First World War. In addition to studies on Brazil
and Chile listed above, see R. Miller, 'Latin American manufacturing and
the First World War: An exploratory essay', World Development, 9/8 (1981)
for a preliminary appraisal and B. Albert, South America and the First World
War: The Impact of the First World War on Brazil, Argentina, Peru and Chile
(Cambridge, Eng., 1988) for a more extensive discussion. Analyses of the
impact of even earlier exogenous shocks on the development of manufactur-
ing are featured in, for example, J. C. Chiaramonte, Nacionalismo y liberal-
ismo economicos en Argentina, i8601880 (Buenos Aires, 1971).
For discussion of official policy and the growth of manufacturing during
the period, see contributions in G. Ranis (ed.), Government and Economic
Development (New Haven, Conn., 1971); Weaver, Class, State and Industrial

6. Industry 357
Structure; and much of the structuralist literature listed above. However,
the most outstanding investigation of policy remains A. V. Villela and W.
Suzigan, Politica do governo e crescimento da economia brasileira, 18991945
(Rio de Janeiro, 1973) which offers a model analysis and establishes a
framework that has general significance. See also W. Fritsch, External
Constraints on Economic Policy in Brazil, 1889-1930 (Basingstoke, 1988)
and S. Topik, The Political Economy of the Brazilian State; 1889-1930
(Austin, Tex., 1987). On Mexico, see P. Arias (ed.), Industria y estado en la
vida de Mexico (Zamora, 1990). For Argentina, see D. J. Guy, 'Carlos
Pellegrini and the politics of early industrialization, 18731906', JLAS,
11/1 (1979), 123144, and C. M. Lewis, 'Immigrant entrepreneurs,
manufacturing and industrial policy in the Argentine, 19222.%', Journal
of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 16/4 (1987). Many policy issues are
also addressed in several excellent essays in Thorp (ed.), Latin America in
the 1930s and in B. Tovar Zambrano, La intervencion economica del estado en
Colombia, 1914-1936 (Bogota, 1984). Some references to policy in the
pre-1930 period are also to be found in H. Szlajfer, Economic Nationalism in
East-Central Europe and South America, 1918-1939 (Geneva, 1990) and in
C. Anglade and C. Fortin (eds.), The State and Capital Accumulation in
Latin America, 2 vols. (Basingstoke, 1985, 1988).
Tariffs, money supply and exchange rates and their impact on manufac-
turing are areas of policy formation that have received specific attention.
Dated, but nevertheless outstanding in the field, is L. Ospina Vasquez,
Industria y proteccion en Colombia 1810-1930 (Medellin, 1955). J. C.
Nicolau, Industria argentina y aduana 1835-54 (Buenos Aires, 1975) is an
important study, as are Chiaramonte, Nacionalismo y liberalismo and J.
Panettieri, Politicas economicas: Arcanceles y proteccion industrial, 18621930
(Buenos Aires, 1983). On Brazil, besides the work of F. R. Versiani, see
M. T. R. O. Versiani, Proteqao tarifaria e 0 crecimento industrial brasileiro dos
anos 1906-1912 (Brasilia, 1981). C. M. Pelaez and W. Suzigan, Historia
monetaria do Brasil: Andlise da politica, comportamento e institutes monetdrias
(Rio de Janeiro, 1976) address the influence of money supply and currency
policy upon economic activity. Also useful are J. Pandia Calogeras, A
politica monetaria do Brasil (Sao Paulo, i960), and more specific, C. M.
Pelaez, The Economic Consequences of Monetary, Fiscal and Exchange Orthodoxy
in Brazil, 18891945 (Rio de Janeiro, 1971). See also E. Fernandez-
Hurtado (ed.), Cincuenta anos de Banco Central (Mexico, D.F., 1976) for
some discussion of monetary policy and manufacturing during the 1920s.
Conventional currency histories and data on money supply and banking

institutions exist for most other republics but are less direct. Brazil is still
exceptional in the quality of the material relating to money supply, the
exchange and industry.
The formation of industrial entrepreneurs is another theme which has
attracted much attention. In the Brazilian historiography, new research by
the Campinas school tends to emphasise the importance of national entre-
preneurial talent in the manufacturing sector, thereby challenging the
stress placed by Dean, Industrialization of Sao Paulo, on the role of foreign
merchants and immigrants. A similar focus on the connection between
planters and manufacturing for areas other than Sao Paulo is available in
A. M. Vaz, Cia Cedro e Cachoeira: Historia de una empresa familiar, I88J-
19S7 (Belo Horizonte, 1990). R. Graham, Britain and the Onset of Modern-
ization in Brazil, 1850-1914 (Cambridge, Eng., 1968) explores interac-
tion between native and foreign-born industrialists. For Chile, national
contributions to early industrial growth are explored by Kirsch, Industrial
Development, L. Ortega, 'Nitrates, Chilean entrepreneurs and the origins of
the War of the Pacific', JLAS, 16/2 (1984), 337-380, and A. Bauer,
'Industry and the missing bourgeoisie: Consumption and development in
Chile, 1850-1950', HAHR, 70/2 (1990), 227-253. For Mexico, see L.
Gamboa Ojeda, Los empresarios de ayer: El grupo dominante en la industria
textil dePuebla, 190629 (Puebla, 1985). Accounts of the origin of indus-
trialists may also be found in C. M. Lewis, 'Immigrant entrepreneurs . . .
in the Argentine, 1922-8' and J. Schvarzer, Empresarios del pasado: La
Union Industrial Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1991). Orthodox statements that
emphasise the role of immigrant entrepreneurs in early manufacturing are
provided by Diaz Alejandro, Essays, Vera Blinn Reber, British Mercantile
Houses in Buenos Aires, 1810-1880 (Cambridge, Mass. 1979), and O.
Cornblit, 'Inmigrantes y empresarios en la polkica argentina', DE, 6/24
(1967). On this topic, see also C. Davila, El empresariado colombiano: Una
perspectiva historica (Bogota, 1986).
Newer scholarship on urban labour also touches upon the subject of
early industrialization examining, amongst other themes, the supply of
industrial workers, wages and working conditions in early factories as well
as labour organization and militancy. See essay VI:7.
Finally, innovative approaches to the study of the early history of manu-
facturing in Latin America have been influenced by such new concepts as
proto-industrialization. In addition to the works of Kalmanovitz and
Ocampo on Colombia and Garcia on Chile mentioned above, see also J.
Batou, Cent ans de resistance au sous-developpement: L'industrialisation de

1. The urban working class and early labour movements 359
I'Amerique Latine et du Moyen-Orient face au defi europeen, 17 70-1870 (Ge-

neva, 1990); J. Batou (ed.), Between Development and Underdevelopment: The
Precocious Attempts at Industrialization of the Periphery (Geneva, 1991); F.
Mauro (ed.), La preindustrialization du Bresil: Essais sur une economie en
transition, 1830/50 - 1930/50 (Paris, 1984) and D. C. Libby, 'Proto-
industrialisation in a slave society: The case of Minas Gerais', JLAS, 23/1
(1991), 1-35.
7 . T H E U R B A N W O R K I N G CLASS A N D
EARLY LABOUR M O V E M E N T S
The two modern general histories of the Latin American labour move-
ments that cover the pre-1930 period in some depth are Hobart A. Spal-
ding, Jr., Organized Labor in Latin America (New York, 1977), and Ricardo
Melgar Bao, El movimiento obrero latinoamericano (Madrid, 1988). In Julio
Godio, Historia del movimiento obrero latinoamericano, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F.,
19803), the first volume deals with the movements in Argentina, Mex-
ico and Chile up to 1918, while the second treats communism and nation-
alism for the region as a whole between 1918 and 1930. Charles
Bergquist, Labor in Latin America: Comparative Essays on Chile, Argentina,
Venezuela, and Colombia (Stanford, Calif., 1986) provides four case studies
informed by dependency theory. Robert Paris and Madeleine Reberioux,
'Socialisme et communisme en Amerique latine', in Histoire generate du
socialisme, Jacques Droz (ed.), (Paris, 1978), vol. 4, is an informative
shorter survey. Pablo Gonzalez Casanova (ed.), Historia del movimiento obrero
en America Latina, 4 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1984) is composed of chapters on
each country in Latin America, including Puerto Rico. The authors are
sometimes not very concerned with pre-1930 developments, and the theo-
retical approaches vary considerably from one chapter to another. Neverthe-
less, the collection is valuable, particularly in the case of the smaller
countries, where the chapters included are sometimes the best or at least
most accessible syntheses available.
The most comprehensive bibiliography remains Carlos Rama, L'Ameri-
que latine: 14921936 (Mouvements ouvriers et socialistes) (Paris, 1959), also
available in a later German edition: Die Arbeiterbewegung in Lateinamerica:
Chronologie und bibliographie, 14921966 (Bad Homburg, 1967). Addi-
tional material can be found in Kenneth Paul Erickson, Patrick V. Peppe
and Hobart A. Spalding, Jr., 'Research on the urban working class and

organized labor in Argentina, Brazil, and Chile: What is left to be done?',

LARR, 9/2(1974), 115-42.
The largest collection of the early Latin American labour press is to be
found at the Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis in Amster-
dam. The holdings for the larger countries are described in Eric Gordon,
Michael M. Hall and Hobart A. Spalding, Jr., 'A survey of Brazilian and
Argentine materials at the Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschie-
denis in Amsterdam', LARR, 8/3 (1973), and in Raymond Buve and
Cunera Holthuis, 'A survey of Mexican materials at the Internationaal
Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis in Amsterdam', LARR, 10/1 (1975).
Works on specific topics which deal with Latin America as a whole
include Carlos M. Rama (ed.), Utopismo socialista, 18301893 (Caracas,
I
977). which reprints several important documents from the early period.
Alfredo Gomez attempts a continent-wide survey of anarchism and
anarcho-syndicalism in his Anarquismo y anarcosindkalismo en America La-
tina (Paris, 1980). Diego Armus (ed.), Sectores populates y vida urbana
(Buenos Aires, 1984), includes very informative chapters on living condi-
tions during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in Montevideo,
Buenos Aires, Rosario and Santiago.
On the history of the Communist International in the region, see
Manuel Caballero, Latin America and the Comintern, 1919-1943 (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1986). Two older general treatments of the Communist
movement include considerable information on the pre-1930 period: Rob-
ert J. Alexander, Communism in Latin America (New Brunswick, N.J.,
1957), and Boris Goldenberg, Kommunismus in Lateinamerika (Stuttgart,
1971). For information concerning the South American Secretariat estab-
lished in Buenos Aires by the Comintern in 1925, see J. Mothes, 'Zur
Geschichte des Secretariado Sudamericano de la Internacional Comunista:
Ein Beitrag zu einem noch wenig bekannten Fuehrungsorgan der kommu-
nistischen Bewegung', Lateinamerika (Spring, 1982). A number of impor-
tant documents from the archive of Jules Humbert-Droz, who was in
charge of Latin American affairs for the Comintern, are available in Sieg-
fried Bahne (ed.), Lespartis communistes et I'Internationale communiste dans les
annees 1928-1932 (Archives de Jules Humbert-Droz, 3) (Dordrecht,
1988). Stephen Clissold (ed.), Soviet Relations with Latin America, 1918
1968 (London, 1970), includes several informative documents from the
pre-1930 period, as does Michael Lowy, Le marxisme en Amerique latine:
Anthologie (Paris, 1980).

7- The urban working class and early labour movements 361
ARGENTINA
The best introduction in English to the early Argentine labour movement

is Ronaldo Munck et al., Argentina: From Anarchism to Peronism (London,
1987), with chapters by Ricardo Falcon (to 1910) and Bernardo Galitelli
(191130). See also Jeremy Adelman (ed.), Essays in Argentine Labour
History, 18701930 (Basingstoke, 1992). Several older and sometimes
highly partisan works continue to be indispensable. Diego Abad de
Santillan describes the anarchist movement in La FORA: Ideologia y
trayectoria del movimiento obrero revolucionario en la Argentina (Buenos Aires,
1933; 2 n d e d-i I 97 1 )- Sebastian Marotta presents a syndicalist view in El
movimiento sindical argentino, su genesis y desarrollo, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires,
i9601). The most influential socialist history is Jacinto Oddone, El
gremialismo proletario argentino (Buenos Aires, 1949). See also Julio Godio,
El movimiento obrero argentino, 4 vols. (Buenos Aires, 19879), vols. 1
(1870-1910) and 2 (1910-30).
Leandro Gutierrez, Recopilacidn bibliografica y de fuentespara el estudio de la
historia y situacion actual de la clase obrera argentina {Documento de Trabajo)
(Buenos Aires, 1969) remains a helpful bibliography. Hobart A. Spal-
ding, Jr. (ed.), La clase trabajadora argentina: Documentos para su historia,
1890-1912 (Buenos Aires, 1970), is a valuable collection of documents.
Hilda Sabato and Luis Alberto Romero (eds.), Los trabajadores de Buenos
Aires. La experiencia del mercado, 1850-1880 (Buenos Aires, 1992) is a
pioneering work. Roberto P. Korzeniewicz, 'Labor unrest in Argentina,
1887-1907', LARR, 24/3 (1989), 7 1 - 9 8 , demonstrates how changes in
the organization of the workplace and the labour market affected forms of
action and organization by workers. Ronaldo Munck, 'Cycles of class
struggle and the making of the working class in Argentina, 1890-1920',
JLAS, 19/1 (1987), 19-39, links labour protest to fluctuations in the
business cycle. Ofelia Pianetto, 'Mercado de trabajo y accion sindical en la
Argentina, 1890-1922', Desarrollo Economico, 94 (1984) argues, among
other things, that earlier historiography exaggerated the importance of
foreign ideologies and immigrants in the labour movement.
The most informative study of the first years of the labour movement is
Ricardo Falcon, Los origenes del movimiento obrero, 18571899 (Buenos
Aires, 1984). An important local study is Hilda Iparraguire and Ofelia
Pianetto, La organizacion de la clase obrera en Cordoba, 18701895 (Cor-
doba, Arg., 1968). On early socialism, see Jose Ratzer, Los marxistas

argentinos del 90 (Buenos Aires, 1970), and Alfredo Bauer, La Asociacidn

Vorwdrts y la lucha democrdtica en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1989). An
interesting collection of articles from the most important early socialist
newspaper is available in Victor O. Garcia Costa (ed.), El Obrero: Selection
de textos (Buenos Aires, 1985).
On later phases of Argentine socialism, consult Jose Ratzer, Elmovimiento
socialista en Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1981), and Richard J. Walter, The So-
cialist Party ofArgentina, 1890-1930 (Austin, Tex., 1977). The life and ca-
reer of the most important socialist leader can be followed in Dardo Cuneo,
Juan B. Justo y las luchas sociales en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1956), and
Alicia Moreau de Justo, Juan B. Justo y el socialismo (Buenos Aires, 1984).
Writings by various socialist figures are reprinted in Emilio J. Corbiere
(ed.), Los sotialistasy el movimiento obrero (Buenos Aires, 1982). There is a col-
lection of articles from the leading socialist newspaper in Roberto Reinoso
(ed.), La Vanguardia: Selection de textos, 1894-1955 (Buenos Aires, 1985).
Early anarchism is treated in Gonzalo Zaragoza Ruvira, 'Anarchisme et
mouvement ouvrier en Argentine a la fin du XIXe siecle', Le Mouvement
Social, 103 (1978). Iaacov Oved provides a very well-documented account
of the anarchist movement at the beginning of the twentieth century in El
anarquismo y el movimiento obrero en Argentina (Mexico, D.F., 1978). See also
Edgardo J. Bilsky, La FORA y el movimiento obrero, 19001910, 2 vols.
(Buenos Aires, 1985). Among the several works by Osvaldo Bayer on
anarchism in Argentina, see especially Severino Di Giovanni, el idealista de
la violentia (Buenos Aires, 1970; 2nd ed., 1989), and Los vengadores de la
Patagonia tragica, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1972). Ruth Thompson, 'The
limitations of ideology in the early Argentine labour movement: Anar-
chism in the trade unions, 18901920', JLAS, 16/1 (1984), 8199,
argues that the importance of anarchism has been exaggerated.
On aspects of anarchist culture, see Eva Golluscio de Montoya,
'Circulos anarquistas y circuitos contraculturales en la Argentina del
1900', Cahiers du Monde Hispanique et LusoBresilien, 46 (1986). On femi-
nism and sexuality, see Maxine Molyneux, 'No God, no boss, no husband:
Anarchist feminism in nineteenth-century Argentina', LAP, 13/1 (1986),
and Dora Barrancos, 'Anarquismo y sexualidad', in Diego Armus (ed.),
Mundo urbano y cultura popular: Estudios de historia social argentina (Buenos
Aires, 1990). A valuable study of anarchism and education is Dora
Barrancos, Anarquismo, education y costumbres en la Argentina deprintipios del
siglo (Buenos Aires, 1990).
For the years after 1917, the most important working-class mobiliza-

7'. The urban working class and early labour movements 363
tion of the period is studied in Julio Godio, La semana trdgica de 1919

(Buenos Aires, 1971) and Edgardo J. Bilsky, La semana trdgica (Buenos
Aires, 1984). The emergence of the Communist Party is best treated in
Emilio J. Corbiere, Origenes del comunismo argentino {El Partido Socialista
Internacional) (Buenos Aires, 1984), which includes a valuable appendix of
documents. A collection of articles from the newspaper of the Union
Sindical Argentina is available in Roberto Reinoso (ed.), Bandera pro-
letaria: Seleccion de textos (1922-1930) (Buenos Aires, 1985). On the Radi-
cals and the labour movement, see David Rock, Politics in Argentina,
1890-1930 (Cambridge, Eng., 1975). There is an informative account of
one of the most powerful categories of workers during the 1920s by Joel
Horowitz, 'Occupational community and the creation of a self-styled elite:
Railroad workers in Argentina', TA, 42/1 (1985).
Considerable information on living and working conditions can be
found in Guy Bourde, Urbanisation et immigration en Amerique Latine: Buenos
Aires (XIXe et XXe siecles) (Paris, 1974), James R. Scobie, Buenos Aires:
Plaza to Suburb, 18701910 (New York, 1974), and Jose Panettieri, Los
trabajadores, 3rd ed. (Buenos Aires, 1982). See also the articles by Leandro
Gutierrez, 'Condiciones de la vida material de los sectores populares en
Buenos Aires, 18801914', Revista de Indias, 1634 ( I 9 8 i ) , and 'Con-
diciones materiales de vida de los sectores populares urbanos en el Buenos
Aires finisecular', in De historia e historiadores: Homenaje a Jose Luis Romero
(Mexico, D.F., 1982). There are a number of relevant articles on these
matters in Diego Armus (ed.), Mundo urbanoy culturapopular, cited above.
Roberto Cortes Conde, El progreso argentino, 18801914 (Buenos Aires,
1979) argues, against the opinion of earlier writers, that real wages actu-
ally rose in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. On the
specific question of housing, see Oscar Yujnovsky, 'Politicas de vivienda
en la ciudad de Buenos Aires, 18801914', Desarrollo Econdmico, 54
(1974), a n d Francis Korn and Lidia de la Torre, 'La vivienda en Buenos
Aires, 18871914', Desarrollo Econdmico, 98 (1985). Documents on hous-
ing conditions and the notable rent strike of 1907 are available in Juan
Suriano (ed.), La huelga de inquilinos de 1907 (Buenos Aires, 1983).
Working conditions and practices are dealt with by Ricardo Falcon, El
mundo del trabajo urbano, 18901914 (Buenos Aires, 1986). A remarkable
series of newspaper articles on "Workers and Work', originally published
in La Prensa, has been reprinted: Ricardo Gonzalez (ed.), Los obreros y el
trabajo: Buenos Aires, 1901 (Buenos Aires, 1984). Donna J. Guy analyses
the role of women in 'Women, peonage, and industrialization: Argentina,

1810-1914', LARR, 16/3 (1981), 6 5 - 8 9 . See also Maria del Carmen

Feijoo, 'Las trabajadoras portenas a comienzos del siglo', in Diego Armus
(ed.), Mundo urbano y cultura popular. Important insights into working-
class culture in the 1920s are provided in Leandro H. Gutierrez and Luis
Alberto Romero, 'Sociedades barriales, bibliotecas populares y cultura de
los sectores populares: Buenos Aires, 1920-1945', DE, 113 (1989), and
Ricardo Gonzalez, 'Lo proprio y lo ajeno: Actividades culturales y fo-
mentismo en una asociacion vecinal, Barrio Nazca (19251930)', in Di-
ego Armus (ed.), Mundo urbano y cultura popular.
The question of state policy in regard to labour matters has provoked
considerable debate. Roberto P. Korzeniewicz, 'The labour movement and
the state in Argentina, 1887-1907', BLAR, 8/1 (1989), 2 5 - 4 5 , deals
with the workers' response to attempts by owners to undermine craft
control and argues that all political tendencies sought state mediation of
conflicts between capital and labour. A helpful work, which includes
much information on the pre-1930 period, is Ernesto A. Isuani, Los
origenes conflictivos de la seguridad social argentina (Buenos Aires, 1985).
Other useful studies include Jose Panettieri, Las primeras leyes obreras (Bue-
nos Aires, 1984), and Flavio Fiorani, 'Lo stato di fronte alia questione
sociale: La legislazione del lavoro in Argentina, 1904-1922', Movimento
operaioesocialista, 8/2 (1985). Oscar Cornblit, Sindicatos obreros y asociaciones
empresarias hasta la decada del centenario (Buenos Aires, 1984), provides
useful information on the relations between industrialists and the labour
movement.
BRAZIL
There are several general accounts of the early Brazilian labour movement:
Boris Fausto, Trabalho urbano e conflito social (1890-1920) (Sao Paulo,
1976), Francisco Foot Hardman and Victor Leonardi, Historia de industria e
do trabalho no Brasil: Dos origens aos anos vinte, 2nd ed. (Sao Paulo, 1991),
and Sheldon Maram, Anarquistas, imigrantes e 0 movimento operdrio brasileiro,
1890-1920 (Rio de Janeiro, 1979). Maram's work is also available in
English in his articles: 'Anarchosyndicalism in Brazil', Proceedings of the
Pacific Coast Council on Latin American Studies, 4 (1975); 'Labor and the Left
in Brazil, 1890-1921: A movement aborted', HAHR, 57/2 (1977), 2 5 4 -
72; 'The immigrant and the Brazilian labor movement, 1890-1920', in
Dauril Alden and Warren Dean (eds.), Essays Concerning the Socioeconomic
History of Brazil and Portuguese India (Gainesville, Fla., 1977); and 'Urban

labor and social change in the 1920s', L-BR, 16/2 (1979). See also June
Hahner, Poverty and Politics: The Urban Poor in Brazil, 1870-1920 (Albu-
querque, N.Mex., 1986), and the interviews in Angela Castro Gomes
(ed.), Velhos militantes: Depoimentos (Rio de Janeiro, 1988).
Several earlier works retain their importance. Everardo Dias, Historia
das lutas sociais no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1962; 2nd ed., 1977) is a combina-
tion of memoir and narrative history by a participant in many of the
struggles of the pre-1930 period. Considerable information is also to be
found in the various books by Edgar Rodrigues, particularly Socialismo e
sindicalismo no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1969), and Nacionalismo e cultura
social (Rio de Janeiro, 1972). Azis Simao, Sindicato e estado: Suas relaqoes na
formagdo do proletariado de Sao Paulo (Sao Paulo, 1966) remains an influen-
tial sociological interpretation of the Sao Paulo labour movement.
The most extensive bibliography is Ronald Chilcote, Brazil and Its
Radical Left: An Annotated Bibliography of the Communist Movement and the
Rise of Marxism, 19221972 (Millwood, N.Y., 1980). There are two
collections of documents: Paulo Sergio Pinheiro and Michael M. Hall
(eds.), A classe operdria no Brasil, 18891930, 2 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1979
81), and Edgard Carone (ed.), 0 movimento operdrio no Brasil, 18771944
(Sao Paulo, 1979). Yara Aun Khoury, As greves de 1917 em Sao Paulo e 0
processo de organizaqdo proletaria (Sao Paulo, 1981) contains an important
selection of documents from the 1917 Sao Paulo general strike. Evaristo de
Moraes Filho (ed.), 0 socialismo brasileiro (Brasilia, 1981) provides an exten-
sive collection of documents on the often overlooked history of early
socialism.
On anarchism in Sao Paulo, see the well-documented, though highly
critical, study by Silvia Magnani, 0 movimento anarquista em Sao Paulo
(19061917) (Sao Paulo, 1982). There is similarly critical work on anar-
chism in Rio de Janeiro by Maria Conceigao Pinto de Goes, Aformafdo da
classe trabalhadora: Movimento anarquista no Rio deJaneiro, 18881911 (Rio
de Janeiro, 1988). Cristina H. Campos, 0 sonhar libertdrio: Movimento
operdrio nos anos de 1917 a 1921 (Campinas, 1988) reaches more positive
conclusions and manages to go beyond the polemics of the period. Eric A.
Gordon, 'Anarchism in Brazil: Theory and practice, 18901920', (unpub-
lished Ph.D. dissertation, Tulane University, 1978) treats the anarchists
with sympathy and provides much information unavailable elsewhere.
Carlos Addor, A insurreiqdo anarquista no Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro,
1986) sheds some light on the murky events of 1918.
Francisco Foot Hardman, Nem pdtria nem patrdo: Vida operdria e cultura

anarquista (Sao Paulo, 1983) concentrates on working-class culture, as do

many of the contributors to Antonio Arnoni Prado (ed.), Libertdrios no
Brasil: Memoria, lutas, cultura (Sao Paulo, 1986). Examples of the litera-
ture of the period are available in Antonio Arnoni Prado and Francisco
Foot Hardman (eds.), Contos anarquistas (Sao Paulo, 1985), and Bernardo
Kocher and Eulalia Lahmeyer Lobo (eds.), Ouve meugrito: Antologia depoesia
operdria (18941923) (Sao Paulo, 1987). Two important periodicals have
been reprinted: A Voz do Trabalhador (Sao Paulo, 1985), newspaper of the
Confederac,ao Operaria Brasileira, originally published between 1908 and
1915, and A Vida (Sao Paulo, 1988), first published in 191415.
The major study of the Brazilian Communist Party is Paulo Sergio
Pinheiro, Estrategias da ilusdo: A revoluqao mundial e 0 Brasil, 19221935
(Sao Paulo, 1991), which is based on extensive research and situates the
history of the party in the national and international contexts of the period.
Studies more favourable toward the PCB include Michel Zaidan, PCB
(19221929): Na busca das origens de um marxismo nacional (Sao Paulo, 1985)
and Comunistas em ceu aberto: 19221930 (Belo Horizonte, 1990), Dario
Canale, 'Zur entstehung der Kommunistischen Partei Brasiliens als sektion
der Kommunistischen Internationale, 1917-1922', Lateinamerika, 20/2
(1985), and Edgard Carone, Classes sociais e movimento operdrio (Sao Paulo,
1989) which, despite the broad title, is a history of the PCB up to 1930.
John W. F. Dulles, Anarchists and Communists in Brazil, 19001935
(Austin, Tex., 1973) is a narrative history, with emphasis on the party
leadership in the 1920s. Many of the early writings of Astrojildo Pereira
have been reprinted in Michel Zaidan (ed.), Construindo 0 PCB (192224)
(Sao Paulo, 1980). Edgard Carone (ed.), 0 P.C.B. (1922-1934) (Sao
Paulo, 1982) includes a number of documents from the first years of the
party. Memoirs by several important figures in the Communist movement
are also available: Octavio Brandao, Combates e batalhas (Sao Paulo, 1978),
Heitor Ferreira Lima, Caminhos percorridos: Memorias de militancia (Sao
Paulo, 1982), and Leoncio Basbaum, Uma vida em seis tempos (memorias) (Sao
Paulo, 1976), among others. The journal Memoria e Historia devoted num-
bers 1 and 2 (1981 and 1982) to the early history of the PCB, including
previously unpublished material from the Astrojildo Pereira archives. Ed-
gar de Decca, 1930: 0 silencio dos vencidos (Sao Paulo, 1981) provides an
important interpretation of the Bloco Operario e Campones (BOC).
Information on women workers before 1930 is available in Maria
Valeria Junho Pena, Mulheres e trabalhador as: Presenga feminina na consti-
tuicdo do sistema fabril (Rio de Janeiro, 1981), Rachel Soihet, Condiqdo

feminina e formas de violencia: Mulheres pobres e ordem urbana, 18901920

(Rio de Janeiro, 1989), and Esmeralda de Moura, Mulberes e menores no
trabalho industrial (Petropolis, 1982). See also Maria Valeria Junho Pena
and Elc,a Mendonga Lima, 'Lutas ilusorias: A mulher na politica operaria
da Primeira Repiiblica', in Carmen Barroso (ed.), Mulher, mulheres (Sao
Paulo, 1983). Ethnic divisions among workers are analysed in Michael M.
Hall, 'Immigration and the early Sao Paulo working class', JGSWGL, 12
(i975>-
Among the considerable number of works on the early bourgeoisie,
Angela Castro Gomes, Burguesia e trabalho: Politica e legislacdo social no
Brasil, 19171937 (Rio de Janeiro, 1979), provides the best account of
policies regarding working conditions and social legislation. Palmira Pe-
tratti Teixeira, A fdbrica do sonho: Trajetoria do industrial Jorge Street (Rio de
Janeiro, 1990) is the biography of a leading industrialist whose experiments
with company housing and proposals for labour legislation provoked consid-
erable controversy in the period and subsequently. His writings on these
matters, along with an important interpretation, are available in Evaristo de
Moraes Filho (ed.), Ideias sociais de Jorge Street (Brasilia, 1980).
On factory conditions, see Elisabeth von der Weid and Ana Marta
Rodrigues Bastos, 0 fio da meada: Estrategia de expansdo de uma industria
textil, Companhia America Fabril, 18781930 (Rio de Janeiro, 1986), Ma-
ria Inez Turazzi, A euforia do progresso e a imposiqdo da ordem: A engenharia, a
industria e a organizacdo do trabalho na virada do seculo XIX ao XX (Rio de
Janeiro, 1989), and Maria Alice Rosa Ribeiro, Condicoes de trabalho na
industria textil paulista (1870-1930) (Sao Paulo, 1988). A pioneering
study of workers' living conditions and daily life is Maria Auxiliadora
Guzzo de Decca, A vida fora das fdbricas: Cotidiano operdrio em Sao Paulo,
19201934 (Rio de Janeiro, 1987). For Rio de Janeiro, see the innovative
work of Sidney Chaloub, Trabalho, lar e botequim: 0 cotidiano dos trabal-
hadores no Rio de Janeiro da Belle Epoque (Sao Paulo, 1986). Also useful is
Eulalia Maria Lahmeyer Lobo, 'Condic,6es de vida dos artesaos e do op-
erariado no Rio de Janeiro da decada de 1880 a 1920', Nova Americana, 4
(1981). Housing conditions are treated in Marcia Lucia Rebello Pinho
Dias, Desenvolvimento urbano e habitagdo popular em Sao Paulo, 1870-1914
(Sao Paulo, 1989) and Eva Alterman Blay, Eu ndo tenho onde morar: Vilas
operdrias na cidade de Sao Paulo (Sao Paulo, 1985). For Rio de Janeiro, see
Eulalia Lobo, Lia A. Carvalho and Myrian Stanley, Questdo habitacional e 0
movimento operdrio (Rio de Janeiro, 1989).
On the labour movement in Sao Paulo, an interpretive survey is Maria

Celia Paoli, 'Working-class Sao Paulo and its representations, 1900

1940", LAP, 14/2 (1987). For the biography of a leading Socialist, see
Alexandre Hecker, Um socialismo possivel: A atuacdo de Antonio Pkcarolo em
Sao Paulo (Sao Paulo, 1989). The printers receive close study in Leila Maria
da Silva Blass, Imprimindo a propria historia: 0 movimento dos trabalhadores
grdficos de Sao Paulo no final dos anos 20 (Sao Paulo, 1986). The militant
workers in the port of Santos are analysed in two articles by Malu Gitahy:
'Processo de trabalho e greves portuarias, 18891910: Um estudo sobre a
formagao da classe operaria no porto de Santos', Ciencias Sociais Hoje (1987)
and 'Porto de Santos, 18881908', in Antonio Arnoni Prado (ed.),
Libertdrios no Brasil, cited above.
For Rio de Janeiro, Angela de Castro Gomes, A invencdo do trabalhismo
(Sao Paulo, 1988), though focused primarily on a later period, includes
an important interpretation of pre-1930 developments. On the reformist
trade unions of that city, see Claudio Batalha, 'Le syndicalisme "amarelo"
a Rio de Janeiro (1906-1930)', (these de doctorat de 1'Universite de
Paris I, 1986) and 'Uma outra consciencia de classe? O sindicalismo
reformista na Primeira Repiiblica', Ciencias Sociais Hoje (1990). Maria
Cecilia Velasco e Cruz, 'Portos, relagoes de produgao e sindicato: O caso
do Rio de Janeiro na Primeira Republica', Ciencias Sociais Hoje (1986)
puts the port workers in comparative perspective. For early developments
in Rio, see Eulalia Maria Lahmeyer Lobo and Eduardo Stotz, "Formac,ao
do operariado e movimento operario no Rio de Janeiro, 18701894',
Estudos Economicos, 15 (1985). On the role of Portuguese immigrants,
there is Gladys Sabina Ribeiro, Mata galegos: Os Portugueses e os conflitos de
trabalho na Repiiblica Velba (Sao Paulo, 1990). Teresa Meade examines the
political consciousness of popular protest in ' "Living worse and costing
more": Resistance and riot in Rio de Janeiro, 18901917', JLAS, 21/2
(1989), 2 4 1 - 6 6 .
The labour movement and working class in the state of Minas Gerais
can be studied through Silvia Maria Belfort Vilela de Andrade, Classe
operaria emjuiz de Fora: Uma historia de lutas (19121924) (Juiz de Fora,
1987), Eliana Dutra, Caminhos operdrios nas Minas Gerais: Um estudo das
prdticas operdrias emjuiz de Fora e Belo Horizonte na Primeira Republica (Sao
Paulo, 1988), and Yonne de Souza Grossi, Mina de Morro Velho: A
extragdo do homem (Rio de Janeiro, 1981). On the labour movement in the
state of Rio Grande do Sul, see Silvia Petersen, 'As greves no Rio Grande
do Sul (18901919)', in Jose H. Dacanal and Sergius Gonzaga (eds.),
RS: Economia e politica (Porto Alegre, 1979).

j . The urban working class and early labour movements 369
MEXICO
The series of monographs under the general editorship of Pablo Gonzalez

Casanova, La dose obrera en la historia de Mexico, 17 vols. (Mexico, D.F.,
197988), provides a comprehensive survey of the history of the Mexican
working class and labour movement. Several of the individual volumes are
noted below. Other valuable surveys include Jorge Basurto, Elproletariado
industrial en Mexico (1850-1930) (Mexico, D.F., 1975), and Luiz Araiza,
Historia del movimiento obrero mexicano, 4 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1964-5).
There is an interesting collection of photographs in Obreros somos . . .
expresiones de la cultura obrera (Coyoacan, 1984).
The Centro de Estudios Historicos del Movimiento Obrero Mexicano
(CEHSMO) published a bibliography, El movimiento obrero mexicano: Bib-
liografia (Mexico, D.F., 1978) as well as the journal Historia Obrera. Other
bibliographical aids are Leticia Reina, Bibliografia comentada de movimientos
sociales en Mexico durante elsiglo XIX (Mexico, D.F., 1985), which provides
coverage up to 1910, and Guillermina Bringas and David Mascareno, La
prensa de los obreros mexicanos, 18701970/ Hemerografia comentada (Mexico,
D.F., 1979).
There is an excellent account of the labour movement during the 1860s
and 1870s in Juan Felipe Leal and Jose Woldenberg, Del estado liberal a los
inicios de la dictadura porfirista {La clase obrera en la historia de Mexico, vol. 2)
(Mexico, D.F., 1980). On mutual aid societies in the same period, see
Reynaldo Sordo Cedeno, 'Las sociedades de socorros mutuos, 1867-1880',
HM, 33/1 (1983). There is also an informative collection of studies in
Leticia Reina (ed.), Las luchas populares en Mexico en el siglo XIX (Mexico,
D.F., 1983).
The anarchist movement is treated in John M. Hart, Anarchism and the
Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, Tex., 1978). Ciro Cardoso,
Francisco Gonzalez Hermosillo and Salvador Hernandez, De la dictadura
porfirista a los tiempos libertarios {La clase obrera en la historia de Mexico, vol. 3)
(Mexico, D.F., 1980) provides elements for an understanding of the
Porfiriato and includes a valuable study of the PLM. David Walker,
'Porfirian labor politics: Working class organizations in Mexico City and
Porfirio Diaz, 1876-1902', TA, 37/3 (1981) emphasizes the co-optive
rather than the coercive aspects of the Diaz regime. The outstanding study
of the working class and labour movement at the end of the Diaz period is
Rodney D. Anderson, Outcasts in Their Own Land: Mexican Industrial Work-
ers, 19061911 (DeKalb, 111., 1976). Anderson is rather sceptical about

the influence of the PLM among Mexican workers. For another view, see
James D. Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors of the Mexican Revolution, 1900
1913 (Austin, Tex., 1968), and Salvador Hernandez Padilla, Elmagonismo:
Historia de una pasion libertaria, 19001922 (Mexico, D.F., 1984; 2nd
ed., 1988). Armando Bartra has republished a selection of articles from
the PLM's newspaper in Regeneration, 1900-1918: La corriente mas radical
de la revolucion mexicana de 1910 a traves de su periodico de combate (Mexico,
D.F., 1977). Some of Ricardo Flores Magon's writings are available in
English in David Poole (ed.), Land and Liberty: Anarchist Influences in the
Mexican Revolution, Ricardo Flores Magdn (Orkney, 1977). Among the sev-
eral collections in Spanish, see particularly Ricardo Flores Magon, Ar-
ticulos politicos, 4 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1980-2).
An especially valuable survey of labour covering the revolutionary pe-
riod and the 1920s is Barry Carr, El movimiento obreroy lapolitica en Mexico,
1910-1929, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1976; 2nd ed. in 1 vol., 1981). Also
very helpful are Ram6n E. Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries:
Mexico, 19111923 (Baltimore, 1976), and Pablo Gonzalez Casanova, En
el primer gobierno constitucional (191J1923) (La clase obrera en la historia de
Mexico, vol. 6) (Mexico, D.F., 1980). Alan Knight, 'The working class
and the Mexican Revolution, 1900-20', JLAS, 16/1 (1984), 51-79 is a
very informative general survey of a vexed question. Knight emphasizes
the relative weakness of workers and the pragmatism displayed by those
employed in the most advanced sectors of the economy. Two short case
studies are available on the Madero government and the textile workers:
David G. LaFrance, 'Labour and the Mexican Revolution: President Fran-
cisco I. Madero and the Puebla textile workers', BELC, 34 (1983) analyses
the ineffectiveness of that government's efforts to defuse conflict, while
Carmen Ramos Escand6n, 'La politica obrera del estado mexicano de Diaz
a Madero: El caso de los trabajadores textiles', Mexican Studies, 3/1 (1987)
traces the failure of the Diaz regime's labour policies and sees those of the
Madero government as foreshadowing later interventionist developments.
Marjorie Ruth Clark, Organized Labor in Mexico (Chapel Hill, N.C.,
1934) remains an informative study on the 1920s. For anarcho-syndicalism
in the period, see Guillermina Baena Paz, 'La Confederacion General de
Trabajadores', RevistaMexicanadeCiencias Politicasy Sociales, 83 (1976), and
the same author's 'La Confederacidn General de Trabajadores (1921 1931):
Obreros rojos', in Alejandra Moreno Toscano (ed.), 73 anos de sindicalismo
mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1986). Baena Paz has also edited La Confederacion
General de Trabajadores, 19211931: Antologia (Mexico, D.F., 1982). Fur-

7 The urban working class and early labour movements 371
ther information is available in Jose Rivera Castro, 'Le syndicalisme officiel

et le syndicalisme revolutionnaire au Mexique dans les annees 1920', Le
Mouvement Social, 103(1978).
The most thorough study of the early history of the Communist Party is
Paco Ignacio Taibo, Los Bolshevikis: Historia narrativa de los origenes del
comunismo en Mexico, 1919-25 (Mexico, D.F., 1986). See also the same
author's work, written with Rogelio Vizcaino, Memoria roja: Luchas
sindicales de los afios 20 (Mexico, D.F., 1984). In English, there is the very
informative article by Barry Carr, 'Marxism and anarchism in the forma-
tion of the Mexican Communist Party, 191019', HAHR, 63/2 (1983),
277305. For other viewpoints, see Arnoldo Martinez Verdugo, Historia
del comunismo en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1985), and Manuel Marquez Fuen-
tes and Octavio Rodriguez Araujo, El Partido Comunista Mexicano {en el
periodo de la Internacional Comunista, 19191943) (Mexico, D.F., 1973).
The Confederaci6n Regional Obrera Mexicana (CROM) has received
critical attention in Favio Barbosa Cano, La CROM: De Luis N. Morones a
Antonio J. Hernandez (Puebla, 1980), Rocio Guadarrama, Los sindicatos y la
politica en Mexico: La CROM, 1918-1929 (Mexico, D.F., 1981), and Jose
Rivera Castro, En la presidencia de Plutarco Elias Calles (1924-1928) (La
clase obrera en la historia de Mexico, vol. 8) (Mexico, D.F., 1983). See also
Arnaldo Cordoba, En una epoca de crisis (1928-34) (La clase obrera en la
historia de Mexico, vol. 9) (Mexico, D.F., 1980) for an account of the
decline of the CROM and the subsequent straggle to co-opt and control
labour.
On the church and the labour movement, consult the articles of Manuel
Ceballos Ramirez: 'La enciclica Rerum Novarum y los trabajadores catolicos
en la ciudad de Mexico, 1891-1913', HM, 53I1 (1983), 'El sindicalismo
catolico en Mexico, 1919-1931', HM, 35/4 (1986), and 'Rerum Novarum
en Mexico: Cuarenta afios entre la conciliacion y la intransigencia, 1891
1931', RMS, 49/3(1987).
A number of studies concentrate on specific localities or categories of
workers during the period. Lorena M. Parlee, 'The impact of United States
railroad unions on organized labor and government policy in Mexico,
1880-1911', HAHR, 64/3 (1984), 443-75 examines the complex poli-
tics of nationalism and class on the railways. There is information on the
labour movement in mining before 1930 in Federico Besserer et al., El
sindicalismo minero en Mexico, 1900-1952 (Mexico, D.F., 1983). Miguel
Rodriguez, Los tranviarios y el anarquismo en Mexico, 19201925 (Puebla,
1980) is an interesting case study of the decline of anarcho-syndicalism

and the rise of the CROM. Local studies of Acapulco and Tampico illumi-
nate larger issues in Paco Ignacio Taibo and Rogelio Vizcaino, Elsocialismo
en un solo puerto: Acapulco, 1919-1923 (Mexico, D.F., 1983), and Carlos
Gonzalez Salas, Acercamiento a la historia del movimiento obrero en Tampico
(Ciudad Victoria, Mex., 1987).
CHILE
Works dealing with broad periods in the history of the Chilean labour
movement include Hernan Ramirez Necochea, Historia del movimiento
obrero en Chile, siglo XIX (Santiago, Chile, 1956), Jorge I. Barria Seron,
Los movimientos sociales de Chile desde 1910 hasta 1926 (Santiago, Chile,
i960) and Breve historia del sindicalismo chileno (Santiago, Chile, 1967), and
Luis Vitale, Genesis y evolution del movimiento obrero chileno hasta el F'rente
Popular (Caracas, 1979). See also Crisostomo Pizarro, La huelga obrera en
Chile, 18901970 (Santiago, Chile, 1986), which is broader than the title
suggests.
Peter De Shazo, Urban Workers and Labor Unions in Chile, 19021927
(Madison, Wis., 1983) is an important study which provides considerable
information on anarcho-syndicalism. See also his article, 'The Valparaiso
maritime strike of 1903 and the development of a revolutionary labour
movement in Chile', JLAS, 11/1 (1979), 145-68. For the background of
labour struggles in the north, see Michael Monteon, Chile in the Nitrate Era:
The Evolution of Economic Dependence, 18801930 (Madison, Wis., 1982).
The complex figure of Recabarren is treated in Julio Cesar Jobet,
Recabarren: Los origenes del movimiento obrero y del socialismo chileno (Santiago,
Chile, 1965). For his writings, see Julio Cesar Jobet, Jorge I. Barria Seron
and Luis Vitale (eds.), Luis Emilio Recabarren: Obras escogidas (Santiago,
Chile, 1965), and Ximena Cruzat and Eduardo Deves (eds.), Recabarren,
escritos de prensa, 4 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1985-7). Another selection
worth consulting, which includes articles by Recabarren and others, is
Eduardo Deves and Carlos Diaz, Elpensamiento socialista en Chile: Antologia,
1893-1933 (Santiago, Chile, 1987).
On working-class culture, see Pedro Bravo-Elizondo, Cultura y teatro:
obreros en Chile, 1900-1930 {Norte Grande) (Madrid, 1986). Some informa-
tion on the activities of the church is provided by Maximiliano Salinas, 'La
iglesia y los origenes del movimiento obrero en Chile (1880-1920)',
RMS, 49/3 (1987).

j . The urban working class and early labour movements 373
PERU
General accounts of the Peruvian labour movement include Denis Sul-

mont, El movimiento obrero en el Peru, 19001956 (Lima, 1975), Peter
Blanchard, The Origins of the Peruvian Labor Movement, 18831919 (Pitts-
burgh, Pa., 1982), and Ricardo Melgar Bao, Burguesia y proletariado en el
Peru, 18201930 (Lima, 1980). See also Wilfredo Kapsoli, Las luchas
obreras en el Peru, 19001919 (Lima, 1976). The first volume of Carlos
Basombrio Iglesias, El movimiento obrero: Historia grdfica, 7 vols. (Lima,
1981) is devoted to photographs of the pre-1930 period. An important
and innovative collection of studies on working-class life and culture is
available in Steve Stein, Lima obrera, 19001930, 2 vols. (Lima, 1986
7). On mining, see Dirk Kruijt and Menno Vellinga, Estado, clase obrera y
empresa transnacional: El caso de la mineria peruana, 1900-1980 (Mexico,
D.F., 1983), and Alberto Flores Galindo, Los mineros de la Cerro de Pasco,
19001930 (Lima, 1974).
For information on anarchism, consult Piedad Pareja Pflucker, Anar-
quismo y sindicalismo en el Peru {19041929) (Lima, 1978), and the selec-
tion of documents in Manuel Torres (ed.), Breve antologia del pensamiento
anarquista en el Peru (La Molina, Peru, 1979). The immense literature on
Mariategui is perhaps best approached through Anibal Quijano, In-
troduction a Mariategui (Mexico, D.F., 1982), and the substantial collec-
tion of studies by various authors available in Jose Arico (ed.), Mariategui y
los origenes del marxismo latinoamericano, 2nd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1980). In
English, see Jesus Chavarria, Juan Carlos Mariategui and the Rise of Modern
Peru, 18901930 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1979).
ECUADOR
On Ecuador, there is much information in Patricio Ycaza, Historia del

movimiento obrero ecuatoriano (Quito, 1984), and Hernan Ibarra, La forma-
tion del movimiento popular, 19251936 (Quito, 1984). Alexei Paez (ed.),
El anarquismo en el Ecuador (Quito, 1986) includes a selection of docu-
ments. In English, Ronn F. Pineo, 'Reinterpreting labor militancy: The
collapse of the cacao economy and the general strike of 1922 in Guayaquil,
Ecuador', HAHR, 68/4 (1988), 707736 regards this important strike as
a case of'spontaneous democratic insurgency'.

URUGUAY, PARAGUAY AND BOLIVIA
For Uruguay, see Carlos Zubillaga and Jorge Balbis, Historia del movimiento
sindical uruguayo, 3 vols. (Montevideo, 19858). These volumes cover
sources and events up to 1905. See also Fernando Lopez d'Alesandro,
Historia de la izquierda Uruguaya: A narquistas y socialistas, 18381910 (Mon-
tevideo, 1988). The most useful of the earlier studies are Francisco R.
Pintos, Historia del movimiento obrero del Uruguay (Montevideo, i960), and
Hector Rodriguez, Nuestros sindicatos (18651965) (Montevideo, 1965).
On Paraguay, there is Francisco Gaona, Introduction a la historia gremialy
social del Paraguay (Asuncion and Buenos Aires, 1967).
The most helpful work on Bolivia is Guillermo Lora, A History of the
Bolivian Labour Movement, 18481971, trans. Christine Whitehead (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1977).
COLOMBIA AND VENEZUELA
Colombian developments are treated in Miguel Urrutia, The Development of

the Colombian Labor Movement (New Haven, Conn., 1969). See also David
Sowell, 'The 1893 bogotazo: artisans and public violence in late nineteenth-
century Bogota', JLAS, 21/2 (1989), 267-82.
For Venezuela, there is Julio Godio, El movimiento obrero venezolano,
18501944 (Caracas, 1980). Morella Barreto, Un siglo de prensa laboral
venezolana: Hemerografia obrero-artesanal, 18461937 (Caracas, 1986) is a
well-annotated list of the labour press, including 41 titles published
before 1930.
CUBA AND PUERTO RICO
On Cuba, see Jean Stubbs, Tobacco on the Periphery: A Case Study in Cuban
Labour History, 1860-1958 (Cambridge, Eng., 1985), which deals with a
great deal more than cigar makers. Other books are Evelio Telleria Toca,
Los congresos obreros en Cuba (Havana, 1973), and the work prepared by the
Instituto de Historia del Movimiento Comunista y la Revolucion Social-
ista de Cuba, El movimiento obrero cubano: Documentos y articulos, vol. 1
(1865-1925), vol. 2 (1925-35) (Havana, I975~7)-
On Puerto Rico, there is Angel Quintero Rivera, Workers' Struggle in
Puerto Rico: A Documentary History (New York, 1976), and Yamila Azize,
Luchas de la mujer en Puerto Rico, 18981919 (San Juan, 1979).

CENTRAL AMERICA
There is a growing literature on the early labour movements in Central

America. On Guatemala, see two excellent articles by Arturo Teracena
Arriola: 'Presencia anarquista en Guatemala entre 1920 y 1932', Mesoamer-
ica, 15 (1988), and 'El primer Partido Comunista de Guatemala (1922-
1932)', Araucaria de Chile, 27 (1984). For Costa Rica, see Vladimir de la
Cruz, Las luchas sociales en Costa Rica, 1S70-1930 (San Jose, C.R., 1984).
Mario Posas deals with Honduras in two works: Luchas del movimiento obrero
en Honduras (San Jose, C.R., 1981), and 'El surgimiento de la clase obrera
hondurefia', Anuario de Estudios Centroamericanos, 9 (1983). Developments
in El Salvador can be followed in Rafael Menjivar, Formacion y lucha del
proletariado industrial salvadoreno (San Salvador, 1979), and Aristides Au-
gusto Larin, 'Historia del movimiento sindical de El Salvador', La
Universidad, 4 (1971).
Panama is treated in Luis Navas, El movimiento obrero en Panama (1880
1914) (San Jose, C.R., 1979), and Mario A. Gandasegui et al., Las luchas
obreras en Panama (18501978) (Panama, 1980).
The historiography of the church in Latin America in the period 1830

1930 is variable in coverage and quality and does not compare with the
standard of historical writing in other aspects of Latin American history.
One of the objects of the Comisi6n de Historia de la Iglesia en America
Latina (CEHILA) is to remedy this situation, and the results of its work
will be seen in the multi-volumed Historia general de la iglesia en America
Latina under the general editorship of E. D. Dussel, individual volumes of
which have already begun to appear. CEHILA has published a useful
compendium on the sources and methods of church history, Para una
historia de la Iglesia en America Latina: I Encuentro latinoamericano de
CEHILA en Quito (1973) (Barcelona, 1975), which compensates to some
extent for the lack of basic bibliographies. Meanwhile, history as well as
other disciplines are well served by JLAS, 17/2 (1985), a number devoted
largely to the church in Latin America.
General histories of the church in Latin America are few in number. En-
rique D. Dussel, Historia de la iglesia en America Latina: Colonizaje y libera-
cion (1492-1973), 3rd ed. (Barcelona, 1974; Eng. trans., Grand Rapids,

Mich., 1981) provides a framework of the subject, and Hans-Jiirgen Prien,

Die Geschichte des Christentums in Lateinamerika (Gottingen, 1978; Sp.
trans., Salamanca, 1985), is a substantial history. See also Enrique Dussel
(ed.), The Church in Latin America, 1492-1992 (New York, 1992).
Individual countries have their church histories, often traditional in
character but indispensable as sources of information. The following are a
selection. Cayetano Bruno, Historia de la iglesia en la Argentina (Buenos
Aires, 196671), vol. 7 onwards for post-1800; Juan Carlos Zuretti,
Historia eclesidstica argentina (Buenos Aires, 1945); Guillermo Furlong,
S.J., 'El catolicismo argentino entre i860 y 1930', Academia Nacional de
la Historia, Historia Argentina Contempordnea 18621930, 11, Primera
Seccion (Buenos Aires, 1964), 25192; Joao Fagundes Hauck and others,
Historia da igreja no Brasil (HGIAL, 2-2, Petropolis, 1980); Thales de
Azevedo, 0 catolicismo no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1955); Joao Alfredo de
Sousa Montenegro, Evolugao do catolicismo no Brasil (Petropolis, 1972);
Felipe L6pez Menendez, Compendio de historia eclesidstica de Bolivia (La Paz,
1965). Ruben Vargas Ugarte, Historia de la iglesia en el Peru, 5 vols.
(Burgos, 1962) ends in 1900; on the other hand, Jeffrey Klaiber, S.J., La
Iglesia en el Peru: Su historia social desde la independencia (Lima, 1988; Eng.
trans., 1992) provides a comprehensive history of the church in republican
Peru, with a social dimension and a modern approach. See also Rodolfo
Ramon de Roux, Colombia y Venezuela (HGIAL, 7, Salamanca, 1981);
Mary Watters, A History of the Church in Venezuela, 1810-1930 (Chapel
Hill, N . C . , 1933); Ricardo Blanco Segura, Historia eclesidstica de Costa Rica
(San Jose, C.R., 1967); Jose Gutierrez Casillas, S.J., Historia de la Iglesia
en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1974). There are a large number of social science
studies of the modern church, only a few of which have a historical
dimension. See, for example, Henry A. Landsberger (ed.), The Church and
Social Change in Latin America (Notre Dame, Ind., 1970), and Thomas C.
Bruneau, The Church in Brazil: The Politics of Religion (Austin, Tex., 1982).
The post-colonial church can be reconstructed from various studies of
particular themes. On economic aspects of the church, see A. Bauer, 'The
church in the economy of Spanish America: Censos and Depositos in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries', HAHR, 63/4 (1983), 70733. R.
F. Schwaller, 'The episcopal succession in Spanish America 18001850',
TA, 24/3 (1968), 2 0 7 - 7 1 , provides data on the bishops, and Antonine
Tibesar, 'The Peruvian church at the time of Independence in the light of
Vatican n', TA, 26/2 (1970), 34975, on the Peruvian clergy. On the
Mexican episcopacy see Fernando Perez Menem, El episcopado y la indepen-

dencia de Mexico (1810-1836) (Mexico, D.F., 1977). Michael P. Costeloe

deals with two different sources of conflict in Mexico in Church Wealth in
Mexico: A Study of the'Juzgadode Capellanias' in the Archbishopric of Mexico,
18001856 (Cambridge, Eng., 1967), and Church and State in Independent
Mexico: A Study of the Patronage Debate, 1821-1857 (London, 1978).
There are hardly any monographs on the clergy and laity and their
organizations. Various aspects of clerical thinking and activities can be
studied in the following: C. J. Beirne, 'Latin American bishops of the First
Vatican Council, 1869-1870', TA, 25/1 (1968), 265-80; Josep M.
Barnadas, 'Martin Castro: Un clerigo boliviano combatiente combatido',
Estudios Bolivianos en homenaje a Gunnar Mendoza L. ("La. Paz, 1978), 1 6 9 -
220; Jose Gutierrez Casillas, S. J., Jesuitas en Mexico durante el siglo XIX
(Mexico, D.F., 1972); Fredrick B. Pike, 'Heresy, real and alleged in Peru:
An aspect of the conservativeliberal struggle, 18301875', HAHR, 47/1
(1967), 5074; and the same author's 'Spanish origins of the social-
political ideology of the Catholic Church in nineteenth-century Spanish
America', TA, 29 (1972), 1 16. See also T. G. Powell, 'Priests and
peasants in Central Mexico: Social conflict during "La Reforma" ',
HAHR, 57/2 (1977), 296-313.
On religious thought and practice the bibliography is sparse, but what
exists is good. Jeffrey L. Klaiber, S.J., Religion and Revolution in Peru,
1824-1976 (Notre Dame, Ind., 1977), questions the old stereotype of a
conservative church and brings out the role of popular religious beliefs.
Rodolfo Cardenal, S. J., El poder eclesidstico en El Salvador (San Salvador,
1980), covers among other things parish life, confraternities, pastoral
visitations and church reform in the nineteenth and early twentieth centu-
ries. Luis Gonzalez, Pueblo en vilo: Microhistoria de San Jose de Gracia (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1972; Eng. trans., 1974), a classic of community history, with
insight into the Catholic revival of the late nineteenth century in Mexico
and into the Cristero rebellion. Two related studies of messianic move-
ments throw light on the Brazilian church in general: Ralph Delia Cava,
'Brazilian messianism and national institutions: A reappraisal of Canudos
and Joaseiro', HAHR, 48/3 (1968), 40220; and the same author's Miracle
atjoaseiro (New York, 1970). On other aspects of the religion of the people
in Brazil, see Eduardo Hoornaert, Verdadeira e falsa religiao no Nordeste
(Salvador, 1973), and Roger Bastide, The African Religions ofBrazil: Toward
a Sociology of the Interpretation of Civilizations (Baltimore, 1978).
Modern missionary work is less well known than that of the colonial
period; Victor Daniel Bonilla, Servants of God or Masters of Men? The Story

of a Capuchin Mission in Amazonia (London, 1972), is essentially polemical.

For examples of the available bibliography on Protestantism, see Robert
Leonard Mclntire, Portrait of Half a Century: Fifty years of Presbyterianism in
Brazil (1859-1910) (Cuernavaca, 1969); Emilio Willems, Followers of the
New Faith: Culture Change and the Rise of Protestantism in Brazil and Chile
(Nashville, Tenn., 1967); and Arnoldo Canclini, Jorge A. Humble: Medico y
misioneropatagonico (Buenos Aires, 1980). On positivism, see essay VIII: 1.
Sister M. Ancilla O'Neill, Tristao de Athayde and the Catholic Social Move-
ment in Brazil (Washington, D.C., 1939) is an example of Catholic reac-
tion against Positivism.
Church and state have been comprehensively studied, perhaps because
relations between the two powers are of interest to historians working
outside the purely ecclesiastical field. The standard general work is that by
J. Lloyd Mecham, Church and State in Latin America: A History of Politico-
Ecclesiastical Relations (Chapel Hill, N . C . , 1934, rev. ed. 1966); on re-
gional aspects, see Fredrick B. Pike, 'Church and state in Peru and Chile
since 1840: A study in contrasts', AHR, 73/1 (1967), 30-50; and Robert
J. Knowlton, 'Expropriation of church property in nineteenth-century
Mexico and Colombia: A comparison", TA, 25/1, 1 (1968), 387-401.
Argentina can be studied for the period 18701930 in John J. Kennedy,
Catholicism, Nationalism, and Democracy in Argentina (Notre Dame, Ind.,
1958), and the Catholic rearguard action in the 1880s in Nestor Tomas
Auza, Catolicos y liberales en la generacidn del ochenta (Buenos Aires, 1975).
Studies of churchstate relations in Brazil have concentrated on the last
decades of the empire, though the following are of more general interest:
Nilo Pereira, Conflitos entre a igreja e 0 estado no Brasil (Recife, 1970); Brasil
Gerson, 0 regalismo brasileiro (Brasilia, 1978); and Thales de Azevedo,
Igreja e estado em tensdo e crise: a conquista espiritual e 0 padroado na Bahia (Sao
Paulo, 1978). On the 'religious question' of 18725 and its aftermath in
Brazil, see Sister Mary Crescentia Thornton, The Church and Freemasonry in
Brazil, 1872-1875, a Study in Regalism (Washington, D.C., 1948);
Roque Spencer M. de Barros, 'A questao religiosa', in Historia geral da
civilizacdo brasileira, vol. 6 (Sao Paulo, 1971), 317-65; David Gueir6s
Vieira, 0 Protestantismo, a magonaria e a questao religiosa no Brasil (Brasilia,
1980); George C. A. Boehrer, 'The church and the overthrow of the
Brazilian monarchy', HAHR, 48/3 (1968), 380-401. For a more general
account of the church in Brazil during the empire, see George C. A.
Boehrer, 'The church in the second reign 1840-1889' in Henry H. Keith
and S. F. Edwards (eds.), Conflict and Continuity in Brazilian Society (Colum-

bia, S.C., 1969), 113-40. See Oscar Figueiredo Lustosa, Reformistas na

igreja do Brasil-lmperio (Sao Paulo, 1977), for church reform, and Irma
Maria Regina do Santo Rosario, 0 Cardeal Leme (.1882-1942) (Rio de
Janeiro, 1962) for a documented study of the great post-disestablishment
churchman. For Chile, Brian H. Smith, The Church and Politics in Chile:
Challenges to Modern Catholicism (Princteon, N.J., 1982), is a political
science study, but it gives a good account of church-state relations in the
constitution of 1925. Ecuador can be studied in Richard Pattee, Gabriel
Garcia Moreno y el Ecuador de su tiempo (Quito, 1941), and J. I. Larrea, ha
iglesia y el estado en Ecuador (Seville, 1954). Church and state is a major
theme of Colombian history: see, for example, Fernan E. Gonzalez G.,
Partidos politicos y poder eclesidstico (Bogota, 1977); Helen Delpar, Red
against Blue: The hiberal Party in Colombian Politics, 18631899 (Tusca-
loosa, Ala., 1981); Jane Meyer Loy, 'Primary education during the Colom-
bian Federation: The school reform of 1870', HAHR, 51/2 (1971), 275
94. On the anti-clerical liberal caudillo in Guatemala, see Hubert J.
Miller, ha iglesia y el estado en tiempo dejusto Rufino Barrios (Guatemala City,
1976). The conflict of church and state in nineteenth-century Mexico has
been exhaustively studied: Jan Bazant, Alienation of Church Wealth in Mex-
ico: Social and Economic Aspects of the hiberal Revolution, 18561875 (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1971); Robert J. Knowlton, Church Property and the Mexican
Reform, 1856-1910 (DeKalb, 111., 1976); Karl M. Schmitt, 'The Diaz
conciliation policy on state and local levels, 1876-1911', HAHR, 40/4
(i960), 51332; after Diaz the problem becomes that between the church
and the Mexican Revolution.
Catholic social reformism was best exemplified in Mexico; at any rate
this is the most fully documented case. Catholic thought is described and
interpreted by Jorge Adame Goddard, El pensamiento politico y social de los
catolicos mexicanos, 1867-1914 (Mexico, D.F., 1981). Robert E. Quirk,
The Mexican Revolution and the Catholic Church 19101929 (Bloomington,
Ind., 1973) and David C. Bailey, /Viva Cristo Reyf The Cristero Rebellion
and the ChurchState Conflict in Mexico (Austin, Tex., 1974), in addition to
dealing with their main themes also take account of the Catholic social
movement. So, too, does Jean A. Meyer, ha Cristiada, 3 vols. (Mexico,
D.F., 19734), a richly detailed study of which there is a shorter English
version, The Cristero Rebellion: The Mexican People between Church and State
(Cambridge, Eng., 1976). J. Tuck, The Holy War in hos Altos: A Regional
Analysis of Mexico's Cristero Rebellion (Tucson, Ariz., 1982) is a more local
study. James W. Wilkie and Edna Monzon de Wilkie, Mexico visto en el

sigh veinte: Entrevistas de historia oral (Mexico, D.F., 1969) contains (411
90) an interview with the veteran Catholic reformist Miguel Palomar y
Vizcarra.
9. M E X I C O : R E S T O R E D REPUBLIC A N D
PORFIRIATO, 1 8 6 7 - 1 9 1 0
In 1958 Daniel Cosio Villegas, one of Mexico's greatest historians whose

special field was the history of Mexico from 1867 to 1910, stated that,
quite apart from the period of the Restored Republic (1867-76), nearly
2,000 books and pamphlets had been written on the Porfirian period
(18761910) alone. Yet, with a number of significant exceptions, the
most important works on this period of Mexican history have appeared
since the 1950s. The secondary literature on the period 18671910, and
especially on the Porfiriato, is assessed in Daniel Cosio Villegas, 'El
Porfiriato: Su historiografia 0 arte historico', in Extremos de America (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1949), 11382; John Womack, Jr., 'Mexican political histori-
ography, 19591969', in Investigaciones contempordneas sobre historia de Mex-
ico (Mexico, D.F., and Austin, Tex., 1971); Enrique Florescano, Elpoder
y la lucha por el poder en la historiografia mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1980);
and Thomas Benjamin and Marcial Ocasio-Melendez, 'Organizing the
memory of modern Mexico: Porfirian historiography in perspective,
i88os-i98os', HAHR, 64/2 (1984), 323-64. The most important,
most comprehensive work on the whole period from 1867 to 1910 is the
monumental Historia moderna de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1958-72), a huge
thirteen-volume collective work edited and partly written by Daniel
Cosio Villegas. It was written in the 1950s and 1960s under Cosio's
direction by a team of historians who collected every available piece of
evidence in Mexican, North American and European archives, and exam-
ined all aspects of life in Mexico, embracing political, economic and
social as well as intellectual history.
The most important general work to have been published on the Diaz
period since the history of Cosio Villegas is Francois-Xavier Guerra, Le
Mexique: De Vancien regime a la revolution, 2 vols. (Paris, 1985). On the
basis of several thousand biographical notes, Guerra examines the struc-
ture, ideology, social composition and relationships of the higher and
middle-level Porfirian elite. At the same time he posits a fundamental
conflict between traditional society, as represented by village communities

9 Mexico: restored republic and Porfiriato 381
or the church, on the one hand, and modernizing elites seeking to under-
mine that society in the name of liberal modernization on the other. He
sees this as the main cause leading to the Mexican Revolution.
The Restored Republic has on the whole provoked far less discussion,
controvery and literature than the Diaz era that followed it. Most of the
controversy on the earlier period has focused on Juarez the man, on the
policies of his regime, and on the nature and basis of liberalism. See, for
example, Jesus Reyes Heroles, El liberalismo mexicano (Mexico, D.F.,
1957). On the question of whether the Juarez regime was basically differ-
ent from that of Porfirio Diaz, three very different viewpoints have been
expressed: Francisco Bulnes, El verdadero Juarez y la verdad sobre la in-
tervention y el imperio (Paris, 1904); Daniel Cosio Villegas (ed.), Historia
moderna, vol. 1; and Laurens B. Perry, Juarez and Diaz, Machine Politics in
Mexico (DeKalb, 111., 1978). The presidency of Lerdo has produced no
such controversies and there are no really sharp differences between the
interpretations of Cosio Villegas and Frank A. Knapp, The Life of Sebastian
Lerdo de Tejada, 18231899 (Austin, Tex., 1951).
Four contemporary or near-contemporary works are representative of
the wide spectrum of opinion on the Porfiriato: Mexico y su evolution social
(Mexico, D.F., 1901), a three-volume collection of essays edited by Justo
Sierra, Porfirio Diaz's best-known intellectual supporter, which constitute
a self-portrait and self-justification of the Diaz regime; El verdadero Diaz y
la revolution (Mexico, D.F., 1920) by Francisco Bulnes, another of the Diaz
regime's most influential intellectual supporters and its most critical and
intelligent defender in the period during and after the Mexican Revolu-
tion; and John Kenneth Turner, Barbarous Mexico, 2nd ed. (1910; reprint,
Austin, Tex., 1969) and Carleton Beals, Porfirio Diaz, Dictator of Mexico
(New York, 1932), two works by Americans which constitute the strong-
est indictments of the Diaz regime. Jose C. Valades, Elporfirismo: Historia
de un regimen, 3 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 19417) was the first general assess-
ment of the Diaz regime to utilize a large array of hitherto unavailable
internal documents of the regime.
One of the most important points of dispute, closely linked to the
economic developments of Mexico from 1867 to 1910, is the discussion of
the origins of Mexico's economic underdevelopment. Was it primarily the
result of the laissez-faire economics of the Diaz regime? Or was Mexico's
underdevelopment mainly due to the inheritance of the colonial period
and to the ceaseless civil wars of the first 50 years after Mexico gained its
independence? Was there a real alternative? What were the effects of

foreign investment and penetration? Can Mexico's economy in that period

be characterized as feudal, capitalist, dependent? What more general
theories (imperialism, dependency, etc.) can be applied to the Mexican
case? These are some of the issues that are dealt with in very different ways
in Ciro Cardoso (ed.), Mexico en el siglo XIX: Historia economica y de la
estructura social (Mexico, D.F., 1980); John Coatsworth, Growth Against
Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porfirian Mexico (DeKalb,
111., 1981; 2nd Sp. ed., Mexico, D.F., 1984); Sergio de la Perm, La
formacion del capitalismo en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1976); and Enrique Semo
(ed.), Mexico bajo la dktadura porfiriana (Mexico, D.F., 1983). The most
recent and one of the most interesting and original works on the economic
history of the Diaz period is Stephen Haber, Industry and Underdevelopment:
The Industrialization of Mexico, 18901940 (Stanford, Calif., 1989). It
examines the process of industrialization in the Monterrey region, one of
the major centers of industry in Mexico, and then attempts to draw more
general conclusions as to the whole process of industrialization from his
micro-economic data.
A second problem which has been the centre of controversy and discus-
sion about the Diaz period could broadly be summarized as the agrarian
question. This involves a very different set of problems. How important
was the expropriation of the lands of free villages and what were the
economic and social consequences of this development? What kind of
labour conditions existed on Mexico's large haciendas? Was labour pre-
dominantly free or was peonage the dominant form of labour on the
estates? Were the hacendados mainly feudal landlords thinking above all
in terms of power or prestige or were they 'capitalists' seeking to maximize
their profits and taking economically rational decisions? The terms of the
discussion of the agrarian issue were set by two authors who wrote in the
Porfirian period: Andres Molina Enriquez, Los grandes problemas nacionales
(Mexico, D.F., 1909) and Wistano Luis Orozco, Legislaciony jurisprudencia
sobre terrenos baldios, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1895). From 1910 until today
practically all writings on the agrarian issue have in one way or the other
either confirmed, refuted or in some way dealt with the theories ex-
pounded by these two authors. Some of the very different points of view on
the agrarian issue are expressed in Friedrich Katz, 'Labour conditions on
haciendas in Porfirian Mexico: Some trends and tendencies', HAHR, 54/1
(1974), 147 and Katz (ed.), La servidumbre agraria en Mexico en la epoca
porfiriana (Mexico, D.F., 1977); and Frank Tannenbaum, The Mexican
Agrarian Revolution (Washington, D.C., 1929). The agrarian problem in

9. Mexico: restored republic and Potfiriato 383
Morelos, cradle of the revolutionary movement of Emiliano Zapata, is the

subject of two outstanding works: Arturo Warman, Venimos a contradeeir:
Los campesinos de Morelos y el estado national (Mexico, D.F., 1976), Eng.
trans. We Come to Object: The Peasants of Morelos and the National State
(Baltimore, 1981), and John Womack, Jr., Zapata and the Mexican Revolu-
tion (New York, 1969). Two works that seek to examine Mexico's agrarian
structure from broad and comparative perspectives are John Tutino, From
Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence, 1750
1940 (Princeton, N.J., 1986) and Friedrich Katz (ed.), Riot, Rebellion and
Revolution: Rural Social Conflict in Mexico (Princeton, N.J., 1988).
A more recent subject of discussion has been the nature and the real
power and effectiveness of the Mexican state, which has been examined
from differing viewpoints in John H. Coatsworth, 'Los origenes del
autoritarismo moderno en Mexico', Foro International, 16 (1975), 20532,
and Juan Felipe Leal, La burguesia y el estado mexicano (Mexico, D.F.,
1972). Banditry and the role of the police, above all the rural police, have
been assessed by Paul Vanderwood, Disorder and Progress: Bandits, Police
and Mexican Development (Lincoln, Nebr., 1981). The discussion about the
nature of the state is closely linked to research about the ideology, above
all positivism and social Darwinism, of Mexico's leaders during the Re-
stored Republic and the Porfirian era; for example, Arnaldo Cordova, La
ideologia de la Revolution Mexicana: La formation del nuevo regimen (Mexico,
D.F., 1973); William D. Raat, Elpositivismo durante el Potfiriato: I8J6-
1910 (Mexico, D.F., 1975); and Leopoldo Zea, Positivism in Mexico (Aus-
tin, Tex., 1974). The most recent work on this subject, which gives the
most comprehensive and convincing view of the ideology of Mexico's
ruling cientifico elite, is Charles Hale, The Transformation of Liberalism in
Late 19th Century Mexico (Princeton, N.J., 1989).
An important corollary to the analysis of the power of the central state is
an examination of the importance and influence of regional and local
institutions. This is perhaps the field where, both in terms of quality and
quantity, some of the most remarkable historical work on the Diaz period
has been done. This problem has been examined in recent years not only by
historians but also by anthropologists. Two extraordinary works deal with
local history in this period, Luis Gonzalez y Gonzalez, Pueblo en vilo:
Microhistoria de San Josede Gratia (Mexico, D.F., 1972; Eng. trans. Sanjose
de Gratia: Mexican Village in Transition, Austin, Tex., 1974); and Paul
Friedrich, Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican Village (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,
1970). Some of the most important works on regional history are Thomas

Benjamin, A Rich Land of Poor People: Politics and Society in Modern Chiapas
(Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1989); Hector Aguilar Camfn, La frontera no-
mada: Sonora y la Revolucion Mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1977); Antonio Gar-
cia de Leon, Resistencia y Utopia: Memorial de agravios y crdnicas de revueltas y
profecias acaecidas en la provincia de Chiapas durante los ultimos quinientos anos
de su historia, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1985); G. M. Joseph, Revolution from
Without: Yucatan, Mexico and the United States, 1880-1924 (Cambridge,
Eng., 1982); Jane-Dale Lloyd, El proceso de modernizacion capitalista del
noroeste de Chihuahua, 1880-1910 (Mexico, D.F., 1987); Ramon Eduardo
Ruiz, The People of Sonora and Yankee Capitalists (Tucson, Ariz., 1988);
Mark Wasserman, Capitalists, Caciques, and Revolution: Elite and Foreign
Enterprise in Chihuahua, 1854-1911 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1984); Allen
Wells, Yucatan's Gilded Age: Haciendas, Henequen, and International Har-
vester, i860191j> (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1985). Also important for re-
gional history is a remarkable series of books edited by Eugenia Meyer of
the Instituto Maria Luis Mora on the history of most Mexican states,
illustrated by edited documents.
These local studies are inextricably linked to attempts to analyse the
different social classes that developed during the Porfirian period at the
local, regional and national level. Apart from the peasantry, increasing
attention has focused on the working class: see Rodney Anderson, Outcasts
in Their Own Land: Mexican Industrial Workers, 19061911 (DeKalb, 111.,
1976); Ciro F. S. Cardoso, Francisco G. Hermosillo and Salvador Hernan-
dez, La clase obrera en la historia de Mexico, de la dictadura porfirista a los
tiempos libertarios (Mexico, D.F., 1980); John M. Hart, Anarchism and the
Mexican Working Class, 18601931 (Austin, Tex., 1978); Juan Felipe Leal
and Jose Woldenberg, La clase obrera en la historia de Mexico: Del estado
liberal a los inicios de la dictadura porfirista (Mexico, D. F., 1980); and David
Walker, 'Porfirian labor politics: Working class organizations in Mexico
City and Porfirio Diaz, 1876-1902', TA, 37 (1981), 257-87. On intel-
lectuals, see Jesus Silva Herzog, El agrarismo mexicano y la reforma agraria
(Mexico, D.F., 1964) and James Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors of the
Mexican Revolution, 19001913 (Austin, Tex., 1968). The most compre-
hensive work on Porfirian education and educational policy is Mary Kay
Vaughan, The State, Education and Social Class in Mexico, 18801928
(DeKalb, 111., 1982).
One field that has been the subject of long and varied discussion has
been that of the relations of Mexico with other countries during the
Porfirian era. For a long time, the only major archives available for this

io. The Mexican Revolution 385
period were the U.S. State Department files, and both Mexican and U.S.
historians concentrated on Mexico's relations with the United States to the
exclusion of other countries. This situation changed in the 1950s when
Daniel Cosio Villegas was able to consult not only U.S. but hitherto
inaccessible Mexican records as well. As a result, he wrote a detailed
analysis of MexicanU.S. relations between 1867 an<^ 1910: The United
States versus Porfirio Diaz (Lincoln, Nebr., 1963). U.S.Mexican relations,
in both quantitative and qualitative terms, are examined by John Mason
Hart, Revolutionary Mexico: The Coming and Process of the Mexican Revolution
(Berkeley, 1987). On the relations between Mexico and the major Euro-
pean powers in the Diaz period, see Alfred Tischendorf, Great Britain and
Mexico in the Era of Porfirio Diaz (Durham, N.C., 1961); and Friedrich
Katz, Deutschland, Diaz und die mexikanische Revolution: Die deutsche Politik
in Mexiko, 18701920 (Berlin, 1964).
10. THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION,

1910 1920
PRINTED SOURCES, BIBLIOGRAPHY AND HISTORIOGRAPHY
The most inclusive and best organized guide to the literature on the
Mexican Revolution is W. D. Raat, The Mexican Revolution: An Annotated
Guide to Recent Scholarship (Boston, 1982). Indispensable guides to official
documents, pamphlets, newspapers, manifestos, and published correspon-
dence are L. Gonzalez y Gonzalez (ed.), Fuentes de la historia contempordnea
de Mexico: Libros y folletos, 3 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 19623) and S. R. Ross
(ed.), Fuentes de la historia contempordnea de Mexico: Periodicos y revistas, 4
vols. (Mexico, D.F., 196576). The most important body of printed
materials is I. Fabela and J. E. de Fabela (eds.), Documentos historicos de la
revolucidn mexicana, 27 vols. and index (Mexico, D.F., 196076). Useful
reprints from the Mexican press appear in M. Gonzalez Ramirez (ed.),
Fuentes para la historia de la revolucion mexicana, 4 vols. (Mexico, D.F.,
Bibliographies and historiographic articles with analysis of the main

currents in the literature on the Revolution include: D. M. Bailey, "Revi-
sionism and the recent historiography of the Mexican Revolution',
HAHR, 58/1 (1978), 6 2 - 7 9 ; G. Bringas and D. Mascareiio, La prensa de
los obreros mexicanos, 1870-1970: Hemerografia comentada (Mexico, D.F.,

J
979); C. W. Reynolds, 'The economic historiography of twentieth-
century Mexico', in Investigaciones contempordneas sobre la historia de Mexico:
Memorias de la tercera reunion de historiadores mexicanos y norteamericanos (Mex-
ico, D.F., and Austin, Tex., 1971), 339-57; J- D. Rutherford, An Anno-
tated Bibliography of the Novels of the Mexican Revolution (Troy, N. Y., 1972);
E. Suarez Gaona (ed.), El movimiento obrero mexicano: Bibliografia (Mexico,
D.F., 1978); H . W. Tobler, 'Zur Historiographie der mexikanischen Revo-
lution, 1910-1940', JGSWGL, 12 (1975), 286-331; and J. Womack,
Jr., 'Mexican political historiography, 19591969', in Investigaciones
contempordneas, 47892, 'The historiography of Mexican labor', in El
trabajo y los trabajadores en la historia de Mexico: Ponencias y comentarios
presentados en laV reunion de historiadores mexicanos y norteamericanos (Mexico,
D.F., and Tucson, Ariz., 1979), 73956, and 'The Mexican economy
during the Revolution, 19101920: historiography and analysis', Marxist
Perspectives, 1/4 (1978), 8 0 - 1 2 3 .
Notable new guides to old and new scholarship are D. G. Lopez
Rosado, Bibliografia de la historia economica y social de Mexico 12 vols., plus
index (Mexico, D.F., 197982) and Bibliografia economica de la Revolucion
Mexicana, 19101930 (Mexico, D.F., 1982); E. Florescano, Bibliografia
general del desarrollo economico de Mixico, 15001976, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F.,
1980); M. de la L. Parcero, Introduccion bibliogrdfica a la historiografia
politica de Mexico, sighs XIX y XX (Mexico, D.F., 1982); W. D. Raat, 'La
revolucion global de Mexico: Tendencias recientes de los estudios sobre la
revolucion mexicana en Jap6n, el Reino Unido y Europa continental',
HM, 32/3 (1983), 422-48; R. L. Delorme, Latin America, 1979-1983: A
Social Science Bibliography (Santa Barbara, Calif., 1984); E. Aguilar Cerrillo
and P. Salcido Cafiedo, 'Desde la microhistoria, referencias bibliograficas
en torno a la Revoluci6n Mexicana', Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Politicas y
Sociales, 122 (1985), 167-77; H. V. Nelles, 'Latin American business
history since 1965: A view from north of the border', BHR, 59/4 (1985),
54362; W. A. Cornelius and J. A. Bustamante (eds.), International Guide
to Research on Mexico (San Diego, Calif., 1986); T. Benjamin,.'Regionaliz-
ing the Revolution: The many Mexicos in revolutionary historiography',
in T. Benjamin and M. Wasserman (eds.), Provinces of the Revolution: Essays
on Regional Mexican History, 1910-1929 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1990),
31957; and 'Appendix: Provincial historiographies and bibliographies',
in Provinces of the revolution, 359-62.
Guides to primary sources include Boletin de Investigacion del Movimiento
Obrero (Puebla), 1 (1981); V. B. Reber, 'Archival sources for Latin Ameri-

can business history', BHR, 59/4 (1985), 670-79; H. C. Hernandez

Silva, 'El archivo historico militar de Mexico', HM, 38/1 (1988), 127-42;
and Boletin de fuentes para la historia economica de Mexico (Mexico), 1 (1990).
The main newer collections of printed materials are G. Bonfil Batalla
(ed.), Mi pueblo durante la revolucidn, 3 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1985); Insti-
tuto Nacional de Estadistica, Geografia e Informatica, Estadisticas histdricas
de Mexico, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1985); Secretaria de Programacion y
Presupuesto, Antologia de la planeacion en Mexico (191J1985), 17 vols.
(Mexico, D.F., 1985), vol. I, Primeros intentos de planeacion en Mexico
(191J-1946); and D. E. Lorey (ed.), United States-Mexico Border Statistics
since 1900 (Los Angeles, 1990).
GENERAL AND INTERPRETIVE
The fullest and still the best chronicle of the Mexican Revolution is J. C.
Valades, Historia general de la revolucidn mexicana, 10 vols. (Mexico, D.F.,
1963-7), vols. 1-7.
Notable as old standards which are more or less in defence of the
Revolution as a great popular victory are M. S. Alperovich, B. T. Rudenko
and N. M. Lavrov, La revolucidn mexicana: Cuatro estudios sovieticos (Mexico,
D.F., i960); A. Brenner, The Wind That Swept Mexico: The History of the
Mexican Revolution (Austin, Tex., 1971); M. Gonzalez Ramirez, La
revolucidn social de Mexico, 3 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1960-6); J. Silva Herzog,
Breve historia de la revolucidn mexicana, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., i960); F.
Tannenbaum, Peace by Revolution: An Interpretation of Mexico (New York,
r
933); E- Wolf, Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century (New York, 1969).
Notable as old standards more or less hostile to the Revolution are F.
Bulnes, El verdadero Diaz y la revolucidn (Mexico, D.F., 1920); E. Gruen-
ing, Mexico and Its Heritage (New York, 1928); W. Thompson, The People of
Mexico: Who They Are and How They Live (New York, 1921); E. D. Trow-
bridge, Mexico To-day and To-morrow (New York, 1919); J. Vera Estanol,
Historia de la revolucidn mexicana: Origenes y resultados (Mexico, D.F., 1957).
Among newer works, the most suggestive essays are Peter Calvert, 'The
Mexican Revolution: Theory or fact?' JLAS, 1/1 (1969), 51-68; Barry
Carr, 'Las peculiaridades del norte mexicano, 18801927: Ensayo de inter-
pretacion', HM, 22/3 (1973), 320-46; Francois-X. Guerra, 'La revolution
mexicaine: D'abord une revolution miniere?' AESC, 36/5 (1981), 7 8 5 -
814; Jean A. Meyer, 'Periodizacion e ideologia', in James W. Wilkie,
Michael C. Meyer and Edna Monzon de Wilkie (eds.), Contemporary Mex-

ico: Papers of the IV International Congress of Mexican History (Los Angeles and
Mexico, D.F., 1976), 71122; Albert L. Michaels and Marvin D. Bern-
stein, 'The modernization of the old order: Organization and periodization
of twentieth-century Mexican history', in Contemporary Mexico, 687-710;
and Enrique Semo, 'Las revoluciones en la historia de Mexico', Historia y
Sociedad, 2nd ser., 8 (1975), 4 9 - 6 1 .
The main revisionist works are J. D. Cockcroft, Mexico: Class Formation,
Capital Accumulation, and the State (New York, 1983); A. Cordova, ha
ideologia de la revolucion mexicana: La formacion del nuevo regimen (Mexico,
D.F., 1973); A. Gilly, The Mexican Revolution (London, 1983); N. M.
Lavrov, La revolucion mexicana, 19101917 (Mexico, D.F., 1978); Jean
Meyer, La revolution mexicaine (Paris, 1973); R. E. Ruiz, The Great Rebel-
lion: Mexico, 1905-1924 (New York, 1980).
New interpretive essays are numerous on questions of class, national-
ism, provinciality, continuations and change. The most considerable are J.
W. Wilkie and P. D. Wilkins, 'Quantifying the class structure of Mexico',
SALA, 21 (1981), 577-90; A. Knight, 'La revolution mexicaine: Revolu-
tion miniere ou revolution serrano?', AESC, 38/2 (1983), 44959, 'The
Mexican Revolution: Bourgeois? Nationalist? Or just a "Great Rebel-
lion"?', BLAR, 4/2 (1985), 1-37, and 'Revolutionary project, recalcitrant
people: Mexico, 1910-1940', i n j . E. Rodriguez O. (ed.), The Revolution-
ary Process in Mexico: Essays on Political and Social Change (Los Angeles,
1990), 2 2 7 - 6 4 ; F.-X. Guerra, 'Reponse de Francois-Xavier Guerra',
AESC, 38/2 (1983), 4609 and 'Teoria y metodo en el analisis de la
Revolucion Mexicana', RMS, 51/2 (1989), 3-24; W. H. Beezley, 'In
search of everyday Mexicans in the Revolution', RIB, 33/3 (1983), 366
82 ;J. M. Hart, 'The dynamics of the Mexican Revolution: Historiographi-
cal perspectives', LARR, 19/3 (1984), 2 2 3 - 3 1 ; L. Gonzalez y Gonzalez,
'La Revolucion Mexicana desde el punto de vista de los revolucionados',
Historias, 89 (1985), 514; J. Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in
Mexico: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence, 1750-1940 (Princeton, N J . ,
1986); P. J. Vanderwood, 'Building blocks but yet no building', Mexican
Studies, 3/2 (1987), 42132 and 'Explaining the Mexican Revolution', in
The Revolutionary Process, 97114; J. H. Coatsworth, 'La historiografia
economica de Mexico', Revista de Historia Economica (Madrid), 6/2 (1988),
2 7 7 - 9 1 ; F. Katz, 'Rural rebellions after 1810', in F. Katz (ed.), Riot,
Rebellion, and Revolution: Rural Social Conflict in Mexico (Princeton, N.J.,
1988), 52160; H. W. Tobler, 'Die mexikanische Revolution in ver-
gleichender Perspektive: Einige Faktoren revolutionaren Wandels in

Mexiko, Russland und China im 20: Jahrhundert', I-AA, 14/4 (1988),

4 5 3 - 7 1 ; M. Wasserman, 'Provinces of the Revolution', in Provinces of the
Revolution, 1-14; and S. F. Voss, 'Nationalizing the Revolution: Culmina-
tion and circumstance', in Provinces of the Revolution, 273317.
To stand with the older chronicles and syntheses, standard and revision-
ist, although not to replace any of them, there are four major more recent
general works. Most solidly based on archival research and analytically the
most balanced and interesting is H. W. Tobler, Die mexikanische Revolution:
Gesellschaftlicher Wandel und politischer Umbruch, 1816-1940 (Frankfurt,
1984). Most original in theory and richest in biography is F.-X. Guerra,
Le Mexique, de I'ancien regime a la revolution, 2 vols. (Paris, 1985). Most
comprehensive, traditional, and interrogatory is A. Knight, The Mexican
Revolution, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Eng., 1986). Most intriguing in detail is
J. M. Hart, Revolutionary Mexico: The Coming and Process of the Mexican
Revolution (Berkeley, 1987).
FOREIGN RELATIONS, POLITICS AND WAR
The literature about these subjects is most abundant. One outstanding

book treats all three together: Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico:
Europe, the United States, and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago, 1981). The
other notable studies in this category focus on specific or particular ques-
tions of state. The most significant such question is foreign relations. The
literature on it is almost exclusively about Mexico's relations with the
United States. Indispensable as a background is the work of Arthur S.
Link, Wilson: The New Freedom (Princeton, N.J., 1956), Wilson: The Strug-
gle for Neutrality, 1914-1915 (Princeton, N.J., i960), Wilson: Confusions
and Crises, 1915-1916 (Princeton, N.J., i960), and Wilson: Campaigns for
Progressivism and Peace, 1916-191J (Princeton, N.J., 1965).
The two most comprehensive treatments, from very different perspec-
tives, are M. S. Alperovich and B. T. Rudenko, La revolution mexicana de
1910-191J y la politica de los Estados Unidos (Mexico, D.F., i960) and P.
E. Haley, Revolution and Intervention: The Diplomacy ofTaft and Wilson with
Mexico, 1910-191-} (Cambridge, Mass., 1970). The view is at least as
broad, but the chronological focus is closer, in P. Calvert, The Mexican
Revolution, 1910-1914: The Diplomacy of the Anglo-American Conflict (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1968); M. T. Gilderhus, Diplomacy and Revolution: U.S.
Mexican Relations under Wilson andCarranza (Tucson, Ariz., 1977); K. J.
Grieb, The United States and Huerta (Lincoln, Nebr., 1969); R. F. Smith,

The United States and Revolutionary Nationalism in Mexico, 19161932 (Chi-
cago, 1972); and B. Ulloa, La revolucion intervenida: Relaciones diplomdticas
entre Mexico y Estados Unidos, 19101914 (Mexico, D.F., 1971).
The particular questions that caused the worst problems in Mexican
U.S. relations were oil and Francisco Villa. On oil, see Lorenzo Meyer,
Mexico y los Estados Unidos en el conflicto petrolero (19171942) (Mexico,
D.F., 1968), Eng. trans., Mexico and the United States in the Oil Controversy,
191I-1942 (Austin, Tex., 1977); Dennis J. O'Brien, 'Petroleo e in-
tervencion: Relaciones entre Estados Unidos y Mexico, 1917-1918', HM,
27/1 (1977), 103-40; and Emily S. Rosenberg, 'Economic pressure in
Anglo-American diplomacy in Mexico, 1917-1918', JIAS, 17/2(1975),
12352. On Villa, see Clarence C. Clendenen, The United States and
Pancho Villa: A Study in Unconventional Diplomacy (Ithaca, N.Y., 1981); and
Alberto Salinas Carranza, La expedition punitiva, 2nd ed. (Mexico, D.F.,
1957). Less important but still considerable among Mexico's foreign prob-
lems during the Revolution are the topics studied by Larry D. Hill,
Emissaries to a Revolution: Woodrow Wilson's Executive Agents in Mexico (Baton
Rouge, La., 1973); and W. Dirk Raat, Revoltosos: Mexico's Rebels in the
United States, /9031923 (College Station, Tex., 1981).
On politics, which in this literature means the struggle to dominate
and manage the federal government, the books and articles are most
numerous. Particularly interesting are contemporary reports: H. Baer-
lein, Mexico: The Land of Unrest, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia, 1914); E. I. Bell,
The Political Shame of Mexico (New York, 1914); J. L. De Becker, De como
vino Huerta, y como sefue: Apuntes para la historia de un regimen militar (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1914); R. Prida, De la dictadura a la anarquia, 2nd ed.
(Mexico, D.F., 1958). Biased but nevertheless revealing are certain mem-
oirs: A. Breceda, Mexico revolucionario, 1913-191-7, 2 vols. (Madrid,
1920, and Mexico, D.F., 1914); F. Gonzalez Garza, La revolucion mexi-
cana: Mi contribucidn politico-literaria (Mexico, D.F., 1936); F. F. Pala-
vicini, Los diputados, 2nd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1976), Historia de la
constitution de 1917, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1938), and Mi vida revolu-
cionaria (Mexico, D.F., 1937); A. J. Pani, Apuntes autobiogrdficos, 2 vols.,
2nd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1950), and Mi contribution al nuevo regimen, 1910-
1933 (Mexico, D.F., 1936).
The first professional histories of the initial and middle phases of revolu-
tionary politics remain the best surveys, despite their mistakes, errors, and
omissions: C. C. Cumberland, Mexican Revolution: Genesis under Madero
(Austin, Tex., 1952), and Mexican Revolution: The Constitutionalist Years

JO. The Mexican Revolution 391
(Austin, Tex., 1972). The latest surveys of the political history of the
period are B. Ulloa, Historia de la revolution mexicana, periodo 19141917,
vol. 4, La revolution escondida (Mexico, D.F., 1979), vol. 5, La encrutijada
de 1915 (Mexico, D.F., 1979), and vol. 6, La constitution de 1917 (Mexico,
D.F., 1983).
Political monographs typically have a biographical focus. The standard
work on the Maderista government remains Stanley R. Ross, Francisco I.
Madero, Apostle of Mexican Democracy (New York, 1955). On Madero's main
military lieutenant and nemesis, see Michael C. Meyer, Mexican Rebel,
Pascual Orozco and the Mexican Revolution, 1910-1915 (Lincoln, Nebr.,
1967). The most intriguing book about Madero's conservative opposition
remains Luis Liceaga, Felix Diaz (Mexico, D.F., 1958). And the standard
work on the general who overthrew Madero and provoked the Constitu-
tionalist movement is Michael C. Meyer, Huerta, A Political Portrait (Lin-
coln, Nebr., 1972). Manifestly partisan and faulty but still the most
informative treatments of the Villista movement are Federico Cervantes,
Francisco Villa y la revolution (Mexico, D.F., i960), and Felipe Angeles en la
revolution, 3rd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1964). On Carranza and carrancismo, see
Alvaro Matute, Historia de la revolution mexicana, periodo 191J1924, vol.
8, La carrera del caudillo (Mexico, D.F., 1980); and Douglas W. Rich-
mond, Venustiano Carranza's Nationalist Struggle, 18931920 (Lincoln,
Nebr., 1984). Pablo Gonzalez, Jr. compiled a useful hagiography of his
father, El centinela fiel del constitutionalism!) (Monterrey, 1971). On Car-
ranza's other, more fortunate lieutenant, see Linda Hall, Alvaro Obregdn,
Power and Revolution in Mexico, 19111920 (College Station, Tex., 1981).
The first monograph on a collective political exercise is Robert E.
Quirk, The Mexican Revolution, 19141915: The Convention of Aguasca-
lientes (Bloomington, Ind., i960). It is still commendable. But preferable
on the same topic is Luis F. Amaya C, La soberana convention revolutionaria,
19141916 (Mexico, D.F., 1966). The most accurate account of the
congreso that delivered the new constitution is E. Victor Niemeyer, Jr.,
Revolution at Queretaro: The Mexican Constitutional Convention of 1916191J
(Austin, Tex., 1974). For an instructive comparison of the two conclaves,
see Richard Roman, Ideologia y clase en la revolution mexicana: La convention y
el congreso constituyente (Mexico, D.F., 1976).
On the army in politics, the most substantial and interesting study is
Alicia Hernandez Chavez, 'Militares y negocios en la revolucion mexi-
cana', HM, 34/2 (1984). Another considerable analysis of the military is
Jean A. Meyer, 'Grandes campanas, ejercitos populares y ejercito estatal en

la revolucion mexicana (1910-1930)', Anuario de Estudios Americanos, 31

(1974), 1005-30.
On the church, the best guide to the early years is Jean A. Meyer, 'Le
catholicisme social au Mexique jusqu'en 1913', Revue Historique, 260
(1978), 14359. For the middle and later years, see, despite its principled
bias, Antonio Rius Facius, La juventud catdlica y la revolucion mejkana,
1910-1925 (Mexico, D.F., 1963).
The only serious treatment of political ideas is James D. Cockcroft,
Intellectual Precursors of the Mexican Revolution, 1900-1913 (Austin, Tex.,
1968). The only substantial study of an institution is Marte R. Gomez,
Historia de la Comision Nacional Agraria (Mexico, D.F., 1975). And the
only account of governments' budgetary policies and practices is in James
W. Wilkie, The Mexican Revolution, Federal Expenditures and Social Change
since 191 o (Berkeley, 1967).
Politics in the provinces has provided the material for many contempo-
rary reports and professional histories. Outstanding is H. Aguilar Camin,
La frontera nomada: Sonora y la revolucion mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1977).
Also useful on Sonora are Francisco Almada, Historia de la revolucion en el
estado de Sonora (Mexico, D.F., 1971), and Clodoveo Valenzuela and A.
Chaverri Matamoros, Sonora y Carranza (Mexico, D.F., 1921). A lively
and detailed narrative of the Magonista struggle on the California border
during the Maderista insurrection is Lowell L. Blaisdell, The Desert Revolu-
tion, Baja California, 1911 (Madison, Wis., 1962). The most useful treat-
ments of Chihuahua are Francisco Almada, Historia de la revolucion en el
estado de Chihuahua, 2 vols. (Mexico, D . F , 1964-5), and William H.
Beezley, Insurgent Governor, Abraham Gonzalez and the Mexican Revolution in
Chihuahua (Lincoln, Nebr., 1973). The only commendable book on a
northeastern state is Ildefonso Villarello Velez, Historia de la revolucion
mexicana en Coahuila (Mexico, D.F., 1970).
Among the studies of politics in other regions of the country, the best
are Romana Falc6n, Revolucion y caciquismo: San Luis Potosi, 19101938
(Mexico, D.F., 1984); Alicia Hernandez Chavez, 'La defensa de los
finqueros en Chiapas, 1914-1920', HM, 28/3 (1979), 335-69; Ian Ja-
cobs, Ranchero Revolt: The Mexican Revolution in Guerrero (Austin, Tex.,
1983); and Gilbert M. Joseph, Revolution from Without: Yucatan, Mexico and
the United States, 1880-1924 (Cambridge, Eng., 1982). See also the essays
in David A. Brad ing (ed.), Caudillo and Peasant in the Mexican Revolution
On war in Mexico between 1910 and 1920, the most important book is

still J. Barragan, Historia del ejercito y de la revolution constitucionalista, 2
vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1946). Also valuable is Miguel A. Sanchez Lamego,
Historia militar de la revolution constitucionalista, 4 vols. (Mexico, D.F.,
19567). On particular Constitutionalist and Carrancista campaigns, see
the memoirs of Manuel W. Gonzalez, Con Carranza: Episodios de la
revolution constitucionalista, 19131914 (Monterrey, 1933), and Contra
Villa: Relato de la campana, 1914-1915 (Mexico, D.F., 1935); and Alvaro
Obregon, Ocho mil kilometros en campana, 3rd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1959). For
details on Villista campaigns, see Alberto Calzadiaz Barrera, Hechos reales
de la revolution, 5 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1967-8).
Notable additions to the literature on external interests in Mexico
during the Revolution are E. S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream:
American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 18951945 (New York, 1982)
and World War I and the Growth of United States Predominance in Latin
America (New York, 1987); P. V. N. Henderson, 'Woodrow Wilson,
Victoriano Huerta, and the recognition issue in Mexico', TA, 41/2
(1984), 151-72; L. Meyer, 'La Revoluci6n Mexicana y las potencias an-
glosajones', HM, 34/2 (1984), 300-52; D. M. Coerver and L. B. Hall,
Texas and the Mexican Revolution: A Study in State and National Border Policy,
1910-1920 (San Antonio, Tex., 1984) and Revolution on the Border: The
United States and Mexico, 1910-1920 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1989); C.
Illades, ed., Mexico y Espana durante la Revolution Mexicana (Mexico, D.F.,
1985); and B. Ulloa, ed., Revolution Mexicana, 1910-1920, 2nd ed.
(Mexico, D.F., 1985).
On national political and military institutions, policies, problems,
struggles, and issues, the new literature is less abundant. One addition, a
survey of the last two years of the period, is A. Matute, Historia de la re-
volution mexicana, periodo 191J1924, vol. 8, La carrera del caudillo (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1980). (It now seems that vols. 1 , 2 , 3 , a n ^ 7 of this series will
never appear). Another survey, useful for its breadth and long perspective,
is R. R. Flores Caballero, Administration y politica en la historia de Mexico
(Mexico, D.F., 1981). The most significant monograph is M. Gonzalez
Navarro, La pobreza en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1985). On Porfirian resis-
tance and counter-revolutionaries, commendable studies are P. V. N. Hen-
derson, Mexican Exiles in the Borderlands, 1910-1913 (El Paso, Tex.,
1979) and Felix Diaz, the Porfirians, and the Mexican Revolution (Lincoln,
Nebr., 1981); Mario Ramirez Rancano, 'Los hacendados y el huertismo',
RMS, 48/1 (1986), 167-200; and A. Hernandez Chavez, 'Origen y ocaso
del ejercito porfiriano', HM, ^9/1 (1989), 25796. On various national

394 V/. Economy, society, politics, c. I8JO to 1930
revolutionary questions the most commendable studies are E. Zavala, 'Los

impuestos y los problemas financieros de los primeros anos de la revolu-
tion', HM, 31/3 (1982), 325-60; L. Meyer, 'La Revolucion Mexicana y
sus elecciones presidenciales: Una interpretation (1911 1940)', HM, 32/2
(1982), 14397; D. W. Richmond, 'Mexican immigration and border
strategy during the Revolution, 19101920', New Mexico Historical Re-
view, 57/3 (1982), 26988, 'Confrontation and reconciliation: Mexicans
and Spaniards during the Revolution, 19101920', TA, 41/2 (1984),
21528 and 'Nationalism and class conflict in Mexico, 19101920', TA,
43/3 (1987), 279-303; A. Hernandez Chavez, 'Militares y negocios en la
Revolucion Mexicana,' HM, 34/2 (1984), 181-212; H. W. Tobler, 'La
burguesia revolucionaria en Mexico: Su origen y su papel 19151935',
HM, 34/2 (1984), 213-37; J. W. Wilkie, 'Changes in Mexico since 1895:
Central government revenue, public sector expenditure and national eco-
nomic growth', SALA, 24(1985), 861-80; J. MacGregor, 'La VI legisla-
tura frente a Victoriano Huerta: <;Un caso de parlamentarismo?', Secuencia,
4 (1986), 1 0 - 2 3 ; L. D. Taylor, 'The great adventure: Mercenaries in the
Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920', TA, 43/1 (1986), 2 5 - 4 5 ; B. Ulloa,
Veracruz, capital de la nation, 1914-15 (Mexico, D.F., 1986); H. Sanchez
Martinez, 'La politica bancaria de los primeros gobiernos constitucionalis-
tas, antecedentes inmediatos para la fundacion del Banco de Mexico
(19171925)', in L. Ludlow and C. Marichal (eds.), Banca y poder en Mex-
ico (1800-1925) (Mexico, D.F., 1986), 375-407; M. Gonzalez Navarro,
'El maderismo y la revolucion agraria', HM, 37/1 (1987), 527; E. Azuela
Bernal, 'La cuestion local en el Congreso Constituyente de 1917', Secuen-
cia, 19 (1987), 1222; D. LaFrance, 'Many causes, movements, failures,
19101913: The regional nature of maderismo', in Provinces of the Revolu-
tion, 1740; and J. Tutino, 'Revolutionary confrontation, 19131917:
Regional factions, class conflicts, and the new national state', in Provinces
of the Revolution, 4170. See also two excellent autobiographies: G. N.
Santos, Memorias (Mexico, D.F., 1984); and L. L. Leon, Cronica del poder:
En los recuerdos de unpolitico en el Mexico revolutionary (Mexico, D . F . , 1987).
On the Catholic Church, the best guide is now J. Adame Goddard, El
pensamiento politico y social de los catolicos mexicanos, 18671914 (Mexico,
D.F., 1981). Other notable additions are J. Gutierrez Casillas,Jesuitas en
Mexico durante el siglo XX (Mexico, D.F., 1981); M. Ceballos Ramirez, 'La
enciclica 'Rerum Novarum' y los trabajadores catolicos en la Ciudad de
Mexico (1981-1913)', HM, 33/1 (1983), 3-38 and 'El sindicalismo

catolico en Mexico, 1919-1931', HM, 35/4 (1986), 621-74. On Catho-

lics' religious rivals, the first serious and commendable studies in print are
J.-P. Bastian, Protestantism*) y sociedad en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1983), 'Los
propagandistas del constitucionalismo en Mexico (1910-1920)', RMS,
45/2 (1983), 321-51 and Los disidentes: Sociedadesprotestantes y revolution en
Mexico, 18721911 (Mexico, D.F., 1989); and D. J. Baldwin, Protestants
in the Mexican Revolution: Missionaries, Ministers, and Social Change (Cham-
paign, 111., 1990).
On political intellectuals, the most notable new studies are M. K.
Vaughan, The State, Education, and Social Class in Mexico, 18801928
(DeKalb, 111., 1982); G. DeBeer, Luis Cabrera, un intelectualdela revolution
mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1984); J. MacGregor, 'La universidad y la
revolucion, 19101914', in J. L. Peset (ed.), La ciencia moderna y el nuevo
mundo (Madrid, 1985), 192213; A. Knight, 'Los intelectuales en la
Revolucion mexicana', RMS, 51/2 (1989), 2565; and J. Garciadiego
Dantan, 'Movimientos estudiantiles durante la revolucion mexicana', in
The Revolutionary Process, 115160.
PEASANT AND LABOUR MOVEMENTS
References in the literature to campesinos and obreros are innumerable. In

fact virtually all of the revolutionary, counter-revolutionary, independent,
and neutralist movements in Mexico from 1910 to 1920 were of'country
people' and 'workers'. But movements by country people for country
people, or by workers for workers, that is peasant or labour movements,
were the exception, not the rule.
The surest and most suggestive guide to the agrarian history of these
years, since there is still no book on the subject, is F. Katz, 'Peasants in
the Mexican Revolution of 1910', in J. Spielberg and S. Whiteford (eds.),
Forging Nations: A Comparative View of Rural Ferment and Revolt (Lansing,
Mich., 1976), 6 1 - 8 5 .
Also considerable in Hans W. Tobler, 'Bauernerhebungen und Agrar-
reform in der mexikanischen Revolution', in Manfred Mols and Hans W.
Tobler, Mexiko, die institutionalisierte Revolution (Cologne, 1976), 115-70.
For indications of how little the distribution of agricultural and ranching
property in 1910 changed until the 1920s, see Frank Tannenbaum, The
Mexican Agrarian Revolution (Washington, D.C., 1929), a classic.
The most interesting monographs on peasant movements have properly

had a provincial focus, On the north, see Friedrich Katz, 'Agrarian

changes in northern Mexico in the Period of Villista rule, 1913-1915', in
Contemporary Mexico, cited above, 2 5 9 - 7 3 . On the midwest, Michoacan,
see Paul Friedrich, Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican Village (Englewood Cliffs,
N.J., 1970). And on Mexico's mideast, see Raymond Th. J. Buve, 'Peas-
ant movements, caudillos, and landreform [sic] during the revolution
(1910-1917) in Tlaxcala, Mexico', BELC, 18 (1975), 112-52, and
'Movilizacion campesina y reforma agraria en los valles de Nativitas,
Tlaxcala (19171923)', in El trabajo y los trabajadores, cited above, 533
64. The south, in particular Morelos, was the home of Mexico's most
famous, exceptional, and significant peasant movement, that of the
Zapatistas. Among several articles and books about their struggle, the
best are Frangois Chevalier, 'Un facteur decisif de la revolution agraire au
Mexique: Le soulevement de Zapata, 1911 1919', AESC, 16/1 (1961),
6682; Gildardo Magana, Emiliano Zapata y el agrarismo en Mexico, 5
vols., 2nd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1951 2); Jesus Sotelo Inclan, Raizy razdn de
Zapata, 2nd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1970); and John Womack, Jr., Zapata and
the Mexican Revolution (New York, 1968). For an important and illustrative
comparison, see Ronald Waterbury, 'Non-revolutionary peasants: Oaxaca
compared to Morelos in the Mexican Revolution', CSSH, 17/4 (1975),
41042.
The first survey of labour movements during the revolutionary years is
still useful: V. Lombardo Toledano, La libertad sindical en Mexico, 2nd ed.
(Mexico, D.F., 1974), as are two other old labour histories: M. R. Clark,
Organized Labor in Mexico (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1934), and A. Lopez
Aparicio, El movimiento obrero en Mexico: Antecedentes, desarrollo y tendencias,
2nd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1952).
An important essay suggesting the lines of a major revision of this
history is Marcela de Neymet, 'El movimiento obrero y la revolution
mexicana', Historia y Sociedad, 1st ser., 9 (1967), 5673..Two different
revisionist labour histories are Barry Carr, El movimiento obrero y la politica
en Mexico, 19101929, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1976), and Ramon E.
Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries, Mexico, 19111923 (Balti-
more, 1976). A later notable survey is Sergio de la Pena, La clase obrera en
la historia de Mexico, vol. 4, Trabajadores y sociedad en el siglo XX (Mexico,
D.F., 1984).
The particular problems in labour history that have attracted most atten-
tion are ideologies and putative or real national federations. On ideologies,

see Barry Carr, 'Marxism and anarchism in the formation of the Mexican
Communist party, 191019', HAHR, 63/2 (1983), 277305; Frangois-X.
Guerra, 'De 1'Espagne au Mexique: Le milieu anarchiste et la revolution
mexicaine (1910-1915)', Melanges de la Casa de Velazquez, 9 (1973), 6 5 3 -
87; and John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, i860
1931 (Austin, Tex., 1978). On the famous proto-federation of 191415
and its 'red battalions', see Barry Carr, 'The Casa del Obrero Mundial:
Constitutionalism and the pact of February, 1915', El trabajo y los
trabajadores, 60332; John M. Hart, 'The urban working class and the
Mexican Revolution: The case of the Casa del Obrero Mundial', HAHR,
58/1 (1978), 1-20; Alicia Hernandez Chavez, 'Los Batallones Rojos y
Obregon: Un pacto inestable', unpublished manuscript, 1979; and Jean A.
Meyer, 'Les Ouvriers dans la revolution mexicaine: Les bataillons rouges',
AESC, 25/1 (1970), 3055. On this first serious federation, see Rocio
Guadarrama, Los sindicatos y la politica en Mexico: La CROM, 19181928
(Mexico, D.F., 1981), Pablo Gonzalez Casanova, La clase obrera en la historia
de Mexico, vol. 6, En el primer gobierno constitutional (191 j1920) (Mexico,
D.F., 1980); and Harry A. Levenstein, Labor Organizations in the United
States and Mexico, a History of Their Relations (Westport, Conn., 1971).
There are only two notable books on unions in a particular industry,
which, as it happens, was the most strategic of all industries in the
country. Neither is so much a study as a memoir: Servando A. Alzati,
Historia de la mexicanizacion de los Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Mexico (Mexico,
D.F., 1946); and Marcelo N. Rodea, Historia del movimiento obrero ferro-
carrilero, 18901943 (Mexico, D.F., 1944). And there are only two nota-
ble treatments of unions in a particular place: S. Lief Adleson, 'La
adolescencia del poder: La lucha de los obreros de Tampico para definir los
derechos del trabajo, 19101920', Historias, 2 (1982), 85101; and Fran-
cisco Ramirez Plancarte, La ciudad de Mexico durante la revolution constitu-
cionalista, 2nd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1941).
Broadly framed modern studies on campesinos, peasants, or 'country peo-
ple1 in the Revolution are mostly very repetitive. Only a few are commend-
able. The best are Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution, and Katz, 'Rural
rebellions after 1810', in Riot, Rebellion, and Revolution. Also considerable
are S. R. W. Sanderson, Land Reform in Mexico, 19101980 (Orlando,
Fla., 1984); J. F. Leal, 'Campesinado, hacienda y estado en Mexico,
18561914', in R. T. J. Buve, ed., Haciendas in Central Mexico from Late
Colonial Times to the Revolution: Labour Conditions, Hacienda Management,

and its Relation to the State (Amsterdam, 1984), 161-98; and Pedro Gonza-
lez, 'Los primeros pactos y la construction de la legalidad: 19131917', in
O. Betanzos (ed.), Historia de la cuestion agraria mexicana, 9 vols. (Mexico,
D.F., 1988), vol. 3, Campesinos, terratenientesy revolucionarios, 19101920,
136206.
Another volume in Pablo Gonzalez Casanova's La clase obrera en la
historia de Mexico has appeared: J. F. Leal and J. Villasenor, En la revolution,
19101911 (Mexico, D.F., 1988). New broadly framed interpretive stud-
ies on workers and the labour movement in the Revolution include A.
Knight, 'The working class and the Mexican Revolution, c. 19001920',
JLAS, 16/1 (1984), 5179; M. Camareno and S. L. Adleson, 'Historia
social de los obreros industriales mexicanos, 19181929', Historias, 89
(1985), 6990; and J. M. Calderon, 'Historia social y fuerza de trabajo
durante la Revolution', Historias, 89 (1985), 12538. The other addi-
tions are specific or particular: P. Farrua, Gli anarchici nella rivoluzione
messicana: Praxedis G. Guerrero (Ragusa, 1976); E. Tunon Pablos, Huerta y
el movimiento obrero (Mexico, D.F., 1982); articles by Ceballos Ramirez,
HM, 33/1 (1983), and HM, 35/4 (1986); S. Hernandez Padilla, El
magonismo: Historia de una pasion libertaria (Mexico, D.F., 1984); the arti-
cles in V. Novelo (ed.), Arqueologia de la industria en Mexico (Mexico, D.F.,
n.d., c. 1985); Paco Ignacio Taibo, Bolshevikis: Historia narrativa de los
origenes del comunismo en Mexico (1919-1925) (Mexico, D.F., 1986); N.
Cardenas Garcia, 'Trabajadores y lucha por el poder politico en el gobierno
de Carranza: Los origenes de la acci6n multiple (1917-1920)', Secuencia, 6
(1986), 11-32; and E. Rajchenberg, 'La respuesta social al trabajo:
Indemnizacion a las actividades laborales en Mexico, 19101920', Se-
cuencia, 7 (1987), 24-47.
Interesting studies of other sorts of movements, e.g., urban riots, can
be found in M. Gonzalez Navarro, Cinco crisis mexicanas (Mexico, D.F.,
1983). Two commendable but quite different studies of women and their
struggles through the Revolution are A. Macias, Against All Odds: The
Feminist Movement in Mexico to 1940 (London, 1982); and D. Keremetsis,
'Del metate al molino: La mujer mexicana de 1910 a 1940', HM, 33/2
(1983), 2 8 5 - 3 0 2 .
BUSINESS, ECONOMY AND DEMOGRAPHY
For a comprehensive and annotated bibliography of most of the old and a

large part of the new literature on these subjects, see J. Womack, Jr.'s

article in Marxist Perspectives, cited above. Though somewhat frustrating,

D. G. Lopez Rosado, Historia y pensamiento economico de Mexico, 6 vols.
(Mexico, D.F., 196874) is indispensable.
The history of business in Mexico, in any period, is timid, meagre and
obscure. It is possible, however, to draw reasonable inferences and to find
significant details in studies done for other purposes. On industries impor-
tant during the Revolution, see Fred W. Powell, The Railroads of Mexico
(Boston, 1921); Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1890-
1950: A Study of the Interaction of Politics, Economics, and Technology (Albany,
N.Y., 1964); Manuel G. Machado, Jr., The North Mexican Cattle Industry,
19101975: Ideology, Conflict, and Change (College Station, Tex., 1980);
Gonzalo Camara Zavala, 'Historia de la industria henequenera hasta
1919', Enciclopedia Yucatanense, 8 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1947), 3, 657
725; and Enrique Aznar Mendoza, 'Historia de la industria henequenera
desde 1919 hasta nuestros dias', Enciclopedia Yucatanense, 3, 72787. On
banking, the most useful treatments are Antonio Manero, La revolucidn
bancaria en Mexico, 1865-1955 (Mexico, D.F., 1957); Walter F. McCaleb,
Present and Past Banking in Mexico (New York, 1920), and The Public
Finances of Mexico (New York, 1921); and Edgar Turlington, Mexico and
Her Foreign Creditors (New York, 1930). On companies and entrepreneurs,
see Benjamin T. Harrison, 'Chandler Anderson and business interests in
Mexico, 19131920: When economic interests failed to alter U.S. foreign
policy', Inter-American Economic Affairs, 33/3 (1979), 323; J. C. M.
Oglesby, Gringos from the Far North: Essays in the History of CanadianLatin
American Relations, 1866-1968 (Toronto, 1976); and Julio Riquelme
Inda, Cuatro dicadas de vida, 191J-195J (Mexico, D.F., 1957).
The most suggestive books about the structure and operation of the
economy during the Revolution remain C. L. Jones, Mexico and Its Recon-
struction (New York, 1921), and W Thompson, Trading with Mexico (New
York, 1921). Among notable studies in economic history are Donald B.
Keesing, 'Structural change early in development: Mexico's changing in-
dustrial and occupational structure from 1895 to 1950'', Journal of Economic
History, 29/4 (1969), 71638; and Edwin W. Kemmerer, Inflation and
Revolution: Mexico's Experience of 1912-1917 (Princeton, N.J., 1940). See
also Frederic Mauro, 'Le developpement economique de Monterrey, 1890
i960', Caravelle: Cahiers du monde hispanique et luso-bresilien, 2 (1964), 35
126; and Isidro Vizcaya Canales, Los origenes de la industrializacion de
Monterrey: Una historia economica y social desde la caida del segundo imperio
hasta el fin de la revolucidn, 1867-1920 (Monterrey, 1969).

The most important work on demography is Moises Gonzalez Navarro,

Poblacion y sociedad en Mexico (1900-1970), 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1974).
See also Robert G. Greer, 'The demographic impact of the Mexican Revo-
lution, 19101921', unpublished manuscript (1966).
New additions on demographic movements are L. B. Hall, 'El refugio:
Migration mexicana a los Estados Unidos, 19101920', Historicas, 8
(1982), 2338; and A. Fujigaki and A. Gonzalez Galvan, 'Epidemias
conocidas en Mexico durante el siglo xx', in E. Florescano and E. Malvido,
eds., Ensayos sobre la historia de las epidemias en Mexico, 2 vol. (Mexico,
D.F., 1982), vol. 2, 699723.
In the new literature on the economy, before, during, and after the
Revolution, the indispensable works are S. de la Pefia, 'Acumulacion
originaria y la nacion capitalista en Mexico: Ensayo de interpretacion', TE,
50/2 (1983), 71332;?. Rosenzweig, 'La evolution economica de Mexico,
18701940', TE, 56/1 (1989), 1156; and S. Haber, Industry and Under-
development: The Industrialization of Mexico, 18901940 (Stanford, Calif.,
1989). Also notable are J. Marquez, 'La banca en Mexico: 18301983',
TE, 50/4 (1983), 1873-1914; and E. Cardenas and C. Manns, 'Inflation
y estabilizacion monetaria en Mexico durante la revolution', TE, 56/1
(1989), 5779. Commendable on particular industries are D. M. Coerver
and L. B. Hall, 'La frontera y las minas en la revolution mexicana (1910
1920)', HM, 32/3 (1983), 389-421 and 'Oil and the Mexican Revolu-
tion: The southwestern connection', TA, 41/2 (1984), 22944; J. Brown,
'Domestic politics and foreign investment: British development of Mexi-
can petroleum, 1889-1911', BHR, 61/3 (1987), 471-96; and A. L.
Parra, 'Los origenes de la industria electrica en Mexico: Las companias
britanicas de electricidad (1900-1929)', Historias, 19 (1988), 137-58.
On businesses and businessmen, the most notable additions are H. J.
Nickel, 'Die Hacienda im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert: Ein Forschungs-
bericht zum Fall Mexiko', in G. Siebenmann (ed.), Die lateinamerikanische
Hacienda: Ihre Rolle in der Geschichte von Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft (Dies-
senhofen, 1979), 6198; A. Alonso, Los libaneses y la industria textil en
Puebla (Mexico, D.F., 1983); C. Gonzalez Pacheco, Capital extranjero en la
selva de Chiapas, 1863-1982 (Mexico, D.F., 1983); the articles by A.
Hernandez Chavez and H. W. Tobler in HM, 34/2 (1984); L. Gamboa,
Los empresarios de ayer: El grupo dominante de la industria textil de Puebla,
1906-1929 (Puebla, 1985); M. Wasserman, 'Enrique C. Creel: Business
and politics in Mexico, 18801930', BHR, 59/4 (1985), 645662; N.
Cardenas Garcia, 'La revolution mexicana y los inicios de la organization

empresarial (19171918)', Secuencia, 4 (1986), 10 23; M. del C. Collado,

La burguesia mexkana: El emporio Braniff y su participation politica, 1865
1920 (Mexico, D.F., 1987); Mario Ramirez Rancano, Burguesia textil y
politica en la revolution mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1987); H. Carton de Gram-
mont, 'La presencia norteamericana en el agro sinaloense en la primera
mitad del siglo xx', Secuencia, 7 (1987), 523; H. W. Konrad, 'Capital-
ismo y trabajo en los bosques de las tierras bajas tropicales mexicanas: El
caso de la industria del chicle', HM, 36/3 (1987), 465-506; A. M.
Saragoza, The Monterrey Elite and the Mexican State, 1880-1940 (Austin,
Tex., 1988); B. von Mentz, 'Empresas y empresarios alemanes en Mexico,
1821-1945, JGSWGL, 25(1988), 1-31.
THE PROVINCES
Contemporary scholarly literature on the provinces between 1910 and

1920 is abundant. Most of these studies are at once economic, social and
political, whatever their particular subject. Many are good. Some are
excellent.
On the Northeast, see S. L. Adleson, 'Identidad comunitaria y trans-
formation social: Estibadores y petroleros en Tampico (19001925)', Histo-
rias, 7 (1984), 29-44; M. Cerutti (ed.), Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, El Noreste:
Siete estudios histdricos (Monterrey, 1987); D. E. Lorey, 'Monterrey, Mexico,
during the Porfiriato and the Revolution: Population and migration
trends in regional evolution', SALA, 28 (1990), 11831203; and H. F.
Salamini, 'Tamaulipas: Land reform and the state', in Provinces of the
Revolution, 185217.
On the North the premier expert is Friedrich Katz. See his 'Villa:
Reform governor of Chihuahua', in G. Wolfskill and D. W. Richmond
(eds.), Essays on the Mexican Revolution: Revisionist Views of the Leaders (Aus-
tin, Tex., 1979), 2545; 'Pancho Villa, peasant movements and agrarian
reform in northern Mexico", in D. Brading, ed., Peasant and Caudillo in the
Mexican Revolution, cited above, 5975; and 'Pancho Villa y la Revolution
mexicana', RMS, 51/2 (1989), 8 7 - 1 1 3 . See alsoG. E. Paulsen, 'The legal
battle for the Candelaria mine in Durango, Mexico, 18901917', Arizona
and the West, 23/3 (1981), 243-66, and his 'Reaping the whirlwind in
Chihuahua: The destruction of the Minas de Corralitos, 1911-1917', New
Mexico Historical Review, 58/3 (1983), 253-70; C. H. Harris, III and L. R.
Sadler, "The 'underside' of the Mexican Revolution: El Paso, 1912', TA,
39/1 (1982), 6 9 - 8 3 ; O. Martinez (ed.), Fragments of the Mexican Revolu-

tion: Personal Accounts from the Border (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1983); W.

K. Meyers, 'La Comarca Lagunera: Work, protest, and popular mobiliza-
tion in north central Mexico', in T. Benjamin and W. McNellie (eds.),
Other Mexicos: Essays on Regional Mexican History, 18761911 (Albuquer-
que, N. Mex., 1984), 24374, and his 'Second division of the North:
Formation and fragmentation of the Laguna's Popular Movement, 1910
n ' , in Katz (ed.), Riot, Rebellion, and Revolution, 448-86; M. Vargas
Lobsinger, La hacienda de 'La Concha,' una empresa algodonera de la Laguna,
1883-1917 (Mexico, D.F., 1984); J. A. Sandos, 'Northern separatism
during the Mexican Revolution: An inquiry into the role of drug traffick-
ing, 19191920', TA, 41/2 (1984), 191-214; J. L. Sariego, 'Anarquismo
e historia social mineraen el norte de Mexico, 1906-1918', Historias, 8-9
(1985), 111-24; S. Terrazas, El verdadero Pancho Villa: El Centauro del
Norte, sus heroicas batallas y acciones revolucionarias (Mexico, D.F., 1985);
and M. E. Rocha Islas, Las defensas sociales en Chihuahua (Mexico, D.F.,
1988).
On the Northwest, see S. E. Sanderson, Agrarian Populism and the
Mexican State: The Struggle for Land in Sonora (Berkeley, 1981); C. Radding
de Murrieta (ed.), Historia general de Sonora, 5 vols. (1979-85), vol. 4,
Sonora moderno: 18801929 (Hermosillo, 1985), 'Sonora y los sonorenses:
El progreso social de la Revolucion de 1910', Secuencia, 3 (1985), 17-28
and 'Las estructuras formativas del capitalismo en Sonora (1900-1930)',
in M. Cerutti (ed.), De los Borbones a la revolucidn: Ocho estudios regionales
(Mexico, D.F., 1986), 229-65; E. Hu-DeHart, 'The Chinese of Baja
California, 1910-1934', Proceedings of the Pacific Coast Council on Latin
American Studies, 12 (1985-6), 9 - 3 0 ; and 'Peasant rebellion in the North-
west: The Yaqui Indians of Sonora, 17401976', in Riot, Rebellion, and
Revolution, 14176; and L. H. Hernandez Saenz, 'Smuggling for the
Revolution: Illegal traffic of arms on the ArizonaSonora border, 1912
1914', Arizona and the West, 28/4 (1986), 357377.
On the West, see B. Rojas, La destruccidn de la hacienda en Aguascalientes,
19101931 (Zamora, 1981); A. L. Craig, The First Agraristas: An Oral
History of a Mexican Agrarian Reform Movement (Berkeley, 1983); C. B. Gil,
Life in Provincial Mexico: National and Regional History Seen from Mascota,
Jalisco, 1867-1972 (Los Angeles, 1983); J. Meyer, 'Historia del reparto
agrario en Nayarit, 19151934', Encuentro, 3 (1986), 4356; and M.
Aldana Rendon, Jalisco desde la revolucion, vol. 1, Del reyismo al nuevo orden
constitucional; J. Tamayo, Jalisco desde la revolucion, vol. 2, La conformation
del estado moderno y los conflictos politicos, 19171929; L. P. Romero, Jalisco

desde la revolution, vol. 3 , La consolidation del estado y los conflictos politicos;
and J. Tamayo, Jalisco desde la revolution, vol. 4 , Los movimientos sociales,
19171929 (Guadalajara, 19879).
On Michoacan, the march between the West, the Bajio, the Center, and
the South, see H. Moreno Garcia, Guaracha: Tiempos viejos, tiempos nuevos
(Zamora, 1980); H. Moreno Garcia (ed.), Despues de los latifundios: La
desintegratidn de los grandes latifundios en Mexico (Zamora, 1982); A. Ochoa,
'Miguel de la Trinidad Regalado y la lucha por la tierra', Relationes, 15
(1983), 10919; and J. Uribe Salas, 'Mineria y poder empresarial en
Michoacan: La contrarevolucion en Tlalpujahua', Relationes, 32 (1987),
76-97.
On San Luis Postosi, see B. Rojas, Lapequena guerra: Los Carrera Torres y
los Cedillo (Zamora, 1983); D. Ankerson, Agrarian Warlord: Saturnino
Cedillo and the Mexican Revolution in San Luis Potaf/(DeKalb, 111., 1984); V.
Lerner, 'Las zozobras de los hacendados de algunos municipios del oriente
de San Luis Potosi (1910-1920)', HM, 36/2 (1986), 323-62, and 'La
suerte de las haciendas: Decadencia y cambio de propietarios (1910
1920)', HM, 36/4 (1987), 66198; R. Falcon, 'Charisma, tradition, and
caciquismo: Revolution in San Luis Potosi', in Riot, Rebellion, and Revolu-
tion, 41747, and 'San Luis Potosi: Confiscated estatesRevolutionary
conquests or spoils?', in Provinces of the Revolution, 13362.
On Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, and Puebla, see M. Bellingeri, 'L'economia del
latifondo in Messico: L'hacienda San Antonio Tochatlaco dal 1880 al
1920', Annali delta Fondazione Luigi Einaudi, 10 (1976), 287-428; H. J.
Nickel, 'Zur Immobilitat und Schuldknechtschaft mexikanischer Landar-
beiter vor 1915', Saeculum, 27/3 (1976), 289328, Soziale Morphologie der
mexikanischen Hacienda (Wiesbaden, 1978; Sp. trans., 1988), and 'Agricul-
tural laborers in the Mexican Revolution (1910-1940): Some hypotheses
and facts about participation and restraint in the highlands of Puebla-
Tlaxcala', in Riot, Rebellion, and Revolution, 376-416; R. T. J. Buve,
Boerenmobilisatie en landhervorming tijdens en na de Mexicaanse revolutie: De
vallei van Nativitas, Tlaxcala, tussen 1910 en 1940 (Amsterdam, 1977), 'El
movimiento revolucionario de Tlaxcala (1910-1914): Sus origenes y
desarrollo antes de la gran crisis del aiio 1914 (la rebelion arenista)',
Anuario de Humanidades, 8 (1984), 14183, 'Agricultores, domination
politica y estructura agraria en la revolution: El caso de Tlaxcala (1910
1918)', in Haciendas in Central Mexico, 199271, and ' "Neither Carranza
nor Zapata": The rise and fall of a peasant movement that tried to challenge
both, Tlaxcala, 19101918', in Riot, Rebellion, and Revolution, 33875;

F. J. Schryer, The Rancheros ofPisaflores: The History ofa Peasant Bourgeoisie in

Twentieth-Century Mexico (Toronto, 1980); M. Menegus Bomemann and
J. F. Leal, 'Las haciendas de Mazaquiahuac y El Rosario en los albores de la
revolucion agraria, 19101914', HM, 31/2 (1981), 23377, and 'La vio-
lencia armada y su impacto en la economia agricola del estado de Tlaxcala,
1915 1920', HM, 36/4 (1987), 595642; H. G. Mertens, Wirtschaftliche
und Soziale Strukturen Zentralmexikanischen Weizenhaciendas aus dem Tal von
Atlixco (18901912) (Wiesbaden, 1983); L. Rubluo, Historia de la revolu-
cion en el estado de Hidalgo, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 19835); R. Rendon
Garnici, 'La revolucion armada, vista por el administrador de dos haciendas
tlaxcaltecas (19101920)', in Haciendas in Central Mexico, 273307; I.
Laviada, Vida y muerte de un latifundio (Mexico, D.F., 1984); and D.
LaFrance, The Mexican Revolution in Puebla, 19081913: The Maderista
Movement and the Failure of Liberal Reform (Wilmington, Del., 1989).
On Mexico (the state), the Federal District, Morelos, and Guerrero,
i.e., Zapatista country, see M. Rosovsky (ed.), Documentos ineditos sobre
Emiliano Zapata y el cuartelgeneral (Mexico, D.F., 1979); V. Lopez Gonza-
lez, Los companeros de Zapata (Cuernavaca, 1980); A. Lira, Comunidades
indigenas frente a la ciudad de Mexico: Tenochtitldn y Tlatelolco, sus pueblos y
barrios, 18121919 (Zamora, 1983); G. Pena Roja et al. (eds.), El ejercito
campesino delsur: Ideologia, organizacidnyprograma (Mexico, D.F., 1982); A.
Mendieta Alatorre (ed.), Juana Belen Gutierrez de Mendoza, 18731942:
Extraordinaria precursora de la Revolucion mexicana (Cuernavaca, 1983); N.
Percheron, Problemes agraires de I'Ajusco: Sept communautes de banlieue de
Mexico, XVIeXXe siecles (Mexico, D.F., 1983); L. Espejel, 'El cuartel
general: Organo rector de la revoluci6n Zapatista, 1914 y 1915', in H.
Crespo (ed.), Morelos: Cinco siglos de historia regional (Cuernavaca, 1984),
25160; C. Gonzalez Herrera and A. Embriz Osorio, 'La reforma agraria y
la desaparicion de latifundio en el estado de Morelos, 19161927', in
Morelos, 28598; J. M. Lopez Victoria, Historia de la revolucion en Guerrero,
3 vols. (Chilpancingo, 1985); D. Dahlmann, Land und Freiheit: Mach-
novsiina und Zapatismo als Beispiele agrarrevolutiondrer Bewegungen (Stuttgart,
1986); and R. Avila Palafox, ^ Revolution en el Estado de Mexico? (Toluca,
1988).
On Oaxaca, see V. R. Martinez Vasquez (ed.), La revolucion en Oaxaca,
19001930 (Oaxaca, 1985); F. J. Ruiz Cervantes, La revolucion en Oaxaca:
El movimiento de la soberania (1915-1920) (Mexico, D.F., 1986); V. de la
Cruz, 'La rebelion de los juchitecos y uno de sus lideres: Che Gomez',
Historias, 17 (1987), 5772; P. Garner, La revolucion en la provincia: So-

berania estatal y caudillismo en las montanas de Oaxaca (Mexico, D.F., 1988),

and 'Oaxaca: The rise and fall of state sovereignty', in Provinces of the
Revolution, 16383.
On Veracruz, see S. Gonzalez Marin, Heribertojara: Un luchador obrero en
la revolucion mexicana, 18791917 (Mexico, D.F., 1984); J. Gonzalez Si-
erra, 'Revolution y derecho obrero: Veracruz 1914-1916', Anuario
(Universidad Veracruzana), 4 (1986), 11740; L. Alafita Mendez, Trabajo
y condition obrera en los campamentos petroleros de la Huasteca, 1900
1935', Anuario, 4(1986), 169207; R. Corzo Ramirez etal., . . . nuncaun
desleal: Candida Aguilar, 1889-1960 (Mexico, D.F., 1986); R. Falcon and
S. Garcia, La semiIla en el surco: Adalberto Tejeda y el radicalismo en Veracruz,
1883-1960 (Mexico, D.F., 1986); L. Alafita Mendez et al., Historia grafica
de la industriapetroleray sus trabajadores(i900-i938)(Xalapa., 1988); and B.
Garcia Diaz, Textiles del Valle de Orizaba (1880-1925): Cinco ensayos de
historia sindical y social (Xalapa, 1990).
On Chiapas, see R. Wasserstrom, Class and Society in Central Chiapas
(Berkeley, 1983); A. Garcia de Leon, Resistenciay Utopia: Memorialdeagravios
y cronica de revueltas y profecias acaecidas en la provincia de Chiapas durante los
ultimosquinientosanosdesuhistoria, 2 vols. (Mexico, 1985), vol. 2;J. de Vos,
Oro verde: La conquista de la selva lacandona por los madereros tabasquenos, 1822
1949 (Mexico, D.F., 1988); T. Benjamin, A Rich Land, a Poor People: Politics
and Society in Modern Chiapas (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1989).
On Yucatan, see L. Aboites, Le revolucion en Espita, 19101940: Micro-
historia de la formacion del estado de la revolucion (Mexico, D.F., 1982); H. D.
Chacon, 'Rural educational reform in Yucatan: From the Porfiriato to the
era of Salvador Alvarado, 19101918', TA, 42/2 (1985), 20728; A.
Wells, Yucatan's GildedAge: Haciendas, Henequen, and International Harvester,
i8601915 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1985); M. Bellingeri, 'Formacion y
circulation de la mercancia tierra-hombre en Yucatan (18801914)', Histo-
rias, 19 (1988), 109-18; G. M. Joseph and A. Wells, 'Yucatan: Elite
politics and rural insurgency', in Provinces of the Revolution, 93131, and
'Seasons of upheaval: The crisis of oligarchical rule in Yucatan, 1909
1915', in The Revolutionary Process, 16185.
CULTURE AND IMAGES
There is a large body of literature on the novel and the mural of the
Revolution. But these figments are almost entirely post-revolutionary
phenomena. Three novelists actually lived through the Revolution and

wrote memorably about it: M. Azuela, Obras completas, 3 vols. (Mexico,

D.F., 195860); M. L. Guzman, El dguila y la serpiente (Madrid, 1928),
and Memorias de Pancho Villa, 4 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 193840); and J.
Vasconcelos, Ulises criollo (Mexico, D.F., 1935), and La tormenta (Mexico,
D.F., 1936). Another useful contemporary account is John Reed, Insurgent
Mexico (New York, 1914). See also John D. Rutherford, Mexican Society
during the Revolution: A Literary Approach (Oxford, 1971), and Merle E.
Simmons, The Mexican Corrido as a Source of Interpretive Study of Modern
Mexico (18J01950) (Bloomington, Ind., 1957). The images are clearest
in the great photographic collection: Gustavo Casasola, Historia grdfica de
la revolucion mexicana, 19001970, 10 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1973), vols.
25. A highly significant study of the creation and absorption of images is
A. de los Reyes, Cine y sociedad en Mexico, 18961930 (Mexico, D.F.,
1981).
On the intelligentsia, the richest and most pointed, interesting, and
suggestive contemporary study is an essay by C. Monsivais, 'La aparicion
del subsuelo: Sobre la cultura de la Revolucion Mexicana', Historias, 89
(1985), 159-78. Also notable are H. C. Schmidt, The Roots of Lo Mexi-
cano: Self and Society in Mexican Thought, 19001934 (College Station,
Tex., 1978), and 'Los intelectuales de la revolucion desde otra perspec-
tiva', RMS, 51I1 (1989), 6 7 - 8 6 . Most interesting on official cultivations
and cults are I. V. O'Malley, The Myth of the Revolution: Hero Cults and the
Institutionalization of the Mexican State (West Haven, N.Y., 1986); and D.
Brading, 'Manuel Gamio y el indigenismo oficial en Mexico', RMS, *)\li
(1989), 267-84. On the production and uses of images, the most com-
mendable modern work is A. de los Reyes, Con Villa en Mexico: Testimonios
de camarografos norteamericanos en la revolution, 19111916 (Mexico, D.F.,
1985). Other additions along this line include P. J. Vanderwood and F. N.
Samponaro, Border Fury: A Picture Postcard Record of Mexico's Revolution and
U. S. War Preparedness, 1910-191J (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1988); and J.
Ruffinelli, 'Trenes revolucionarios: La mitologia del tren en el imaginario
de la revolucion', RMS, 51/2 (1989), 285-303.
11. MEXICO: REVOLUTION

AND RECONSTRUCTION IN THE 1920s
R. Potash, 'The historiography of Mexico since 1821', HAHR, 40/3(1960)

remains useful though it is now out of date. David M. Bailey, 'Revisionism

ii. Mexico in the 1920s 407
and the recent historiography of the Mexican Revolution', HAHR, 58/1

(1978) is an excellent recent survey of the literature on the Revolution. See
also Barry Carr, 'Recent regional studies of the Mexican Revolution',
LARR, 15/1 (1980) and W. D. Raat, The Mexican Revolution - An Annotated
Guide to Recent Scholarship (Boston, 1982). The proceedings of the regular
meetings of Mexican and U.S. historians are invaluable for their surveys of
recent research: from the Oaxtepec meeting in 1969, Investigaciones
contempordneas sobre historia de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., and Austin, Tex.,
1971); from Santa Monica in 1973, Contemporary Mexico (Los Angeles and
Mexico, D.F., 1976), from Patzcuaroin 1977, Eltrabajoy lostrabajadoresen
la bistoria de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., and Tucson, Ariz., 1979).
Among general works, Jorge Vera Estafiol, Historia de la revolucion mexi-
cana: Origenes y resultados (Mexico, D.F., 1957) remains useful if a little
old-fashioned and dull. Jose C. Valades, Historia general de la revolucion
mexicana, 5 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1976) is much more than a general
history: it is full of otherwise inaccessible material and brilliant insights.
John W. F. Dulles, Yesterday in Mexico: A Chronicle of the Revolution, 1919-
36 (Austin, Tex., 1961) is a detailed narrative account of the period.
Gustavo Casasola, Historia grdfica de la revolucion mexicana, 1900-1970, 10
vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1973) is an important collection of photographs.
Later syntheses include Adolfo Gilly, La revolucion interrumpida (Mexico,
D.F., 1972); Arnaldo Cordova, La ideologia de la revolucion mexicana (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1973), the best Marxist interpretation; Jean Meyer, La Revolu-
tion mexkaine (Paris, 1973); and Ramon E. Ruiz, The Great Rebellion (New
York, 1980).
The old classics by U.S. authors, many of whom had close relations
with Mexican leaders, are still indispensable, even though outdated:
Charles Hackett, The Mexican Revolution and the United States (Boston,
1926); Frank Tannenbaum, The Mexican Agrarian Revolution (Washington,
D.C., 1929) and Peace by Revolution (New York, 1933); Wilfrid Hardy
Callcott, Liberalism in Mexico, 1857-1929 (Stanford, Calif., 1931); E. N.
Simpson, The Ejido, Mexico's Way Out (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1937); and
Ernest Gruening, Mexico and Its Heritage (New York, 1928). Howard
Cline, The United States and Mexico (Cambridge, Mass., 1953) represents
the best of early U.S. scholarship on the Mexican Revolution. See also
Charles Cumberland, Mexico: The Struggle for Modernity (New York, 1968).
The best of Mexican revisionism can be found in Luis Gonzalez y
Gonzalez (ed.), Historia de la Revolucion Mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1977);
vol. 8 by Alvaro Matute is on the Obregon presidency (192024), vols.

10 and 11 by Enrique Krauze and Jean Meyer on the Calles administration

(19248), and vols. 12 and 13 by Lorenzo Meyer, Rafael Segovia,
Alejandra Lajous and Beatriz Rojas on the Maximato (192934). Peter
Smith, Labyrinth of Power: Political Recruitment in 20th Century Mexico
(Princeton, N.J., 1978), an important work by a U.S. political scientist,
illuminates the whole century and prepares a new theory of the revolution,
as apotheosis of the middle classes.
There are no definitive biographies of either Obregon or Calles. But see
Enrique Krauze, Alvaro Obregon, el vertigo de la victoria; Plutarco Elias Calles,
reformar desde el origen (Mexico, D.F., 1987). On Obregon's early career, see
Linda B. Hall, Alvaro Obregon: Power and Revolution in Mexico, 191120
(College Station, Tex., 1981). Narciso Bassols Batalla, Elpensamientopolitico
de Obregon (Mexico, D.F., 1967) is useful, as are Jorge Prieto Lauren's
memoirs, 50 anos depolitica mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1968) and Alberto J.
Pani, Mi contribucion al nuevo regimen 19101933 (Mexico, D.F., 1936). Jose
Vasconcelos is too important as a public figure and as a writer to be ne-
glected. See his memoirs in Obras completas, 4 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1957
61) and on particular episodes: Claude Te[l,JoseVasconcelos, los anos del dguila
(Mexico, D.F., 1989) and John Skirrius, Vasconcelos y la campana presidencial
de 1929 (Mexico, D.F., 1978). Francisco Javier Gaxiola, El Presidente Rodri-
guez (1932-1934) (Mexico, D.F., 1938) remains the best book on the last
administration of the Maximato. On Siqueiros, see Leonard Folgarait, So
Farfrom Heaven: David Alfaro Siqueiro's "The March ofHumanity" and Mexican
Revolutionary Politics (New York, 1987).
On Mexico's relations with the United States, Robert F. Smith, The
United States and Revolutionary Nationalism in Mexico 19191932 (Chicago,
1972) remains the best study for this period, although it is somewhat
weak on Mexican events. The Mexican point of view can be found in Luis
G. Zorrilla, Historia de las relaciones entre Mexico y los Estados Unidos de
America 18001958, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1965) and in Lorenzo Meyer,
Mexico y los Estados Unidos en el conflictopetrolero 191J1942 (Mexico, D.F.,
1968), Eng. trans. Mexico and the United States in the Oil Controversy, 1917
42 (Austin, Tex., 1977). George W. Grayson, The Politics of Mexican Oil
(Pittsburgh, Pa., 1980) is another contribution on this subject. See also
Jonathan C. Brown, Oil and Revolution in Mexico (Berkeley, 1993).
Regional and local politics have become an important new subject of
research. On the political bosses of the south-eastern states see, for exam-
ple, on Felipe Carrillo Puerto, Francisco Paoli and Enrique Montalvo, El
socialismo olvidado de Yucatan (Mexico, D.F., 1977), and Gilbert M. Jo-

ii. Mexico in the 1920s 409
seph, 'The fragile revolution: Cacique politics in Yucatan', LARR, 15/1

(1980) and Revolution from Without: Yucatan, Mexico and the United States
18801924 (Cambridge, Eng., 1982); on Garrido Canabal, Carlos Marti-
nez Assad, El laboratorio de la revolution (Mexico, D.F., 1979). David
Brading (ed.), Caudillo and Peasant in the Mexican Revolution (Cambridge,
Eng., 1980) includes case studies on Chihuahua, Guerrero, San Luis
Potosi, Michoacan, Veracruz, Tlaxcala, and Yucatan. See also Dudley
Ankerson, Agrarian Warlord, Saturnino Cedillo and the Mexican Revolution in
San Luis Potosi (DeKalb, 111., 1985); Ian Jacobs, Ranchero Revolt: The
Mexican Revolution in Guerrero (Austin, Tex., 1983); Gilbert M. Joseph,
Rediscovering the Past at Mexico's Periphery: Essays on the History of Modern
Yucatan (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1986); Beatriz Rojas, La pequena guerra: Los
Carrera Torres y los Cedillo (Zamora, 1983); breaking new ground in Mexi-
can local history, Luis Gonzalez y Gonzalez, Pueblo en vilo: Microhistoria de
San Jose de Gratia (Mexico, D.F., 1967), Eng. trans. San Jose de Gratia:
Mexican Village in Transition (Austin, Tex., 1974). Here the 1920s are
represented as the true revolutionary years at least in the western and
central states, but the revolution was regarded as a murderous apocalypse
by the rural population.
The standard accounts of the revolution were distorted by a failure to
take seriously the Cristero movement. But see David Bailey, Viva Cristo
Rey: The Cristero Rebellion and the ChurchState Conflict in Mexico (Austin,
Tex., 1974); Jean Meyer, La Cristiada, 3 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1978) and
The Cristero Rebellion: The Mexican People between Church and State, 1926-
1
929 (Cambridge, Eng., 1976).
Studies of labour in this period are scarce, but see El trabajo y los
trabajadores, mentioned above. Marjorie R. Clark, Organized Labor in Mex-
ico (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1934) remains the best work on the subject after
half a century; Alfonso L6pez Aparicio, El movimiento obrero en Mexico:
Antecedents, desarrollo y tendencias (Mexico, D.F., 1952) is a short but
classic account. Excellent for the period to 1924 is Barry Carr, El
movimiento obrero y la politica en Mexico, 191029, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F.,
1976). See also Ramon E. Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries,
Mexico 1911192} (Baltimore, 1976).
The economic, social and political history of rural Mexico in this period
has still for the most part to be written. Paul Taylor, Arandas, Spanish
Mexican Peasant Community (Berkeley, 1933) was a pioneer work, and
Nathan L. Whetten, Rural Mexico (Chicago, 1948) is excellent. See also
Simpson, The Ejido, and Tannenbaum, The Mexican Agrarian Revolution,

4io VI. Economy, society, politics, c. 1870 to 1930
mentioned above. Marte R. Gomez, La reforma agraria de Mexico: Su crisis
durante el periodo 19281934 (Mexico, D.F., 1964) was written by a
political actor of the period. Paul Friedrich, Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican
Village (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1970) is an important study of Michoacan
during the 1920s. Important recent publications in this field include:
Heather Fowler Salamini, Agrarian Racialism in Veracruz, 1920-1938 (Lin-
coln, Nebr., 1978); Frans J. Schryrer, The Rancheros of the Pisaflores: The
History of a Peasant Bourgeoisie in Twentieth Century Mexico (Toronto, 1980);
Ann L. Craig, The First Agraristas: An Oral History of a Mexican Agrarian
Reform Movement (Berkeley, 1983); Beatriz Rojas La destruccion de la haci-
enda en Aguascalientes 1910-1931 (Zamora, Mex., 1981); and John
Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico: Social Bases of Agrarian
Violence, IJ50-1940 (Princeton, N.J., 1987).
12. C E N T R A L AMERICA
There is an extensive bibliographical essay in R. L. Woodward, Jr., Cen-

tral America: A Nation Divided, 2nd ed. (New York, 1985). There are also
good bibliographies on each republic. See, for example, Charles Stansifer,
Costa Rica (Oxford, 1991); Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., El Salvador (Oxford,
1988); Pamela Howard-Reguindin, Honduras (Oxford, 1992); and for
Nicaragua, Latin American Bibliographic Foundation, Nicaraguan Na-
tional Bibliography, 1800-1978 (Redlands, Calif, 1986-7).
Three books provide a general view of the period 18701930: Mario
Rodriguez, Central America (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1965), which is rather
favourable to U.S. policies in the isthmus; Woodward, Central America; and
Ciro Cardoso and Hector Perez Brignoli, Centroamerica y la economia occidental
(15201930) (San Jose, C.R., 1977). See also the relevant chapters of
Hector Perez Brignoli, Breve historia de Centroamerica (Madrid, 1985), Vic-
tor Bulmer-Thomas, The Political Economy of Central America since 1920
(Cambridge, Eng., 1987), and James Dunkerley, Power in the Isthmus. A
Political History of Modern Central America (London, 1988). The best general
book on an individual Central American state is David Browning, El Salva-
dor: Landscape and Society (Oxford, 1971).
On the Central American coffee economies, see C. Cardoso, 'Historia
econ6mica del cafe en Centroamerica (siglo XIX): Estudio comparativo',
ESC, 4/10 (1975), 9~55- On coffee in Guatemala in the second half of the
nineteenth century, see Julio Castellanos Cambranes, Cafe y campesinos en

12. Central America 411
Guatemala, 1853-1897 (Guatemala City, 1985). On the banana planta-

tions, general works are Stacy May and Galo Plaza, The United Fruit
Company in Latin America (Washington, D.C., 1958), which is favourable
to the company; Charles Kepner, Social Aspects of the Banana Industry (New
York, 1936), and Kepner and Jay Soothill, The Banana Empire (New York,
I
935) which are far more critical. See also Thomas Karnes, Tropical
Enterprise: Standard Fruit and Steamship Company in Latin America (Baton
Rouge, La., 1978).
By far the best publications on economic history are for Guatemala and
Costa Rica. For Guatemala, see Alfredo Guerra Borges, Geografia economica
de Guatemala, 2 vols. (Guatemala City, 1973); Valentin Solorzano,
Evolucion economica de Guatemala (Guatemala City, 1970); Sanford A. Mosk
et al., Economia de Guatemala (Guatemala City, 1958); Mauricio Dom-
inguez T., 'The development of the technological and scientific coffee
industry in Guatemala 18301930' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Univer-
sity of Tulane, 1970); Julio Castellanos Cambranes, Aspectos del desarrollo
economico y social de Guatemala a la luz de fuentes historicas alemanas 1868
1885 (Guatemala City, 1975) and El imperialists alemdn en Guatemala: El
tratado de comercio de I88J (Guatemala City, 1977); Roberto Quintana,
Apuntes sobre el desarrollo monetario de Guatemala (Guatemala City, 1971).
For Costa Rica, see Rodrigo Facio, Estudio sobre economia costarricense, 2nd
ed. (San Jose, C.R., 1972), still useful after more than 30 years; Alain
Vieillard-Baron, La production agricole et la vie rurale au Costa Rica (Mexico,
D.F., 1974); C. Cardoso, 'The formation of the coffee estate in nineteenth-
century Costa Rica', in Kenneth Duncan and Ian Rutledge (eds.), Land
and Labour in Latin America (Cambridge, Eng., 1975), 165202; Carolyn
Hall, El cafe y el desarrollo histdrico-geogrdfico de Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R.,
1976) and Formacidn de una hacienda cafetalera 18891911 (Sanjose, C.R.,
1978), the best texts available on the coffee economy of Costa Rica; Ana
Cecilia Roman Trigo, 'El comercio exterior de Costa Rica (18831930)'
(unpublished thesis, Universidad de Costa Rica, 1978); Thomas Schoon-
over, 'Costa Rican trade and navigation ties with the United States, Ger-
many and Europe, 1840 to 1885', JGSWGL, 14 (1977), 269-308, which
argues for an earlier U.S. pre-eminence in commercial matters than is
usually recognized; Carlos Araya Pochet, 'El segundo ciclo minero en
Costa Rica (1890-1930)' (Universidad de Costa Rica, San Jose, 1976,
mimeo); Rufino Gil Pacheco, Ciento cinco anos de vida bancaria en Costa
Rica, 3rd ed. (San Jose, C.R., 1975). See also Lowell Gudmundson,
Hacendados, politicos y precaristas: La ganaderia y el latifundismo guanacasteco,

412 VI. Economy, society, politics, c. z8jo to 1930
18001950 (San Jose, C.R., 1984); Mario Samper, Generations of Settlers:

Rural Households and Markets on the Costa Rican Frontier, 1850-1935 (Boul-
der, Colo., 1990); Carol Smith (ed.), Guatemalan Indians and the State,
1540-1988 (Austin, Tex., 1990); and David McCreery, ' "An odious
feudalism": Mandamiento labor and commercial agriculture in Guatemala,
1850-1920', LAP, 13/1 (1986), 99-117.
On the economic history of Honduras, see Charles A. Brand, 'The
background of capitalistic underdevelopment: Honduras to 1913' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. thesis, University of Pittsburgh, 1972); Vilma Lainez and
Victor Meza, 'El enclave bananero en la historia de Honduras', ESC, 2/5
(1973), 11556; Jorge Morales, 'El Ferrocarril Nacional de Honduras: Su
historia e incidencia sobre el desarrollo economico', ESC, 1/2 (1972), 7
20; Kenneth V. Finney, In Quest of El Dorado: Precious Metal Mining and the
Modernization of Honduras, 1880-1900 (New York, 1987); Historia finan-
ciera de Honduras (Tegucigalpa, 1957). On El Salvador, see in particular
Browning, El Salvador; David A. Luna, Manual de historia economica de El
Salvador (San Salvador, 1971); E. Bradford Burns, 'The modernization of
underdevelopment: El Salvador, 1858-1931', Journal of Developing Areas,
18/3 (1984), 293-316; Hector Lindo-Fuentes, Weak Foundations: The Econ-
omy of El Salvador in the Nineteenth Century, 1821-1898 (Berkeley, 1990);
also Legislation salvadorena del cafe', 1846-1955 (San Salvador, 1956). And,
on Nicaragua, see Jeffrey Gould, To Lead as Equals: Rural Protest and
Political Consciousness in Chinandega, Nicaragua, 1912-19J9 (Chapel Hill,
N . C . , 1990); Pedro Belli, 'Proleg6menos para una historia economica de
Nicaragua de 1905 a 1966', Revista del Pensamiento Centroamericano, 30/146
(1975), 2 - 3 0 .
The social history of Central America has been studied more by anthro-
pologists and sociologists than by historians. Nevertheless see David
McCreery, ' "This life of misery and shame": Female prostitution in Guate-
mala City, 18801920', JLAS, 18/2 (1986), 333-53; Jose L. Vega
Carballo, 'El nacimiento de un regimen de burguesia dependiente: El caso
de Costa Rica', ESC, 2/5 and 6 (1973); James Backer, La iglesia y el
sindicalismo en Costa Rica, 2nd ed. (San Jose, C.R., 1975); Mario Posas,
Las sociedades artesanales y los origenes del movimiento obrero hondureno (Te-
gucigalpa, 1978); Roque Dal ton, Miguel Mdrmol: Los sucesos de 1932 en El
Salvador (San Jose, C.R., 1972); Thomas P. Anderson, Matanza: El Salva-
dor's Communist Revolt of 1932 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1971) and El Salvador 1932
(San Jose, C.R., 1976). Edelberto Torres Rivas, Interpretation del desarrollo
social centroamericano (San Jose, C.R., 1971), which is somewhat outdated

13- Cuba 413
by recent research on economic and political history, still offers an interest-

ing general interpretation.
On political history, a general overview is offered by Edelberto Torres
Rivas, "Poder nacional y sociedad dependiente: las clases y el estado en
Centroamerica', ESC, 3/8 (1974), 2 7 - 6 3 . On the United States and Cen-
tral America, see Thomas Schoonover, The United States in Central America,
1860-1911: Episodes of Social Imperialism and Imperial Rivalry in the World
System (Durham, N.C., 1991). And on the Comintern and Central Amer-
ica, see Rodolfo Cerdas Cruz, La hoz y el machete (San Jose, C.R., 1986);
Eng. trans. The Communist International in Central America, 19201936
(London, 1993).
There are a number of works on the Guatemalan Liberal reforms: Jorge
M. Garcia L., La reforma liberal en Guatemala (Guatemala City and San
Jose, C.R., 1972); Thomas R. Herrick, Desarrollo economico y politico de
Guatemala durante elperiodo dejusto Rufino Barrios (18711885) (San Jose,
1974); Paul Burgess, Justo Rufino Barrios (San Jose, C.R., 1972); Roberto
Diaz Castillo, Legislacidn economica de Guatemala durante la reforma liberal:
Catalogo (Guatemala City and San Jose, C.R., 1973); David McCreery,
Development and the State in Reforma Guatemala, 18JI-1885 (Athens, Ohio,
1983). On Costa Rican political history, Samuel Stone, La dinastia de los
conquistadores (San Jose, C.R., 1975); Eng. trans., The Heritage of the Con-
quistadors: Ruling Classes in Central America from the Conquest to the Sandinis-
tas (Lincoln, Nebr., 1990) is outstanding. See also Jose L. Vega C., 'Etapas
y procesos de la evoluci6n sociopolitica de Costa Rica', ESC, ill (1972),
4 5 - 7 2 . About the Honduran Liberal reforms there are two opposing
views: Hector Perez Brignoli, 'La reforma liberal en Honduras', Cuaderno
de Ciencias Sociales, 1/2 (1973), 2 - 8 6 , and Guillermo Molina Chocano,
Estado liberal y desarrollo capitalista en Honduras (Tegucigalpa, 1976).
13. CUBA
Among general histories, the Enciclopedia de Cuba, 12 vols. (Madrid,

1975), edited in exile by several Cuban scholars and writers, is an uneven
work which contains some valuable essays. Ramiro Guerra y Sanchez et
al., Historia de la nacion cubana, 10 vols. (Havana, 1952), is a compilation
of essays by different authors which occasionally provides excellent infor-
mation. Jorge Ibarra, Historia de Cuba (Havana, 1968) is a Marxist interpre-
tation. Levi Marrero, Cuba: Economia y sociedad, 9 vols. (Madrid, 1976)

414 VZ. Economy, society, politics, c. i8jo to 1930
contains the results of some excellent research but is in desperate need of

organization. Jose Duarte Oropesa, Historiologia cubana, 4 vols. (Miami,
1974) is a good contribution, rendered less valuable by the author's reluc-
tance to display his sources. Hortensia Pichardo, Documentospara la historia
de Cuba, 4 vols. (Havana, 1976), selected with some Marxist bias, in-
cludes otherwise inaccessible documents. Jose Manuel Perez Cabrera,
Historiografia de Cuba (Mexico, D.F., 1952) is a valuable guide to the
literature on Cuba in the nineteenth century. Fernando Portuondo, Histo-
ria de Cuba (Havana, 1957) was considered the best textbook in Cuba until
i960. Oscar Pino Santos, Historia de Cuba, aspectos fundamental (Havana,
1964) seeks to explain Cuba's economic development or lack of it from a
Marxist perspective. Emeterio Santovenia and Raul Shelton, Cuba y su
historia, 4 vols. (Miami, 1965) is a clear and reliable work by a Cuban and
a North American historian. Jaime Suchlicki, Cuba, from Columbus to
Castro (New York, 1974) is a good, unpretentious overview of Cuban
history. In spite of a certain tendency to disregard Cuban sources, Hugh
Thomas, Cuba or the Pursuit of Freedom (London, 1971) remains the most
complete history of the island from 1762 to 1968. The most recent
general history is Louis A. Perez, Jr., Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution
(New York, 1988).
On relations with the United States, Russell H. Fitzgibbon, Cuba and the
United States, 1900193 j (Menasha, Wis., 1935) is a well-documented and
serious attempt to analyse the different factors which shaped Cuban-
American relations while the Platt Amendment was still in force. Herminio
Portell Vila, Historia de Cuba en sus relaciones con los Estados Unidosy Espana, 4
vols. (Havana, 1939) is an important study which goes beyond the scope of
its title. Philip S. Foner, A History of Cuba and Its Relations with the United
States, 2 vols. (New York, 19623), is an ambitious, well-researched
though anti-American work. Lester D. Langley, The Cuban Policy of the
United States: A Brief History (New York, 1968) and Louis A. Perez, Jr.,
Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy (Athens, Ga., 1990) are
excellent surveys. In Robert F. Smith, The United States and Cuba: Business
and Diplomacy, 19171960 (New Haven, Conn., i960), published under
the impact of the Cuban revolution, the author demonstrates how American
economic interests have affected and distorted U.S. policy toward Cuba. See
also Jules R. Benjamin, The United States and Cuba: Hegemony and Dependent
Development, 188019)4 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1977). Still valuable is Dana G.
Munro, Intervention and Dollar Diplomacy in the Caribbean 19001921
(Princeton, N.J., 1964).

13. Cuba 415
Ramiro Guerra y Sanchez, Sugar and Society in the Caribbean: An Economic
History of Cuban Agriculture (New Haven, Conn., 1964), originally pub-
lished in Cuba in 1927, is an indictment of sugar's impact on the island's
social and economic conditions; it has had a profound influence on Cuban
studies. Leland H. Jenks, Our Cuban Colony (New York, 1928) is a classic
on the impact of American economic imperialism in Cuba. Raymond L.
Buell, Problems of the New Cuba (New York, 1935) is perhaps the best study
on the origins of Cuba's economic problems in the twentieth century.
Roland T. Ely, Cuando reinaba su majestadel aziicar (Buenos Aires, 1963) is
an indispensable work on Cuba's sugar development. H. E. Friedlander,
Historia economica de Cuba (Havana, 1944) is an interesting but incomplete
study of Cuba's economic history, limited essentially to the nineteenth
century. Julian Alienes y Urosa, Caracteristicas fundamentales de la economia
cubana (Havana, 1950) is an important contribution to understanding
Cuba's economic problems from colonial times to 1940. Lowry Nelson,
Rural Cuba (Minneapolis, Minn., 1950) is a pioneer study on the agrarian
situation in Cuba in the first half of the twentieth century. Jose Alvarez et
al., Study on Cuba (Miami, 1963) is a serious piece of research, full of
reliable data and debatable interpretations. Raul Cepero Bonilla, Azucar y
abolicion (Havana, 1948) is a study of the economic roots of abolitionist
and autonomist movements in the nineteenth century. Rebecca J. Scott,
Slave Emancipation in Cuba: The Transition to Free Labor, i8601899 (Prince-
ton, N.J., 1985) is the outstanding modern account of the abolition of
slavery in Cuba and its aftermath. Julio Le Riverand, Historia economica de
Cuba (Buenos Aires, 1963) is a cautious Marxist interpretation of Cuba's
economic evolution until 1940. Oscar Pino Santos, El asalto a Cuba par la
oligarquia yanki (Havana, 1973) is interesting, in spite of the vehement
title, because it explores the presence and negative influence in Cuba of
non-American capitalist groups. For a full discussion of the Cuban sugar
industry in the period c. 1860-c. 1930, see Manuel Moreno Fraginals,
'Plantation economies and societies in the Spanish Caribbean, i860
1930', in CHLA Vol. IV (1986).
The two classic histories of the Ten Years' War (1868-78) by Cuban
historians are Ramiro Guerra y Sanchez, Guerra de los Diez Anos (Havana,
1950) and Francisco Ponte Dominguez, Historia de la Guerra de los Diez
Anos (Havana, 1972). Among a number of biographies, Jose L. Franco,
Antonio Maceo: Apuntes para una historia de su vida, 3 vols. (Havana, 1973)
and Benigno Souza, Maximo Gomez, elgeneralismo (Havana, 1953) deserve
mention. The political ideas and legislative problems of the Cuban rebels

are studied in Enrique Hernandez Corujo, Revoluciones cubanas: Organiza-

tion civil y politica (Havana, 1929) and Historia constitutional de Cuba (Ha-
vana, i960); Ramon Infiesta, Historia constitutional de Cuba (Havana,
1942); and Andres Lazcano y Mazon, Las constituciones de Cuba (Madrid,
1952). For the texts of the different constitutions, see Leonel Antonio de
la Cuesta and Rolando Alum Linera (eds.), Constituciones cubanas, 1812
1962 (New York, 1974).
The most recent account of the period between the Ten Years' War and
the War of Independence (18958) and U.S. occupation of Cuba is Louis
A. Perez, Jr., Cuba Between Empires, 1878-1902 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1983).
See also two articles by Perez, 'Toward dependency and revolution: The
political economy of Cuba between wars, 18781895', LARR, 18/1
(1983), 12742, and 'Vagrants, beggars and bandits: The social origins of
Cuban separatism, 1878-1895', AHR, 90/1 (1985), 1092-1121. The
autonomistas have been studied, with excessive emphasis on the philosophi-
cal influences upon them, in Antonio Martinez Bello, Origen y meta del
autonomismo: Exegesis de Montoro (Havana, 1952); see also Antonio Sanchez
de Bustamante y Montoro, La ideologia autonomista (Havana, 1934) and an
exposition of the party's aims, Rafael Montoro, Ideario autonomista (Ha-
vana, 1938). On banditry, see Louis A. Perez, Jr., Lords of the Mountain:
Social Banditry and Peasant Protest in Cuba, 1878-1918 (Pittsburgh, Pa.,
1989) and Rosalie Schwartz, Lawless Liberators: Political Banditry and Cu-
ban Independence (Durham, N.C., 1989).
Rafael Perez Delgado, 1898, el aiio del desastre (Madrid, 1976) reaches
some sombre conclusions on the conditions of the Spanish forces and the
behaviour of the Spanish government and press. Mercedes Cervera Rodri-
guez, La guerra naval del 98 en su planeamiento y en sus consecumcias (Madrid,
1977), and Jose Cervera Pery, Mariana y politica en la Espana del siglo XIX
(Madrid, 1979), are useful modern studies. Jose Manuel Allende Salazar,
El 98 de los americanos (Madrid, 1974) is a serious attempt by a Spanish
historian to understand the U.S. side. A general background to Spanish
politics is provided by Melchor Fernandez Almagro, Historia politica de la
Espana contemporanea, 2 vols. (Madrid, 1959) and Pedro Gomez Aparicio,
Historia del periodismo espanol, 2 vols. (Madrid, 1971).
There are four biographies of Jose Marti in English: Jorge Manach,
Marti: Apostle of Freedom (New York, 1950); Felix Lizaso, Marti, Martyr of
Cuban Independence (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1953); Richard Butler Gray,
Jose Marti, Cuban Patriot (Gainesville, Fla., 1962) and John M. Kirk,
Marti: Mentor of the Cuban Nation (Tampa, Fla., 1983). See also Christo-

13- Cuba 417
pher Abel and Nissa Torrents (eds.), Jose Marti, Revolutionary Democrat
(London, 1986). Encumbered by philosophical quotations but useful is
Roberto Agramonte, Marti y su conception del mundo (San Juan, P.R.,
1971). Emilio Roig de Luechsenring, Marti anti-imperialista (Havana,
1961) and Philip S. Foner (ed.),Jose Marti, Inside the Monster: Writings on
the United States and American Imperialism (New York, 1975), stress Marti's
well-known anti-imperialism. From a different perspective, but less schol-
arly, Rafael Estenger, Marti /rente al comunismo (Miami, 1966) studies
Marti's rejection of Marxism. Marti: El heroe y su action revolucionaria
(Mexico, D.F., 1966), by the Argentine writer Ezequiel Martinez Estrada,
is a more balanced vision of Marti's radicalism. For a short bilingual
collection of Marti's ideas, see Carlos Ripoll, Jose Marti (New York, 1980).
Marti's writings can be consulted in his Obras completas, 2 vols. (Havana,
1956), or in the 22-volume edition published in Havana in 1973.
Among the older North American studies of the SpanishAmerican
war, Walter Millis, The Martial Spirit: A Study of the War with Spain (New
York, 1931) remains important. Frank Freidel, The Splendid Little War
(Boston, 1958) is more important for the illustrations than the analysis.
Philip S. Foner, The Spanish-CubanAmerican War and the Birth of Ameri-
can Imperialism, 2 vols. (New York, 1972), while showing the Marxist
orientation of the author, has the merit of offering the Cuban side in the
conflict. Julius Pratt, Expansionists of 1898 (Baltimore, 1936) is a classic
study on the ideas and economic interests behind the war. See also, more
recently, Ernest R. May, Imperial Democracy: The Emergence of America as a
Great Power (New York, 1973) and Charles S. Campbell, The Transforma-
tion of American Foreign Relations, 18651900 (New York, 1976).
David F. Healy, The United States in Cuba, 1898-1902 (Madison, Wis.,
1963) is the best North American study on the subject. Emilio Roig de
Leuchsenring, Historia de la Enmienda Platt, 2 vols. (Havana, 1935; 2nd
ed., 1961) is extremely anti-American. A more objective evaluation is
provided in Manuel Marquez Sterling, Proceso histdrico de la Enmienda Platt
(Havana, 1941). On the emergence of an ephemeral Socialist party under
U.S. occupation, see Jose Rivero Mufiiz, El primer Partido Socialista Cubano
(Las Villas, Cuba, 1962). Eduardo J. Tejera, Diego Vicente Tejera, patriota,
poeta y pensador cubano (Madrid, 1981) is a biography of the founder of the
Socialist party. On the impact of war and occupation on agrarian struc-
tures, see Louis A. Perez, Jr., 'Insurrection, intervention and the transfor-
mation of land tenure systems in Cuba, 1895-1902', HAHR, 65/2
(1985), 229-54.

General works on the Republic, 1902-33, include Carleton Beals, The

Crime of Cuba (Philadelphia, 1933), written when dictator Machado was in
power; the author blames U.S. economic penetration for the Cuban politi-
cal tragedy. Charles E. Chapman, History of the Cuban Republic (New York,
1927) is a historical reflection of the island conditions as seen by a North
American, at a time when nationalism was at a low ebb and pessimism was
rampant in Cuba. Louis A. Perez, Jr., Cuba under the Platt Amendment,
1902-1934 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1986) is the outstanding work of modern
scholarship by a North American historian. An interesting Cuban study is
Jorge Ibarra, Un andlisispsicosocial del cubano, 1898-1925 (Havana, 1985).
Louis A. Perez, Jr., Army and Politics in Cuba, 1898-1958 (Pittsburgh,
Pa., 1976) is an interesting account of the rise and fall of the Cuban army,
but stronger on the period after 1933. Mario Riera Hernandez, Cuba
republicana, 1898-1958 (Miami, 1974) provides a useful chronology and
political guide. On Estrada Palma, the first president of the Republic, see
Carlos Marquez Sterling, Don Tomds: Biografia de una epoca (Havana,
1953). A valuable defence of the Magoon administration, so severely
criticized by the majority of Cuban historians, is provided by David A.
Lockmiller, Magoon in Cuba (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1938). The best study on
the period remains Allan Reed Millet, The Politics of Intervention: The
Military Occupation of Cuba, 19061909 (Columbus, Ohio, 1968).
The period from 1908 to 1925, covering the presidencies of Jose Mi-
guel G6mez, Mario G. Menocal and Alfredo Zayas, has been neglected by
Cuban historians. Louis A. Perez, Jr., Intervention, Revolution, and Politics
in Cuba, 1913-1921 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1978) is an excellent study of the
period, demonstrating how Cuban politicians learned to 'manipulate' U.S.
diplomacy, but making some sweeping generalizations about Cuban poli-
tics. Leon Primelles, Cronica cubana, 1915-1918 (Havana, 1955) is a
detailed chronology of Menocal's last years in power. Jose Rivero Muriiz
examines the beginning of organized labour under the Republic in El
movimiento laboral cubano durante el periodo 19061911 (Las Villas, Cuba,
1962). On the rebellion of black groups in 1912, see Serafin Portuondo
Linares, Los independientes de color, 2nd ed. (Havana, 1951) and Rafael
Fermoselle, Politica y color: La guerrita de 1912 (Montevideo, 1974).
Machado's government and the revolutionary episode of 1933 have at-
tracted considerable scholarly attention. See, for example, Luis E. Aguilar,
Cuba 1933: Prologue to Revolution (Ithaca, N.Y., 1972); Jules R. Benjamin,
'The "Machadato" and Cuban nationalism, 1928-1932', HAHR, 55/1
(1975), 6 6 - 9 1 ; Ana Cairo, El grupo minorista y su tiempo (Havana, 1979);

14- Puerto Rico 419
Ladislao Gonzalez Carbajal, El ala izquierda estudiantil y su epoca (Havana,

1974); Jose A. Tabares del Real, Guiteras (Havana, 1973) and La Revolucion
del 30: Sus dos ultimos anos (Havana, 1971); Lionel Soto, La Revolucion del 33,
3 vols. (Havana, 1977); Jaime Suchlicki, University Students and Revolution in
Cuba (Miami, 1969); Irwin F. Gellman, Roosevelt and Batista (Albuquerque,
N.Mex., 1973); and Centre Interuniversitaire d'Etudes Cubaines (Univer-
site de Paris III), Les annees trente a Cuba (Paris, 1982).
14. PUERTO RICO
Useful bibliographical works include Augusto Bird, Bibliografia puertorri-

quena de fuentes para investigaciones sociales 1930-45 (Rio Piedras, 1947)
and J. Bulnes and E. Gonzalez-Diaz (eds.), Bibliografia puertorriquena de
ciencias sociales (Rio Piedras, 1977). The latter classifies, according to
subject, books and articles written from 1931 to i960, many of which
deal with or refer to the period before 1930. See also Paquita Viv6 (ed.),
The Puerto Ricans: An Annotated Bibliography (New York, 1973) which
comprises a very limited selection of entries, but contains useful commen-
taries. A. G. Quintero-Rivera (ed.), Lucha obrera: Antologia de grandes
documentos en la historia obrera puertorriquena (San Juan, 1971), Eng. trans.
Workers' Struggle in Puerto Rico, a Documentary History (New York, 1976), a
collection of documents on the labour movement mostly in the period
18701940, includes a detailed and annotated bibliography of the labour
literature of the period. By the same author see Historia del analisis social
en Puerto Rico, bibliografia temdtica (San Juan, P.R., 1990), mainly on
intellectual history.
Gordon K. Lewis, Puerto Rico: Freedom and Power in the Caribbean (New
York, 1963) is an important general survey of the history of Puerto Rico
which evaluates the principal studies of the island since the end of Spanish
rule (1898). On Puerto Rican intellectual history in the late nineteenth
century, see also Gordon K. Lewis, Main Currents in Caribbean Thought:
The Historical Evolution of Caribbean Society in its Ideological Aspects 1492
1900 (Baltimore, 1983) and, for the first decades of the twentieth century,
Arcadio Diaz-Quinones, El almuerzo en la hierba (San Juan, P.R., 1982)
and 'Tomas Blanco: Racismo, historia, esclavitud' in T. Blanco, Elprejuicio
racial en Puerto Rico (San Juan, P.R., 1985). Manuel Maldonado-Denis,
Puerto Rico: Una interpretacion historica social (Mexico, D.F., 1969), Eng.
trans. Puerto Rico: A Socio-historic Interpretation (New York, 1972), includes

a good general (but not in-depth) presentation of the political history of

Puerto Rico. A. Lopez and J. Petras (eds.), Puerto Rico and Puerto Ricans
(New York, 1974) and A. L6pez (ed.), The Puerto Ricans: Their History,
Culture and Society (Cambridge, Mass., 1980) are general readers which
include good articles on the period 1870-1940, both general and mono-
graphic. Very useful and based mainly on recent research by numerous
authors is James Dietz, Economic History of Puerto Rico (Princeton, N.J.,
1986). Also important, mainly as polemical interpretive essays, with
much new material and ideas, are A. G. Quintero-Rivera, Conflictos de clase
y politica en Puerto Rico (San Juan, P R . , 1976), Patricks y plebeyos: Burgueses,
hacendados, artesanos y obreros (San Juan, P.R., 1988) and 'Background to
the emergence of imperialist capitalism in Puerto Rico', Caribbean Studies,
13/3 (1973); A. G. Quintero-Rivera et al., Puerto Rico: Identidad nacionaly
clases sociales (San Juan, P.R., 1979); and Jose Luis Gonzalez, El pats de
cuatro pisos (San Juan, P.R., 1980; Eng. trans., 1993). Reece Bothwell,
Puerto Rico: Cien anos de luchapolitica (San Juan, P. R., 1979) is a very useful
compilation of political documents.
Laird W. Bergad, 'Agrarian history of Puerto Rico, 18701930',
LARR, 13/3 (1978), 63-94 IS a n important article; see also his book,
Coffee and the Growth of Agrarian Capitalism in 19th Century Puerto Rico
(Princeton, N.J., 1983). Other studies of late-nineteenth-century coffee
haciendas worthy of mention include: Vivian Carro, Formacidn de la gran
propiedad cafetalera: La Hacienda Pietri, 18381898, which constitutes the
entire issue of Anales de Investigacidn Historica, 2/1 (1975); Luis E. Diaz-
Hernandez, Castaner, una hacienda cafetalera en Puerto Rico (1868-1930)
(San Juan, P.R., 1983); and Carlos Buitrago-Ortiz, Los origenes histdricos de
la sociedadprecapitalista en Puerto Rico (San Juan, P.R., 1976) and Haciendas
cafetaleras y clases terratmientes en el Puerto Rico decimononko (San Juan, P.R.,
1982). On the Puerto Rican economy and society in late nineteenth
century, see also Fernando Pico, Libertad y servidumbre en el Puerto Rico del
sigh XIX (San Juan, P.R., 1979) and Cafetal adentro, una historia de los
trabajadores agricolas en el Puerto Rico del siglo XIX (San Juan, P.R., 1986);
Astrid Cubano, El hilo en el laberinto: Claves de la lucha politica en Puerto Rico
(Siglo XIX) (San Juan, P.R., 1990); Jose Curet, De la esclavitud a la
abolition (San Juan, PR., 1979); Andres Ramos Mattei, Apuntes sobre la
transition hacia el sistema de centrales en la industria azucarera: Los libros de
cuentas de la hacienda Mercedita, 1861-1900 (San Juan, P R . , 1975), La
hacienda azucarera, su crecimiento y crisis en Puerto Rico (siglo XIX) (San Juan,
P.R., 1981) and La sociedad del azucar en Puerto Rico, 1870-1910 (San

14- Puerto Rico 421
Juan, P.R., 1988); and Andres Ramos Mattei et al., Azucar y esclavitud
(San Juan, P.R., 1982). On sugar, see also the pioneer life-history account
by Sidney Mintz, Worker in the Cane (New Haven, Conn., i960). Also
worthy of mention are Sidney Mintz, 'The culture history of a Puerto
Rican sugar cane plantation 18761949', HAHR, 33/2 (1953), 22451;
Jose A. Herrero, La mitologia del azucar: Un ensayo de historia economica de
Puerto Rico (San Juan, P.R., 1975); and Moreno Fraginals, 'Plantation
economies and societies in the Spanish Caribbean, c. i8601930', CHLA,
Vol. IV (1986).
The early labour movement is the subject of Gervasio Garcia, Primeros
fermentos de organizacion obrera en Puerto Rico (San Juan, P.R., 1975), Historia
critica, historia sin coartadas (San Juan, P R . , 1985), 'Economie dominee et
premiers ferments d'organization ouvriere: Puerto Rico entre le XIX et le
XX siecle' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Paris, 1976) and,
with A. G. Quintero-Rivera, Desafio y solidaridad: Breve historia del movimi-
ento obrero puertorriqueno (San Juan, P R . , 1982). See also Ruben Davila, El
derribo de las murallas (San Juan, P R . , 1988); Miles Galvin, The Organized
Labour Movement in Puerto Rico (London, 1979); Erick Perez, 'Condiciones
de vida de los trabajadores puertorriquefios en las primeras decadas del
Siglo XX', Plural, 3/1-2, 1984; Blanca Silvestrini, Los trabajadores
puertorriquenos y el Partido Socialista, 1932-40 (SanJuan, P R . , 1978); Felix
Ojeda, ',;Colonialismo sindical o solidaridad internacional? Las relaciones
entre el movimiento obrero puertorriqueno y el norteamericano en los
inicios de la Federation Libre, 1898-1901', Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 25/
3-4 (1986); and Igualdad Iglesias de Pagan, El obrerismo en Puerto Rico
(1896-1903) (San Juan, P.R., 1973). Also useful is a series of five articles
published by A. G. Quintero-Rivera in Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 18/12
and 3-4 (1974); 19/1, 3 (1975) and 20/1-2 (1976), under the general
title of 'La clase obrera y el proceso politico en Puerto Rico'.
The study of female work and women's struggles is the subject of
Yamila Azize, Luchas de la mujer, 1898-1919 (San Juan, P.R., 1979);
Marcia Rivera, 'Incorporaci6n de las mujeres al mercado de trabajo en el
desarrollo capitalista', in Edna Acosta (ed.), La mujer en la sociedad
puertorriquena (San Juan, P R . , 1980); Alice Colon et al., Participacidn de la
mujer en la historia de Puerto Rico (las primeras decadas del Siglo X X ) (New
Brunswick, N.J., 1986); and Norma Valle's bibliography of the important
labour and feminist leader Luisa Capetillo (San Juan, P.R., 1990).
Georg Fromm's series of articles on Albizu-Campos (leader of the Nation-
alist party) and the working class in the 1930s in Claridad, 3 (June-July

1977) is an important link between the study of the workers movement and
nationalism. Five different collections of articles or speeches of Albizu-
Campos have also been published: B. Torres (ed.), Obras escogidas, 192336
(San Juan, P.R., 1975); M. Maldonado-Denis (ed.), La conciencia national
puertorriquena (Mexico, D.F., 1972); Carlos Rama (ed.), Republica de Puerto
Rico (Montevideo, 1972); Independencia economica (San Juan, P.R., 1970);
and Escritosy resenaspoliticas, 1930 (San Juan, P.R., 1972). A former mem-
ber of the Nationalist party, Juan Antonio Corretjer, has written several
essays on Albizu-Campos: Albizu Campos y las huelgas en los anos 30 (San
Juan, P.R., 1969), Albizu-Campos (Montevideo, 1969) and El lider de la
desesperacion (Guaynabo, 1972). Luis Ferrao, Pedro Albizu Campos y el
nacionalismo puertorriqueno, 193039 (San Juan, P R . 1990) is a critical
study of this movement. A different perspective is presented in Taller de
Formacion Polftica, Huelga en la cana (San Juan, P.R., 1983). On the anti-
independence movement, see Edgardo Melendez, Puerto Rico's Statehood
Movement (New York, 1988) and Aaron Ramos's excellent selection of docu-
ments, Las ideas anexionistas en Puerto Rico (San Juan, P R . , 1987).
Carmelo Rosario Natal, Puerto Rico y la crisis de la Guerra Hispano-
americana (1893-1898) (San Juan, P R . , 1973) is a useful though limited
study of the Spanish-American war and its consequences for Puerto Rico.
On the military importance of Puerto Rico for U.S. policies and its socio-
historical consequences, see Maria E. Estades, Lapresencia militar de Estados
Unidos en Puerto Rico 1898-1918 (San Juan, P R . , 1988) and Jorge Rodri-
guez Beruff, Politica militar y domination: Puerto Rico en el contexto la-
tinoamericano (San Juan, P.R., 1988). On social struggles immediately
following the U.S. takeover of 1898, see Fernando Pico, 1898, La guerra
despues de la Guerra (San Juan, P R . , 1987) and Mariano Negr6n, Las turbas
republicanas 1900-1904 (San Juan, P R . , 1990).
On the 1930s social processes that led to the emergence of the PPD, see
A. G. Quintero-Rivera, 'Bases sociales de la transformation ideol6gica del
PPD', in Gerardo Navas (ed.), Cambio y desarrollo en Puerto Rico (San Juan,
P R . , 1979). Thomas G. Mathews, Puerto Rican Politics and the New Deal
(Gainesville, Fla., i960) is a critical interpretation of the first five years of
the New Deal. On students and the politics of the 1930s, see Isabel Pic6,
La protesta estudiantil en la decada del 30 (San Juan, P R . , 1974). Aida
Negron de Montilla, Americanization in Puerto Rico and the Public School
System (San Juan, P.R., 1970) analyses the papers of the colonial Commis-
sioners of Education during the first three decades of U.S. rule. On other
social struggles in those decades, see Juan Jose Baldrich's excellent book,

I J . The Dominican Republic 423
Sembraron la no-siembra: Los cosecheros de tabaco puertorriquenos frente a las

corporaciones tabacaleras, 19201934 (San Juan, P.R., 1988) and Fernando
Pico's provocative analysis of daily life conflicts in Los gallos peleados (San
Juan, P.R., 1983).
Finally, an important part of Caribbean history is its relationship with
Caribbean migration to the colonial metropolis. On the origins of the
Puerto Rican community in the United States, especially New York,
Centro de Estudios Puertorriquenos (CUNY), Labor Migration under Capi-
talism (New York, 1979) and Virginia Sanchez Korrol, From Colonia to
Community: The History of Puerto Ricans in New York City, 191J-48 (West-
port, Conn., 1983) are interesting, as are the extraordinary memoirs of a
migrant cigarmaker, Cesar Andreu Iglesias (ed.), Memorias de Bernardo
Vega (San Juan, P.R., 1977).
15. THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
The preservation of historical sources in the Dominican Republic has

suffered greatly under the country's historical vicissitudes. Of the impor-
tant documents that survived, many are in private hands. The former
director of the Archivo General de la Nacion, Emilio Rodriguez Demorizi,
has edited a wide range of source material: Hostos en Santo Domingo, 2 vols.
(Ciudad Trujillo, 1939); Relaciones historicas de Santo Domingo, 3 vols.
(Ciudad Trujillo, 1942, 1945 and 1957); Correspondencia del consul de
Francia en Santo Domingo, 1844-1846, vol. 1 (Ciudad Trujillo, 1944);
Documentos para la historia de la Republica Dominicana, 3 vols. (vol. 1,
Ciudad Trujillo, 1944; vol. 2, Santiago, Dom. Rep., 1949; vol. 3,
Ciudad Trujillo, 1959); Correspondencia del consul de Francia en Santo Do-
mingo, 1846-1850, vol. 2 (Ciudad Trujillo, 1947); La marina de guerra
dominicana, 18441861 (Ciudad Trujillo, 1958); Actos y doctrina del
gobiemo de la restauracion (Santo Domingo, 1963); Papeles de Espaillat: Para
la historia de las ideas politicas en Santo Domingo (Santo Domingo, 1963) and
Papeles de Pedro F. Bono (Santo Domingo, 1964).
Bibliographies are scarce. Three may be mentioned here: Deborah Hitt
and Larman Wilson, A Selected Bibliography of the Dominican Republic: A
Century after the Restoration of Independence (Washington, D.C., 1968); Wolf
Grabendorff, Bibliographie zu Politik und Gesellschaft der Dominikanischen
Republik: Neuere Studien 196119JI (Munich, 1973) and Kai Schoenhals,
Dominican Republic, World Bibliographical Series, vol. 3 (Oxford, 1990).

Of the general histories, Sumner Welles, Naboth's Vineyard: The Domini-

can Republic 1844-1924, 2 vols. (New York, 1928), has deservedly been
reprinted (New York, 1966); Sp. trans. La Vina de Naboth (Santiago,
Dom. Rep., 1939). The author's diplomatic activities in the country
made him look favourably upon Horacio Vazquez, which shows in the
relevant parts of the book, as does his related antipathy towards Heureaux,
which he shares, it must be said, with quite a few representatives of
traditional Dominican historiography. A more balanced work is Ram6n
Marrero Aristy, La Republica Dominicana: Origen y destino del pueblo cristiano
mas antiguo de America, 2 vols. (Ciudad Trujillo, 1957-8) - in spite of its
subtitle. See also Bernardo Pichardo, Resumen de historia patria (Barcelona,
1930) and, by the pioneer of Dominican historiography, Jose Gabriel
Garcia, Compendio de la historia de Santo Domingo (Santo Domingo, 1896;
repr. 1979, 2 vols.). The financial history of the Republic is dealt with in
Cesar A. Herrera, De Hartmont a Trujillo (Ciudad Trujillo, 1953). An
excellent general history is Frank Moya Pons, Manual de historia domini-
cana (Santo Domingo, 1977). Finally, a valuable general reference work is
Rufino Martinez, Diccionario biogrdfico historico dominicano, 18211930
(Santo Domingo, 1971).
Of importance for an understanding of nineteenth-century Dominican
history is Report of the Commission of Inquiry to Santo Domingo (Washington,
D.C., 1871); Samuel Hazard, Santo Domingo, Past and Present, with a
Glance at Hayti (London, 1873; repr. Santo Domingo, 1982); Padre Fer-
nando Arturo de Merino, Elementos de geografiafiska, politica e historica de la
Republica Dominicana, precedidos de las nociones generales de geografia, 3rd ed.
(Santo Domingo, 1898); General Gregorio Luperon, Notas autobiogrdficas y
apuntes historicos, 3 vols. (Santiago, Dom. Rep., 1939); and Jose Ramon
Abad, La Republica Dominicana: Resena general geogrdfico-estadistica (Santo
Domingo, 1888; reprinted 1973). H. Hoetink, El pueblo dominicano,
18501900: Apuntes para su sociologia historica, 3rd ed. (Santiago, Dom.
Rep., 1985), Eng. trans. The Dominican People, 1850-1900: Notes for a
Historical Sociology (Baltimore, 1982) focusses on economic, social, politi-
cal and cultural change during the second half of the nineteenth century.
A valuable and rare - comparative perspective on nineteenth-century
Dominican economy is provided by Roberto Marte, Cuba y la Republica
Dominicana: Transicion econdmica en el Caribe del siglo XIX (Santo Domingo,
1989). Important contributions on the social and economic structure in
this period may further be found in Martin D. Clausner, Rural Santo
Domingo: Settled, Unsettled and Resettled (Philadelphia, 1973); Patrick E.

1j>. The Dominican Republic 425
Bryan, 'The transformation of the economy of the Dominican Republic,

18701916' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1977);
and Roberto Cassa, Historia social y economica de la Republica Dominicana, 2
vols. (Santo Domingo, 197780). On the sugar industry, see also Moreno
Fraginals, 'Plantation economies and societies in the Spanish Caribbean,
c. 1860-1930', CHLA, Vol. IV (1986). A valuable journal of historical
studies is Erne Erne, Estudios dominicanos, published by the Universidad
Catolica Madre y Maestra, Santiago. See, for example, Antonio Lluberes,
'La economia del tabaco en el Cibao en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX',
Erne Erne, 1/4 (1973); Paul Muto, 'La economia de exportation de la
Republica Dominicana: 19001930', Erne Erne, 3/5 (1974); Frank Moya
Pons, 'Datos sobre la economia dominicana durante la Primera Republica',
Erne Erne, 4/24 (1976).
The peasantry's changing role in the tobacco-growing Cibao Valley has
been the theme of three monographs: Fernando I. Ferran, Tabaco y sociedad:
La organizacion del poder en el ecomercado de tabaco dominkano (Santo D o -
mingo, 1976); P. L. San Miguel, 'The Dominican peasantry and the
market economy: The peasants of the Cibao, 1880-1960' (unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, 1987); and Michiel Baud, 'Peasant
society under siege: Tobacco cultivation in the Cibao, Dominican Repub-
lic, 18701930 (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Utrecht, 1991).
The immigration of sugar-cane workers is desribed by Jose del Castillo,
'La inmigraci6n de braceros azucareros en la Republica Dominicana,
19001930', Cuadernos del Centro Dominkano de Investigaciones Antropologkos
(Santo Domingo, 1978).
On the U.S. occupation of the Domincian Republic, see Marvin
Goldwert, Dominican Republic: History of American Occupation, 19161924
(Gainesville, Fla., 1962); Antonio de la Rosa, Lasfinanzas de Santo Domingo
y el control americano (Santo Domingo, 1969), and, more recently, Bruce J.
Calder, The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic during the U.S.
Occupation of 19161924 (Austin, Tex., 1984). See also two older works:
Max Henriquez Urefia, Los yanquis en Santo Domingo (Madrid, 1929) and
Melvin Knight, The Americans in Santo Domingo (New York, 1928). On the
relations between the United States and the Dominican Republic over a
longer period, see David C. MacMichael, 'The United States and the
Dominican Republic, 1871 1940: A cycle in Caribbean diplomacy' (un-
published Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Oregon, Eugene, 1964). Relations be-
tween the Dominican Republic and Haiti receive attention in Rayford W.
Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (New York, 1968). The extensive

literature that deals with the heroes and caudillos of the Dominican Repub-
lic generally has more literary than historical pretensions. By far the best in
this genre are the vividly written biographical essays by Rufino Martinez,
Hombres dominicanos, 2 vols. (vol. 1, Ciudad Trujillo, 1936; vol. 2, Santi-
ago, Dom. Rep., 1943). A more general study of Dominican political lead-
ership is Miguel Angel Monclus, El caudillismo en la Republka Dominkana,
3rd ed. (Santo Domingo, 1962); a valuable contribution to Dominican
political history is Julio G. Campillo Perez, El grillo y el ruisenor: Elecciones
presidenciales dominicanas, contribution a su estudio (Santo Domingo, 1966).
On the history of literature, see Joaquin Balaguer, Historia de la litera-
tura dominkana, 2nd ed. (Ciudad Trujillo, 1958); on the history of the
plastic arts, see Danilo de los Santos, La pintura en la sociedad dominkana
(Santiago, Dom. Rep., 1979).
16. HAITI
In 1973 the Scarecrow Press (Washington, D.C.) published an appendix

to Max Bissainthe's Dktionnaire de bibliographic haitienne (Washington,
D . C , 1951); together they represent the best bibliography of works on
Haiti and by Haitians. For the latter part of the period, Kraus Interna-
tional has published The Complete Haitiana, 19001980 (Millwood, N.Y.,
1982), edited by Michel Laguerre. It is a disappointing volume; for some
of its shortcomings, seeL.-F. Hoffmann, 'The incomplete Haitiana', Carib-
bean Review, 12/2 (1983). Mention should also be made of Max Manigat,
Haitiana, 1971-1975 (LaSalle, Que., 1980) and vol. 39 in the World
Bibliographical Series, compiled by Frances Chambers, Haiti (Oxford and
Santa Barbara, Calif, 1983).
James Leyburn's classic, The Haitian People (1941; rev. ed. with for-
ward by Sidney Mintz, New Haven, Conn., 1966) remains one of the
best introductions to Haitian history and social structure, despite its
occasional shortcomings. Leyburn failed to recognise the full significance
of the urban middle class and of important economic and social distinc-
tions among the rural population; in the historical sections he is some-
times a victim of what may be called the 'mulatto legend' of the Haitian
past. A book by the Polish scholar, Tadeusz Lepkowski, has been trans-
lated into Spanish under the title Haiti (Havana, 1968-9); the author
deals, among other things, with the early history of Haiti, with Haitian
historiography and with the development of agriculture. Robert Rot-

i6. Haiti 427
berg, Haiti: The Politics of Squalor (Boston, 1971) has useful sections on
the Haitian economy of the period but is otherwise undistinguished.
Robert Debs Heinl, who was in charge of the U.S. marine mission to
Haiti in the early years of the Duvalier era, has produced (with Nancy
G. Heinl) a somewhat ethnocentric and anecdotal history of Haiti, Writ-
ten in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People (Boston, 1978), which contains
some fascinating illustrations.
A major event in Haitian historiography is the publication, for the first
time, of the four missing volumes of Thomas Madiou's Histoire d'Haiti
(Port-au-Prince, 1988). Madiou published the first three volumes in his
lifetime, and his family published a volume covering the period 1843-47
in 1904. It was generally assumed that the volumes dealing with the
period 1808-43 had been lost. Although this work deals with an earlier
period, it is important as the work of a man who played a major role in the
political life of the country into the 1880s.
Other works touching on the history of Haiti in this period include
Mats Lundahl's impressive Peasants and Poverty: A Study of Haiti (London,
1979); this book, however, deals only incidentally with the past and
relies heavily on secondary sources. Schiller Thebaud, 'L'evolution de la
structure agraire d'Haiti de 1804 a nos jours' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
University of Paris, 1967) contains much useful information on the
period with which we are here concerned. L'economie haitienne et sa voie de
developpement (Paris, 1967) by Gerard Pierre Charles includes some rather
slight historical sections; his writings on Haiti past and present are,
however, characterised by a loose and inappropriate use of such terms as
'feudalism' and 'fascism'. In Economic Development and Political Autonomy:
The Haitian Experience (Montreal, 1974), David Nicholls considers the
ideas of Haitian politicians and intellectuals on economic policies princi-
pally during the pre-occupation period; a revised version is printed in his
Haiti in Caribbean Context (London, 1985). A good economic history of
Haiti in the nineteenth century has, however, still to be written.
On the social structure of pre-occupation Haiti, Benoit Joachim's work
is particularly important: see 'La bourgeoisie d'affaires en Haiti de
l'independance a l'occupation americaine', Nouvelle Optique, 4 (1971) and
'La structure sociale en Haiti et le mouvement d'independance au dix-
neuvieme siecle', Journal of World History, 12/3 (1970). Some of the mate-
rial in these articles has been brought together in Joachim's book, Les
racines desous-developpement en Haiti (Port-au-Prince, 1979). A useful contri-
bution to understanding the period leading up to the U.S. occupation is

Gusti-Klara Gaillard, L'experience haitienne de la dette exterieure ou une produc-

tion cafetiere pillee, 1875-1915 (Port-au-Prince, 1988). Alain Turnier,
whose work on commercial relations between Haiti and the United States
is well known, has published a fascinating history of financial corruption
and the sequestration of presidential property, Quand la nation demande des
comptes (Port-au-Prince, n.d.); he has also written the story of a nineteenth-
century cacos leader, Avec Merisier Jeannis: Une tranche de vie jacmelienne et
nationale (Port-au-Prince, 1982). Also dealing with social movements
prior to the U.S. invasion is Roger Gaillard's Les blancs debarquent, 1914-
1915: Les cent jours de Rosalvo Bobo (Port-au-Prince, 1973) and his two-
volume La republique exterminatrice (Port-au-Prince, 1984 and 1988). On
education, see Charles Tardieu, L'education en Ha'iti de la periode coloniale a
nos jours (Port-au-Prince, 1990). On the overseas migration of Haitians in
this period there are two chapters in Mats Lundahl, The Haitian Economy:
Man, Land and Markets (London, 1983) and a chapter in David Nicholls,
Haiti in Caribbean Context.
Moving from economic and social history to a consideration of intellec-
tual history, G. Martinez's article, 'De l'ambiguite du nationalisme bour-
geois en Haiti', Nouvelle Optique, 9 (1973) is a good critical discussion -
from a Marxist standpoint of Haitian theorists in the latter half of the
nineteenth century. Sections of Claude Moi'se's thesis on Joseph Antenor
Firmin have been published in Conjonction, 117 (1971), adding to our
knowledge of this brilliant writer and statesman. In chapters 4 and 5 of
From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour and National Independence in Haiti
(Cambridge, Eng., 1979), David Nicholls discusses the role that ideas
about race and colour played in pre-occupation Haiti; and in 'The Wisdom
of Salomon: Myth or reality?'J7.A,S', 20 (1978) he considers in more detail
the policies of the Salomon government and the claims made on its behalf.
Two works on religion, which approach the subject in a historical manner,
are Laennec Hurbon's Dieu dans le vaudou haitien (Paris, 1972) and H.
Courlander and R. Bastien, Religion and Politics in Haiti (Washington,
D.C., 1966).
In the field of literary history there have been numerous works pub-
lished in the last twenty years or so. Pradel Pompilus and Frere Raphael
Berrou have produced a revised and enlarged edition of their Histoire de la
litteWature haitienne (Port-au-Prince, 1975). It is somewhat uncritical and
didactic but is nevertheless useful. On the literature of the pre-occupation
period, Roger Gaillard has written a fascinating account of the mulatto
Methodist poet from Jeremie, Etzer Vilaire: Temoin de nos malheurs (Port-

i6. Haiti 429
au-Prince, 1972). There is a special number of Conjonction, 1223 ( J 973)

dealing with Fernand Hibbert, Justin Lherisson and Antoine Innocent;
Yvette Gindine (who contributed to this journal under the name Feldman)
has also written 'Satire and the birth of Haitian fiction, 1901 1905',
Caribbean Quarterly, 21/3 (1975). Leon-Frangois Hoffmann, in Le negre
romantique (Paris, 1973) and more recently in Le roman haitien (Princeton,
N.J., 1982) and in a number of articles in Caribbean Review and elsewhere,
has greatly added to our knowledge and appreciation of the literature of
this period.
With respect to the foreign relations of Haiti and the role played by
foreign interests in the affairs of the country prior to 1915, the work of
Benoit Joachim is outstanding. His 'Aspects fondamentaux des relations de
la France avec Haiti de 1825 a 1874: Le neocolonialisme a 1'essai' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. thesis, University of Paris, 1968) is based principally upon
French archival material. In 'Commerce et decolonisation: L'experience
franco-haitienne au XIX' siecle', AESC, 27 (1972) and other articles he has
published some of the conclusions of his thesis. While Joachim's work deals
primarily with the period before 1870, Leslie F. Manigat's long article, 'La
substitution de la preponderance americaine a la preponderance franchise en
Haiti au debut du XX' siecle: La conjonction de 1910-11', Revue d'Histoire
Moderneet Contemporaine, 14 (1967) deals with a later period. Less controver-
sial and contentious than some of his writings, this article mainfests the
same lively and stimulating approach to the Haitian past that we have come
to expect from his pen; an English translation has been published in L. F.
Manigat (ed.), 197.5 Caribbean Yearbook of International Relations (Port of
Spain and Leiden, 1976). Rayford W. Logan's Haiti and the Dominican
Republic (London, 1968) is a useful volume and is especially strong on
relations between Haiti and the United States; it does not, however, add a
great deal to the excellent work he published earlier on this theme. Yves L.
Auguste, Haiti et les Etats-Unis: 1862-1900 (Port-au-Prince, 1987) should
also be noted. The recent works of Brenda Gayle Plummer on the foreign
relations of this period are admirable; they include 'Race, nationality, and
trade in the Caribbean: The Syrians in Haiti, 1903-1934', International
History Review, 3 (1981); 'The metropolitan connection: Foreign and
semiforeign elites in Haiti, 1900-1915, LARR, 19(1984); and her gener-
ally well-researched book, Haiti and the Great Powers, 1902-1915 (Baton
Rouge, La., 1988). Unfortunately, however, in the latter she failed to
consult the German archives, which must contain a mine of useful informa-
tion on this topic.

On the legal and constitutional history of the period, reference should
be made to Claude Moi'se's two-volume work, Constitutions et luttes de
pouvoir en Haiti (Montreal, 1988) and to Ferdinand Delatour, Les 150 ans
du regime du code civil dans le contexte social haitien, 18261976 (Port-au-
Prince, 1978).
On the occupation period, Hans Schmidt's The United States Occupation of
Haiti, 19151934 (New Brunswick, N.J., 1971) is a superb critical study
of U.S. policies in Haiti. Using a mass of archival material and private
papers, in addition to printed sources, the author never gets bogged
down. The book, however, deals only incidentally and somewhat inade-
quately with Haitian reactions to the occupation. Cool and academic in
tone, it nevertheless represents a massive condemnation of U.S. policies.
Less original and relying heavily on secondary sources is Suzy Castor's La
ocupacion norteamericana de Haiti y sus consecuencias (19151934) (Mexico,
D.F., Madrid and Buenos Aires, 1971). Dana Munro has two useful
chapters on Haiti in The United States and the Caribbean Republics, 1921-
l
933 (Princeton, N.J., 1974); this book is a sequel to his earlier volume,
Intervention and Dollar Diplomacy in the Caribbean, 19001921 (Princeton,
N.J., 1964). In 'Ideologic et mouvements politiques en Haiti, 1915
1946', AESC, 30/4 (1975), David Nicholls looks at the role played by
race, colour and class in the politics of the period, and in chapter 5 of From
Dessalines to Duvalier he discusses in more detail the intellectual move-
ments of the time.
Dealing particularly with the literature of the occupation period is
Ulrich Fleischmann, Ideologie und Wirklichkeit in der Literatur Haitis (Ber-
lin, 1969); the main themes of this book have been summarised in his
Ecrivain et societe en Haiti (Fonds St. Jacques, Martinique, 1976). Another
important contribution to the literary history of the post-1915 period is J.
Michael Dash, Literature and Ideology in Haiti, 19151961 (London,
1981). This is an excellent piece of critical work, setting the authors in
their social context. In Haiti and the United States: National Stereotypes and
the Literary Imagination (London, 1988), Dash considers how each nation
views the other, as reflected in their imaginative literature. Dash has
written on Jacques Roumain in Black Images, 2/1 (1973). Claude Souffrant
also deals with Roumain, together with J. S. Alexis and the U.S. poet
Langston Hughes in Une nigritude socialiste (Paris, 1978). Two monographs
on Alexis have been published, one by Michael Dash (Toronto, 1975) and
the other by Maximilien Laroche, entitled Le romancero aux etoiles (Paris,
1978). Gabriel Coulthard's Race and Colour in Caribbean Literature (Lon-

if. Argentina: economy, 18JO-1914 431
don, 1962) remains an excellent introduction to the literature of the
period.
17. A R G E N T I N A : ECONOMY, 1 8 7 0 - 1 9 1 4
The best and most complete bibliographical study of the economic history
of Argentina in the period 18701914 is Tulio Halperin Donghi, 'Argen-
tina', in Roberto Cortes Conde and Stanley J. Stein (eds.), Latin America:
A Guide to Economic History 1830-1930 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1977).
Among the general works which appeared after the Second World War,
Ricardo M. Ortiz, Historia economica de la Argentina, 18501930, 2 vols.
(Buenos Aires, 1955) was, for many years, the most widely read work on
the economic history of Argentina. During the 1960s two works in this
field were to have a significant influence: Aldo Ferrer, La economia argen-
tina: Las etapas de su desarrollo y problemas actuates (Buenos Aires, 1963)
which, like Celso Furtado's study of Brazil, examines the structure of the
economy from the colonial period to the present and is strongly influenced
by the literature on development from ECLA/CEPAL; and Guido Di Telia
and Manuel Zymelman, Las etapas del desarrollo economico argentino (Buenos
Aires, 1967), originally conceived as a thesis under the supervision of W.
W. Rostow, which accepts the rapid growth of the period 18801914 and
seeks to explain why it was not sustained after 1914. See also the essays in
D. C. M. Platt and G. Di Telia (eds.), The Political Economy of Argentina,
18801946 (London, 1986), including David Rock, 'The Argentine econ-
omy, 18801914: Some salient features'.
The first chapter of Carlos F. Diaz Alejandro's important work, Essays
on the Economic History of the Argentine Republic (New Haven, Conn.,
1970), considers the period prior to 1930. Diaz Alejandro moves away
from previous interpretations of the period and stresses that Argentina,
like Canada and the United States, deserves to be seen within the frame-
work of the staple theory of economic growth (on which see Melville H.
Watkins, 'A staple theory of economic growth', Canadian Journal of
Economic and Political Science, 29/2 [1963]). Vicente Vasquez Presedo, El
caso argentino (Buenos Aires, 1971), also sees the Argentine case as being
unique and different from that of other underdeveloped countries and
close to that of recently settled Anglo-Saxon countries. See also John
Fogarty, Ezequiel Gallo and Hector Dieguez, Argentina y Australia (Bue-
nos Aires, 1979); Tim Duncan and John Fogarty, Australia and Argen-

tina: On Parallel Paths (Melbourne, Aus., 1984); and D. C. M. Platt and

G. Di Telia (eds.), Argentina, Australia and Canada: Studies in Comparative
Development, 1870-1965 (New York, 1985). The first two chapters of
Roberto Cortes Conde, El progreso argentino 18801914 (Buenos Aires,
Z
979) consider the territorial formation and regional structure of Argen-
tina from the colonial period until the nineteenth century, while the
central chapters discuss the development of the land and labour markets
during the period 18801910.
Other general works that deserve mention are Roque Gondra, Historia
economica de la Republica Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1943), which was an
obligatory text in teaching for many years, as was Federico Pinedo, Siglo y
medio de economia argentina (Mexico, D.F., 1961). See also Academia
Nacional de la Historia, Historia argentina contempordnea 18621930, vol.
3, Historia economica (Buenos Aires, 1965). Among older but nevertheless
indispensable works are two studies by Juan Alvarez, Estudios sobre las
guerras civiles argentinas (Buenos Aires, 1914) and Temas de historia economica
argentina (Buenos Aires, 1929), as well as Ernesto Tornquist's The Economic
Development of the Argentine Republic in the Last Fifty Years (Buenos Aires,
1919) and Michael G. and E. T. Mulhall, Handbook of the River Plate,
1863, 1875, 1888, 1892 (reprint, Buenos Aires and London, 1982).
On demographic change, and especially internal and international mi-
gration, Zulma L. Recchini de Lattes and Alfredo E. Lattes, Migraciones en
la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1969) and La poblacion de Argentina (Buenos
Aires, 1975) are indispensable. See also essay VI:8.
For many years, the most widely accepted work on the rural sector was
Horacio C. E. Giberti, Historia economica de la ganaderia argentina (Buenos
Aires, 1954), based principally on the excellent essays of the 1908 census;
it became a classic in its field. Another well-known book is James Scobie,
Revolution on the Pampas: A Social History of Argentine Wheat (Austin, Tex.,
1964). Later works include Ezequiel Gallo, 'Agricultural colonization and
society in Argentina: The province of Santa Fe, 187095' (unpublished
D. Phil, thesis, Oxford, 1970), Sp. trans. Lapampa gringa (Buenos Aires,
1983); Eduardo Miguez, Las tierras de los ingleses en la Argentina I8JO
1914 (Buenos Aires, 1985); Alfredo R. Pucciarelli, El capitalism) agrario
pampeano, 18801930 (Buenos Aires, 1986); Carl E. Solberg, The Prairies
and the Pampas: Agrarian Policy in Canada and Argentina, 18801930
(Stanford, Calif., 1987); Hilda Sabato, Agrarian Capitalism and the World
Market: Buenos Aires in the Pastoral Age, 1840-1890 (Albuquerque,
N.Mex., 1990), originally published in Spanish as Capitalismo y ganaderia

IJ. Argentina: economy, 18JO-1914 433
en Buenos Aires: La fiebre del lanar 18651890 (Buenos Aires, 1989); and
Jeremy Adelman, 'Agricultural credit in the Province of Buenos Aires,
Argentina 18901914, JLAS, 22/1 (1990), 6987. See also Aldo
Montoya, Historia de los saladeros argentinos (Buenos Aires, 1956); Fernando
Enrique Barba, 'El desarrollo agropecuario de la provincia de Buenos Aires
(18801930)', Investigaciones y Ensayos, 17 (1974), 210310; Roberto
Cortes Conde, 'Patrones de asentamiento y explotacion agropecuaria en los
nuevos territorios argentinos (18901910)' and Ezequiel Gallo, 'Ocupa-
cion de tierras y colonizacion agricola en Santa Fe', both in Alvaro Jara
(ed.), Tierras nuevas (Mexico, D.F., 1969); Roberto Cortes Conde, 'Tier-
ras, agriculture y ganaderia', and Colin Lewis, 'La consolidacion de la
frontera argentina a fines de la decada del setenta: Los indios, Roca y los
ferrocarriles', both in Gustavo Ferrari and Ezequiel Gallo (eds.), La Argen-
tina del ochenta al centenario (Buenos Aires, 1980); and M. Saenz Quesada,
Los estancieros (Buenos Aires, 1980).
A number of older works are worthy of special mention because of their
permanent value: Miguel Angel Carcano, Evolucion historica del regimen de la
tierra publica 1810-1916 (Buenos Aires, 1917); Jacinto Oddone, La
burguesia terrateniente argentina (Buenos Aires, 1930); Mark Jefferson, Peo-
pling the Argentine Pampas (New York, 1926); Carl C. Taylor, Rural Life in
Argentina (Baton Rouge, La., 1948); Simon G. Hanson, Argentine Meat
and the British Market: Chapters in the History of the Argentine Meat Industry
(Stanford, Calif., 1938). Estanislao Zeballo, Descripcidn amena de la Repiib-
lica Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1888) and the studies carried out by the
Division de Economfa Rural del Ministerio de Agricultura (1900) are
indispensable.
On foreign trade and foreign investment, John H. Williams, Argentine
International Trade under Inconvertible Paper Money, 1880-1900 (Cambridge,
Mass., 1920; repr. New York, 1969), has still not been surpassed; because
of its wealth of information on balance of payments, prices, wages, and so
on it has, in fact, come to be considered the best economic history of the
period. See also Vasquez Presedo, El caso argentino, chap. 2; H. S. Ferns,
Britain and Argentina in the Nineteenth Century (Oxford, i960); A. G. Ford,
The Gold Standard, 18801914: Britain and Argentina (Oxford, 1962); and
an older work, Harold J. Peters, The Foreign Debt of the Argentine Republic
(Baltimore, 1934). Hector L. Dieguez, 'Crecimiento e inestabilidad del
valor y el volumen fisico de las exportaciones argentinas en el periodo
18641963', Desarrollo Econdmico 12/46 (1972), is an article which tran-
scribes information from the important recompilation of statistical evi-

dence on Argentina's foreign trade presented in Roberto Cortes Conde,

Tulio Halperin Donghi and H. Gorostegui de Torres, El comercio exterior
argentino exportaciones 18631963 (mimeo, Instituto Torcuato Di Telia,
Buenos Aires, n.d.). which corrects many previous statistical errors and
deficiencies. Also important are D. C. M. Platt, Finance, Trade and Politics
in British Foreign Policy, 18151914 (Oxford, 1971) and Latin America and
British Trade, 1806-1914 (London, 1972); A. G. Ford, 'British invest-
ment in Argentina and long swings, 1880-1914', Journal of Economic
History, 31/3 (1971), reprinted in Roderick Floud (ed.), Essays in Quantita-
tive Economic History (Oxford, 1974), and 'British investment and Argen-
tine economic development, 1880-1914', in David Rock (ed.), Argentina
in the Twentieth Century (London, 1975). On French investment there are
three articles by Andres Regalsky worthy of note: 'Exportaciones de capital
hacia los paises nuevos, los bancos franceses y las finanzas publicas argenti-
nas 1881 1887', Revista de Historia Economica, 5/1 (1987); 'Las inversiones
francesas en los ferrocarriles 18871899', Siglo XIX (Universidad Au-
tonoma de Nueva Leon), 3/5 (1988); and 'Foreign capital, local interests
and railway development in Argentina: French investments in railways,
1900-1914', JLAS 21/3 (1989), 425-52.
The works of Williams and Ford are mainly studies of the working of
the gold standard in Argentina. The work of Williams goes up to the
end of the century while that of Ford considers two separate periods, the
first from 1880 to 1885, which he classifies as a failure of the system,
and the second from 1900 to 1910, which he terms a success. See also
Ferns, Britain and Argentina and David Joslin, A Century of Banking in
Latin America (London, 1963). Also worthy of note are Rafael Olarra
Jimenez, El dinero y las estructuras monetarias (Buenos Aires, 1967) to-
gether with Olarra Jimenez, 'Las reformas monetarias 1880-1910', and
Charles Jones, 'Los bancos britanicos', both in Ferrari and Gallo (eds.),
La Argentina del ochenta al centenario. Among older works, see Emilio
Hansen's classic study, La tnoneda argentina (Buenos Aires, 1916) and Jose
A. Terry, Cuestiones monetarias (Buenos Aires, 1899) a n ^ Finanzas (Buenos
Aires, 1918). Roberto Cortes Conde, Dinero, deuda y crisis: Evolucion fiscal
y monetaria argentina, 18621890 (Buenos Aires, 1989) is the first mone-
tary history of Argentina for the period i860-1890. An important thesis
which offers new monetary series from 1885 is Gerardo della Paolera,
'How the Argentine economy performed during the International Gold
Standard: A reexamination' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of
Chicago, 1988).

17- Argentina: economy, 1870-1914 435
The bibliography on transport is, of course, dominated by the railways.

The most complete work is Eduardo A. Zalduendo, Libras y rules (Buenos
Aires, 1975), which also examines British investment in the railways of
Brazil, Canada and India. Also important is Winthrop R. Wright, British-
oumed Railways in Argentina: Their Effect on Economic Nationalism 1854-
1948 (Austin, Tex., 1972). See too Colin Lewis, 'Problems of railway
development in Argentina, 18571890', Inter-American Economic Affairs,
22/2 (1962) and British Railways in Argentina, 18571914 (London,
1983); Paul Goodwin, 'The central Argentine railway and the economic
development of Argentina, 1854-1881', HAHR, 57/4 (1977), 613-32;
and Eduardo A. Zalduendo, 'Aspectos economicos del sistema de trans-
porte en la Argentina (18801914)', in Ferrari and Gallo (eds.), La
Argentina del ochenta al centenario. Among older works, which are neverthe-
less indispensable for various reasons, Raul Scalabrini Ortiz, Historia de los
ferrocarriks argentinos (Buenos Aires, 1957), an anti-British view, and A.
E. Bunge's well-documented Ferrocarriks argentinos (Buenos Aires, 1916),
which, as the author points out, is also a contribution to the study of
national wealth, deserve mention.
On industry, Adolfo Dorfman's study, published originally as La
evolution industrial argentina (Buenos Aires, 1942) and later as Historia de la
industria argentina (Buenos Aires, 1970), remains important. Among more
recent works, see Vasquez Presedo, El caso argentino, and 'Evolucion indus-
trial 18801910', in Ferrari and Gallo (eds.), La Argentina del ochenta al
centenario; Ezequiel Gallo, 'Agrarian expansion and industrial development
in Argentina', in Raymond Carr (ed.), Latin American Affairs: St. Antony's
Papers, No. 22 (Oxford, 1970); Lucio Geller, 'El crecimiento industrial
argentino hasta 1914 y la teoria del bien primario exportado', in Marcos
Gimenez Zapiola (ed.), El regimen oligdrquico: Materialespara el estudio de la
realidadargentina hasta 1930 (Buenos Aires, 1975); Colin M. Lewis, 'Im-
migrant entrepreneurs, manufacturing and industrial policy in the Argen-
tine, 1922-28', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 27(1987),
77-109; Leandro Gutierrez and Juan Carlos Korol, 'Historia de empresas
y crecimiento industrial en la Argentina: El caso de la Fabrica Argentina
de Alpargatas', DE, 28/111 (1988); Maria Ines Barbero, 'Grupos em-
presarios, intercambio comercial e inversiones italianas en la Argentina: El
caso de Pirelli (19101920)', Estudios Migratorios Latinoamericanos, 3/15
16 (1990); and Roberto Cortes Conde, 'Problemas del crecimiento indus-
trial en Argentina 19001960', in Enrique Cardenas (ed.), La indus-
trialization en America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1992) which offers a new

43^ VI. Economy, society, politics, c. I8JO to 1930
series of industrial production statistics for the period 1990-1935 (revis-
ing those of ECLA published in 1958).
18. ARGENTINA: SOCIETY AND POLITICS,

1 8 8 0 - 1916
There are a number of general works on the political process in Argentina

between 1870 and 1914: Academia Nacional de la Historia, Historia
argentina contempordnea 1862-1930, vols. 1 and 2 (Buenos Aires, 1964,
1966); Ricardo Levillier (ed.), Historia argentina, vol. 4 (Buenos Aires,
1968); E. Gallo and R. Cortes Conde, La republica conservadora (Buenos
Aires, 1972); N. Botana, El orden conservator: La politica argentina entre
1880 y 1916 (Buenos Aires, 1977); G. Ferrari and E. Gallo (eds.), La
Argentina del ochenta al centenario (Buenos Aires, 1980); and David Rock,
Argentina 15161987: From Spanish Colonization to the Falklands War
(Berkeley, 1988). Still useful are the classic studies by L. H. Sommariva,
Historia de las intervenciones federates en lasprovincias, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires,
1929), Jose N. Matienzo, El gobierno representative federal en la Republica
Argentina (Madrid, 1917), and Rodolfo Rivarola, Del regimen federativo al
unitario (Buenos Aires, 1908). Also worth consulting is the documentary
compilation by Isidoro Ruiz Moreno (ed.), La federalizacion de Buenos Aires
Some biographies contain useful information on the period. See, for
example, two studies by Agustin Rivero Astengo, Juarez Celman: Estudio
historico y documental de una epoca argentina (Buenos Aires, 1940), and
Pellegrini, 1846-1906, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1941); R. Saenz Hayes,
Miguel Cane y su tiempo, 1851-1905 (Buenos Aires, 1955); and Jose Arce,
Roca 1843-1914: Su vida y su obra (Buenos Aires, i960); F. Luna, Soy Roca
(Buenos Aires, 1989); A. W. Bunkley, The Life of Sarmiento (Princeton,
N.J., 1952); J. Campobassi, Mitrey su epoca (Buenos Aires, 1980); and D.
F. Weinstein, Juan B. Justo y su epoca (Buenos Aires, 1978). Also worth
consulting are Leandro Alem, Mensaje y destino, 8 vols. (Buenos Aires,
1955), and Hipolito Yrigoyen, Pueblo y gobierno, 12 vols. (Buenos Aires,
1956). Among the most useful memoirs or autobiographies of active
politicians are Paul Groussac, Los que pasaban (Buenos Aires, 1919);
Ezequiel Ramos Mejfa, Mis memorias (Buenos Aires, 1936); Ramon J.
Carcano, Mis primeros ochenta anos (Buenos Aires, 1944); Nicolas Repetto,
Mi paso por la politica, de Roca a Irigoyen (Buenos Aires, 1956); Carlos

18. Argentina: society and politics, 18801916 437
Ibarguren, La historia que he vivido (Buenos Aires, 1955), and Enrique

Dickman, Recuerdos de un militante socialista (Buenos Aires, 1949).
Not much, until recently, has been written on the history of ideas. The
theme is given summary treatment in Jose L. Romero, Las ideas politicas en
la Argentina (Mexico, D.F., 1956), Eng. trans. The History of Argentine
Political Thought (Stanford, Calif., 1963). Extremely valuable is T. Hal-
perin Donghi, Proyecto y construction de una nation {Argentina 1846-1880)
(Caracas, 1980). This work should be read in conjunction with other
studies by the same author: 'Un nuevo clima de ideas' in Ferrari and Gallo
(eds.), La Argentina del ochenta al centenario, and ',;Para que la inmigracion?
Ideologia y politica migratoria y aceleracion del proceso modernizador: El
caso argentino (18101914)', JGSWGL, 13 (1976). The following are
also worth consulting: H. Biaggini, {Como fue la generation de ochenta?
(Buenos Aires, 1980); M. Monserrat, 'La mentalidad evolucionista: Una
ideologia del progreso' in Ferrari and Gallo (eds.), La Argentina del ochenta
al centenario; J. C. Chiaramonte, Nacionalismo y liberalismo economico en la
Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1971); and T. Duncan, 'La prensa politica: Sud-
America, 18841914', in Ferrari and Gallo (eds.), La Argentina del ochenta
al centenario. Two important more recent contributions have been made by
Natalio Botana: La tradition republicana: Alberdi, Sarmiento y las ideas po-
liticas de su tiempo (Buenos Aires, 1984), and La libertadpolitica y su historia
(Buenos Aires, 1991). See also T. Halperin Donghi, Jose Hernandez y sus
mundos (Buenos Aires, 1985), and Carlos Escude, El fracaso del proyecto
argentino: Education e ideologia (Buenos Aires, 1990). For social Catholicism,
see N. T. Auza, Corrientes sotiales del catolicismo argentino (Buenos Aires,
1984). A more recent and very valuable contribution is E. Zimmermann,
'Liberals, reform and the social question: Argentina, 18901916' (unpub-
lished D. Phil, thesis, Oxford University, 1991).
There are a few general works on political parties: see Carlos Melo, Los
partidos politicos argentinos (C6rdoba, Arg., 1970); Alfredo Galletti, La
politica y los partidos (Buenos Aires, 1961); Darfo Canton, Elecciones y
partidos politicos en la Argentina: Historia, interpretation y balance, 1910
1966 (Buenos Aires, 1973); and K. Remmer, Party Competition in Argen-
tina and Chile: Political Recruitment and Public Policy (Lincoln, Nebr.,
1984). On political practices, see H. Sabato and E. Plati, 'Quien votaba
en Buenos Aires? Practica y teoria del sufragio, 1850-1880', Desarrollo
Economico, 30/119 (1990), and E. Gallo, 'Un quinquenio dificil: Las pre-
sidencias de Carlos Pellegrini y Luis Saenz Pena', in G. Ferrari and E.
Gallo, La Argentina del ochenta al centenario. The Radical party has received

VI. Economy, society, politics, c. 1870 to 1930
the most attention from historians. Besides the essays in Alem, Mensaje y
destino, and Yrigoyen, Pueblo y gobierno, other important works are Gabriel
Del Mazo, El radicalismo: Ensayo sobre su historia y doctrina (Buenos Aires,
1957); David Rock, Politics in Argentina, 1890-1930: The Rise and Fall of
Radicalism (Cambridge, Eng., 1975); and E. Gallo and S. Sigal, 'La
formaci6n de los partidos politicos contemporaneos: La Union Civica Radi-
cal (18901916)', Desarrollo Econdmico, 3/1-2 (1963). On the Socialist
party, R. J. Walter, The Socialist Party in Argentina, 1S90-1930 (Austin,
Tex., 1977); D. Cuneo, Juan B. Justo y las luchas sociales en la Argentina
(Buenos Aires, 1963); J. Oddone, Historia del socialismo argentino (Buenos
Aires, 1943); and M. Mullaney, 'The Argentine Socialist Party' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. thesis, University of Essex, 1983), are all useful.
Less has been published on the conservative forces in Argentine politics
in this period. But see O. Cornblit, 'La opcion conservadora en la politica
argentina', DE, 15/56 (1975), and E. Gallo, 'El Roquismo', Todo Es
Historia, 100 (1975). Although not devoted specifically to the topic,
useful information may be found in J. M. Dulevich, Caos social y crisis
civica (Buenos Aires, 1980). Nothing has been written on the different
groups which rallied behind the banner of mitrismo, and very little on the
provincial factions. On the latter, various regional histories contain infor-
mation: Juan Alvarez, Ensayo sobre la historia de Santa Fe (Buenos Aires,
1910); H . F. G o m e z , Los ultimos sesenta anos de democracia y gobierno en la
provincia de Corrientes (Buenos Aires, 1931); A. Diaz de Molina, La
oligarquia argentina: Su filiacion y regimen (18401898) (Buenos Aires,
1973); and Carlos Paez de la Torre, 'Tucuman, vida politica y cotidiana,
19041913', Todo Es Historia, 27 (1973). There are also a number of
valuable unpublished doctoral theses: Donald Peck, 'Argentine politics
and the Province of Mendoza, 18901914'(University of Oxford, 1977);
A. Liebscher, 'Commercial expansion and political change in Santa Fe
province, 18971916' (Indiana University, 1975); Donna Guy, 'Politics
and the sugar industry in Tucuman, Argentina, 18701900' (Indiana
University, 1973), and G. Heaps-Nelson, 'Argentine provincial politics in
an era of expanding political participation: Buenos Aires and Mendoza,
19061918' (University of Florida, 1975).
The armed rebellions of this period have attracted considerable atten-
tion. On the revolution of 1874, there is A. Terzaga, 'La revoluci6n del
74: Una estrella que sube', Todo Es Historia, 59 (1974). For the events of
1880, see B. Galindez, Historia politica argentina: La revolucidn de 1880
(Buenos Aires, 1945); S. Ratto de Sambucetti, Avellaneday la nacion versus

i8. Argentina: society and politics, 18801916 439
la provincia de Buenos Aires (18J3-1880) (Buenos Aires, 1975); E. M.

Sanucci, La renovacion presidencial de 1880 (Buenos Aires, 1959); and N.
Botana, '1880: La federalizacion de Buenos Aires', in G. Ferrari and E.
Gallo (eds.), La Argentina del ochenta al centenario. Much has been pub-
lished on the revolution of 1890: J. Balestra, El noventa: Una evolucion
politica argentina (Buenos Aires, 1971); H. Zorraquin Becii, La revolucion
del noventa: Su sentido politico (Buenos Aires, i960); L. V. Sommi, La
revolucion del 90 (Buenas Aires, 1957); and a special edition of the Revista de
Historia (1957) on 'La crisis del 90'. On the provincial revolts of 1893, s e e
R. Etchepareborda, Tres revoluciones: 189018931903 (Buenos Aires,
1968), and E. Gallo, Farmers in Revolt: The Revolution 0/1893 in the Province
of Santa Fe (London, 1976). Etchepareborda's work also analyses the
aborted radical uprising of 1905. See also C. Martinez, Alsina y Alem:
Portenismo y milicias (Buenos Aires, 1990), and M. J. Wilde, 'Las milicias
santafecinas', Revista Histdrica, 10(1982).
On international relations, see H. S. Ferns, Britain and Argentina in the
Nineteenth Century (Oxford, i960); T. McGann, Argentina, the United States
and the Inter-American System: 18801914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1967); G.
Ferrari, 'Argentina y sus vecinos' in Ferrari and Gallo (eds.), La Argentina
del ochenta al centenario; and Joseph S. Tulchin, Argentina and the United
States: A Conflicted Relationship (Boston, 1990). An important subject
which has attracted little attention is that of relations with Italy and
Spain, the home countries of the vast majority of immigrants.
For the social history of the period, fundamental are the three excellent
national censuses of 1869, 1895 and 1914, and the two agricultural cen-
suses (1888 and 1908). There are also two good provincial census reports
(Buenos Aires, 1881, and Santa Fe, Arg., 1887), and three municipal
censuses for the city ofBuenos Aires (1887,1904 and 1909). Much informa-
tion on the social life of Argentina can be found in descriptions and studies
published by foreign writers. The list is a long one, but the following
deserve mention: Handbook of the River Plate by M. G. and E. T. Mulhall,
1863, 1875, 1883 and 1892 (reprint, Buenos Aires and London, 1982); E.
Daireaux, Vida y costumbres en el Plata, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1888); Jules
Huret, En Argentine: De Buenos Ayres au Gran Chaco (Paris, 1914); A. N.
Schuster, Argentinien: Land, Volk, Wirtschaftsleben und Kolonisation, 2 vols.
(Munich, 1913); and P. de Giovanni, Sotto il sole de Maggio: Note e impressione
de la Argentina (Castielo, 1900). Of considerable use is Reginald Lloyd (ed.),
Twentieth Century Impressions of Argentina: Its History, People, Commerce, Indus-
tries and Resources (London, 1911).

A topic which has received particular attention from historians is demo-
graphic growth, especially in relation to immigration. Useful studies are
J. A. Alsina, La inmigracion en el primer siglo de la independencia (Buenos
Aires, 1910); Zulma L. Recchini de Lattes and Alfredo E. Lattes, La
poblacion de Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1975); N. Sanchez-Albornoz, La
poblacion de America Latina desde los tiempos pre-colombinos al ano 2000 (Ma-
drid, 1973); G. Beyhaut et al., 'Los inmigrantes en el sistema ocupacional
argentino', in Torcuato Di Telia et al., Argentina, sociedadde masas (Buenos
Aires, 1965); and E. Maeder, 'Poblacion e inmigracion en la Argentina
entre 1880 y 1910', in Ferrari and Gallo (eds.), La Argentina del ochenta al
centenario. See also Carl Solberg, Immigration and Nationalism in Argentina
and Chile, 18901914 (Austin, Tex., 1970). On European immigration
to rural areas, see J. C. Korol and H. Sabato, Como fue la inmigracion
irlandesa en Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1981), and Ezequiel Gallo, Lapampa
gringa (Buenos Aires, 1983).
Much research has been carried out recently on specific groups of immi-
grants. See, for instance, the articles in F. Korn (ed.), Los italianos en la
Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1983); F. J. Devoto and G. Ronzoli (eds.),
L'ltalia nella societd argentina (Rome, 1988); and N. Sanchez-Albornoz
(ed.), Espanoles hacia America: La emigracion en masa (18801930) (Madrid,
1988). See also O. Weyne, El ultimopuerto: Del Rhin al Volga y del Volga al
Plata (Buenos Aires, 1986).
On urban growth, see Z. Recchini de Lattes, 'El proceso de ur-
banization en la Argentina: Distribution, crecimiento y algunas carac-
teristicas de la poblaci6n urbana', DE, 13/48 (1973), and La poblacion de
Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires, 1971); P. H. Randle, La ciudad pampeana
(Buenos Aires, 1977); J. Scobie, Buenos Aires: From Plaza to Suburb,
18701910 (New York, 1971); Guy Bourde, Urbanisation et immigration
en Amerique Latine, Buenos Aires, XIXe et XXe sikies (Paris, 1974); and F.
Korn, Buenos Aires 1895: Una ciudad moderna (Buenos Aires 1981). For
the development of some of the interior cities, see J. Scobie, Secondary
Cities of Argentina: The Social History of Corrientes, Salta, and Mendoza,
18501910, completed and edited by Samuel L. Baily (Stanford, Calif.,
1988).
On social structure, see G. Germani, Estructura social de la Argentina
(Buenos Aires, 1955); S. Bagii, Evolucion historica de la estratificacion social
en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1961); F. Korn, Buenos Aires: Los huespedes del
'20 (Buenos Aires, 1974); and the unpublished Ph.D. thesis by R. Sautu,
'Social stratification and economic development in Argentina (1914

i8. Argentina: society and politics, 18801916 441
1955)' (London, 1968). Also useful are G. Germani, 'La movilidad social
en la Argentina', appendix to S. M. Lipset and R. Bendix (eds.),
Movilidad social en la sociedad industrial (Buenos Aires, 1963); Jorge
Federico Sabato, 'Notas sobre la formation de la clase dominante en la
Argentina moderna (18801914)', mimeo, CISEA (Buenos Aires, 1979);
D. Cuneo, Compartamiento y crisis de la clase empresaria (Buenos Aires,
1967); and O. Cornblit, 'Sindicatos obreros y asociaciones empresarias' in
Ferrari and Gallo (eds.), La Argentina del ochenta al centenario. For relations
between the agrarian and industrial sectors, see E. Gallo, 'Agrarian expan-
sion and industrial development in Argentina, 18801930' in R. Carr
(ed.), Latin American Affairs: St. Antony's Papers, No. 22 (Oxford, 1970).
For the interior provinces, see the unpublished Ph.D. theses by Donald
Peck and Donna Guy cited above. Also valuable are Marcos Gimenez
Zapiola, 'El interior argentino y el "desarrollo hacia afuera": El caso de
Tucuman', in M. Gimenez Zapiola (ed.), El regimen oligdrquico: Materiales
para el estudio de la realidad argentina hasta 1930 (Buenos Aires, 1975); E.
Gallo, 'The cereal boom and changes in the social and political structure of
Santa Fe, Argentina 1870-95', in K. Duncan and I. Rutledge (eds.),
Land and Labour in Latin America (Cambridge, Eng., 1977); J. Balan, 'Una
cuestion regional en la Argentina: Burguesfas provinciales y el mercado
nacional en el desarrollo exportador', Desarrollo Economico, 18/69 (!978);
H. Sabato, Agrarian Capitalism and the World Market: Buenos Aires in the
Pastoral Age, 1840-1890 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1990); and H. F. Cas-
tillo and J. S. Tulchin, 'Developpement capitaliste et structures sociales
des regions en Argentine (1880-1930)', AESC, 6 (1968).
On living conditions, the classic studies are A. Bunge, Riqueza y rentas
en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1915) and Los problemas economicos delpresente
(Buenos Aires, 1919), and J. Bialet Masset, Informe sobre el estado de las
clases obreras en el interior de la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1904). An impor-
tant modern work is R. Cortes Conde, El progreso argentino, 18801914
(Buenos Aires, 1979). See also J. Panettieri, Los trabajadores (Buenos
Aires, 1968). One of the few studies on housing is O. Yujnovsky, 'Po-
liticas de vivienda en la ciudad de Buenos Aires', Desarrollo Economico 14,
54 (1974). But see F. Korn and L. de la Torre, 'Housing in Buenos Aires:
1887-1914' in D. C. M. Platt (ed.), Social Welfare 1850-1950, Australia,
Argentina and Canada Compared (London, 1989). See also in the same
volume C. Escude, 'Health in Buenos Aires in the second half of the
nineteenth century'. Worth consulting are some of the articles included in
L. L. Johnson (ed.), The Problem of Order in Changing Societies: Essays in

Crime and Policing in Argentina and Uruguay, 1750-1919 (Albuquerque,

N.Mex., 1990). On education, seej. C. Tedesco, Educaciony sociedaden la
Argentina (1800-1900) (Buenos Aires, 1970), and Francis Korn and L. de
la Torre, 'Constituir la Uni6n Nacional', in Ferrari and Gallo (eds.), La
Argentina del ocbenta al centenario. Diego Armus (ed.), Mundo urbano y
cultura popular: Estudios de historia argentina (Buenos Aires, 1990) contains
essays on housing, ethnic communities, artisans and female and child
labour.
On the labour movement the literature is more abundant. Of the stud-
ies published by those who participated actively in union organization, the
most useful are S. Marotta, El movimiento sindicalargentino, 3 vols. (Buenos
Aires, i960), and D. Abad de Santillan, La FORA: Ideologia y trayectoria
(Buenos Aires, 1971). Modern studies include M. Casaretto, Historia del
movimiento obrero argentino (Buenos Aires, 1947); Hobart A. Spalding, Jr.,
La clase trabajadora argentina: Documentos para su historia (18901912)
(Buenos Aires, 1970); and I. Oved, Elanarquismo en los sindicatos argentinos
a comienzos de siglo (Tel Aviv, 1975). For additional bibliography on labour,
see essay VI:7.
More recent comparative work with Australia and Canada provides
valuable information and insights into social and political developments in
Argentina. See T. Duncan and J. Fogarty, Australia and Argentina: On
Parallel Paths (Melbourne, 1984); C. Solberg, The Prairies and the Pampas:
Agrarian Policy in Canada and Argentina, 18801930 (Stanford, Calif.,
1987); the articles contained in J. Fogarty, E. Gallo and H. Dieguez
(eds.), Argentina y Australia (Buenos Aires, 1979); K. Boulding et al.,
Argentina and Australia: Essays in Comparative Economic Development (Victo-
ria, 1985); D. C. M. Platt and Guido Di Telia (eds.), Argentina, Australia
and Canada: Studies in Comparative Development, 18701965 (London,
1985); and D. C. M. Platt (ed.), Social Welfare, 1850-1950, cited above.
19. ARGENTINA, 1914-1930
A major statistical source for the study of Argentina on the eve of the First
World War is Ernesto Tornquist, The Economic Development of the Argentine
Republic in the Last Fifty Years (Buenos Aires, 1919). For the war period
itself students should also consult Tornquist's quarterly publication, Busi-
ness Conditions in Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1913-22). A second source of
information is the writings of Alejandro E. Bunge. See his Ferrocarriles

19- Argentina, 19141930 443
argentinos (Buenos Aires, 1917) and Los problemas economicos del presente
(1919; Buenos Aires, 1979). Both are encyclopaedic collections of facts
and figures. Slightly later came Bunge's La economia argentina, 4 vols.
(Buenos Aires, 192830), a work containing many of the author's press
writings from past years and articles from a major journal he edited, the
Revista de Economia Argentina. Other important publications are the na-
tional census of 1914, Tercer Censo National (Buenos Aires, 1915-17),
which is far more than a mere population count, and Alberto B. Martinez
and Maurice Lewandowski, The Argentine in the Twentieth Century (London,
1911). For population, see also Recensement general de la ville de Buenos Aires
The most outstanding contemporary study of Argentina from abroad is
the publication by Lloyd's Bank to celebrate the centennial anniversary of
1910: Reginald Lloyd (ed.), Twentieth Century Impressions of Argentina: Its
History, People, Commerce, Industries and Resources (London, 1911). Pierre
Denis, The Argentine Republic: Its Development and Progress, translated by
Joseph McCabe (London, 1922), is a useful geographical survey by a
Frenchman, though much inferior to its predecessor from the 1860s by
Martin de Moussy. There are insights into manners and customs in W. H.
Koebel, Argentina: Past and Present (London, 1914). John Foster Fraser,
The Amazing Argentine (London, 1914) has virtues, though it is often very
negative and a little graceless. The view from Spain can be found in Adolfo
Posada, La Republica Argentina (Madrid, 1912), and a little later in the
many writings of Jose Ortega y Gasset. Other major works of a similar
type are James Bryce, South America: Observations and Impressions (London,
1912); Georges Clemenceau, South America Today: A Study of Conditions
Social, Political and Commercial in Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil (London,
1911); John A. Hammerton, The Real Argentine: Notes and Impressions of a
Year in the Argentine and Uruguay (New York, 1915); Jules Huret, En
Argentine: De Buenos Ayres au Gran Chaco (Paris, 1914); Adolf N. Schuster,
Argentinien: Land, Volk, Wirtschaftsleben und Kolonisation, 2 vols. (Munich,
1913); Mark C. Jefferson, Peopling the Argentine Pampas (New York, 1926).
On the economy between 1914 and 1930 there are several useful older
sources: Harold J. Peters, The Foreign Debt of the Argentine Republic (Balti-
more, 1934); Vernon L. Phelps, The International Economic Position of Argen-
tina (Philadelphia, 1938); Ricardo M. Ortiz, Historia economica de la Argen-
tina, 1850-1930, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1955), especially vol. 2. Among
several more recent studies the most outstanding are Carlos F. Diaz
Alejandro, Essays in the Economic History of the Argentine Republic (New

Haven, Conn., 1970) and Guido Di Telia and Manuel Zymelman, Las
etapas del desarrollo economico argentino (Buenos Aires, 1967). On industrial
growth, see Javier Villanueva, 'El origen de la industrializacion argentina',
Desarrollo Economico, 12I47 (1972), 45176, and Eduardo F. Jorge, In-
dustria y concentraci&n economica (Buenos Aires, 1971).
For international economic relations, see Jorge Fodor and Arturo O'Con-
nell, 'La Argentina y la economia atlantica en la primera mitad del siglo
XX', Desarrollo Economico, 13/49 ( I 973); Joseph S. Tulchin, The Aftermath
of War: World War I and U.S. Policy towards Latin America (New York,
1971) aiid 'The Argentine economy during the First World War', Review of
the River Plate (19 June10 July 1970); Pedro Skupch, 'El deterioro y fin
de la hegemonia britanica sobre la economia argentina 191447' in L.
Marta Panaia, Ricardo Lesser and Pedro Skupch (eds.), Estudios sobre los
origenes del peronismo, vol. 2 (Buenos Aires, 1973); and Roger Gravil,
'AngloU.S. trade rivalry in Argentina and the D'Abernon mission of
1929', in D. Rock (ed.), Argentina in the Twentieth Century (London,
1975). Also see Harold F. Peterson, Argentina and the United States, 1810-
1960 (New York, 1964).
For complete electoral data for the period 1916-30, see Dario Canton,
Materiales para el estudio de la sociologia politica en la Argentina, 2 vols.
(Buenos Aires, 1969). On Yrigoyen's first government (1916-22), see
David Rock, Politics in Argentina, 1890-1930: The Rise and Fall of Radi-
calism (Cambridge, Eng., 1975). See also Peter H. Smith, Argentina and
the Failure of Democracy: Conflict among Political Elites (Madison, Wis.,
1974), Politics and Beef in Argentina: Patterns of Conflict and Change (New
York, 1969) and 'Los radicales argentinos en la defensa de los intereses
ganaderos', DE, j/25 (1967), 795-829; Richard J. Walter, Student Poli-
tics in Argentina: The University Reform and Its Effects, 1918-1964 (New
York, 1968), and The Socialist Party of Argentina, 1890-1930 (Austin,
Tex., 1977); Paul B. Goodwin, Los ferrocarriles britdnicos y la U.C.R.,
19161930 (Buenos Aires, 1974); Osvaldo Bayer, Los vengadores de la
Patagonia trdgica, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1972). Among more traditional
accounts the most useful are Roberto Etchepareborda, Hipolito Yrigoyen:
Pueblo y gobierno, 10 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1951); Gabriel Del Mazo, El
radicalismo: Ensayo sobre su historia y doctrina (Buenos Aires, 1957); and
Manuel Galvez, Vida de Hipolito Yrigoyen (Buenos Aires, 1959). On the
Alvear administration (1922-8) the field is more limited, but see Rock,
Politics in Argentina, Smith, Argentina and the Failure of Democracy and
Raul A. Molina, Presidencia de Marcelo T. de Alvear (Buenos Aires, 1965).

2O. Uruguay 445
An important study of provincial politics is Richard J. Walter, The

Province of Buenos Aires and Argentine Politics, 19121943 (Cambridge,
Eng., 1985). The standard study of the authoritarian groups is Marysa
Navarro Gerassi, Los nacionalistas (Buenos Aires, 1969). More recent
works are Sandra McGee Deutsch, Counterrevolution in Argentina, 1900
1932: The Argentine Patriotic League (Lincoln, Nebr., 1986) and David
Rock, Authoritarian Argentina: The Nationalist Movement, Its History and
Its Impact (Berkeley, 1993).
For the meat issue, see Smith, Politics and Beef; also Simon G. Hanson,
Argentine Meat and the British Market; Chapters in the History of the Argentine
Meat Industry (Stanford, Calif., 1938) and Oscar B. Colman, 'Luchas
interburguesas en el agro-argentino: La crisis de la came en el "20" ',
Estudios (Buenos Aires, 1973). The tariff issue has attracted much atten-
tion. Of the more recent literature the best is Diaz Alejandro, Essays;
Laura Randall, An Economic History of Argentina in the Twentieth Century
(New York, 1978), 1206; and Carl E. Solberg, 'Tariffs and politics in
Argentina, 1916-1930', HAHR, 53/2 (1973), 260-84. See also Carl E.
Solberg, 'Agrarian unrest and agrarian policy in Argentina, 191230',
JIAS, 13 (1971), 1555. On oil, see above all Carl E. Solberg, Oil and
Nationalism in Argentina (Stanford, Calif., 1979); also Arturo Frondizi,
Petroleo y political Contribucion al estudio de la historia economica argentina y las
relaciones entre el imperialismo y la vidapolitica nacional (Buenos Aires, 1955),
and Marcos Kaplan, 'Politica del petroleo en la primera presidencia de
Hipolito Yrigoyen, 1916-22', DE, 12/45 ( X 97 2 ). 3~ 2 4-
The army and the revolution of 1930 are best approached through
Robert A. Potash, The Army and Politics in Argentina, 1928-1945:
Yrigoyen to Peron (Stanford, Calif, 1969) and Jose Maria Sarobe, Memorias
sobre le revolution del 6 de septiembre de 1930 (Buenos Aires, 1957).
20. URUGUAY
During the period under discussion, there were three national censuses
(1852, i860, 1908). For official statistics, see Cuadernos (Montevideo,
1873-1874) and Anuarios estadisticos (Montevideo, 1884- ); valuable
statistical information is gathered together in Juan Rial, Estadisticas his-
toricas del Uruguay 18501930 (Montevideo, 1980). Juan E. Pivel Devoto
has published a substantial part of the correspondence sent to their respec-
tive chanceries by the ministers of France, Italy, Spain and Germany. See

the Revista Historica of the National Historical Museum, Montevideo,

vols. 3239 (19628). For the diplomatic and consular documents of the
Kingdom of Italy, see also Juan A. Oddone, Una perspectiva europea del
Uruguay: Los informes diplomdticos y consulares italianos, 18621914 (Monte-
video, 1965). In addition to the large-circulation newspapers, the Revista
de la Asociacion Rural (from 1872) and the Revista de la Federacion Rural
(from 1915), which reflected agrarian interests, and El Industrial Uruguayo
(19021912) and the Revista de la Union Industrial Uruguaya (18991928),
representing the industrial sector, are important sources. Other comple-
mentary sources (travellers, memoirs-writers and essayists) have been ana-
lysed in Carlos Real de Aziia, Viajeros y observadores extranjeros del Uruguay:
Juicios e impresiones (1889-1964) (Montevideo, 1965), Antologia del ensayo
uruguayo contempordneo, 2 vols. (Montevideo, 1964) and 'Prosa del mirar y
del vivir', in Capitulo Oriental, 9 (Montevideo, 1968).
General works include Eduardo Acevedo, Anales historicos del Uruguay, 6
vols., 2nd ed. (Montevideo, 19336); Luis C. Benvenuto, Breve historia
del Uruguay (Montevideo, 1969); Roque Faraone, El Uruguay en que vivimos
(19001968) (Montevideo, 1970); Benjamin Nahum, La epoca batHista,
19051929 (Montevideo, 1975); M. Blanca Paris de Oddone et al.,
Cronologia comparada de la historia del Uruguay, 18301945, 2nd ed. (Mon-
tevideo, 1967); and Alberto Zum Felde, Proceso historico del Uruguay y
esquema de su sociologia, 5th ed. (Montevideo, 1967).
On economic growth and development, see the classic Eduardo Ace-
vedo, Notas y apuntes: Contribucidn al estudio de la historia economica y finan-
ciera de la Repitblica Oriental del Uruguay (Montevideo, 1903); Jose Pedro
Barran and Benjamin Nahum, Historia rural del Uruguay moderno, vol. 1,
18511885 (Montevideo, 1967), vol. 2, La crisis economica, 18861894
(Montevideo, 1971), vol. 3, Recuperationydependencia, 1895-1914 (Monte-
video, 1977), vol. 7, Agricultura, credito y transporte bajo Battle, 1905
1914 (Montevideo, 1978); Roque Faraone, De la prosperidad a la ruina:
Introduction a la historia economica del Uruguay (Montevideo, 1987); Luis A.
Faroppa, El desarollo economico del Uruguay: Tentativa de explicacion publico del
Uruguay, 2 vols. (Montevideo, 1969); M. H. J. Finch, A Political Economy
of Uruguay since 1870 (London, 1981); Simon G. Hanson, Utopia in Uru-
guay (New York, 1938); Instituto de Economia, El proceso economico del
Uruguay (Montevideo, 1969); Raul Jacob, Breve historia de la industria en el
Uruguay (Montevideo, 1981) and Modelo batHist a: (Variation sobre un viejo
tema? (Montevideo, 1988); David Joslin, A Century of Banking in Latin
America (London, 1963); Samuel Lichtensztejn, Comertio international y

2O. Uruguay 447
problemas monetarios (Montevideo, 1969); Julio Martinez Lamas, Riqueza y

pobreza del Uruguay (Montevideo, 1930); Oscar Mourat, La crisis comercial
en la cuenca del Plata, 18801920 (Montevideo, 1973); Juan A. Oddone,
Economia y sociedad en el Uruguay liberal, 18521904 (Montevideo, 1967);
Julio C. Rodriguez, Los grandes negocios, vol. 29 of Enciclopedia uruguaya
(Montevideo, 1969); Carlos Visca, Emilio Reus y su epoca (Montevideo,
1963); Peter Winn, El imperio informal britdnico en el Uruguay en elsiglo XIX
(Montevideo, 1975); and Carlos Zubillaga, El retofinanciero:Deuda externa
y desarrollo en Uruguay, 1903-1933 (Montevideo, 1982).
On demographic and social history, see Jose Pedro Barran and Benjamin
Nahum, Battle, los estancieros y el imperio britdnico, vol. 1, El Uruguay del
novecientos (Montevideo, 1979); see also Historia rural del Uruguay moderno,
vol. 4, Historia social de las revoluciones de 189J y 1904 (Montevideo, 1972);
Alfredo Castellanos, Historia del desarrollo urbanistico y edilicio de Montevideo,
18291914 (Montevideo, 1971); German d'Elia and Armando Miraldi,
Historia del movimiento obrero en el Uruguay (Montevideo, 1984); Oscar
Mourat, La inmigracion y el crecimiento de la poblacion del Uruguay 1830
1930: Series estadisticas para su estudio, in Cinco perspectivas historicas del
Uruguay moderno (Montevideo, 1969); Juan A. Oddone, La formation del
Uruguay moderno: La inmigracion y el desarrollo economico-social (Buenos Aires,
1966); Carlos Real de Aziia, La clase dirigente (Montevideo, 1969); Juan
Rial, La poblacion uruguaya y el crecimiento economico-social entre 1850 y 1939
(Montevideo, 1981) and Poblacion y desarrollo de un pequeno pats: Uruguay,
1830-1930 (Montevideo, 1983); Silvia Rodriguez Villamil and Graciela
Sapriza, La inmigracion europea en el Uruguay: Los italianos (Montevideo,
1982); Lucia Sala de Touron and Jorge E. Landinelli, 50 anos del movimiento
obrero uruguayo, in Historia del movimiento obrero en America Latina (coord, by
Pablo Gonzalez Casanova), vol. 4 (Mexico, D.F., 1984); Carlos Zubillaga
and Jorge Balbis, Historia del movimiento sindical uruguayo, vol. 1, Crono-
logia y fuentes: Hasta 1905 (Montevideo, 1985), vol. 2, Prensa obrera y
obrerista, 187S-1905 (Montevideo, 1986), vol. 3, Vida y trabajo de los
sectores populares (Montevideo, 1988).
For political developments, see Jose Pedro Barran and Benjamin Na-
hum, Batlle, los estancieros y el imperio britdnico, vol. 3, El nacimiento de
batllismo (Montevideo, 1982), vol. 4, Las primeras reformas, 1911-1913
(Montevideo, 1983), vol. 5, La reaccidn imperial-conservadora, 19111913
(Montevideo, 1984); Gerardo Caetano, La agonia del reformismo (Montevi-
deo, 1983); Gerardo Caetano and Jose P. Rilla, El joven Quijano (1900
1933): Izquierda nacional y conciencia crttica (Montevideo, 1986); Alfredo

Castellanos y Romeo Perez, El pluralismo: Examen de la experiencia Uruguaya,

1830-1918 (Montevideo, 1981); Goran Lindahl, Uruguay's New Path: A
Study in Politics during the First Colegiado (Stockholm, 1962); Juan E. Pivel
Devoto, Historia de los partidos politicos en el Uruguay, 2 vols. (Montevideo,
1942) and La amnistia en la tradicion politica uruguaya (Montevideo, 1984);
Carlos Real de Aziia, El impulso y sufreno: Tres dkadas de batllismo (Montevi-
deo, 1964) and La historia politica, in Enciclopedia uruguaya, vol. 1 (Monte-
video, 1968); Dante Turcatti, El equilibrio dificil: La politica internacional
del batllismo (Montevideo, 1981); Milton Vanger, Jose Batlie y Ordonez of
Uruguay: The Creator of His Times, 1902-1907 (Cambridge, Mass., 1963),
and The Model Country: Jose Batik y Ordonez of Uruguay 19071915 (Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1980); and Carlos Zubillaga, Herrera, la encrucijada
nacionalista (Montevideo, 1976).
Finally, on cultural aspects of the period, see Arturo Ardao, Espiritu-
alismo y positivismo en el Uruguay (Mexico, D.F., 1950) and Racionalismo y
liberalismo en el Uruguay (Montevideo, 1962); Jose Pedro Barran, Historia de
la sensibilidaden el Uruguay, vol. 2, El disciplinamiento, i8601920 (Monte-
video, 1990); Juan A. Oddone and M. Blanca Paris, Historia de la
Universidad de Montevideo: La universidad vieja, 18491884 (Montevideo,
1963) and La universidad uruguaya desde el militarismo a la crisis, 1885
1938, 4 vols. (Montevideo, 1972); Angel Rama, La belle epoque, in
Enciclopedia uruguaya, vol. 26 (Montevideo, 1969) and 180 anos de literat-
ura, in Enciclopedia uruguaya, vol. 3 (Montevideo, 1968); Alberto Zum
Felde, Proceso intelectual del Uruguay y critica de su literatura (Montevideo,
1967).
21. PARAGUAY
There has been increasing scholarly attention paid to the period dealing
with Paraguay between the War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70) and the
Chaco War (19325). Harris Gaylord Warren, Paraguay and the Triple
Alliance: The Postwar Decade, 1869-1878 (Austin, Tex., 1978) is a serious
study of the early part of this period. The period from 1878 to the 1904
revolution has been analysed in Harris G. Warren and Katherine E. War-
ren, Rebirth of the Paraguayan Republic: The First Colorado Era, 1818-1904
(Pittsburgh, Pa., 1985). The 1904 revolution is the subject of essays by
Harris G. Warren, "The Paraguayan revolution of 1904', TA, 36 (1980);
and Juan Carlos Herken Krauer, 'La revolucion de 1904 en el Paraguay: El

2 1 . Paraguay 449
trasfondo socio-economico y la perspectiva britanica', Revista Paraguaya de

Sociologia, 22/62 (1985). On the relationship between business and poli-
tics, see Diego Abente, 'Foreign capital, economic elites and the state in
Paraguay during the Liberal Republic, 18701936', JLAS, 21/1 (1989),
6188; and Juan Carlos Herken Krauer, Ferrocarriles, conspiraciones y
negocios, 19101914 (Asuncion, 1984), 'Politicos, empresarios y finan-
cistas en el Paraguay, 19071920', JGSWGL, 22 (1985), 42355, and
'Ferrocarril, polftica y economia en el Paraguay: El acuerdo de 1907 entre
el Paraguay Central Railway Company y el gobierno paraguayo', lAA,
10/3 (1984), 291-316. Other studies of several aspects of this hitherto
neglected period include Juan C. Herken Krauer, El Paraguay rural entre
1869 y 1913 (Asuncion, 1984); Diego Abente, 'The liberal republic and
the failure of democracy", TA, 45/4 (1989), 52546; Ricardo Caballero
Aquino, La segunda republka paraguaya (Asuncion, 1984); and Harris G.
Warren, 'Journalism in Asuncion under the allies and the Colorados,
1869-1904', TA, 50,14 (1983), 4 8 3 - 9 8 .
Less scholarly than these studies but nevertheless valuable, is Teodosio
Gonzalez, Infortunios del Paraguay (Buenos Aires, 1931). Gonzalez was a
maverick Liberal senator in the 1920s and his book is a 'muckraking' work
that spares neither party in its expose of Paraguay's intrigues and corrup-
tion. It spans the period from the War of the Triple Alliance to Gonzalez's
own time and treats Paraguay's problems topically rather than chronologi-
cally. Another valuable work is Carlos R. Centurion's comprehensive Histo-
ria de la cultura paraguaya, 2 vols. (Asuncion, 1961). It is mainly about
literature, but since so much of Paraguay's writing is polemical the reader
will gain much information about political questions and alignments. Also
recommended is Arturo Bray's Hombres y epocas del Paraguay, 2 vols. (Bue-
nos Aires, 1943, 1957) and 3 vols. (1981), which approaches the nation's
history through brief biographies of its leading figures. One attempt to
look at Paraguay through the accounts of travellers in the country covering
part of the period is Alicia Vidaurreta, 'El Paraguay a traves de los viajeros,
18431917', Estudios Paraguayos, 11/1 (1983), 51 102.
Some information can be gleaned from general histories. Efrafm
Cardozo, Breve historia del Paraguay (Buenos Aires, 1965), and Julio Cesar
Chaves, Compendio de la historia paraguaya (Buenos Aires, i960) are intro-
ductory surveys by two of Paraguay's best historians. The former, who
died in 1973, was a Liberal; the latter is a Colorado. See also Cardozo's
posthumous Apuntes de historia cultural del Paraguay (Asuncion, 1985).
Alonso Ibarra, Cien anos de vida politica paraguaya, posterior a la epopeya de

1865 al 70 (Asunci6n, 1973), is a very brief enumeration of the chief

events since the start of the War of the Triple Alliance. In English, there
are Philip Raine, Paraguay (New Brunswick, N.J., 1956), George Pendle,
Paraguay, a Riverside Nation (London, 1956), and Harris Gay lord Warren,
Paraguay, an Informal History (Norman, Okla., 1949). All three are useful
introductions to Paraguay, but in each case the treatment of the interwar
period is the weakest part of the book.
F. Arturo Bordon, Historia politica del Paraguay: Era constitutional
(Asuncion, 1976), is worth reading in conjunction with Warren's Para-
guay and the Triple Aliance for its description of the politics of the immedi-
ate postwar period. It contains interesting information about the origins of
the Paraguayan Legion. A much more serious work is Carlos Pastore, La
luchapor la tierra en el Paraguay (Montevideo, 1972). Despite Pastore's pro-
Liberal partisanship, the book is well researched and contains valuable
information on the land question.
The period after 1904, when the Liberals took power, has received even
less attention than the Colorado era. Most of the writing is concerned with
attacking or defending the Liberals' conduct of diplomacy. Some of the
better examples of this genre are Policarpo Artaza, Ayala, Estigarribia y el
Partido Liberal (Buenos Aires, 1946), which supports the Liberals, and
Antonio E. Gonzalez, Preparation del Paraguay para la guerra del Chaco, 2
vols. (Asuncion, 1957), which presents the case against them. Another
Liberal version is G. Freire Esteves, Historia contempordnea del Paraguay,
1869-1920 (Buenos Aires, 1921; Asuncion, 1983).
The shooting of students before the presidential palace on 23 October
1931 produced much polemical literature. Efraim Cardozo defended the
government in 23 de octubre: Una pdgina de historia contempordnea del Para-
guay (Buenos Aires, 1956), and at the same time furnished interesting
insights about the gondrista and schaererista factional struggle in the Liberal
party. Probably the best anti-Liberal polemic is Juan Stefanich, El 23 de
octubre de 1931 (Buenos Aires, 1958), which was a direct reply to Cardozo.
It also contains a broader indictment of three decades of Liberal party rule.
Another account of the events by a participant is Manuel Agustin Avila,
23 de octubre de 1931: Una pdgina enlutada y gloriosa del estudiantado para-
guayo y algunas notas sobre la Guerra del Chaco (Asuncion, 1981). Brief
biographical sketches of Paraguayan political and cultural leaders can be
found in William Balmont Parker, Paraguayans of Today (New York,
1920). Finally, no student of this period can fail to be fascinated by the
complex personality of Eligio Ayala. His thoughts about his native land

22. Chile 451
were published after his death. Migraciones (Santiago, Chile, 1941) is a

long essay with many penetrating observations into Paraguayan society by
one of Paraguay's most intelligent statesmen.
22. CHILE
Among general works covering this period, the best to date are (in En-
glish) Brian Loveman, Chile: The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism, 2nd ed.
(New York, 1988), chaps. 6 - 7 , and Fredrick B. Pike, Chile and the United
States 18801962 (Notre Dame, Ind., 1963) much more comprehen-
sive than its title suggests and (in Spanish), Leopoldo Castedo, Resumen
de la historia de Chile, 1891-1925 (Santiago, Chile, 1982), a brilliantly
illustrated book. See also an ambitious work by Gonzalo Vial, Historia de
Chile, 18911973 (Santiago, Chile, vol. 1 in two parts, 1981; vol. 2,
1983; vol. 3, 1987); the volumes published so far cover the period 1891-
1925 in great detail.
The diplomatic history of the period is treated in Mario Barros, Historia
diplomdtica de Chile, 1541-1938 (Barcelona, 1970); see also William F.
Sater, Chile and the United States: Empires in Conflict (Athens, Ga., 1990),
especially chaps. 3 - 5 . Joyce Goldberg, The 'Baltimore' Affair (Lincoln,
Nebr., 1986) capably dissects a briefly tense moment in Chile-U.S. rela-
tions at perhaps greater length than the 'affair' itself might seem to
warrant.
Constitutional and political history of these years is stimulatingly cov-
ered in Julio Heise Gonzalez, Historia de Chile: El periodo parlamentario,
1861-1925, 2 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1974-82); published during the
Pinochet dictatorship, these two volumes underscored the increasingly
democratic content of Chile's history in the period concerned. General
works dealing with the social and economic dimensions include Arnold
Bauer, Chilean Rural Society from the Spanish Conquest to 1930 (Cambridge,
Eng., 1975), especially the later chapters; Brian Loveman, Struggle in the
Countryside: Politics and Rural Labor in Chile, 1919-1913 (Bloomington,
Ind., 1976), whose early chapters are particularly useful; Henry Kirsch,
Industrial Development in a Traditional Society: The Conflict of Entrepreneurship
and Modernization in Chile (Gainesville, Fla., 1977); Alan Angell, Politics
and the Labour Movement in Chile (London, 1972); Jorge Barria, El movimiento
obrero (Santiago, Chile, 1971); and Peter De Shazo, Urban Workers and Labor
Unions in Chile, 1902-192-/ (Madison, Wis., 1983), a significant 'revision-

ist' study which seriously challenges the role of Recabarren and the nitrate
workers as the 'onlie begetters' of class consciousness and the left-wing
parties. See also Charles Bergquist, Labor in Latin America (Stanford, Calif.,
1986), ch. 2, for an interesting new interpretation of Chilean labour his-
tory, focussing largely on this period. The quickest way into economic
history is through the bibliography contained in Carmen Cariola and Os-
valdo Sunkel, 'Chile,' in Roberto Cortes Conde and Stanley J. Stein (eds.),
Latin America: A Guide to Economic History, 1830-1930 (Berkeley and Los
Angeles, 1977); this is accompanied by an interpretative essay. Literary
history is surveyed in Raul Silva Castro, Historica critica de la novela chilena,
18431956 (Madrid, i960), and also by Castedo, Resumen de la historia de
Chile, which admirably covers cultural matters more generally.
The presidency of Balmaceda and the civil war of 1891 dominate the
first part of the period. Harold Blakemore, 'The Chilean revolution of
1891 and its historiography,' HAHR, 45/3 (1965), 393-421, remains a
valuable discussion of the issues. Also indispensable is the same author's
British Nitrates and Chilean Politics, 18861896: Balmaceda and North
(London, 1974). Of several notable contemporary accounts, J. Bafiados
Espinosa, Balmaceda, su gobierno y la revolucion de 1891, 2 vols. (Paris,
1894) remains the best and most detailed. Hernan Ramirez Necochea,
Balmaceda y la contrarrevolucion de 1891, 2nd ed. (Santiago, Chile, 1969),
is a suggestive Marxist interpretation. Much recondite material and con-
trasting interpretations may be found in Oscar Bermiidez, Historia del
salitre desde la Guerra del Pacifico hasta la revolucion de 1891 (Santiago,
Chile, 1984), the sequel to Bermudez's earlier volume of 1963; Thomas F.
O'Brien, The Nitrate Industry and Chile's Crucial Transition, 18JO-1891
(New York, 1982); Michael Monteon, Chile in the Nitrate Era: The Evolu-
tion 0/Economic Dependence, 1880-1930 (Madison, Wis., 1982). Students
of the nitrate issue cannot afford to ignore Robert Greenhill, 'The nitrate
and iodine trades, 1880-1914,' in D. C. M. Platt (ed.), Business Imperial-
ism, 1840-1930 (Oxford, 1977), 231-83.
The so-called Parliamentary Republic (1891-1920) has finally begun
to command the attention of historians that it deserves, as is witnessed by
the works of Castedo, Vial and Heise Gonzalez mentioned above. For
general thoughts on the period, see Harold Blakemore, 'El periodo
parlamentario en la historia chilena: Algunos enfoques y reflexiones,' in
Dos estudios sobre salitre y politica en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1991). Paul
Reinsch, 'Parliamentary government in Chile,' American Political Science
Review, 3 (19089), is not only a brilliant portrait but also an outstanding

22, Chile 453
example of the writing of'contemporary history.' Two studies of particular

presidencies merit citation here: Jaime Eyzaguirre, Chile durante el gobierno
de Errdzuriz Echaurren, 18961901 (Santiago, Chile, 1957), and German
Riesco, Presidencia de Riesco, 1901-1906 (Santiago, Chile, 1950). For a
straightforward narrative of the years 190038, see Fernando Pinto
Lagarrigue, Cronica politica del siglo XX (Santiago, Chile, 1970). Among
older works, the highly polemical study of Ricardo Donoso, Alessandri,
agitador y demoledor, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1952-4) gives a detailed
chronicle of the whole period, including the Ibanez administration and the
1930s: it remains indispensable. Equally fundamental, though less well
organized, is the compilation of writings by Manuel Rivas Vicuna, a key
figure of the epoch, Historia politica y parlamentaria de Chile, 3 vols. (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1964), prepared by Guillermo Feliii Cruz. It is a mine of
information, but the historian has to dig for the ore. Interesting insight
into the politics and legislation of 'parliamentary' times is to be found in
Karen L. Remmer, Party Competition in Argentina and Chile: Political Recruit-
ment and Public Policy, 18901930 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1984).
The social history of the parliamentary decades can be approached in a
handful of useful articles: Ricardo Krebs W., 'Apuntes sobre la mentalidad
de la aristocracia chilena en los comienzos del siglo XX,' Mentalidades
(Santiago, 1986), 2755; Eduardo Cavieres F., 'Grupos intermedios e
integracion social: La sociedad de artesanos de Valparaiso a comienzos del
siglo XX,' Cuadernos de Historia, 6 (1986), 3347; Isabel Torres Dujisin,
'Los conventillos en Santiago (190030),' Cuadernos de Historia, 6 (1986),
6785. On German immigration (and influence), see Jean-Pierre Blanc-
pain, Les allemands au Chili, 18161945 (Cologne, 1974), especially book
2, chs. 56 and book 3, chs. 14; this masterly study is unlikely ever to
be surpassed. Aspects of labour history are addressed in two French contri-
butions: Pierre Vayssiere, 'Militantisme et messianisme ouvriers au Chile a
travers la presse de la pampa nitriere,' Caravelle, 46 (1986), 93108, and
Maurice Fraysse, 'Aspects de la violence dans la presse anarchiste du Chili,
18981914,' Caravelle, 46 (1986), 7992. Luis Emilio Recabarren,
Escritos deprensa, 4 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1987), is a useful compilation of
writings by Chile's early labour hero.
As with Balmaceda, there is a massive literature (both panegyric and
polemical) on Alessandri and Ibanez, the figures who overshadow the later
part of our period. The vital presidential election of 1920 is carefully
analysed in Rene Millar C., La election presidential de 1920 (Santiago,
Chile, 1981) a cool 'revisionist' approach to the supposed 'electoral

454 V/. Economy, society, politics, c. I8JO to 1930
revolt' of the period may be found in Wolfgang Hirsch-Weber, 'Aufstandt

der Massen? Wahlkampf und Stimmenhaltung in Chile 191521,' lAA,
8/12 (1982), 583. Apart from Donoso, Alessandri, key works on
Alessandri himself are his own (by no means self-critical) Memorias, 3 vols.
(Santiago, Chile, 1967); Augusto Iglesias, Alessandri, una etapa de la
democracia en America (Santiago, Chile, i960); and Luis Durand, Don
Arturo (Santiago, Chile, 1952). Ibafiez, who wrote no memoirs, is well
covered in Rene Montero, La verdad sobre Ibdnez (Santiago, Chile, 1953);
Victor Contreras Guzman, Bitacora de la dictadura (Santiago, Chile, 1942);
Ernesto Wiirth Rojas, Ibdnez, caudillo enigmdtico (Santiago, Chile, 1958);
Aquiles Vergara Vicuna, Ibdnez, cesar criollo (Santiago, Chile, 1931), a
strong critique; and Luis Correa Prieto, El presidente Ibdnez (Santiago,
Chile, 1962), based on personal interviews. The most sustained philippic
is Carlos Vicuna, La tirania en Chile, 2 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1939): this
was usefully reprinted in 1987.
The best book in English on the whole period from 1920 to 1931 and
the most comprehensive source for further bibliography on military
matters is Frederick Nunn, Chilean Politics 19201931: The Honorable
Mission of the Armed Forces (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1970). Arturo Olavarria
Bravo, Chileentredos Alessandri, 4 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 19625), vol. 1, is
full of information from a figure close to the heart of Chilean politics for
forty years, but the richer veins take some finding. A valuable documentary
compilation on the military interventions of 19245 is General E. Monreal,
Historia documentada delperiodo revolucionario 19241925 (Santiago, Chile,
1926), to which Raul Aldunate Phillips, Ruido de sables (Santiago, Chile,
n.d.), with its fascinating photo reproductions, provides an excellent pen-
dant. Some new insight (and evidence) regarding the state of mind of the
officer corps prior to the interventions may be found in Wolfgang
Ettmiiller, 'Germanisierte Politik, 1920-1932,' l-AA, 8/1-2 (1982),
83160. The role of the Navy is analysed in Philip Somervell, 'Naval affairs
in Chilean politics, 191032,'JLAS, 16/2 (1984), 381402.
Economic issues of the 1920s and the 'great crash' are well discussed in
Santiago Macchiavello Varas, Politicas economica national, 2 vols. (Santiago,
Chile, 1931), and in P. T. Ellsworth, Chile, an Economy in Transition (New
York, 1945), chap. 1. Albert O. Hirschman, 'Inflation in Chile,' in his
Journeys Towards Progress (New York, 1963), is a brilliant and provocative
discussion of that perennial problem in modern Chilean history. The
nearest thing to an overall economic history is Markos Mamalakis, The
Growth and Structure of the Chilean Economy, from Independence to Allende

23. Bolivia 455
(New Haven, Conn., 1976). See also the valuable article by Jose Gabriel
Palma, 'Chile, 1914-1935: De economia exportadora a sustitutiva de
importaciones,' Estudios CIEPLAN, 12 (Santiago, Chile, 1984), 6 1 - 8 8 .
The earlier perturbations caused by the First World War (and changes in
the long-running ChileGreat Britain connection) are admirably dealt
with in Juan Ricardo Couyoumdjian, Chile y Gran Bretana durante la
primera guerra mundial y la post-guerra, 19141921 (Santiago, Chile,
1986). This theme is also taken up in Bill Albert, South America and the
First World War (Cambridge, Eng., 1988), which covers Chile along with
Argentina, Brazil and Peru.
Two other sources for the period, often neglected, should be mentioned:
travel accounts, and unpublished theses. The most informative and percep-
tive travel accounts are C. Wiener, Chili et Chiliens (Paris, 1888), Eduardo
Poirier, Chile en 1908 (Santiago, Chile, 1908), a massive compilation,
Frank G. Carpenter, South America, Social, Industrial and Political (New
York, 1900), Francis J. G. Maitland, Chile, Its Land and People (London,
1914), G. F. Scott Elliott, Chile (London, 1907), and Earl Chapin May,
2000 Miles through Chile (New York, 1924). Good unpublished doctoral
theses include Andrew Barnard, 'The Chilean Communist Party, 1922
1947' (University of London, 1977); Peter Conoboy, 'Money and politics
in Chile, 18781925' (University of Southampton, 1977), and Jose Ga-
briel Palma, 'Growth and structure of Chilean manufacturing industry
from 1830 to 1935' (Oxford University, 1979).
23. BOLIVIA
GENERAL SURVEYS
There are several general histories of Bolivia which cover the period 1880
1932, notably Alcides Argiiedas, Historia general de Bolivia (La Paz, 1922);
Enrique Finot, Nueva historia de Bolivia (Buenos Aires, 1946); and Jorge
Basadre, Peru, Chile y Bolivia independientes (Barcelona, 1948). A more
recent and detailed study is Herbert S. Klein, Parties and Political Change
in Bolivia, 1880-1932 (Cambridge, Eng., 1968). Much of the recent
research on the social and economic history of the period is summarized in
Herbert S. Klein, Bolivia, the Evolution of a Multi-ethnic Society, 2nd ed.
(New York, 1991), while a useful comparative framework is provided in
Magnus Morner, The Andean Past: Land, Societies and Conflict (New York,

1985). An alternative vision of national history is attempted in Xavier

Albo and Josep M. Barnadas, La cara campesina de nuestra historia (La Paz,
1984). A fundamental bibliographical survey worth consulting is Josep
M. Barnadas, Manual de bibliografia: Introduction a los estudios bolivianos
contempordneos, i9601984 (Cuzco, 1987).
Among more specialized works, Luis Penaloza is re-writing his Historia
economica de Bolivia, 2 vols. (La Paz, 19534); an<^ both this older work
and his Nueva historia econdmica de Bolivia (La Paz, 1985 ), a proposed 9-
volume survey, give a reasonable though limited introduction to the field.
More schematic, but with important retrospective statistical data, is
Eduardo Arze Cuadros, La economia de Bolivia . . . 14921919 (La Paz,
1979). A general survey of organized labor in Bolivian history is provided
in Guillermo Lora, History of the Bolivian Labour Movement, 18481971
(Cambridge, Eng., 1977). Intellectual thought is dealt with by Guil-
lermo Francovich, Lafilosofia en Bolivia (Sucre, 1945); historians are well
covered in Valentin Abecia Baldivieso, Historiografia boliviana (La Paz,
1965). Political thought is studied in Mario Rolan Anaya, Politica y
partidos en Bolivia, rev. ed. (La Paz, 1987), which also contains the most
complete presentation of party programs and platforms. These in turn can
usefully be supplemented with Guillermo Lora's Documentos politicos de
Bolivia, rev. ed., 2 vols. (La Paz, 1987). The only serious, though now
dated, analysis of the organizational structure of the republican govern-
ment is N . Andrew N . Cleven, The Political Organization of Bolivia (Wash-
ington, D.C., 1940). All Bolivia's constitutions up to the 1950s are to be
found in the compilation and analysis of Ciro Felix Trigo, Las constitutiones
en Bolivia (Madrid, 1958); while Bolivia's entire legislation on Indians and
rural society is in two useful collections: Jose Flores Moncayo, Legislation
boliviana del indio, recopilacion, 18251953 (La Paz, 1953) and Abraham
Maldonado, Derecho agrario, historiadoctrinalegislation (La Paz, 1956).
The ideological background behind these changes in nineteenth-century
land and Indian legislation is studied in Erick Langer, 'El liberalismo y la
abolicion de la comunidad indigena en el siglo XIX,' Historia y Cultura,
14 (1988).
Among the numerous histories of Bolivia's complex international rela-
tions, the best is that by Valentin Abecia Baldivieso, Las relationes in-
ternacionales en la historia de Bolivia, 2 vols. (La Paz, 1979). Bolivia's close
relationship with England is surveyed in Roberto Querejazu Calvo, Bolivia
y los ingleses, 1825-1948 (La Paz, 1971); while the analysis by Leon
Enrique Bieber, Las relationes economicas de Bolivia con Alemania, 1880-

23. Bolivia 457
1920 (Berlin, 1984), has provided a model study on the economic rela-
tions between Bolivia and a foreign nation. The controversial relations of
Bolivia with Chile are seen from the Chilean viewpoint by Francisco
Antonio Encina, Las relaciones entre Chile y Bolivia, 18411963 (Santiago,
Chile, 1963).
From different perspectives are two fine studies of national literature:
Enrique Finot, Historia de la literatura boliviano., 2nd ed. (La Paz, 1956);
and Fernando Diez de Medina, Literatura boliviana (Madrid, 1954). The
more limited area of the novel is covered in depth by Augusto Guzman in
both his La novela en Bolivia (La Paz, 1955) and the work he did for the
Pan American Union, Diccionario de la literatura latinoamericana: Bolivia
(Washington, D.C., 1955)- There is as yet no single all-encompassing
survey of the plastic arts, though, as will be made clear in the following
sections, the work of Jose de Mesa and Teresa Gisbert is fundamental for
any appraisal of this area in the pre-conquest, colonial and national peri-
ods. A good introduction to Bolivia's architecture is Mesa and Gisbert,
Bolivia: Monumentos historicos y arqueologicos (Mexico, D.F., 1970). Recent
painting is treated in Pedro Querejazo (ed.), Pintura boliviana del siglo xx
(Milan, 1989); theater, in Mario Soria, Teatro boliviano en el siglo xx (La
Paz, 1980); and film, in Alfonso Gumucio Dragon, Historia del cine en
Bolivia (La Paz, 1984).
While there are numerous histories of individual religious orders, along
with several documentary collections and larger international surveys, the
only general history of the Bolivian church is the cursory survey done by
Felipe Lopez Menendez, Compendio de la historia edesidstica de Bolivia (La Paz,
1965). The army has been studied by Julio Diaz A., Historia del ejercito de
Bolivia, 18251932 (La Paz, 1940); and James Dunkerley, Origenes delpoder
militar en Bolivia: Historia del ejercito, 18791933 (La Paz, 1987). Medicine
is examined in Juan Manuel Balcazar, Historia de medicina en Bolivia (La Paz,
1956). But the important profession of law has not been adequately treated.
An original analysis of the evolution of the engineering profession is found
in Manuel Contreras, 'The formation of a technical elite in Latin America:
Mining engineering and the engineering profession in Bolivia, 1900
1954,' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, 1989).
Given the important role of mining and the extraordinary terrain of
the country, Bolivia has been the subject of extensive research by national
and foreign scholars in the geological and geographical fields. Much of
the very extensive literature is summarized in Jorge Mufioz Reyes,
Geografia de Bolivia (La Paz, 1977) and in Federico E. Ahlfeld, Geologia de

Bolivia, 3rd ed. (La Paz, 1972). The latest and most comprehensive
survey is Ismael Montes de Oca, Geografia y recursos naturales de Bolivia,
2nd rev. ed. (La Paz, 1989). An interesting attempt recently made to
remap the soils and climate of Bolivia using more modern criteria was
carried out by the Ministerio de Asuntos Campesinos y Agropecuarios,
Mapa ecologico de Bolivia (La Paz, 1975). An English study provides a
more traditional and quite important analysis of the soils of Bolivia:
Thomas T. Cochrane, Potential agricola del uso de la tierra de Bolivia (La
Paz, 1973). Ecological zones are examined in C. E. Brockman (ed.),
Perfil ambiental de Bolivia (La Paz, 1986). Limited but nevertheless useful
is the analysis of the distribution of commercial and subsistence plants in
Gover Barja Berrios and Armando Cardozo Gonsalvez, Geografia agricola
de Bolivia (La Paz, 1971). Still important because of their extensive
statistical collections are the Bolivian government's early twentieth-
century surveys: Oficina Nacional de Inmigracion Estadistica y Propa-
ganda Geografica, Sinopsis estadistica y geogrdfica de la republica de Bolivia, 2
vols. (La Paz, 1903); Geografia de la republica de Bolivia (La Paz, 1905);
and Diccionario geografico de la Republica de Bolivia, 4 vols. (La Paz, 1890
1904). An interesting political geography of Bolivia dealing with its
famous frontier problems is J. Valerie Fifer, Bolivia: Land, Location and
Politics Since 1825 (Cambridge, Eng., 1972). The urban geographic set-
ting is explored in Wolfgang Schoop, Ciudades bolivianas (La Paz, 1981).
Bolivia has extensive collections of aerial and satellite photo-mapping, as
well as modern demographic and geographic maps, available from the
Instituto Militar de Geografia and the Instituto Nacional de Estadistica.
The satellite maps are discussed and indexed in Lorrain E. Giddings,
Bolivia from Space (Houston, 1977). The only serious, though still lim-
ited, attempt at providing historical maps is found in Ramiro Condarco
Morales, Atlas histdrico de Bolivia (La Paz, 1985). Finally, the large litera-
ture on exploration is described in Manuel Frontaura Argandona, Descubri-
dores y exploradores de Bolivia (La Paz, 1971).
The nature of human physiological adaptation to high-altitude living
has also been the subject of recent scholarly interest and has resulted in a
major compilation in Paul T. Baker and M. A. Little (eds.), Man in the
Andes: A Multidisciplinary Study of High-Altitude Quechua (Stroudsburg,
Pa., 1976). Some of the latest work on this subject has appeared in the
American Journal of Physical Anthropology: see, for example, J. Arnaud, N.
Gutierrez and W. Tellez, 'Hematology and erythrocyte metabolism in
man at high altitudes: An AymaraQuechua comparison,' 67 (1985).

2$. Bolivia 459
THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY
Most of the political literature of second half of the nineteenth century is

cited in Herbert S. Klein, Parties and Political Change in Bolivia, 1880-
1952 and in the general histories of Jorge Basadre and Alcides Argiiedas.
Mariano Baptista, the leading political theorist of the period, has had all
his works published in Obras completas, 7 vols. (La Paz, 19324), and an
interesting survey of the political upheavals of the period is catalogued in
Nicanor Aranzaes, Las revoluciones de Bolivia (La Paz, 1918). A somewhat
unsystematic but interesting survey of the society, economy, and political
ideas in the last quarter of the nineteenth century is given by Marie-
Danielle Demelas, Nationalism sans nation? La Bolivie aux xixxx sikies
(Paris, 1980). The role of the Indian in national political developments
recently has become a major research theme. This work began with an
innovative study, challenging the traditional assumptions about the politi-
cal isolation of the Indian, carried out by Ramiro Condarco Morales,
Zarate 'El Temible' Wilke: Historia de la rebelion indigena de 1899, 2nd rev.
ed. (La Paz, 1982). This has been further elaborated on by Marie-Danielle
Demelas, 'Jacqueries indiennes, politique Creole, la guerre civile de 1899,'
Caravelle, 44 (1985), and in a major study by Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui,
'Oprimidos pero no vencidos': Luchas del campesinado aymara y qhechwa, 1900
19S0 (La Paz, 1984).
Few serious studies of political life in the late nineteenth century have
been undertaken, and even fewer biographies or administrative studies
exist for this period. There is, however, a superb political novel which
captures the era to an extraordinary degree and is one of the best of its
genre in Latin America: Armando Chirveches, La candidatura de Rojas (La
Paz, 1909).
An excellent analysis of the silver mining industry in the nineteenth
century is provided in Antonio Mitre, Los patriarcas de la plata: Estructura
socio-econdmica de la mineria boliviana en el siglo xix (Lima, 1981). Several
reasonable biographies exist on the leading silver miners of the period:
Ernesto Ruck, Biografia de Don Avelino Aramayo (Potosi, 1891); A. Costa
du Rels, Felix Avelino Aramayo y su epoca, 18461929 (Buenos Aires,
1942); Jaime Mendoza, Gregorio Pacheco (Santiago, Chile, 1924). But the
concern is usually with the non-economic aspects of their lives. There is a
classic study of public finance published by Casto Rojas, Historia financiera
de Bolivia (La Paz, 1916), and the crucial role of Indian tribute in early
republican finance is examined in Jorge Alejandro Ovando Sanz, El tributo

indigena en las finanzas bolivianas del siglo xix (La Paz, 1986). There is no
serious study of the revolution in transportation which occurred in this
period, although the primary literature exists, as can be seen in the
interesting listing given in Edgar A. Valdes, Catdlogo de folleteria de
ferrocarriles del repositario nacional (La Paz, 1980).
Recently there has been a major renaissance in the rural history of this
period. Some of the major themes of this new research were first developed
in pioneering studies by Silvia Rivera, 'La expansion del latifundio en el
altiplano boliviano: Elementos para la caracterizacion de una oligarquia
regional,' Avances, 2 (1978) and Erwin P. Greishaber, 'Survival of Indian
communities in nineteenth-century Bolivia: A regional comparison,'
JLAS, 12/2 (1980), 223-69, among others. This has been followed by
numerous essays and books, the most important of which are Brooke
Larson, Colonialism and Agrarian Transformation in Bolivia, Cochabamba,
15501900 (Princeton, N.J., 1988); Erick D. Langer, Economic Change
and Rural Resistance in Southern Bolivia, 18801930 (Stanford, Calif.,
1989); Tristan Platt, Estado boliviano y ayllu andino: Tierra y tributo en el
Norte de Potosi (La Paz, 1982); and Herbert S. Klein, Haciendas and Ayllus:
Rural Society in the Bolivian Andes in the 18th and 19th Centuries (Stanford,
Calif., 1992). In contrast to this major development of rural studies, there
are as yet few analyses of the urban population of the major cities. One of
the first such efforts is the recent work of Rossana Barragan, Espacio urbana
y dindmica etnica, La Paz en el siglo xix (La Paz, 1990).
THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY
The first decades of the twentieth century were ones of intellectual fer-
ment. From the initial stirrings of a critique of racist society in the novels
and 'sociology' of Alcides Argiiedas, to the more systematic development
of an indigenista viewpoint in Franz Tamayo, La creacionde una pedagogia
nacional (La Paz, 1910), writers began to challenge the assumptions of
their society. A good survey of this activity is found in Guillermo
Francovich, El pensamiento boliviano en el siglo xx (Mexico, D.F., 1956), and
in the literature studies by Diez de Medina and Finot previously cited.
There has been a general neglect of the Liberal era (18991920), with
the exception of the study of Juan Albarracin Millan, El poder minero en la
administration liberal (La Paz, 1972). On the other hand, Bolivian intellec-
tuals have been attracted to the political leaders of the 1920s and 1930s,
producing the very best such biographies yet written. There exist two

2$. Bolivia 461
outstanding biographies for this period: Benigno Carrasco, Hernando Siles

(La Paz, 1961), and David Alvestegui, Salamanca, su gravitation sobre el
destino de Bolivia, 3 vols. (La Paz, 195762). An overall assessment of this
period is provided in Klein, Parties and Political Change, and in two
outstanding surveys: the first volume of the two-volume history of modern
Bolivian political history by Augusto Cespedes, El dictador suicida, 40 anos
de historia de Bolivia (Santiago, Chile, 1956); and in the first three volumes
of the five-volume series by Porfirio Diaz Machicado: Historia de Bolivia:
Saavedra, 192025 (La Paz, 1954), Historia de Bolivia: Guzman, Siles,
Blanco Galindo, 1925-31 (La Paz, 1954), and Historia de Bolivia: Sala-
manca, la guerra del Chaco, Tejada Sorzano (La Paz, 1955). The major Indian
rebellion of the period has been examined by Roberto Choque, La masacre
de Jesus de Machaca (La Paz, 1986).
The economic history of this period has attracted a good deal of atten-
tion. The tin mining industry has received an overall economic analysis of
some sophistication in the study by Walter Gomez, La mineria en el
desarrollo econdmico de Bolivia, 19001970 (La Paz, 1978). Complementing
this macro-analysis are detailed studies of the early industry by Pedro
Aniceto Blanco, Monografia de la industria minera en Bolivia (La Paz, 1910);
Herbert S. Klein, 'The creation of the Patino tin empire,' Inter-American
Economic Affairs 19/2 (1965), which was updated and published in Spanish
in Historia Boliviana, 3/2 (1983); and Donaciano Ibahez C , Historia min-
eral de Bolivia (Antofagasta, 1943). There are several biographies of the
leading tin miners, among which are Charles F. Geddes, Patino: The Tin
King (London, 1972); and Alfonso Crespo, Los Aramayo de Chichas: Tres
generaciones de mineros bolivianos (Barcelona, 1981). The economics of labor
in the early tin industry is studied by Manuel E. Contreras, 'Mano de obra
en la mineria estanifera de principios de siglo, 1900-1925/ Historia y
Cultura (La Paz), 8 (1985). Contreras has also surveyed 'La mineria
estanifera boliviana en la Primera Guerra Mundial,' in Raul Espana-Smith
et al., Mineria y economia en Bolivia (La Paz, 1984). The early growth of the
industry is also studied by John Hillman, 'The emergence of the tin
industry in Bolivia,' JLAS, 16/2 (1984), 40337. The political role of the
miners is assessed in the previously cited work of Albarracin and in Wil-
liam Lofstrom, Attitudes of an Industrial Pressure Group in Latin America.
The 'Asociation de Industrials Mineros de Bolivia,' 19251935 (Ithaca,
N.Y., 1968).
Good general assessments of the national economy at this time are
found in W. L. Schurz, Bolivia: A Commercial and Industrial Handbook

(Washington, D.C., 1921), and Paul Walle, Bolivia, Its People and Re-
sources (New York, 1914). Specific aspects of the economy or national
economic policy are reviewed in Charles A. McQueen, Bolivian Public
Finance (Washington, D.C., 1925) and the excellent study by Margaret A.
Marsh, Bankers in Bolivia: A Study in American Foreign Investment (New
York, 1928). Among the many surveys on banking history, that by Julio
Benavides, Historia bancaria de Bolivia (La Paz, 1955), is of some utility.
The short-lived Acre rubber boom is examined in Valerie Fifer, 'The
empire builders: A history of the Bolivian rubber boom and the rise of the
House of Suarez,' JLAS, 2/2(1970), 11346.
Social changes resulting from the growth of the tin industry, the mod-
ernization of the cities, and the completion of the hacienda expansion have
not been seriously analysed by scholars, although there does exist a wealth
of data with which to study this problem. Thus in 1900 came the first and
one of the best national censuses: Oficina Nacional de Inmigracion,
Estadistica y Propaganda Geografica, Censo nacional de la poblacion de la
Republica de Bolivia, 1 septiembre de 1900, 2 vols. (La Paz, 1902-4). This
government office also published numerous geographical studies which
have been cited above; and from the late 1880s, and with increasing
tempo under the Liberal regimes, almost all the government ministries
were publishing annual statistics.
24. PERU
Peruvian historiography for the period 1880-1930 has undergone a vast

expansion and renovation during the past three decades. This transforma-
tion began with the universal interest generated by the so-called Peruvian
military revolution of 1968, which inaugurated a perod of intense reform
lasting until 1976. Moreover, a decade of relative economic growth and
prosperity during the 1960s, combined with postwar demographic trends,
produced a rapid expansion of the country's educational system, particu-
larly at the university level. As a result a rising middle class, anxious to
rediscover its identity and redefine the national experience, created a
strong, new demand for knowledge about Peru's history. The result was an
ever-increasing production of new and often revisionist works by a new
generation of Peruvian scholars who have transformed the traditional land-
scape of Peruvian historiography. This new production, however, has
slowed in recent years due to the economic decline and political instability

24- Peru 463
that Peru has experienced since the mid 1970s. These difficult conditions
make it increasingly problematic that a new generation of Peruvianists
will emerge to carry on the historiographical innovations of the past
quarter of a century.
Any study of the period 18801930 must begin with the dozen or more
works of Jorge Basadre, the dean of modern Peruvian historians. His
seventeen-volume Historia de la Republica del Peru, 6th ed. (Lima, 19689)
stands as a towering monument in the field, with five volumes devoted to
the period 1880-1930. He also published the most complete, annotated
bibliography for the nineteenth and twentieth centuries: Introduction a las
bases documentales para la historia de la Republica del Peru con algunas re-
flexiones, 2 vols. (Lima, 1971). An equally thorough annotated bibliogra-
phy, with accompanying analytical essay, for the economic history of the
period can be found in Pablo Macera and Shane Hunt, 'Peru', in Roberto
Cortes Conde and Stanley J. Stein (eds.), Latin America: A Guide to Eco-
nomic History, 1830-1930 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1977). A perceptive
discussion of the new generation of Peruvian historians can be found in
Fred Bonner, 'Peruvian historians today: Historical setting,' TA, 43/3
(1987), 245-77. A more recent bibliographical survey is John Fisher,
Peru, World Bibliographical Series: vol. 109 (Oxford, 1989). A useful
reference is Dictionario historico y biogrdfico del Peru, siglos XVXX, 9 vols.
(Lima, 1986). For earlier bibliographical references, see the appropriate
sections of Raul Porras Barrenechea, Fuentes histdricas peruanas (Lima,
1963), Carlos Moreyra Paz Soldan, Bibliografia regional peruana (Lima,
1967), and Carol Herbold and Steve Stein, Guia bibliogrdfica para la
historia social y politica del Peru en el siglo XX (18951960) (Lima, 1971).
By far the best one-volume history of the period is Manuel Burga and
Alberto Flores Galindo, Apogeo y crisis de la republica aristocrdtica (Lima,
1979). Comprehensive, interpretative and analytical, this is the work of
two of Peru's best young historians. Alberto Flores Galindo sadly died in
1990.
Two important comparative Andean histories which include Bolivia and
Ecuador as well as Peru are Magnus Morner, The Andean Past: Land,
Societies and Conflict (New York, 1985) and J. P. Deler and Y Saint-Geours
(eds.), Estadosy naciones en los Andes: Hacia una historia comparativa, Bolivia,
Ecuador, Peru, 2 vols. (Lima, 1986). Several volumes (see below) of Historia
del Peru, 12 vols., edited by Juan Mejia Baca (Lima, 1980) are devoted to
the period, as are those in Ruben Vargas Ugarte's Historia general del Peru,
particularly vol. 11, La republica aristocrdtica, and vol. 12, Republica

contempordnea, both by Margarita Guerra (Lima, 1984). Vintage photo-

graphs of the twenties can be found in Martin Chambi: Fotografia del Peru,
19201950 (Buenos Aires, 1985). Also useful are Ernesto Yepes del Cas-
tillo, Peru, 18201920: Un siglo de desarrollo capitalista, 2nd ed. (Lima,
1981), 'El desarrollo peruano en las primeras decadas del siglo XX', in
Nueva historia general del Peru (Lima, 1979), 13760, and 'Los inicios de la
expansion mercantil capitalista en el Peru (18901930)', in Historia del
Peru, vol. 7, 305403; as well as Anibal Quijano, Imperialismo, clases
sociales y estado en el Peru, 18901930 (Lima, 1978), all from a Marxist
perspective. An excellent socio-historical analysis is Julio Cotler, Clases,
estado y nacion en el Peru (Lima, 1977). Also worthy of note are David Scott
Palmer, Peru: The Authoritarian Legacy (New York, 1980), David P.
Werlich, Peru: A Short History (Carbondale, 111., 1978), Fredrick Pike, A
Modern History of Peru (London, 1977), Henry E. Dobyns and Paul
Doughty, Peru: A Cultural History (Oxford, 1976), and Washington
Delgado, Historia de la literatura republicana (Lima, 1980).
Several important regional studies reflect the recent effort to capture
Peru's fractured Andean evolution and development. They include Jose
Armando Tamayo, Historia del Cuzco republicano (Lima, 1978); Nelson
Manrique, Mercado interno y region: La sierra central, 1920-1930 (Lima,
1987); and Nils Jacobsen, Mirages of Transition: The Peruvian Altiplano,
1780-1930 (Stanford, 1992).
The most comprehensive study of the economic history of the period is
Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 18901977: Growth and Policy
in an Open Economy (London, 1978). The best study on banking and finance
is Alfonso W. Quir6z, Banqueros en conflicto: Estructurafinancieray economica
peruana (1884-1930), 2nd ed. (Lima, 1990); see also his Domestic and
Foreign Finance in Modern Peru, 1850-1950 (London, 1992). Shane Hunt
has been instrumental in developing a data base for the analysis of patterns
of economic growth: for example, see his Real Wages and Economic Growth in
Peru, 19001940 (Boston, I977)and Price andQuantum Estimates ofPeruvian
Exports, 18301962 (Princeton, N.J., 1973). Pablo Macera has not only
analysed the evolution of the export economy but also published valuable
data sets in his Trabajos de historia, 4 vols. (Lima, 1977). See also Baltazar
Caravedo M., 'Economia, produccion y trabajo (Peru, siglo XX)', in Histo-
ria del Peru, vol. 8, 189-361.
Others have written from a variety of viewpoints on the problematic of
the export economy and foreign economic activity in Peru: for example,
Heraclio Bonilla (ed.), Gran Bretana y el Peru: 18261919: Informes de Ips

24- Peru 465
comities britdnicos, 5 vols. (Lima, 19757), a n d 'Emergence of U.S. control

of the Peruvian economy, 1850-1930', in Joseph S. Tulchin (ed.), Hemi-
spheric Perspectives on the United States (Westport, Conn., 1978), 3 2 5 - 5 1 ;
Rory Miller, 'The making of the Grace Contract: British bondholders and
the Peruvian government, 1885-1890', JLAS, 8/1 (1976), 73-100, 'Rail-
roads and economic development in Central Peru, 18901930', in J.
Fisher (ed.), Social and Economic Change in Modern Peru (Liverpool, 1976),
and 'British firms and the Peruvian government, 18851930', in D. C.
M. Platt (ed.), Business Imperialism 18401930; An Inquiry Based on British
Experience in Latin America (Oxford, 1977); and William Bollinger, "The
rise of United States influence in the Peruvian economy, 18691921'
(unpublished M.A. thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1972).
A major data source for the fiscal history of the period is P. E. Dancuart
and J. M. Rodriguez (eds.), Anales de la hacienda publica del Peru, 11 vols.
(Lima, 19028). Peruvian mining in this period has been studied in
Alberto Flores Galindo, Los mineros de la Cerro de Pasco, 19001930 (Lima,
1974); Julian Lake, Industrial Development and Migrant Labour in Latin
America (Austin, Tex., 1981); Adrian DeWind, 'From peasants to miners:
Background to strikes in the mines of Peru', Science and Society, 39/1
(1975), 4472; Dirk Kruijt and Menno Vellinga, Estado, clase obrera y
empresa transnacional: El caso de mineria Peruana, 19001980 (Mexico,
D.F., 1983); Carlos Contreras, Mineros y campesinos en los Andes: Mercado
laboral y economia campesina en la sierra central, siglo XIX, 2nd ed. (Lima,
1988); and Elizabeth Dore, The Peruvian Mining Industry (Boulder, Colo.,
1988). The impact of the First World War on Peru is ably analysed in Bill
Albert, South America and the First World War: The Impact of the War on
Brazil, Argentina, Peru and Chile (Cambridge, Eng., 1988). On the onset
of the depression, see Rosemary Thorp and Carlos Londofio, 'The effect of
the great depression on the economies of Peru and Colombia', in Rosemary
Thorp (ed.), Latin America in the 1930s: The Role of the Periphery in World
Crisis (London, 1984), 81-116.
The study of Andean agrarian society was given substantial impetus by
a group of French scholars, some of them belonging to the Annales School:
Frangois Chevalier, 'L'expansion de la grande propriete dans le Haut-Perou
au XXe siecle', AESC, 21 (1966), 8 1 5 - 3 1 ; C. Collin-Delavaud, Les
regions cotieres du Perou septentrional (Lima, 1968); Jean Piel, 'The place of
the peasantry in the national life of Peru in the nineteenth century1, Past
and Present, 46 (1970), 10833 anc ^ Crise agraire et conscience Creole au Perou
(Paris, 1982); and Henri Favre, "The dynamics of Indian peasant society

and migration to coastal plantations in Central Peru', in Kenneth Duncan

and Ian Rutledge (eds.), Land and Labour in Latin America: Essays on the
Development of Agrarian Capitalism (Cambridge, Eng., 1977), 253-68. A
strong additional impetus to the study of agrarian society occurred as a
result of the 1969 agrarian reform by the Velasco administration. Records
from various plantations and haciendas were collected in the Archivo del
Fuero Agrario which is now housed in the Archivo General de la Nation in
Lima. On sugar, see Peter F. Klaren, 'The social and economic conse-
quences of modernization in the Peruvian sugar industry, 18701930', in
Duncan and Rutledge (eds.), Land and Labour, 229-52; Bill Albert, An
Essay on the Peruvian Sugar Industry, 1880-1920 (Norwich, Eng., 1976);
and Michael J. Gonzales, Plantation Agriculture and Social Control in North-
ern Peru, 1875-1933 (Austin, Tex., 1984). On the cotton industry, see
W. S. Bell, An Essay on the Peruvian Cotton Industry, 1825-1920 (Liver-
pool, 1985). On the wool trade, see Alberto Flores Galindo, Arequipa y el
sur andino, sighs XVHI-XX (Lima, 1977), Benjamin S. Orlove, Alpacas,
Sheep and Men: The Wool Export Economy and Regional Society in Southern Peru
(New York, 1977) and Manuel Burga and Wilson Reategui Chavez, Lanas
y capital mercantil en el sur: la Casa Ricketts, 1895-1935 (Lima, 1981).
There are numerous good studies on peasant movements. See Manuel
Burga and Alberto Flores Galindo, 'Feudalismo andino y movimientos
sociales (18661965)', in Historia del Peru, vol. 11, 11 112; Florencia E.
Mallon, The Defense of Community in Peru's Central Highlands: Peasant Strug-
gle and Capitalist Transition, 1860-1940 (Princeton, N.J., 1983); Rodrigo
Montoya, 'Les Luttes paysannes pour la terre au Perou au XXe siecle'
(unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Paris, 1977); Wilfredo Kapsoli,
Los movimientos campesinos en Cerro de Pasco, 1880-1963 (Huancayo, 1975)
and Los movimientos campesinos en el Peru, 1819-1965: Ensayos (Lima, 1977);
Juan Martinez-Alier, Haciendas, Plantations and Collective Farms: Agrarian
Class Societies Cuba and Peru (London, 1977); Wilson Reategui Chavez
(ed.), Documentos para la historia del campesinado peruano, siglo XX (Lima,
1978); Peter Blanchard, 'Indian unrest in the Peruvian sierra in the late
nineteenth century,' TA, 38/4 (1982), 449-62, and 'The recruitment of
workers in the Peruvian sierra at the turn of the century: The enganche
system', Inter-American Economic Affairs, 33/3 (1979), 6 3 - 8 3 ; Michael J.
Gonzales, 'Neo-colonialism and Indian unrest in southern Peru, 1867-
1898,' BLAR, 6/1 (1987), 1-26; and William W. Stein, El levantamiento
de Atusparia (Lima, 1988). An astute contemporary observation of rural
life is provided by Karl Kaeger, Condiciones agrarias de la sierra sur peruana:

24. Peru 467
1899 (Lima, 1979). Other valuable studies of rural society can be found in
Nelson Manrique, Yawar Mayu: Sociedades terratenientes serranas, 1879
1910 (Lima, 1988); Lewis Taylor, Cambios capita/istas en las haciendas
cajamarquinas, 1900193^ (Cambridge, Eng., 1983); and Carmen Diana
Deere, Household and Class Relations: Peasants and Landlords in Northern Peru
(Berkeley, 1990).
On the social consequences of the War of the Pacific, see Henri Favre,
'Remarques sur la lutte des classes au Perou pendant la Guerre du
Pacifique', in Litterature et societe au Perou du XlXe siecle a nos jours (Greno-
ble, 1975), 5 4 - 8 1 ; Heraclio Bonilla, 'The War of the Pacific and the
national and colonial problem in Peru', Past and Present, 81 (1978), 9 2 -
118 and 'The Indian peasantry and Peru during the War with Chile,' in
Resistance, Rebellion, and Consciousness in the Andean World: 18th to 20th
Centuries, edited by Steve J. Stein (Madison, Wis., 1987), 192-231;
Nelson Manrique, Campesinado y nacion: Las guerillas indigenas en la guerra
con Chile (Lima, 1981); andMallon, The Defense 0}"Community and 'National-
ist and anti-state coalitions in the War of the Pacific: Junin and
Cajamarca, 18791902', in Resistance, Rebellion, and Consciousness, 232
80. Other important works on the war include Heraclio Bonilla, Un siglo
de la deriva: Ensayos sobre el Peru, Bolivia y la guerra (Lima, 1980); Jorge
Basadre, 'Antecedentes de la guerra con Chile' and Percy Cayo, 'La guerra
con Chile,' both in Historia del Peru, vol. 8; Comision Permanente de la
Historia del Ejercito del Peru, Refiexiones sobre la resistencia de la Brena:
Significado y proyeccion historica (Lima, 1982); Tomaso Caivano, Historia de
la guerra de America entre Chile, Peru y Bolivia, 3 vols. (Lima, 1979),
translation of Storia della guerra d'America fra il Chili, il Peru e la Bolivia
(1881); Percy Cayo et al., En torno a la guerra del Pacifico (Lima, 1983) and
Andres Avelino Caceres, Memorias del Mariscal Andres A. Cdceres, 3 vols.
(Lima, 1986). See also the collection of essays in Wilson Reategui Chavez
et al., La guerra del Pacifico (Lima, 1979).
On the Indian and indigenismo, see Efrain Kristal's important revisionist
study, The Andes Viewed from the City: Literary and Political Discourse on the
Indian in Peru, 18481930 (New York, 1987) and two excellent works by
Jose Tamayo Herrera, Historia del indigenismo cuzqueno, siglos XVIXX
(Lima, 1980) and Historia social e indigenismo en el altiplano (Lima, 1982), as
well as Jose Deustua and Jose Luis Renique, Intelectuales, indigenismo y
descentralismo en el Peru, 1897-1931 (Cuzco, 1984) and Thomas M.
Davies, Jr., Indian Integration in Peru: A Half Century of Experience, 1900
1948 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1974).

Japanese immigration has been examined in C. Harvey Gardiner, The

Japanese and Peru, 1873-1973 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1975). On rhe
Chinese in Peru, see Humberto Rodriguez Pastor's excellent Hijos del celeste
imperio en el Peru (18501900): Migration, agrkultura, mentalidad y
explotacion (Lima, 1989). See also Henry Evans Maude, Slavers in Paradise:
The Peruvian Slave Trade in Polynesia, 1862-1894 (Stanford, Calif., 1981).
The oligarchical state is the subject of Dennis Gilbert, The Oligarchy and
the Old Regime in Peru (Ithaca, N. Y., 1977); Francois Bourricaud et al., La
oligarquia en el Peru (Lima, 1969); Sinesio Lopez J., 'El estado oligarquico en
el Peru: Un ensayo de interpretacion', RMS, 40/3 (1978), 991-1007, and
Alfonso W. Quiroz, Financial leadership and the formation of Peruvian
elite groups, 1884-1930,' JLAS, 20/1 (1988), 4 9 - 8 1 . See also Rory
Miller's revisionist 'The coastal elite and Peruvian politics, 1895-1919',
JLAS, 14/1 (1982), 97120 and Lawrence A. Clayton's excellent study, W.
R. Grace & Company: The Formative Years, 18501930 (Ottawa, 111., 1985).
On the military, see Victor Villanueva, Ejercito peruano: Del caudillaje
andrquico al militarism reformista (Lima, 1973) and Frederick M. Nunn,
Yesterday's Soldiers: European Military Professionalism in South America, 1890
1940 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1983).
There is an interesting study of Billinghurst: Peter Blanchard, 'A popu-
list precursor: Guillermo Billinghurst', JLAS, 9/2 (1977), 25173. Two
unpublished Ph.D. theses examine the administration of Leguia: Howard
Karno, 'Augusto B. Leguia, the oligarchy and the modernization of Peru,
18701930' (University of California, Los Angeles, 1970), and Carl F.
Herbold, 'Developments in the Peruvian administrative system, 1919
1930: Modern and traditional qualities of government under authoritarian
regimes' (Yale University, 1973). On this period see also Baltazar
Caravedo Molinari, Clases, lucha politico, y gobierno en el Peru (.19191933
(Lima, 1977), Carmen Rosa Balbi and Laura Madalengoitia, Parlamento y
lucha politica, Peru, 1932 (Lima, 1980) and Pedro Ugarteche, Sanchez
Cerro: Papeles y recuerdos de un presidente del Peru, 4 vols. (Lima, 196970).
For the origins of the Aprista party, see Peter F. Klaren, Modernization,
Dislocation and Aprismo: Origins of the Peruvian Aprista Party, 18JO1932
(Austin, Tex., 1973), Steve Stein, Populism in Peru: The Emergence of the
Masses and the Politics of Social Control (Madison, Wis., 1980) and Fredrick
B. Pike's magisterial intellectual biography, The Politics of the Miraculous:
Haya de la Torre and the Spiritualist Tradition (Lincoln, Nebr., 1986). Also
important on APRA are Jeffrey L. Klaiber, S.J., Religion and Revolution in
Peru, 18241976 (Notre Dame, Ind., 1977) and Francois Bourricaud,

24. Peru 469
Poder y sociedad en el Peru contempordneo (Buenos Aires, 1967). Other useful

studies include Adam Anderle, Los movimientospolitico* en el Peru entre las dos
guerras mundiales (Havana, 1985); Imelda Vega Centeno, Aprismo popular:
Mito, cultura y historia (Lima, 1985) and Ideologia y cultura en el aprismo
popular (Lima, 1986); Carmen Rosa Balbi, El partido comunista y el APRA
en la crisis revolucionaria de los ahos treinta (Lima, 1980); and Juan Manuel
Gamara Romero, La reforma universitaria: El movimiento estudiantil de los
anos veinte en el Peru (Lima, 1987). Indispensible for studying the early
years of the party are the memoirs and works of Victor Raul Haya de la
Torre contained in his Obras completas, 7 vols. (Lima, 19767). Another
early party leader, Luis Alberto Sanchez, has written on the early period of
the party, including Apuntes para una biografia del APRA, 2 vols. (Lima,
19789), Testimonio personal: el aquelarre, 19001931, 2nd ed. (Lima,
1987) and, with Haya de la Torre, Correspondencia, 19241951 (Lima,
1982).
The history of the labour movement is explored in Denis Sulmont, El
movimiento obrero en el Peru, 1900-1956 (Lima, 1975); Piedad Pareja,
Anarquismo y sindicalismo en el Peru (Lima, 1978); Peter Blanchard, The
Origins of the Peruvian Labor Movement, 1883-1919 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1982)
and Stein, Populism in Peru. See also Steve Stein's important Lima obrera,
1900-1930, 2 vols. (Lima, 1986-7), as well as Wilfredo Kapsoli E., Las
luchas obreras en el Peru, 19001919: Por las ocho horas de trabajo (Lima,
1976); Alberto Moya Obeso, Sindicalismo aprista y sindicalismo clasista en el
Peru, 1920-1956, 2 vols. (Lima, 1977); Piedad Pareja, Aprismo y
sindicalismo en el Peru (Lima, 1980); and Luis Tejada, La cuestidn del pan: El
anarchosindicalismo en el Peru, 18801914 (Lima, 1988). Useful statistical
materials and analysis are provided in Wilma Derpich, Jose Luis Huiza
and Cecilia Israel, Lima anos 30: Salarios y costo de vida de la clase trabajadora
(Lima, 1985). Important documents for the period are provided in Ri-
cardo Martinez de la Torre, Apuntes para una interpretacidn marxista de
historia social del Peru, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (Lima, 1974) and in the memoirs of
the early labor organizer Julio Portocarrero, Sindicalismo peruano: Primera
etapa, 1911-1930 (Lima, 1987).
There is information on the church in Jeffrey L. Klaiber S.J.'s important
La iglesia en el Peru: Su historia desde la independencia, 2nd ed. (Lima, 1988);
Eng. trans. 1992.
Diplomatic relations with the United States in the period are considered
in Fredrick B. Pike, The United States and the Andean Republics: Peru, Bolivia
and Ecuador (Cambridge, Mass., 1977) and Joe E. Wilson, The United

47 VZ. Economy, society, politics, c. i8jo to 1930
States, Chile and Peru in the Tacna and Arica Plebescite (Washington, D.C.,
1979)-
Major sources on intellectual history are Augusto Salazar Bondy, Histo-
ria de las ideas en el Peru contempordneo, 2 vols. (Lima, 1965) and Alberto
Flores Galindo's powerful Buscando un inca: Identidad y Utopia en los Andes
(Lima, 1987). See also Jesus Chavarrfa, 'The intellectuals and the crisis of
modern Peruvian nationalism: 18701919', HAHR, 50/2 (1970), 2 5 7 -
78. Several works consider the ideas of Jose Carlos Mariategui: Jesus
Chavarria, Jose Carlos Mariategui, 18941930, and the Rise 0/Modern Peru
(Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1979); Diego Meseguer Ulan, Jose Carlos Ma-
riategui y su pensamiento revolucionario (Lima, 1974); Harry E. Vanden,
Mariategui: Influencias en su formacion ideoldgica (Lima, 1975) and National
Marxism in Latin America: Jose Carlos Maridtegui's Thought and Politics (Boul-
der, Colo., 1986); Robert Paris, La formacidn ideoldgica de Jose Carlos Ma-
riategui (Mexico, D.F., 1981); Jose Arico (ed.), Mariategui y los origenes
del marxismo latinoamerkano (Mexico, D.F., 1978); and Alberto Flores
Galindo, La agonia de Mariategui: La polemica con la Komintern (Lima,
1980). See also Guillermo Rouill6n, Bio-bibliografia de Jose Carlos Ma-
riategui (Lima, 1966), La Creadon herdica dejok Carlos Mariategui: La edadde
piedra, 1894-1919 (Lima, 1975) and La edad revolucionaria (Lima, 1984).
The major work on Haya de la Torre is Pike's The Politics of the Miraculous.
Two good works on women in society are Deere, Household and Class
Relations, and Florencia E. Mallon, 'Gender and class in the transition to
capitalism: Household and mode of production in central Peru,' LAP,
13/1 (1986), 147-74.
Finally, no study of the period could be complete without consulting
the writings ofJose Carlos Mariategui, Alejandro Deustua, Manuel Gonza-
lez Prada, Javier Prado, Francisco Garcia Calder6n, Manuel Vicente
Villaran, Victor Raul Haya de la Torre and Victor Andres Belaunde.
25. COLOMBIA
Two recent compilations offer an entry to Colombian history in these fifty

years. A. Tirado Mejia, director, assisted by J. O. Melo and J. A.
Bejarano, Nueva historia de Colombia, 6 vols. (Bogota, 1989) and J.
Jaramillo Uribe, J. G. Cobo Borda and S. Mutis Duran (eds.), Manual de
historia de Colombia, 3 vols. (Bogota, 19789).
For descriptions of the country in the 1880s, see M. Cane, En viaje,

2j>. Colombia 471
1881-1882 (Paris, 1884); E. Rothlisberger, El Dorado (Bogota, 1963);

A. Hettner, Viajes por los Andes colombianos, 18821884 (Bogota, 1976);
R. Gutierrez, Monografias, 2 vols. (Bogota, 192021). A later work of
exceptional value is P. J. Eder, Colombia (London, 1913), and the diary of
the Bolivian novelist, historian and diplomat Alcides Argiiedas, La danza
de las sombras, new ed. (Bogota, 1983) describes politics and society at the
end of the 1920s.
The occasional writings of Rafael Nunez are collected in La reforma
politica en Colombia, 7 vols. (Bogota, 1946-50). The writings of Miguel
Antonio Caro exist in various compilations apart from the Obras completas,
8 vols. (Bogota, 191845). A new edition is in the course of publication
by the Instituto Caro y Cuervo, and this is complemented by publications
of his correspondence, much of it erudite but some of it political, and by
volumes of constitutional studies and speeches. Of the correspondence, see
especially E. Lemaitre (introd.), Epistolario de Rafael Nunez con Miguel
Antonio Caro (Bogota, 1977), especially valuable because Nunez's instruc-
tions that on his death his archive should be thrown into the sea were
carried out. See also Caro's Escritos sobre cuestiones economicas (Bogota, 1943).
Other important political sources are L. Martinez Delgado (ed.),
Revistas politicas publicadas en el Repertorio Colombiano, 2 vols. (Bogota,
1939); C. Holguin, Cartas politicas (Bogota, 1951); R. Uribe, Orientacion
republicana, 2 vols. (Bogota, 1972). Much political information is also
contained in the Instituto Caro y Cuervo's edition of the Obras Completas de
Marco Fidel Sudrez, 3 vols. to date (Bogota, 1958 - ) and in the Escritos
escogidos de Luis Eduardo Nieto Caballero, 5 vols. (Bogota, 1984).
On politics, see I. Lievano Aguirre, Nunez (Bogota, 1944); E. Rodri-
guez Pineres, Diez anos de politica liberal (Bogota, 1945); H. Delpar, Red
Against Blue: The Liberal Party in Colombian Politics, 1863-1899 (Tusca-
loosa, Ala., 1981); L. Martinez Delgado, Republica de Colombia, 1895-
1910, 2 vols. (Bogota, 1970: Vol. X of the Historia Extensa de Colombia);
E. Lemaitre, Rafael Reyes (Bogota, 1967); C. Bergquist, Coffee and Con-
flict in Colombia, 1886-1910 (Durham, N.C., 1978). There is still no
coherent account of the years 1910-30, but a compilation of events is
contained in J. Villegas and J. Yunis, Sucesos colombianos (Medellin,
1976). On the 1920s, see also P. J. Navarro, El parlamento en pijama
(Bogota, 1935); C. Uribe Celis, Los anos veinte en Colombia: Ideologia y
cultura (Bogota, 1935).
On the labour movement, see M. Urrutia, The Development of the Colom-
bian Labour Movement (New Haven, Conn., 1969); I. Torres Giraldo, Los

Inconformes, 5 vols. (Bogota, 1973) and Maria Cano, Mujer rebelde (Bogota,
1972). On the church, see J. Restrepo Posada, La iglesia colombiana en dos
momentos dificiles de la historia patria (Bogota, 1971); C. Abel, Politica,
iglesia y partidos en Colombia (Bogota, 1987). An alternative essay on this
period is J. O. Melo, 'La republica conservadora', in M. Arrubla (ed.),
Colombia Hoy (Bogota, 1978). Outstanding among memoirs is J. H.
Palacio, Historia de mi vida, 2 vols. (Bogota, 1944 and 1991).
On civil wars, see M. Deas, Poder, gramdtica, pobreza, guerra civil (Bo-
gota, 1992); C. E. Jaramillo, Los guerrilleros del novecientos (Bogota, 1991);
J. H . Palacio, La guerra de 85 (Bogota, 1936); L. Caballero, Memorias de la
guerra de los mil dias (Bogota, 1939); M. Grillo, Emociones de la guerra
(Bogota, c. 1905).
On the question of Panama, see E. Lemaitre, Panama y su separation de
Colombia (Bogota, 1972); T. J. Dodd, La crisis de Panama, 19001904:
Cartas de Tomds Herrdn (Bogota, 1985).
On international relations, see J. J. Caicedo Castilla, Historia diplo-
mdtica, 2 vols. (Bogota, 1974) in Historia Extensa de Colombia; E. T. Parks,
Colombia and the United States, 1765-1934 (Durham, N.C., 1935); R. L.
Lael, Arrogant Diplomacy: U.S. Policy toward Colombia, 1903-1922 (Wil-
mington, Del., 1987); S. J. Randall, The Diplomacy of Modernization:
ColombianAmerican Relations, 19201940 (Toronto, 1977) and Hegemony
and Interdependence: Columbia and the United States since the Wars of Indepen-
dence (Atlanta, Ga., 1991).
On economic history, the following are important: L. Ospina Vasquez,
Industria y proteccion en Colombia, 1810-1930 (Medellin, 1955); J. A.
Ocampo, Colombia y la economia mundial, 1830-1910 (Bogota, 1984); J.
A. Ocampo (ed.), Historia economica de Colombia (Bogota, 1987); S.
Kalmanovitz, Economia y nation (Bogota, 1985); A. Pardo Pardo, Geografia
economica y humana de Colombia (Bogota, 1972); J. A. Ocampo and S.
Montenegro, Crisis mundial, proteccion e industrializacion (Bogota, 1984); B.
Tovar Zambrano, La intervention economica del estado en Colombia, 1914
1936 (Bogota, 1984); G. Torres Garcia, Historia de la moneda en Colombia,
2nd ed. (Medellin, 1980); M. Avella, Pensamiento y politica monetaria en
Colombia, 1886-1945 (Bogota, 1987); A. Patino Roselli, La prosperidad a
debe y la gran crisis, 1925-1935 (Bogota, 1981); J. Villegas, Petroleo,
oligarquia e imperio, 3rd ed. (Bogota, 1975). P. L. Bell, Colombia: A
Commercial and Industrial Handbook (Washington, D.C., 1921) is a mine of
information. M. Urrutia and M. Arrubla (eds.), Compendio de estadisticas
historicas de Colombia (Bogota, 1970) contains series on population, wages,

2j>. Colombia 473
prices, foreign trade, tobacco and coffee as well as, for example, presiden-
tial elections.
On agrarian history, J. A. Bejarano, Economia y poder: La Sociedad de
Agricultores Colombianos, 18711984 (Bogota, 1985) is the best general
introduction; see also his El regimen agrario de la economia exportadora a la
economia industrial (Bogota, 1979); F. Leal (ed.), El agro en el desarrollo
historico colombiano (Bogota, 1977); M. Arrubla (ed.), La agrkultura colom-
biana en el sigh XX (Bogota, 1977). C. Legrand, Frontier Expansion and
Peasant Protest in Colombia, 1830-1936 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1986)
opens the theme of the appropriation of public land; it inevitably leaves
much to be investigated. There are two essays on Colombian agrarian
history in K. Duncan and I. Rutledge (eds.), Land and Labour in Latin
America (Cambridge, Eng., 1977): M. Deas, 'A Colombian coffee estate:
Santa Barbara, Cundinamarca, 18701912', and M. Taussig, 'The evolu-
tion of rural wage labour in the Cauca Valley of Colombia, 17001970'.
On the history of coffee there is a rapidly growing bibliography: see M.
Palacios, El cafe en Colombia, 1850-1970; Una historia economka, politica y
social, 2nd ed. (Bogota, 1983; Coffee in Colombia 18501970: An Economic,
Social and Political History (Cambridge, Eng., 1980) is a shorter English
version; A. Machado, El cafe: De la aparceria al capitalismo (Bogota, 1977);
M. Arango, Cafe e industria (Bogota, 1977); M. Urrutia, 'Lacreacion de las
condiciones iniciales para el desarrollo: El cafe', in E. Reveiz (ed.), La
cutstion cafetera (Bogota, 1980); and the chapters by J. A. Ocampo in the
Nueva historia de Colombia, cited above. Among contemporary sources: D.
Monsalve, Colombia cafetera (Barcelona, 1927), indispensable as well as
being a magnificent production (its costs ruined the author); J. M.
Restrepo et al., Memorias sobre el cultivo del cafe (Bogota, 1952); R. Uribe
Uribe, Estudios sobre cafe (Bogota, 1952); M. Rivas, Los trabajadores de la
tierra caliente, 2nd ed. (Bogota, 1946)
On other agrarian themes, see P. J. Eder, El Fundador, Santiago M. Eder
(Bogota, 1959), which treats the origins of the Valle sugar industry;
J. M. Rojas, Empresarios y tecnologia en la formacion del sector azucarero en
Colombia, 1860-1980 (Bogota, 1984); A. S. Pearse, Colombia, With Spe-
cial Reference to Cotton (Manchester, 1926); R. Herrera Soto y R. Romero
Castaneda, La zona bananera del Magdalena (Bogota, 1979); J. White,
Historia de una ignominia: La United Fruit Company en Colombia (Bogota,
1978).
For regional studies, see essay V:y. Also for the Caribbean coast, see
Eduardo Posada Carbo, 'Entre las olas de Caribe: Los recursos naturales de

la costa atlantica en el siglo XIX', in A. Hernandez Gamarra (ed.),

CaribeColombia (Bogota, 1990). A lucid study on Colombia's foremost
Indian politician is D. Castrill6n Arboleda, El indio Quintin Lame (Bogota,
!973); lt c a n be read in conjunction with J. Rappaport, The Politics of
Memory: Native Historical Interpretation in the Colombian Andes (Cambridge,
Eng., 1990).
Among a number of volumes of historic photographs published in
recent years, two are outstanding: E. Serrano, Historia de la fotografia en
Colombia (Bogota, 1983) and M. Carrizosa de Umana and R. J. Herrera de
la Torre, 75 anos de fotografia, 1865-1940 (Bogota, 1978).
26. ECUADOR
The Corporaci6n Editora Nacional is in the course of publishing the Nueva

historia del Ecuador (Quito, 1988- ), planned in fifteen volumes under
the general editorship of E. Ayala Mora. Vols. 8, 9 and 10 cover the period
1870-1930. The basic historical bibliography remains R. E. Norris, Guia
bibliogrdfica para el estudio de la historia ecuatoriana (Austin, Tex., 1978).
The following contemporary accounts deserve mention: J. Kolberg,
Nach Ecuador (Freiburg, 1876); C. Weiner, AmeWica pintoresca: Descripcidn
de viajes al nuevo continente (Barcelona, 1884); E. Festa, Nel Darien e
nell'Ecuador, Diario de viaggio di un naturalista (Turin, 1909); R. Enock,
Ecuador (London, 1914); M. Saenz, Sobre el indio ecuatoriano y su incor-
poracion al medio nacional (Mexico, D.F., 1933).
On political history, see E. Ayala Mora, Lucha politica y origen de los
partidos en Ecuador (Quito, 1978); H. Malo and E. Ayala Mora (eds.),
Ecuador 18301930, Tomo 1, Politica y sociedad (Quito, 1980) (the two
subsequent volumes deal with art and culture, and economics); L. Alexan-
der Rodriguez, The Search for Public Policy: Regional Politics and Government
Finances in Ecuador, 1830-1940 (Berkeley, 1985); J. L. Mera, La dictadura
y la restauracidn en la Republica del Ecuador (Quito, 1982); and I. Robalino
Davila, Origines del Ecuador de hoy, 7 vols. (Puebla, Mexico, 1948-70), a
series of well-documented politico-biographical studies.
Three works whose principal focus is on later years are useful for this
earlier period are: O. Hurtado, Elpoderpolitico en el Ecuador (Quito, 1977);
R. Quintero, El mito delpopulismo en el Ecuador (Quito, 1980); G. Drekonja
et al., Ecuador de hoy (Bogota, 1978).
On Eloy Alfaro, see F. Guarderas, El viejo de Montecristi (Quito, 1953);

26. Ecuador 475
W. Loor, Eloy Alfaro, 3 vols. (Quito, 1947); A. Pareja Diezcanseco, La

hoguera bdrbara (Mexico, D.F., 1944); R. Andrade, Vida y muerte de Eloy
Alfaro (New York, 1916); E. Munoz Vicuna, La guerra civil ecuatoriana de
1895 (Guayaquil, 1976.); M. Deas (introd. and ed.), Eloy Alfaro:
Narraciones historical (Quito, 1983). L. A. Martinez, A la costa (Quito,
1904; many reprints) is a vigorous contemporary novel, and M. J. Calle,
under the pseudonym Enrique de Rastignac, offers memorable portraits of
the protagonists of Alfaro's revolution in Hombres de la revuelta (Guayaquil,
1906).
Other useful biographies include C. de la Torre Reyes, La espada sin
mancha: Biografia del GeneralJulio Andrade (Quito, 1962);^ Perez Concha,
Carlos Concha Torres: Biografia de un luchador incorruptible (Quito, 1987).
There is still no biography of General Leonidas Plaza, who next to Alfaro
is the outstanding political figure of the period.
On the church, see M.-D. Deme'las and Y. Saint-Geours, Jerusalen y
Babilonia: Religidn y politica en el Ecuador, 1770-1880 (Quito, 1988); F.
Gonzalez Suarez, Memorias intimas (Quito, 1944); E. Ayala Mora (ed.), F.
Gonzalez Suarez y la polbnica sobre el estado laico (Quito, 1980); L.
Dautzemberg, El lllmo. Sr. Pedro Schumacher (Quito, 1968).
Labour history has produced interesting recent work: P. Ycaza, Historia
del movimiento obrero ecuatoriano (Quito, 1984); A. Paez, El anarquismo en el
Ecuador (Quito, 1986); V. Polit Monies de Oca (introd.), El 15 de noviembre
de 1922 y la fundacidn del socialismo relatados por sus protagonistas (Quito,
1982); L. J. Muiioz, Testimonio de lucha (Quito, 1988); M. Luna, Historia y
conciencia popular: El artesanado en Quito, economia, organizacidn y vida
cotidiana (Quito, 1989).
The economy of Ecuador at the beginning of this century is most fully
described in the opulent and encyclopedic El Ecuador: Guia comercial,
agricola e industrial de la republica (Guayaquil, 1909). On cacao, see M.
Chiriboga, Jornaleros y gran proprietaries en 135 anos de exportacidn cacaotera
(1790-1925) (Quito, 1980); L. Crawford de Roberts, El Ecuador en la
epoca cacaotera (Quito, 1980); A. Guerrero, Los oligarcas del cacao (Quito,
1981). On agrarian history in general, M. Chiriboga (ed.), El problema
agrario en el Ecuador (Quito, 1988); R. Baraona's CIDA report, Tenencia de
la tierra y desarrollo socio-econdmico del sector agricola: Ecuador (Washington,
D.C., 1965). P. de la Torre, Patronos y conciertos: Una hacienda serrana,
1905-1929 (Quito, 1989) is a well-documented study of the hacienda 'El
Dean', near Quito. M. A. Restrepo Eusse, El rey de la Una (Buenos Aires,
1958), the autobiography of a Colombian entrepreneur in Ecuador, con-

47^ VI. Economy, society, politics, c. I8JO to 1930
tains a rare personal account of life and conflict in the Ecuadorian country-
side in the 1920s and 1930s.
Other aspects of economic history are treated in J. P. Deler, Genese de
I'espace equatorien: Essai sur la territoire et la formation de I'etat national (Paris,
1981); L. A. Carbo, Historia monetaria y cambiaria del Ecuador desde la epoca
colonial (Quito, 1953); L. N. Dillon, La crisis economico-financiera del Ecua-
dor (Quito, 1927); and V. E. Estrada, Moneda y bancos en el Ecuador (Quito,
1982). A. Flores Jiron, La conversion de la deuda angloecuatoriana, 2nd ed.
(Quito, 1979), introduction by E. Santos Alvije, is a unique account of
patient late-nineteenth-century foreign debt negotiations.
The Banco Central del Ecuador, which, like the Banco de la Republica
in Colombia and the Banco Central in Venezuela, has done much for
historical studies, has established a photographic archive and is publishing
a series of photographic histories, which includes A. Carrion A., Imagenes
de la vida politica del Ecuador (Quito, 1980). The portrayal of native types,
a little industry in nineteenth-century Quito, is displayed in W. Hallo
(ed.), Imagenes del Ecuador del siglo XIX: Juan Antonio Guerrero (Quito,
1988).
27. VENEZUELA
The basic bibliographical reference is J. V. Lombardi et al., Venezuelan

History: A Comprehensive Working Bibliography (Boston, 1977). Also impor-
tant is the Diccionario de historia de Venezuela, published by the Fundacion
Polar under the direction of M. Perez Vila, 3 vols. (Caracas, 1988). Two
modern short histories are J. V. Lombardi, Venezuela (New York, 1982)
a n d j . Ewell, Venezuela (London, 1984).
The political history of the period 1870-1930 can be studied in M.
Picon Salas et al., Venezuela independiente: Evolution politica y social, 1810-
1960 (Caracas, 1962), and the later years in R. J. Velasquez et al.,
Venezuela moderna: Medio siglo de historia, 19261976, 2nd ed. (Caracas,
1979). Up until the year 1890 the relevant volumes of F. Gonzalez
Guinan, Historia contempordnea de Venezuela, 15 vols. (Caracas, 1909-25)
are still most valuable. Three collections of documents are particularly
useful: P. Grases and M. Perez Vila (eds.), Documentos que hicieron historia
(Caracas, 1862); N. Suarez Figueroa, Programas politicos venezolanos de la
primera mitad del siglo XX, 2 vols. (Caracas, 1977); R. J. Velasquez (ed.),
El pensamiento politico del siglo XX: Documentos para su estudio (Caracas,

2-j. Venezuela 477
3~ i t w o series so far). See also M. V. Magallanes, Lospartidospoliticos

en la evolution venezolana (Caracas, 1973)-
On Guzman Blanco, see T. Polanco Alcantara, Guzman Blanco: Tragedia
en trespanesy un epilogo (Caracas, 1992); R. Diaz Sanchez, Guzman: Elipse de
una ambition de poder, 2 vols. (Caracas, 1968); R. A. Rondon Marquez,
Guzman Blanco, 'el autocrata civilizador , 2 vols. (Caracas, 1944); and R. R.
Castellanos V., Guzman Blanco intimo (Caracas, 1969). Two useful articles
are J. Nava, ' "The illustrious American": The development of nationalism
in Venezuela under Antonio Guzman Blanco', HAHR, 45/4, 1965 and
M. B. Floyd, 'Politica y economia en tiempos de Guzman Blanco: Cen-
tralizacion y desarrollo, 18701888', in M. Izard et al., Politica y economia
en Venezuela, 18101976 (Caracas, 1976), which has other useful essays on
this period. On Guzman Blanco's conflict with the church, see M.
Watters, A History of the Church in Venezuela (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1934).
Of contemporary works, see A. Guzman Blanco, Documentos para la
historia (Caracas, 1876) and En defensa de la causa liberal (Paris, 1894); and
M. Briceno, Los ilustres: Vaginas para la historia de Venezuela (Bogota, 1884;
2nd ed., Caracas, 1953), an able attack. Briceno's analysis of Guzman's
system of government is still one of the most complete. Another Colom-
bian description of Guzman's Venezuela, more favourable and with inter-
esting sociological insights, is I. Laverde Amaya, Un viaje a Venezuela
(Bogota, 1889). In general, the travel literature on Venezuela in these
years is poor. But see M. L. Ganzenmuller de Blay, Contribution a la
bibliografia de viajes y explorationes de Venezuela (Caracas, 1964).
There is no modern biography of the most prominent of Guzman's
immediate successors, Joaquin Crespo, but see M. Landaeta Rosales,
Biografia del Benemerito GeneralJoaquin Crespo (Caracas, 1895) and A. Diaz
Guerra, Diez anos en Venezuela (Caracas, 1933). On the 1890s the funda-
mental work is R. J. Velasquez, La caida del liberalismo amarillo; tiempo y
drama de Antonio Paredes, 2nd ed. (Caracas, 1973); see also J. A. de Armas
Chitty (ed.), El 'Mocho' Hernandez: Papeles de su archivo (Caracas, 1978).
The political, social and military atmosphere of the Andean region of the
country is captured vividly in the memoirs of the telegraph operator N.
Parada in his Visperas y comienzos de la revolution de Cipriano Castro, 2nd ed.
(Caracas, 1973). For the central region there is an authentic though
ingenuous parallel in A. Martinez Sanchez, Nuestras contiendastiviles(Cara-
cas, 1949). V. Lecuna, La revolution de Queipa (Caracas, 1949) is an evoca-
tive and informative fragment of autobiography by the great expert on
Bolivar.

Cipriano Castro has attracted more attention: see W. J. Sullivan, 'The

rise of despotism in Venezuela: Cipriano Castro 18991908' (unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, University of New Mexico, 1974); E. Bernardo Nunez, El
hombre de la levita gris (Caracas, 1953); M. Picon Salas, Los dias de Cipriano
Castro (Caracas, 1953); I. Andrade, Por que triun/6 la Revolucion Restaura-
dora (Caracas, 1955); A. Paredes, Como llego Cipriano Castro alpoder (Cara-
cas, 1954). Castro's government published Documentos del General Cipriano
Castro, 6 vols. (Caracas, 19038), and E. Pino Iturrieta has edited Castro,
Epistolario presidencial (18991908) (Caracas, 1974). An important con-
temporary witness is E. L6pez Contreras, El Presidente Cipriano Castro, 2
vols. (Caracas, n.d.), with prologue by M. Burelli Rivas. On the Anglo-
GermanItalian blockade, see M. Rodriguez Campos, Venezuela 1902: La
crisisfiscaly el bloqueo (Caracas, 1977); D. Irwin (ed.), Documentos britdnicos
relacionados con el bloqueo de las costas venezolanas (Caracas, 1982); H. H.
Herwig, Germany's Vision of Empire in Venezuela, 181J1914 (Princeton,
N.J., 1986). A good commentary on this era by an acute Venezuelan
observer is C. Zumeta, Las potencias y la intervencion en Hispanoamerica
(Caracas, 1973). W. J. Sullivan's compilation, Cipriano Castro en la
caricatura mundial (Caracas, 1980) is more than a curiosity. The diaries of
Rufino Blanco Fombona have been republished: A. Rama (ed.), Rufino
Blanco Fombona, intimo (Caracas, 1975).
The bibliography of the G6mez era is extensive, though of most uneven
quality. For contemporary defence, see the work of his Minister of the
Interior P. M. Arcaya, The Gdmez Regime in Venezuela and Its Background
(Baltimore, 1936) and Memorias del Doctor Pedro Manuel Arcaya (Caracas,
1963); the latter has interesting late-nineteenth-century recollections as
well. See also E. Lopez Contreras, Procesopolitico-social, 19281936 (Cara-
cas, 1955). For contemporary denunciation, see J. R. Pocaterra, Memorias
de un venezolano de la decadencia (Caracas, 1937; many subsequent editions);
G. Machado and S. de la Plaza, La verdadera situacidn de Venezuela (Mexico,
D.F., 1929); R. Betancourt, Venezuela: Politica y petrdleo, 2nd ed. (Caracas,
1967), the work of a statesman with an exceptional interest in history; and
D. C6rdoba, Los desterr ados y Juan Vicente G6mez (Caracas, 1968).
The richest and most varied source for the Castro and G6mez years is
the Boletin del Archivo Historico de Miraflores, which draws on the presiden-
tial archive, opened with a generosity that has no parallel elsewhere in the
region, under the direction of Ram6n J. Velasquez.
No biography of G6mez can yet be called definitive. The most solid of
recent efforts is T. Polanco Alcantara, Juan Vicente Gomez, aproximacion a

2j. Venezuela 479
una biografia (Caracas, 1990); a short and judicious essay is J. M. Medrano,

Juan Vicente Gomez (Madrid, 1987). D. A. Rangel, Los andinos en elpoder:
Balance de una hegemonia, 1899-1945 (Caracas, 1965) contains many
stimulating intuitions about Castro, G6mez, Lopez Contreras and Medina
Angarita, and is a text that has had many imitators. It is at times roman-
tic. His Gomez, elamo del poder (Caracas, 1975) adds little. R. J. Velasquez,
Confidenrias imaginarias de Juan Vicente Gomez (Caracas, 1979) hides its
interesting conclusions in an imagined monologue. Other useful studies
include L. Cordero Velasquez, Gomez y lasfuerzas vivas (Caracas, 1971) and
E. Pacheco, De Castro a Lopez Contreras (Caracas, 1984). Two works in
English that reflect Venezuelan divisions of opinion and which are still
worth consulting are T. Rourke (pseudonym of D. J. Clinton), Tyrant of
the Andes, the Life of Juan Vicente Gomez (New York, 1937) and J. Lavin, A
Halo for Gomez (New York, 1954).
M. Briceno-Irragory, Los Riberas (Caracas, 1957) is a novel less fantastic
than much of the writing inspired by this persistently fascinating dictator.
G. Carrera Damas has two essays on G6mez in his collections, Tres temas de
historia, 2nd ed. (Caracas, 1978) and Jornadas de historia critica (Caracas,
1983)-
On the army, see A. Ziemes, El gomecismo y la formacion del ejercito
nacional (Caracas, 1979), an original and well-documented work. On
ideology, see E. Pino Iturrieta, Positivismo y gomecismo (Caracas, 1978). Of
the new edition of the works of G6mez's foremost ideologue, Laureano
Vallenilla Lanz, see particularly N. Harwich Vallenilla and F. Brito
Figueroa (eds.), Cesarismo democrdtico (Caracas, 1983).
The economic history of these decades has been only partially explored.
There is no satisfactory study of Venezuelan coffee, although there are
insights and scattered data in A. Ardao, El cafiy las ciudades en los Andes
venezolanos (Caracas, 1984). On Tachira there is an excellent monograph,
A. G. Munoz, El Tachira fronterizo: El aislamiento regional y la integracidn
nacional en el caso de los Andes (1881-1899) (Caracas, 1985). Agriculture
and agrarian history have received little attention from historians, who are
too content repeating the conclusions of S. de la Plaza, El problema de la
tierra (Mexico, D.F., 1938). L. C. Rodriguez, Gomez, agricultura, petrdleo y
dependencia (Caracas, 1983) is a study of government policy taken from
official documents.
Much more has been written about petroleum: see in particular E.
Lieuwen, Petroleum in Venezuela: A History (Berkeley, 1954) and B. S.
McBeth, Juan Vicente Gdmez and the Oil Companies in Venezuela, 1908-1935

(Cambridge, Eng., 1983), which analyses its chosen theme in great detail
with much new material. Both authors touch on the question of the
impact of oil on the rest of the economy, but do not explore it in detail.
Valuable statistical compilations include: M. Izard, Series estadisticas
para la historia de Venezuela (Merida, Ven., 1970); R. Veloz, Economia y
finanzas de Venezuela, 18301944 (Caracas, 1945); M. Landaeta Rosales,
Gran recopilacion geogrdfica, estadistka e historica de Venezuela, 2 vols. (Cara-
cas, 1889; 2nd ed., 1963). On public works, see E. Arcila Farias,
Centenario del Ministerio de Obras Publicas: Influencia de este ministerio en el
desarrollo, 18741974 (Caracas, 1974). O. Gerstl, in his modest memoirs,
Memorias e historias (Caracas, 1974), describes the world of the German
commercial houses and the Casa Boulton in particular in the first decades
of the century.
For illustration, see C. E. Misle, Venezuela: Siglo XIX en fotografia
(Caracas, 1951) and C. Posani (ed.), Apenas ayer . . . 20 anos de fotografia
de Luis F. Toro (Caracas, 1972), which contains the best photographs of the
photogenic General G6mez, taken by his official photographer.
28. BRAZIL: ECONOMY
The historiography of the period 1870-1930 may be approached through

Nicia Vilela Luz, 'Brazil', in Roberto Cortes Conde and Stanley Stein
(eds.), Latin America: A Guide to Economic History, 1830-1930 (Berkeley,
1977), which contains several hundred annotated entries of primary and
secondary sources, as well as a valuable interpretive article. Important
collections include various contributions on economic subjects to Sergio
Buarque de Holanda (ed.), Historia geral da civilizagdo brasileira; Tomo II, 0
Brasil mondrquico, vols. 3 and 4 (Sao Paulo, 1967, 1971); and the same
series, edited by Boris Fausto, Tomo III, 0 Brasil republicano, vol. 1 (Sao
Paulo, 1975); Colloque Internationale sur l'Histoire Quantitative du
Bresil, L'Histoire quantitative du Bresil de 1800 a 1930 (Paris, 1971); Paulo
Neuhaus (ed.), Economia brasileira: Uma visdo historica (Rio de Janeiro,
1980); Carlos Manuel Pelaez and Mircea Buescu (eds.), A moderna historia
economica (Rio de Janeiro, 1976); and Werner Baer et al., Dimensoes do
desenvolvimento brasileiro (Rio de Janeiro, 1978). Marcelo de Paiva Abreu
(ed.), A ordem do progresso; cem anos de politica economica republicana (Rio de
Janeiro, 1990) contains excellent summary articles by Winston Fritsch
and Gustavo H. B. Franco. See also Albert Fishlow, 'Brazilian develop-

28. Brazil: economy 481
ment in long-term perspective', American Economic Review, 70/2 (1980).

Among general studies of the Brazilian economy in historical perspective
the following deserve mention: Werner Baer, The Brazilian Economy:
Growth and Development, 3rd ed. (New York, 1989); Mircea Buescu, Prob-
lemas economicas e experiencia histdrica (Rio de Janeiro, 1985); Joao Manuel
Cardoso de Mello, 0 capitalismo tardio: Contribuigao a revisdo critica da
formaqdo e do desenvolvimento da economia brasileira (Sao Paulo, 1982); and
Carlos Manuel Pelaez, Historia economica do Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1979). Ray-
mond W. Goldsmith, Brasil 18301984: Desenvolvimentofinanceirosob um
seculo de inflagdo (Sao Paulo, 1986) studies the structure and functioning of
banking and capital markets, and estimates growth and capital formation,
the effect of terms of trade, inflation, and foreign debt. Valuable data
series are found in Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica, Esta-
tisticas historicas do Brasil, 2nd ed., rev. and enl. (Rio de Janeiro, 1990).
See also tables in Abreu, A ordem do progresso.
The study of Brazilian economic history owes much to three central
figures, whose works have been much debated and who represent signifi-
cant tendencies in policy debates. Roberto Simonsen was an industrialist
and statesman whose essays were designed to demonstrate the feasibility of
industrialization. Some of these have been collected in Evolugdo industrial
do Brasil e outros ensaios (Sao Paulo, 1973). Caio Prado Junior, a Marxist
historian, wrote mainly on the colonial period, but his Historia economica do
Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1949) and Historia e desenvolvimento (Sao Paulo, 1972)
deserve mention. Celso Furtado sought specifically to defend a structural-
ist position in his A economia brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1954) and in his
influential Formagdo economica do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1959); Eng. trans.
The Economic Growth of Brazil (Berkeley, 1963). Two other earlier studies of
importance are J. F. Normano, Brazil, a Study of Economic Types (New York,
X
935; 1968) and Roy Nash, The Conquest of Brazil (New York, 1926;
1968).
The early economic historiography of Brazil was largely institutional, in
fact more sociological than economic. Nevertheless, a number of mono-
graphs which deal in part with economic processes deserve mention. On
the plantation system, see the classic Stanley J. Stein, Vassouras: A Brazil-
ian Coffee County (Cambridge, Mass., 1957); Peter Eisenberg, The Sugar
Industry in Pernambuco (18401910) (Berkeley, 1974); Jaime Reis, 'From
bangiie to usina1, in K. Duncan and I. Rutledge (eds.), Land and Labour in
Latin America (Cambridge, Eng., 1977); J. H. Galloway, 'The sugar
industry of Pernambuco during the nineteenth century', Annals of the

Association 0/American Geographers, 58/2 (1968); Thomas Holloway, Immi-

grants on the Land: Coffee and Society in Sao Paulo, 18861934 (Chapel Hill,
N . C . , 1980); Warren Dean, Rio Claro: A Brazilian Plantation System (Stan-
ford, Calif., 1976); and the various essays in II Congresso de Hist6ria de
Sao Paulo, 0 Cafi (Sao Paulo, 1975). Richard Graham assesses the impact
of Britain on Brazilian development in Britain and the Onset of Moderniza-
tion in Brazil (Cambridge, Eng., 1968). Two excellent regional studies are
Pierre Monbeig, Pionniers et planteurs de Sao Paulo (Paris, 1952) and Jean
Roche, A colonizacao alema no Rio Grande do Sul, 2 vols. (Porto Alegre,
1969). The regional studies by Joseph Love on Rio Grande do Sul and Sao
Paulo, John Wirth on Minas Gerais and Robert Levine on Pernambuco
(see essay VI:3o), though primarily political, contain useful information
on regional economies. An important study of the Amazon region is
Roberto Santos, Historia economica da Amazonia 18001920 (Sao Paulo,
1980).
Economic policy in this period has been much studied. A classic is A.
G. Ford, The Gold Standard, 18801914; Brazil and Argentina (Oxford,
1962). A general institutional approach is taken by Edgard Carone, A
republica velha (Sao Paulo, 1970). Steven Topik shows that the government
adopted interventionism despite its liberal rhetoric: The Political Economy of
the Brazilian State, 1889-1930 (Austin, Tex., 1987). Anibal Villela and
Wilson Suzigan, Politica do governo e crescimento da economia brasileira, 1889
1945 (Rio de Janeiro, 1973), Eng. trans. Government Policy and Economic
Growth of Brazil, 18891945 (Rio de Janeiro, 1977), is an important
study that emphasizes distortions introduced by coffee support schemes.
Gustavo Maia Gomes seeks to show that the dominant class has always
taken decisions in its own behalf: The Roots of State Intervention in the
Brazilian Economy (New York, 1986). Nicia Vilela Luz, A lutapela indus-
trializagao no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1961) analyses pro-developmental debates.
Useful regional studies are Evaldo Cabral de Mello, 0 norte agrdrio e 0
imperio, 18J11889 (Rio de Janeiro, 1984); Gabriel Bittencourt, Esforgo
industrial na republica do cafe: 0 caso do Esplrito Santo, 1889-1930 (Vit6ria,
1982); and Janice Teodoro da Silva, Raizes da ideologia do planejamento:
Nordeste, 18891930 (Sao Paulo, 1978). Thomas Holloway, The Brazilian
Coffee Valorization of 1906 (Madison, Wis., 1975), and Carlos Manuel
Pelaez's essay in Ensaios sobre cafi e desenvolvimento economico (Rio de Janeiro,
1973) deal with coffee support. On government-sponsored cartels, see Joan
Bak, 'Cartels, cooperatives and corporativism: Getulio Vargas in Rio
Grande do Sul on the eve of Brazil's 1930 revolution', HAHR, 63/2

(1983), 25575. Government policy in agriculture and railways is dis-

cussed by Eulalia Lahmeyer Lobo in Histdria politico-administrativa da
agricultura brasileira, 18081889 (Rio de Janeiro, 1980). An analysis of
the impact of tariffs can be found in Maria Teresa R. O. Versiani, 'Protec,ao
tarifaria e crescimento industrial nos anos 190612: O caso de cerveja',
Pesquisa e Planejamento Economico, 12/2 (Rio de Janeiro, 1982). A superb
study of the consequences of state indebtedness is Winston Fritsch, Exter-
nal Constraints on Economic Policy in Brazil, 18891930 (Basingstoke, Eng.,
1988). See also W. Fritsch and E. M. Modiano, 'A restric.ao externa ao
crescimento economico: Uma perspectiva de longo prazo', Pesquisa e
Planejamento Economico, 18/2 (1988) and Gustavo H. B. Franco, 'Abertura
financeira e crises, 1870-1900', in XVII Encontro Nacional de Economia,
Anais (Belo Horizonte, 1988).
The collected works of several of the economic policy makers of the
period have been published. See: Leopoldo Bulhoes, Discursosparlamentares
(Brasilia, 1979); Serzedelo Correia, 0 problema economica do Brasil (Brasilia,
1980); Miguel Calmon, Idiias economicas (Brasilia, 1980); Joaquim Mur-
tinho, Idiias economicas (Brasilia, 1980); and Jorge Street, Idiias sociais
(Brasilia, 1980). Brazil, Ministerio da Fazenda, Museu da Fazenda Fed-
eral, Ministros da Fazenda, 18081983 (Rio de Janeiro, 1983) contains
biographical and economic data.
Eulalia Lahmeyer Lobo, Histdria do Rio de Janeiro, do capital comercial ao
capital industrial e financeiro, 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1978) studies eco-
nomic aspects of urbanization, with important price and wage data. An-
other valuable urban study, concentrating on taxation and growth, is
Nelson H. Nozoe, Sao Paulo: Economia cafeeira e urbanizagdo, 18891933
(Sao Paulo, 1984). Regional diversity is treated in Antonio Barros de
Castro, Sete ensaios sobre a economia brasileira, 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1971),
David Denslow, 'As origens da desigualdade regional no Brasil', Estudos
Economkos (1973), and Nathaniel Leff, Underdevelopment and Development in
Brazil, 2 vols. (London, 1982).
Macroeconomic studies began with O. Dias Carneiro, 'Past trends in
the economic evolution of Brazil, 19201965' (mimeo, Cambridge,
Mass., 1966). Important estimates of national product are to be found in
C. Contador and C. Haddad, 'Produto real, moeda e prec,os: A experiencia
brasileira no periodo 18611970', Revista Brasileira de Estatistica (1975),
Claudio Haddad, Crescimento do produto real no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro,
1978); and Leff, Underdevelopment and Development, which brings together
earlier essays. On terms of trade, see R. Gongalves and A. Coelho,

'Tendencias dos termos-de-troca: A tese de Prebisch e a economia bra-

sileira, 18501979', Pesquisa e Planejamento Economico, 12/2(1982). Infla-
tion has received less attention from historians than might be supposed,
assuming the pull of presentism. See Oscar Onody, A inflacdo brasileira,
18201958 (Rio de Janeiro, i960), a pioneering study; Mario Henrique
Simonsen, A experiencia inflaciondria no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1963);
Mircea Buescu, 300 anos de inflaqdo (Rio de Janeiro, 1973); and Paulo
Neuhaus, 'A inflacao brasileira em perspectiva historica', RBE, 32 (1978).
The classic study of monetary policy is J. Pandia Calogeras, A politka
monetdria do Brasil (1910; Sao Paulo, i960). The first scholarly work on
the subject was Dorival Teixeira Vieira, Evolugdo do sistema monetdria bra-
sileiro (1947; Sao Paulo, 1981). Paulo Neuhaus, Historia monetdria do
Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1975) and Carlos Manuel Pelaez and Wilson
Suzigan, Historia monetdria do Brasil, 2nd ed., rev. and amp. (Rio de
Janeiro, 1981) are recent works informed by theoretical concerns. The
speculative boom that accompanied the installation of the republican gov-
ernment is analysed by Luiz Antonio Tannuri, 0 Encilhamento (Sao Paulo,
1981) and Gustavo H. B. Franco, Reforma monetdria e instabilidade durante
a transigdo republicana (Rio de Janeiro, 1983). The latter attempts to judge
the influence of exchange rates in 'Taxa de cambio e oferta de moeda
18801897: Uma analise econometrica', RBE, 40/1 (1986). Eliana
Cardoso studies the question over a longer span: 'Desvalorizagao cambial,
industria, e cafe: Brasil 18621906', RBE, 35/2 (1981). See also a study
of an earlier crisis: Maria T. Ferraz Negrao de Lima, '1875: Crise na praga
do Rio de Janeiro', Anais do Museu Paulista, 34 (1985).
The profitability of slavery in its final stage is studied in Leff, Underdevel-
opment and Development; H. O. Portocarrero, 'Viabilidade economica de
escravidao no Brasil, 1880-1888', RBE, 27/1 (1973); and Jaime Reis,
'Abolition and the economics of slavery in northeastern Brazil', BELC, 17
(1974). Theoretically significant are Robert Slenes, 'The demography and
economics of Brazilian slavery: 18501888' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
Stanford University, 1975) and Pedro Carvalho de Melo, A economia de
escravidao nas fazendas de cafe, 18501888 (Rio de Janeiro, 1984). A
valuable collection is the special issue of Estudos Economicos devoted to
slavery: 13/1 (1983). Regional studies of the labour transition reveal
considerable contrasts: see Vilma P. F. Almada, Escravismo e transigdo; 0
Espirito Santo, 1850-1888 (Rio de Janeiro, 1984); Diana S. de Galliza, 0
declinio da escravidao na Paraiba (18501888) (Joao Pessoa, Paraiba,
1979). And see especially Amilcar Martins Filho and Roberto B. Martins,

'Slavery in a non-export economy: Nineteenth-century Minas Gerais revis-

ited', HAHR, 63/3 (1983), 537-68, which suggests that exports were not
essential to maintaining Brazilian slavery. A valuable collection contain-
ing a few essays of economic interest is Antonio Barros de Castro (ed.),
Trabalho escravo, economia e sockdade (Rio de Janeiro, 1983).
The transition from slave to wage labour has been much analysed,
especially the phenomenon of European immigration. The essential study
of population growth and mobility is T. W. Merrick and D. H. Graham,
Population and Economic Development in Brazil, 1808 to the Present (Balti-
more, 1979). See also IV Simposio Nacional dos Professores Universitarios
de Historia, Anais: Colonizacdo e migragdo (Sao Paulo, 1969) and Chiara
Vangelista, Le braccia per lafazenda: Immigranti e caipiras nella formazione del
mercato del lavoro paulista (1850-1930) (Milan, 1982). In addition to his
Immigrants on the Land, Thomas Holloway has contributed essays on this
subject in D. Alden and W. Dean (eds.), Essays in the Socioeconomic History
of Brazil and Portuguese India (Gainesville, Fla., 1979) and Duncan and
Rutledge (eds.), Land and Labour. Also important is Michael Hall, 'The
origins of mass immigration in Brazil 1871 1914' (unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, Columbia University, 1969). Verena Stolcke demonstrates the im-
portance of family wages in Coffee Planters, Workers and Wives; Class Conflict
and Gender Relations on Sao Paulo Plantations, 18501980 (New York,
1988). The integration of immigrants into an industrial system is dis-
cussed by Francisco Foot Hardman, Historia da industria e do trabalho no
Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1982).
A concern of Brazilian economic historiography has been that of tracing
the origin of capital applied to the export sector. Alcir Lenharo, As tropas
da moderacdo (Sao Paulo, 1979) shows the transfer of resources out of
internal trade in the early stages of the coffee cycle. Urban food supply is
dealt with in Maria Yedda Leite Linhares, Historia do abastecimento, uma
problemdtica em questdo, 15301918 (Brasilia, 1979) and M. Y. Leite
Linhares and F. C. Teixeira da Silva, Historiapolitica do abastecimento (Brasi-
lia, 1979). The questions of land rights, the alienation of public lands,
and land reform are analysed by Maria Teresa Schorer Petrone, 0 imigrante e
a pequena propriedade, 18241930, 2nd ed. (Sao Paulo, 1984); and Luiza
H. Schmitz Kliemann, RG [Rio Grande do Sul]: Terra e poder; historia da
questdo agrdria (Porto Alegre, 1986).
On foreign investment and trade during this period, see Leff, Underdevel-
opment and Development; Graham, Britain and the Onset of Modernization; Ana
Celia Castro, As empresas estrangeiras no Brasil, i8601913 (Rio de Janeiro,

1979); and Victor Valla, A penetracao norte-americana na economia brasileira

(Rio de Janeiro, 1978). See also B. R. Magalhaes, 'Investimentos ingleses
no Brasil e o Banco Londrino e Brasileiro', Revista Brasileiro de Estudos
Politicos, 49 (1979); R. Fendt, 'Investimentos ingleses no Brasil, 1870-
1913, uma avaliagao da politica brasileira', RBE, 31 (1977); and R. F.
Colson, 'European investment and the Brazilian "boom", 18861892', I
AA, 9/3-4 (1983). R. Greenhill, 'The Brazilian coffee trade", in D. C. M.
Platt (ed.), Business Imperialism 18401930 (Oxford, 1978), contests the
thesis of neo-imperialism. Maria da Guia Santos presents considerable data
on German connections in Aussenhandel und industrielle Entwicklung bra-
siliens unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Beziehungen zu Deutschland (1889
1914) (Munich, 1984). Emily Rosenberg, 'AngloAmerican economic
rivalry in Brazil during World War F, Diplomatic History, 2 (1978), pro-
vides insight into the rise of U.S. influence. Richard Graham, 'A British
industry in Brazil: Rio Flour Mills, 1886-1920', Business History, 17/1
(1966) examines the largest British manufacturing investment of the time
and demonstrates the difficulties of control of overseas firms before the
First World War. Marshall C. Eakin provides a detailed analysis of the
most important mining firm: British Enterprise in Brazil: The St. John d'el
Rey Mining Company (Durham, N.C., 1989).
Aside from those studies of foreign-owned firms, companies have been
little studied. An exception is Gerald Dinu Reiss, 'O crescimento da
empresa industrial na economia cafeeira', Revista de Economia Politica, 3/2
(1983), which discusses the strategies of Matarazzo. See also Alisson
Mascarenhas Vaz, 'A indiistria textil em Minas Gerais', Revista de Histdria,
56/3 (1977) and W. Dean, 'A fabrica Sao Luiz de Itu: Um estudo de
arqueologia industrial', Anais de Histdria, 8 (1976). There is also remark-
ably little available on the economic history of agriculture. See Nadir
Aparecida Cancian, Cafeicultura paranaense 1900/1970 (Curitiba, 1981)
and Claudio Gontijo, 'A revolugao agrfcola no Brasil: Singularidades do
desenvolvimento do capitalismo na agricultura brasileira, 18501930',
Revista de Economia Politica, 8/2 (1988); Warren Dean, 'The "green wave"
of coffee; Beginnings of tropical agricultural research in Brazil', HAHR,
69/1 (1989), 91 115. David Denslow, Sugar Production in Northeastern
Brazil and Cuba, 1858-1908 (New York, 1987), emphasizes growing
conditions. On the extractive sector, see Barbara Weinstein, The Amazon
Rubber Boom, 1850-1920 (Stanford, Calif, 1983). Warren Dean offers an
ecological explanation for the failure to grow rubber in Brazil and the
Struggle for Rubber (New York, 1987).

The agricultural sector has been of interest largely in relation to its

contribution to the development of the industrial economy. Antonio
Delfim Netto has argued that the international market, up to 1906,
permitted Brazil to gain from the trade in coffee: see 0 problema do cafe no
Brasil (1958; Sao Paulo, 1979). Thereafter, coffee profits were artificially
maintained, and the issue has arisen whether the coffee trade or cyclical
crises in the trade stimulated further development. Warren Dean, The
Industrialization of Sao Paulo, 18801945 (Austin, Tex., 1969); W. Baer
and A. Villela, 'Industrial growth and industrialization: Revisions in the
stages of Brazil's economic development', Journal of Developing Areas, jl\
(1973); and C. M. Pelaez, Historia da industrializagdo brasileira (Rio de
Janeiro, 1972) view export orientation as favouring industrialization,
while a contrary view was expressed by Sergio Silva, Expansdo cafeeira e
origens da indiistria no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1976); Jose de Souza Martins, 'O
cafe e a genese da industrializagao em Sao Paulo', Contexto, 3 (1977); and
Wilson Cano, Raizes da concentragdo industrial em Sao Paulo, 2nd ed. (Sao
Paulo, 1981). Albert Fishlow's attempted synthesis 'Origins and conse-
quences of import substitution in Brazil' is in L. di Marco (ed.), Interna-
tional Economics and Development (New York, 1971). A guide to this dispute
is Flavio A. M. de Saes, 'A controversia sobre a industrializagao na
Primeira Republica', Estudos Avangados, 3/7 (1989). Saes provided his own
contribution in A grande empresa de servigos publicos na economia cafeeira,
1850-1930 (Sao Paulo, 1986). See also Gabriel Bittencourt, Cafe e mo-
dernizagdo: 0 Espirito Santo no seculo XIX (Rio de Janeiro, 1987) and Kit
Sims Taylor, Sugar and the Underdevelopment of Northeastern Brazil, 1570
1970 (Gainesville, Fla., 1978). Mauricio Font turns the discussion in a
new direction with his study of the shifts in the politics of Sao Paulo
caused by the emergence of a non-plantation rural sector: Coffee, Contention
and Change in the Making of Modern Brazil (Cambridge, Mass., 1990). At
the federal level, Amilcar Vianna Martins Filho sees no economic motive
behind the dominant collaboration of Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais: A
economia politica do cafe com leite, 19001930 (Belo Horizonte, 1981). See
also an interesting local study: Oswaldo Truzzi, Cafe e indiistria: Sao Carlos
(1850-1950) (Sao Carlos, Sao Paulo, 1986).
On industrialization, see Wilson Suzigan, Indiistria brasileira; origem e

desenvolvimento (Sao Paulo, 1986) and Indiistria: Politica, institutes, e
desenvolvimento (Rio de Janeiro, 1978); F. R. Versiani and Jose Roberto
Mendonga de Barros (eds.), Formagdo economica do Brasil: A experiencia da
industrializagdo (Sao Paulo, 1977); and Frederic Mauro (ed.), La preindus-

trialisation du Bresil (Paris, 1984). See also F. R. Versiani, Industrial invest-

ment in an export economy: The Brazilian experience before 1914 (London:
Institute of Latin American Studies working paper, 1979) and A decada de
20 na industrializacdo brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1987), which appeared in
briefer form in 'Before the depression: Brazilian industry in the 1920s', in
Rosemary Thorp (ed.), Latin America in the 1930s (London, 1984). See also
Dean, The Industrialization ofSao Paulo. Other notable studies of industrial-
ization include Armen Mamagonian, 'Notas sobre o processo de indus-
trializagao no Brasil', Boletim do Departamento de Geografia do FFCL de
Presidente Prudente (1969); Edgard Carone (ed.), 0 pensamento industrial no
Brasil, 18801945 (Sao Paulo, 1977), a documentary collection, and a
historiographical study by E. Salvadori de Decca, 'O tema da indus-
trializagao: Politica e historia', Tudo E Historia: Cadernos de Pesquisa, 2
(1978). An important sectoral study is Stanley J. Stein, The Brazilian
Cotton Manufacture (Cambridge, Mass., 1957). See also Francisco Magal-
haes Gomes, Historia da siderurgia no Brasil (Belo Horizonte, 1983). Doug-
las Cole Libby, Transformacao e trabalho em uma economia escravista: Minas
Gerais no seculo XIX (Sao Paulo, 1988) presents valuable information on
iron-making, textiles and mining.
The history of capital markets, banking, and commercial intermediaries
has been explored by David Joslin in A Century of Banking in Latin America
(London, 1963) and by F. A. Arinos de Melo Franco, Historia do Banco do
Brasil (1947; Rio de Janeiro, 1973). Maria Barbara Levy's two studies,
Historia dos bancos comerciais no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1972) and Historia da
Bolsa de Valores do Rio deJaneiro (Rio de Janeiro, 1977) are valuable institu-
tional contributions. Joseph E. Sweigart offers a detailed portrait of the
coffee brokers that modifies considerably current understanding of the
commercialization of that product: Coffee Factorage and the Emergence of a
Brazilian Capital Market, 1850-1888 (New York, 1987). See also Flavio
A. M. de Saes, 'Credito e desenvolvimento em economias agroexporta-
doras: O caso de Sao Paulo, 18501930', Revista do Instituto de Estudos
Brasileiros, 29 (1988).
29. BRAZIL: SOCIETY AND POLITICS,

1870-1889
Rubens Borba de Moraes and William Berrien, Manual de estudos brasileiros

(Rio de Janeiro, 1949), although outdated, is still the most important

2C). Brazil: society and politics, 18701889 489
bibliographical guide. Specifically about the Empire but now also some-
what outdated are Stanley Stein, 'The historiography of Brazil, 1808-
1889', HAHR, 40/2 (1960), 234-78; George Boehrer, "Brazilian histori-
cal bibliography: Some lacunae and suggestions', RIB, 11/2 (1961), 1 3 7 -
49, and 'The Brazilian Republican Revolution, old and new views', L-BR,
3/2 (1966), 4357. A more recent analysis of the historiography of the
last two decades of the Empire is Emilia Viotti da Costa, 'Sobre as origens
da republica' in Da monarquia a republica: Momentos decisivos (Sao Paulo,
1977), 243-90.
A variety of interesting data can be found in the travellers' accounts
published in the nineteenth century. Particularly informative and contain-
ing many useful tables is Santa-Anna Nery, La Bresil en 1889 (Paris,
1889). Also relevant for the study of the last decade of the Empire is Louis
Couty, Le Bresil en 1884 (Rio de Janeiro, 1884); C. F. Van Delden Laerne,
Le Bresil et Java: Rapport sur la culture du cafe en Amerique, Asie, et A/rique
(avec chartes, planches et diagrammes) (The Hague, 1885); Max Leclerc,
Cartas do Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1942); and Alfred Marc, Le Bresil, excursion a
travers de ses 20 provinces (Paris, 1890).
The years between 1870 and 1889 have been seen as years of crisis for
the monarchical institutions. The first versions of the fall of the Empire
were written either by monarchists or by republicans. The monarchists
overestimated the role of the military in the 1889 coup while the republi-
cans stressed the failure of monarchical institutions and the success of the
republican campaign. Written from a republican perspective is Jose Maria
Bello, Historia da republica, 1889-1954, 4th ed. (Sao Paulo, 1959), Eng.
trans, by James L. Taylor, A History of Modern Brazil 1889-1954 (Stan-
ford, Calif., 1966); from a monarchist perspective, F. J. Oliveira Vianna,
0 ocaso do impbrio (Sao Paulo, 1925) and Heitor Lyra, Historia da queda do
imperio, 2 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1964). During the 1940s and 1950s Marxist
historians offered a new interpretation: see, for example, Caio Prado Ju-
nior, Evolucdo politica do Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1933) and Nelson Werneck
Sodre, Formagdo historica do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1944). Practically ig-
nored has been the psychoanalytical study of the fall of the Empire by Luis
Martins, 0 patriarca e 0 bacharel (Sao Paulo, 1953), which relied on Gil-
berto Freyre's generational model described in The Mansions and the Shan-
ties, trans-. Harriet de Onis (New York, 1963). In the 1960s and 1970s
academic historiography made important contributions to the revisions of
traditional interpretations. The best synthesis of this period appears in a
collective work published under the direction of Sergio Buarque de

4S>o VI. Economy, society, politics, c. 1870 to 1930
Holanda, Historia geral da civilizacdo brasileira, II: 0 Brasil mondrquico, 5

vols. (Sao Paulo, 1962-72), especially vol. 4, Declinio e queda do imperio
and vol. 5, Do impeWio a republica. Although the quality of the essays is
uneven and the connections between economic, social, political and ideo-
logical changes is often left to the reader, this is the most complete
synthesis available. Well informed but somewhat chaotic is Joao Camillo
de Oliveira Torres, A democracia coroada (Rio de Janeiro, 1957), a book
written from a conservative perspective. For a liberal perspective see
R a y m u n d o Faoro, Os donos do poder: Formacdo do patronato politico brasileiro,
2 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1975). Richard Graham, Britain and the Onset of Modern-
ization in Brazil (18501914) (Cambridge, Eng., 1968) describes several
important changes occurring in Brazilian politics and society during this
period and is the best synthesis available in English.
For a long time the history of Brazil was seen as the history of masters
and slaves. Historians neglected the population of small farmers, tenants
and sharecroppers that constituted the great majority of the population in
the nineteenth century. More recently these groups have been the subject
of several studies. Some of the most important problems confronting the
free population are discussed in Maria Sylvia de Carvalho Franco, Homens
litres na ordem escravocrata (Sao Paulo, 1969) and Hebe Maria Mattos de
Castro, Ao sul da historia: Lavradores pobres na crise do trabalho escravo (Sao
Paulo, 1987). Particularly interesting is G. I. Joffley, 'O quebraquilos, a
revolta dos matutos contra os doutores', Revista de Historia, 34 (1978), 69
145. See also Roderick Barman, 'The Brazilian peasantry reexamined: The
implications of the Quebra-Quilos revolt (18741875)', HAHR, 57/3
(1977), 40125. Armando Souto Maior, Quebra-Quilos: Lutas sociais no
outono do impfrio (Sao Paulo, 1978) considers the quebra-quilos as an expres-
sion of class tensions and social dislocations in the Brazilian Northeast
caused by the impact of capitalist development in the backlands. Analo-
gous is Janaina Amado's conclusion in her study on the Muckers: Conflito
social no Brasil: A revolta dos Muckers: Rio Grande do Sul (18681878) (Sao
Paulo, 1978).
Labour history is relatively new in Brazil. For a long time the study of
the workers was in the hands of political militants or sociologists more
interested in the twentieth-century labour movement. As a consequence
the emerging working class of the nineteenth century has received little
attention. Edgard Carone, Movimento operdrio no Brasil (18JJ-1944) (Sao
Paulo, 1979) is a collection of documents. We are still waiting for studies
on workers' conditions of living, forms of organization and participation

29. Brazil: society and politics, 18 jo-1889 491
in the political system. The same lacunae can be found in the study of
urban demonstrations and urban riots that multiplied towards the end of
the nineteenth century. Sandra Lauderdale Graham, 'The vintem riot and
political culture: Rio de Janeiro, 1880', HAHR, 60/2 (1980), 431-50
shows the many possibilities that the study of these urban crowds offer.
Another group waiting for a historian are the capoeiras free blacks and
mulattos, and perhaps some slaves, who threatened the Rio de Janeiro
urban population and who seem to have played an important role in the
political life of the last years of the Empire, particularly in the abolitionist
campaign. Women also have not received much attention. In a pioneering
article, June Hahner has identified several organizations created by
middle- and upper-class women in the last decades of the Empire: 'Femi-
nism, women's rights and the suffrage movement in Brazil', LARR, 16/1
(1980), 4164. See also Sandra Lauderdale Graham, House and Street: The
Domestic World of Servants and Masters in Nineteenth Century Rio de Janeiro
The best study of urbanization is Paul Singer, Desenvolvimento economico e
evolugdo urbana (Sao Paulo, 1968). See also Richard Morse, 'Cities and
societies in nineteenth century Latin America: The illustrative case of
Brazil' in R. Schaedel, J. Hardoy and N. S. Kinzer (eds.), Urbanization in
the Americas from Its Beginnings to the Present (The Hague, 1978). For a
different perspective, see Emilia Viotti da Costa, 'Urbanizacao no Brasil no
seculo XIX' in Da monarquia a republica, and 'Town and country', in The
Brazilian Empire: Myths and Histories (Chicago, 1985). On immigration,
see essay VI:3O.
A detailed description of political institutions can be found in Oliveira
Torres, A democracia coroada; Buarque de Holanda, Histdria geral da
civilizacdo brasileira, II: 0 Brasil mondrquico, vols. 4 and 5; Faoro, Os donos
do poder; and Nestor Duarte, A ordemprivada ea organizagdo politica nacional
(Sao Paulo, 1938). Many institutions have been the object of specific
studies. The Senate is described in Beatriz Westin Cerqueira Leite, 0
Senado nos anosfinais do imperio, 1870-1889 (Brasilia, 1978), which super-
sedes A. E. Taunay, 0 Senado do imperio (Sao Paulo, 1941). For the Cham-
ber, A. E. Taunay, A Camara dos deputados (Sao Paulo, 1950) remains
valuable. The Council of State is examined in Fernando Machado, 0
Conselho de Estado e sua histdria no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1972).
The best study on political parties and political elites is Jose Murilo de
Carvalho, 'Elite and state building in imperial Brazil' (unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, Stanford University, 1974). The first part, revised and expanded,

has been published in A construgao da ordem: A elite politica imperial (Rio de

Janeiro, 1980), and the second, also revised and expanded, in Teatro de
sombras: A politica imperial (Rio de Janeiro, 1988). See also his 'A
composic.ao social dos partidos politicos imperiais', Cadernos do De-
partamento de Ciencias Politicas, Faculdade de Filosofia e Ciencias Humanas
da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, 2 (1974), 1-34, and 'Political
elites and state building: The case of nineteenth-century Brazil', CSSH,
24/3 (1982). Carvalho revises many traditional notions that have prevailed
in the literature. For the study of the imperial elites, see also Olavo Brasil
de Lima, Jr., and Lucia Maria de Klein, 'Atores politicos do imperio',
Dados, 7 (1970), 6 2 - 8 8 , and Ron L. Seckinger and Eul-Soo Pang, 'The
mandarins of imperial Brazil', CSSH, 9/2 (1972). For a study of the
political party system from a juridical point of view, Afonso Arinos de
Melo Franco, Histdria e teoria do partido politico no direito constitucional bra-
sileiro (Rio de Janeiro, 1948) remains valuable.
Although there are no monographic studies of the two main parties,
there are several studies of the Republican party. Goerge Boehrer, Da
monarquia a republica: Histdria do Partido Republicano no Brasil, 1870-1889
(Rio de Janeiro, 1954), is the main source for the study of the party at the
national level. For the study of the party in Sao Paulo, see Emilia da Costa
Nogueira, 'O movimento republicano em Itu: Os fazendeiros do oeste
paulista e os prodromos do movimento republicano', Revista de Histdria, 20
(1954), 379405, and Jose Maria dos Santos, Bernardino de Campos e 0
Partido Republicano Paulista, subsidios para a bistoria da republica (Rio de
Janeiro, i960). The ambiguous position of the Paulista Republican party
toward abolition was described by Jose Maria dos Santos, Os republicans
paulistas e a aboligao (Sao Paulo, 1942). Nicia Vilela Luz, 'O papel das
classes medias brasileiras no movimento republicano', Revista de Histdria
28/57 (1964), 2 1 3 - 2 8 , calls attention to the important role played by the
sons of traditional elites who had lost status. Two studies have examined
political participation during the last decades of the Empire: Joseph Love,
'Political participation in Brazil, 1881-1969', L-BR, ill (1970), 3-24,
and Maria Antonieta de A. G. Parahyba, 'Abertura social e participac.ao
politica no Brasil, 1870-1920', Dados, 7 (1970), 89-102.
Much more needs to be investigated before we can begin to understand
the sociology of electoral behaviour during the Empire. Meanwhile, sev-
eral studies have been published about the system of patronage. The most
complete study is still Faoro, Os donos do poder. It can be supplemented by
Simon Schwartzman, 'Regional cleavages and political patriarchalism in

2$). Brazil: society and politics, 18JO-1889 493
Brazil' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Berkeley,

1973). An important recent study of political patronage during the Em-
pire is Richard Graham, Patronage and Politics in Nineteenth Century Brazil
(Stanford, Calif., 1990). A colourful description of the system of clientele
and patronage is found in Maria Isaura Pereira de Queiroz, 0 mandonismo
local na vida politica brasileira (Sao Paulo, 1969), reprinted from the origi-
nal essay published in the journal Anhembi, 246 (Sao Paulo, 19567).
Administration at the local level in one province is examined in Francisco
Iglesias, Politica economica do governo provincial mineiro, 18351889 (Rio de
Janeiro, 1958).
More research on the formal and informal connections between business-
men and politicians needs to be done. The articles published by Eugene
W. Ridings point in the right direction. Particularly interesting are 'Elite
conflicts and cooperation in the Brazilian Empire: The case of Bahian
businessmen and planters', L-BR, 12/1 (1975), 80-99; 'The merchant
elite and the development of Brazil during the Empire', JIAS, 15 (1973);
'Class sector unity in an export economy: The case of nineteenth-century
Brazil', HAHR, 58/3 (1978), 432-50; and 'Internal groups and develop-
ment: The case of Brazil in the nineteenth century', JLAS, 9/2 (1977),
22550. And we still have much to learn about the political role of
economic groups, family links and the importance of patronage in deter-
mining party affiliation and party performance. However, see Richard
Graham, Patronage and Politics, mentioned above. A reading of the biogra-
phies of important political figures provides interesting information. Par-
ticularly useful are Joaquim Nabuco, Urn estadista do imperio: Nabuco de
Araujo, sua vida, suas opinioes e sua epoca, 3 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1936); Luis
Viana Filho, A vida de Rui Barbosa (Sao Paulo, 1965); Hermes Vieira, Ouro
Preto, 0 homem e a epoca (Sao Paulo, 1948); Jose Wanderley Pinho, Cotegipe e
seu tempo (Sao Paulo, 1937); Joao Craveiro Costa, 0 visconde de Sinimbu, sua
vida e sua atuacdo na politica nacional, 18401889 (Sao Paulo, 1937); Luis
Viana Filho, A vida de Joaquim Nabuco (Sao Paulo, 1944); Jose Antonio
Soares de Souza, A vida do Visconde de Uruguai, 18071866 (Sao Paulo,
1944); Luis Viana Filho, A vida do Bardo do Rio Branco (Rio de Janeiro,
1959). The best biography of Pedro II is Heitor Lyra, Histdria do Imperador
Pedro II, 3 vols. (Sao Paulo, 193840). In English, see Mary Wilhelmine
Williams, Dom Pedro the Magnanimous (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1937).
A few politicians of the Empire published their memoirs. Particularly
interesting are Afonso Celso, Oito anos de parlamento (Sao Paulo, n.d.);
Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay, Memorias (Rio de Janeiro, i960), Homens e

494 V7. Economy, society, politics, c. I8JO to 1930
coisas do imperio (Sao Paulo, 1924), and Cartas politicas (Rio de Janeiro,
1889); Albino Jose Barbosa de Oliveira, Memdrias de um magistrado do
imperio (Sao Paulo, 1943); Julio Belo, Memdrias de um Cavalcanti: Trechos de
um livro de assentos de Felix Cavalcanti de Albuquerque e Melo (18211901)
(Sao Paulo, 1940); Visconde de Maua, Autobiografia (Exposigdo aos credores e
ao publico seguida de 0 meio circulante no Brasil) (Rio de Janeiro, 1942).
Equally interesting is the correspondence exchanged between political or
intellectual figures. Particularly relevant for this period are Raymundo de
Menezes (ed.), Cartas e didrio de Jose de Alencar (Sao Paulo, 1967); Jose
Honorio Rodrigues (ed.), Correspondencia de Capistrano de Abreu, 3 vols.
(Rio de Janeiro, 1954-6); Correspondencia de Machado ejoaquim Nabuco (Sao
Paulo, 1933); Raymundo de Magalhaes (ed.), D. Pedro II e a Condessa do
Barral (Rio de Janeiro, 1956); Jose Wanderley de Araiijo Pinho (ed.),
Cartas do Imperador D. Pedro II ao Bardo de Cotegipe (Sao Paulo, 1933);
Correspondencia entre D. Pedro II e 0 Bardo do Rio Branco (1889-1891) (Sao
Paulo, 1957). These last two publications constitute important sources for
the study of the emperor's view of the Brazilian system. Even more rele-
vant in this respect is D. Pedro II, Conselbos a Regente, introduction and
notes by J. C. de Oliveira Torres (Rio de Janeiro, 1958).
The abolition of slavery has attracted the attention of many scholars.
The most complete bibliography available is Robert Conrad, Brazilian
Slavery: An Annotated Research Bibliography (Boston, 1977). Conrad is also
the author of the most complete study available in English, The Destruction
of Brazilian Slavery 1850-1889 (Berkeley, 1971). For a different approach,
see Robert Toplin, The Abolition of Slavery in Brazil (New York, 1972).
Two essays which analyse the causes of the gradual decline and final
abolition of slavery in Brazil in this period are Richard Graham, 'Causes of
the abolition of negro slavery in Brazil: An interpretive essay', HAHR,
46/2 (1966) and Leslie Bethell, 'The decline and fall of slavery in
nineteenth-century Brazil', Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th
series, vol. I (1991). Emilia Viotti da Costa, Da senzala a colonia (Sao
Paulo, 1966; 2nd ed., 1982) remains the most comprehensive study of the
process of transition from slave to free labour in Brazil. See also Emilia
Viotti da Costa, 'Masters and slaves: From slave labor to free labor', in The
Brazilian Empire. An interesting more recent work is Sidney Chalhoub,
Visoes da liberdade: Uma histdria das ultimas dicadas da escraviddo na Corte
(Sao Paulo, 1990). On the profitability of slavery in its final stage, see
essay VI:28. There is still no satisfactory account of the origins, passage
and consequences of the 1871 law of free birth and the attempt, especially

29. Brazil: society and politics, 1870-1889 495
under the law of 1879, to structure a 'free labour market'. But see Ademir
Gebara, 0 mercado de trabalho livre no Brasil (1871-1888) (Sao Paulo,
1986) and Maria Lucia Lamounier, Da escraviddo ao trabalho livre {a lei de lo-
cagao de servicos de 1879) (Campinas, 1988). In spite of the many studies on
abolition we still lack information about the grass roots of abolitionism.
Evaristo de Morais, A campanha abolicionista (1879-1888) (Rio de Janeiro,
1924) is still useful in this respect. The caifazes, an abolitionist organi-
zation operating in Sao Paulo, was examined by Alice Barros Fontes, 'A
pratica abolicionista em Sao Paulo: Os caifazes, 18821888' (unpublished
M.A. thesis, University of Sao Paulo, 1976). Paula Beiguelman, Teoria e
aqdo no pensamento abolicionista (Sao Paulo, 1962) called attention to the
importance of political mechanisms in the abolition of slavery. Richard
Graham in 'Landowners and the overthrow of the Brazilian monarchy',
LBR, 7/2 (1970), 4456 analyses the impact of abolitionism and abolition
on planters. See also Eul-Soo Pang, 'Modernization and slavocracy in
nineteenth century Brazil', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 4/4 (1979).
Relations between church and state are examined in George Boehrer,
'The church in the second reign, 18401889', in Henry Keith and S. F.
Edwards (eds.), Conflict and Continuity in Brazilian Society (Columbia,
S.C., 1963), 11340; George Boehrer, 'The church and the overthrow of
the Brazilian monarch', HAHR, 48/3 (1968), 380-401; and Mary C.
Thornton, The Church and Freemasonry in Brazil, 187275 (Washington,
D.C., 1948). See also David Gueir6s Vieira, 'Protestantism and the reli-
gious question in Brazil, 18551875' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Ameri-
can University, Washington D.C., 1972); Antonio Carlos Villac,a, A histd-
ria da questdo religiosa no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1974); Nilo Pereira,
Conflicto entre igreja e estado (Recife, 1976); and Antonio Carlos Villaga, 0
pensamento catdlico no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1975). For an understanding of
the elite's behaviour during the conflict, there is interesting information
in Joaquim Nabuco, Um istadista do imperio.
There are four important essays on the role of the Brazilian military in
the proclamation of the Republic: John Schulz, 'O exercito e o imperio', in
Buarque de Holanda (ed.), Histdria geral de civilizagao brasileira, II, vol. 4,
235-49; W. S. Dudley, 'Institutional sources of officer discontent in the
Brazilian army, 1870-1889', HAHR, 55/1 (1975), 44-65, and 'Profes-
sionalisation and politicisation as motivational factors in the Brazilian
army coup of 15 November 1889', JLAS, 8/1 (1976), 101-25; and June
Hahner, 'The Brazilian armed forces and the overthrow of the monarchy:
Another perspective', TA, 26/2 (1969), 171-82. For a more theoretical

analysis, see Fredrick Nunn, 'Military professionalism and professional

militarism in Brazil, 18701970: Historical perspectives and political
implications', JLAS, 4/6 (1972), 2954. A more detailed study of the
army during the Empire is John Schulz, 'The Brazilian army in politics,
18501894' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Princeton University, 1973). Nel-
son Werneck Sodre, Historia militar do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1968) is also
informative. Some biographical studies focusing on important figures in
the army add interesting details: for example, Raymundo de Magalhaes,
Deodoro e a espada contra 0 imperio (Rio de Janeiro, 1957), a biography of the
general who led the coup in November 1889. There is a biographical study
of Deodoro in English: Charles Willis Simmons, Marshal Deodoro and the
Fall of Dom Pedro II (Durham, N.C., 1966). The intriguing personality of
Benjamin Constant and his role as a republican and as a positivist is
examined by Raymundo Teixeira Mendes, Benjamin Constant, 2nd ed. (Rio
de Janeiro, 1913). The hostility with which some loyal monarchists evalu-
ated the military and its role in the overthrow of the Empire is well
documented in Visconde de Ouro Preto, Advento da ditadura militar no
Brasil (Paris, 1891) and Eduardo Prado, Fastos da ditadura militar no Brasil
(Sao Paulo, 1902). This unsympathetic view was kept alive in the works of
historians like Oliveira Vianna, who did not hide their identification with
the monarchy and monarchical institutions. For an opposite point of view
one should consult A. Ximeno de Villeroy, Benjamin Constant e a politica
republicana (Rio de Janeiro, 1928). And for a more balanced discussion, see
Emilia Viotti da Costa, 'A proclamagao da republica' in Da monarquia a
republica and 'The fall of the monarchy' in The Brazilian Empire.
Antonio Candido de Mello e Souza, Formagdo da literatura brasileira, 2nd
ed., 2 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1964) has in an appendix short biographies of the
most important writers of this period. Also useful is Jose Aderaldo
Castello, Presenga da literatura brasileira: Historia e antologia, 3 vols. (Sao
Paulo, 1964). For an overview of the history of ideas the best source is Joao
Cruz Costa, Historia das ideias no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1956), Eng. trans,
by Suzette Macedo, A History of Ideas in Brazil (Berkeley, 1964). Several
books have been published about positivism in Brazil. Most of them
associate the middle classes and positivism. Typical is Robert Nachman,
'Positivism, modernization and the Brazilian middle-class', HAHR, 57/1
(1977), 123. The most reliable source published in Portuguese is Ivan
Lins, Historia do positivismo no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1964). See also Joao
Camillo de Oliveira Torres, 0positivismo no Brasil (Petropolis, 1952). For a

29. Brazil: society and politics, 18JO-1889 497
critical examination of liberalism, see Maria Stella Martins Bresciani,

'Liberalismo, ideologia e controle social', 2 vols. (unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, University of Sao Paulo, 1976). On the idea of a republic, see Jose
Murilo de Carvalho, A formagdo das almas: 0 imagindrio da republica no
Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1990).
The problem of cultural dependency and the contradictions generated
by the import of European ideas, first discussed by Nelson Werneck
Sodre in Ideologia do colonialismo: Seus reflexos no pensamento brasileiro (Rio
de Janeiro, 1961), became the subject of an important controversy with
the publication of Roberto Schwarz's essay 'As ideias fora do lugar' in
Estudos CEBRAP, 3 (1973), 151-61, later reproduced and expanded in
his study of Machado de Assis, Ao vencedor as batatas (Sao Paulo, 1977);
Eng. trans, in Misplaced Ideas (London, 1992). Applying to the study of
ideas the 'dependency theory' model, Schwarz noticed a contradiction
between the ideology of patronage characteristic of Brazilian society and
European liberalism. This contradiction was denied in Maria Sylvia de
Carvalho Franco, 'As ideias estao no lugar', Debates (1976).
Brazilian racial ideology is examined in Thomas Skidmore, Black into
White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought (New York, 1974) which
includes an extensive bibliography about different aspects of Brazilian
society during the Empire and First Republic. See also Thomas Skid-
more, 'Racial ideas and social policy in Brazil, 18701940', in Richard
Graham (ed.), The Idea of Race in Latin America, 18J01940 (Austin,
Tex., 1990). For a different interpretation, see Emilia Viotti da Costa,
'The myth of racial democracy: The legacy of the Empire', in The Brazil-
ian Empire.
Few studies have been published about cultural institutions. For an
overview, see Fernando de Azevedo, Brazilian Culture, an Introduction to
the Study of Culture in Brazil, trans. William Rex Crawford (New York,
1950). More specific is Robert Havighurst and Roberto Moreira, Society
and Education in Brazil (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1965). The Sao Paulo law
school which was the incubator of most of the professional politicians of
the Empire was the subject of two important books: A Academia de Sao
Paulo: Tradigoes e reminiscencias, 9 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1906-9), and Spencer
Vampre, Memorias para a historia da Academia de Sao Paulo, 2 vols. (Sao
Paulo, 1924). Maria de Lourdes Marioto Haidar examines the secondary
school system in her book 0 ensino secundario no imperio brasileiro (Sao
Paulo, 1972). Valuable information about the debate over the creation of

the university in the nineteenth century can be found in Roque Spencer
Maciel de Barros, A ilustragao brasileira e a ideia de universidade (Sao
Paulo, 1959).
30. BRAZIL: SOCIETY AND POLITICS,

1 8 8 9 - 1930
On the bibliography of Brazil during the period from 1889 to 1930, see
Thomas E. Skidmore, 'The historiography of Brazil, 1889-1964', HAHR,
55/4 (1975), 716-48, and 56/1 (1976), 81-109, and Angela de Castro
Gomes and Marieta de Moraes Ferreira, 'Primeira Republica: Um balango
historiografico', Estudos Histdrkos, 4 (1989), 244-80. An analysis of the
modern trends in Brazilian historiography, in which there are references to
works written on the period from 1889 to 1930, can be found in Jos
Roberto do Amaral Lapa, A histdria em questdo (Petr6polis, 1976).
A general history of the period is Boris Fausto (ed.), Histdria geral da
civilizagdo brasileira, III: Brasil republicano, vols. 1 and 2 (Sao Paulo, 1977).
See also three valuable books by Edgard Carone: A Republica Velha:
Institutes e classes socials (Sao Paulo, 1970), A Republica Velha: Evolugdo
polttica (Sao Paulo, 1971) and a collection of documents, A Primeira Repub-
lica, 1889-1930: Texto e contexto (Sao Paulo, 1969). Among older studies,
worthy of particular note are Jos Maria Bello, Histdria da republica, 1889-
1954, 4th ed. (Sao Paulo, 1959), Eng. trans, by James L. Taylor, A
History 0/Modern Brazil, 1889-1954 (Stanford, Calif., 1966); and Ledncio
Basbaum, Histdria sincera da Republica, 4 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1962-68). On
the relationship between agrarian society and the process of authoritarian
modernization, see Elisa M. Pereira Reis, 'The agrarian roots of authoritar-
ian modernization in Brazil, 1880-1930' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1979). The class nature of the state
is the subject of Decio Saes, A formacdo do estado burgues no Brasil, 1889
1891 (Sao Paulo, 1987). Steven Topik, The Political Economy of the Brazil-
ian State, 1889-1930 (Austin, Tex., 1987) analyses the frankly interven-
tionist role of the state in the economy.
Few scholars have attempted a global analysis of the system and the
political process of the period. Most noteworthy is Maria do Carmo
Campello de Souza, 'O processo politico-partidario na Primeira Repub-
lica', in Carlos Guilherme Mota (ed.), Brasil em perspectiva (Sao Paulo,
1968), 181252. See also Joseph L. Love, 'Political participation in Bra-

3O. Brazil: society and politics, 1889I93 499
zil, 1881-1969', L-BR, 7/2 (1970), 3-24; and Maria Antonieta de A. G.

Parahyba, 'Abertura social e participacao politica no Brasil, 1870-1920',
Dados, 7 (1970), 89-102. An analysis that emphasises the 'politica de
governadores' can be found in Renato Lessa, A invengao republkana (Rio de
Janeiro, 1988). A general study of the electoral system and political
participation containing some chapters on the period 18891930 is Maria
D'Alva Gil Kinzo, Representacdo politica e sistema eleitoral no Brasil (Sao
Paulo, 1980). There are few studies of political parties, except the Commu-
nist Party (on which see below). The most important relate to the state of
Sao Paulo: Jose Enio Casalechi, 0 Partido Republkano Paulista (Sao Paulo,
1987) and Maria Ligia Coelho Prado, A democracia ilustrada: 0 Partido
Democrdtico de Sao Paulo, 1926-1934 (Sao Paulo, 1986).
There are several important studies on the individual states and their
role in national politics. On the state of Sao Paulo, see Joseph L. Love, Sao
Paulo in the Brazilian Federation, 1889-1937 (Stanford, Calif., 1980);
Eduardo Kugelmas, 'Dificil hegemonia: Um estudo sobre Sao Paulo na
Primeira Republica' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Sao Paulo,
1986) and Mauricio A. Font, Coffee, Contention and Change in the Making of
Modern Brazil (Cambridge, Mass., and Oxford, 1990). Although it essen-
tially deals with economic policy, there are interesting observations on the
hegemony of the coffee bourgeoise in Winston Fritsch, External Constraints
on Economic Policy in Brazil, 18891930 (London, 1988). See also by the
same author, 'Sobre as interpretacoes tradicionais da 16gica da politica
economica na Primeira Republica', Estudos Economicos, 15/2 (1985), 3 3 9 -
46. On Rio Grande do Sul, see Joseph L. Love, Rio Grande do Sul and
Brazilian Regionalism, 1882-1930 (Stanford, Calif., 1971), Sandra Jatahy
Pesavento, Republica Velha gaucha (Porto Alegre, 1980) and Pedro Cezar
Dutra Fonseca, Vargas: 0 capitalismo em formagao (Sao Paulo, 1989). On
Minas Gerais, the most important works are: John D. Wirth, Minas Gerais
in the Brazilian Federation, 1889-1931 (Stanford, Calif., 1977); Amilcar
Martins Filho, A economia politica do cafe como kite (Belo Horizonte, 1981);
Paul Cammack, 'The political economy of the "politics of the states":
Minas Gerais and the Brazilian Federation, 1889-1900', BLAR, 2/1
(1982), 51-65; and Amilcar Martins Filho, 'The White Collar Republic:
Patronage and interest representation in Minas Gerais, Brazil, 1889
1930' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Illinois, 1987). The latter
develops the view that under the Old Republic patronage prevailed over
interest representation. On this theme, see also Simon Schwartzman, As
bases do autoritarismo brasileiro (Sao Paulo, 1982). On Pernambuco, see

Robert M. Levine, Pernambuco in the Brazilian Federation, 18891937

(Stanford, Calif., 1978), and on Bahia, Eul-Soo Pang, Bahia in the First
Brazilian Republic: Coronelismo and Oligarchies, 18891934 (Gainesville,
Fla., 1979).
Judith Edith Hahner, Civilian-Military Relations in Brazil 18891898
(Columbia, S.C., 1969) is one of the best studies on the years which
followed the proclamation of the Republic up until the time when the
oligarchic system was firmly established. Maria de Lourdes M. Janotti
deals with the monarchists during the early years of the Republic in Os
subversivos da republica (Sao Paulo, 1986). An analysis of political changes
through government expenditure can be found in Richard Graham, 'Gov-
ernment expenditure and political change in Brazil, 18801899: Who
got what',//AS, 19/3 (1977), 339-67. See also Eduardo Kugelmas, 'A
Primeira Republica no periodo de 1891 a 1909', in Paula Beiguelman
(ed.), Pequenos estudos de ciencia politica, 2nd ed. (Sao Paulo, 1973). An
important biography is Afonso Arinos de Melo Franco, Rodrigues Alves:
Apogeu e declinio do presidencialismo, 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1973). Very
little has been written on the years following the presidential succession
crisis of 1909 or on the political effects of the First World War, apart from
texts of an apologetic or superficial type. On the other hand, the crisis of
the 1920s and the Revolution of 1930 have been the subject of more
serious consideration. A general study on the 1920s is Paulo Sergio
Pinheiro, Politica e trabalho no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1975). There are
several works on the tenentista movement. A starting point is Virginio
Santa Rosa, 0 sentido do tenentismo (Rio de Janeiro, 1933). A general
analysis can be found in John D. Wirth, 'Tenentismo in the Brazilian
Revolution of 1930', HAHR, 44/2 (1964), 229-42. With regard to
episodes in the tenentista movement, see Helio Silva, 1922: Sangue na areia
de Copacabana (Rio de Janeiro, 1964) and A grande marcha (Rio de Janeiro,
1965); and Neill Macaulay, The Prestes Column: Revolution in Brazil (New
York, 1974). A collection of documents has been published by Edgard
Carone, 0 tenentismo: Acontecimentos personagens programas (Sao Paulo,
1975). A comprehensive study is Jose Augusto Drummond, 0 movimento
tenentista: Intervencdo militar e conflito hierdrquico, 19221935 (Rio de Ja-
neiro, 1985). The relation between tenentismo and the middle class and the
role of the tenentes in the Revolution of 1930 are discussed in Maria Cecilia
Spina Forjaz, Tenentismo e politica (Rio de Janeiro, 1977); Tenentismo e
Alianga Liberal (19271930) (Rio de Janeiro, 1978) and Tenentismo eforgas
armadas na Revolugdo de 1930 (Rio de Janeiro, 1988). An analysis of the

3O. Brazil: society and politics, 1889-1930 501
Prestes Column by the daughter of its principal leader is Anita Leocadia

Prestes, A coluna Prestes (Sao Paulo, 1990). One of the most important
contemporary studies on the Revolution of 1930 is Alexandre Barbosa
Lima Sobrinho, A verdade sobre a Revolugdo de Outubro (Sao Paulo, 1933). A
historiographical analysis can be found in Boris Fausto, A Revolugdo de
1930; Historiografia e historia. See also Celina do Amaral Peixoto Moreira
Franco et al., 'O contexto politico da Revolucao de 1930', in Brasil em
perspectiva, 253-84. The relations between Getulio Vargas and the Paul-
ista political elite is the theme of Vavy Pacheco Borges, Getulio Vargas e a
oligarquia paulista (Sao Paulo, 1979).
Although a great deal has been written on the tenentista movement,
specific studies on the armed forces are few. Worthy of note is Jose Murilo
de Carvalho, 'As forc,as armadas na Primeira Republica: O poder de-
sestabilizador', in Boris Fausto (ed.), Historia geral de civilizagdo brasileira,
III: 0 Brasil republicano, vol. 2, 183234. In addition to Hahner,
CivilianMilitary Relations, a valuable analysis which takes in the first
years of the Republic is John Schulz, 'The Brazilian army in politics,
1850-1894' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Princeton University, 1973). An
attempt to understand the role of the army in society and politics can be
found in Edmundo Campos Coelho, Em busca de identidade: 0 exercito e a
politica na sociedade brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1976). Enlightening data on
the socialization process of the military can be found in Nelson Werneck
Sodre, Historia militar do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1965). Compulsory mili-
tary service is the theme of the work by Frank D. McCann, 'The nation in
arms: Obligatory military service during the Old Republic', in Dauril
Alden and Warren Dean (eds.), Essays Concerning the Socioeconomic History of
Brazil and Portuguese India (Gainesville, Fla., 1977), 2 1 1 - 4 3 . There are
one or two useful volumes of memoirs and biographies of military figures.
Among these are the books by Estevao Leitao de Carvalho, Dever militar e
politica partiddria (Sao Paulo, 1959) and Memorias de urn soldado legalista, 3
vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1 9 6 1 - ); Pantaleao Pessoa, Reminiscencias e
imposicoes de uma vida, 1885-1965 (Rio de Janeiro, 1972); Tristao de
Alencar Araripe, Tasso Fragoso: Urn pouco da historia de nosso exercito (Rio de
Janeiro, i960). Almost nothing has been written on the state militias.
One of the few works of quality is Heloisa Fernandes, Politica e seguranqa:
Forga publica do estado de Sao Paulo; fundamentos historico-sociais (Sao Paulo,
1974)-
The classic study on clientalistic relations within the power structure is
Victor Nunes Leal, Coronelismo, enxada e voto: 0 municipio e 0 regime repre-

sentativo no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1948), Eng. trans, by June Henfrey,

Coronelismo: The Municipality and Representative Government in Brazil (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1977). An important analysis of clientalism in the north
and north-east of Brazil, particularly in the state of Ceara, can be found in
Ralph Delia Cava's study on Padre Cicero, Miracle at Joazeiro (New York,
1970). With regard to the state of Bahia, see Eul-Soo Pang, Bahia in the
First Brazilian Republic. The links between kinship, family organization
and client relations in a north-eastern state are explored in Linda Lewin,
Politics and Parentela in Paraiba: A Case Study of Family-based Oligarchy in
Brazil (Princeton, N.J., 1987). See also Maria Isaura Pereira de Queiroz, 0
mandonismo local na vidapolitica brasileira (Sao Paulo, 1969). On the debate
about the nature of'coronelismo', see Paul Cammack, 'O coronelismo e o
compromisso coronelista: Uma critica', Cadernos do Departamento de Ciencia
Politica, 5 (1979), 1-20, and Amilcar Martins Filho, 'Clientelismo e
representagao em Minas Gerais durante a Primeira Republica: Uma critica
a Paul Cammack', Dados, 27 (1984), 175-97.
Labour relations on the coffee fazendas is the subject in part of various
books and articles that deal with immigation and the development of
capitalism in Sao Paulo. Verena Stolcke, Cafeicultura: Homens, mulheres e
capital, 1850-1980 (Sao Paulo, 1986), Eng. trans., Coffee Planters, Work-
ers and Wives: Class Conflict and Gender Relations on Sao Paulo Coffee Planta-
tions 1850-1980 (New York, 1988) is the most comprehensive. The
studies on the socio-economic and cultural role of immigrants mostly refer
to the state of Sao Paulo. A general work on the subject is Manuel
Diegues, Jr., Imigragao, urbanizacao e industrializagdo (Rio de Janeiro,
1964). A good analysis of the statistical data is Maria Stella Ferreira Levy,
'O papel da migrac,ao internacional na evolugao da populagao brasileira,
1872-1972', Revista de Saude Publica, 8 (1974), 4 9 - 9 0 . An excellent
critical study of the bibliography on German immigration is Giralda
Syferth, 'Imigragao e colonizac.ao alema no Brasil: Uma revisao da bib-
liografia', Boletim Informativo Bibliogrdfko, 25 (1988), 355. On Italian
immigrants, see Luis A. De Boni (ed.), A presenga italiana no Brasil, 2 vols.
(Porto Alegre, 1987 and 1990), Herbert S. Klein, 'A integracao dos
imigrantes italianos no Brasil, Argentina e Estados Unidos', Novos Estudos
CEBRAP, 25 (1989), 95-117, and Angelo Trento, Do outro lado do Atldn-
tico: Um seculo de imigragao italiana para 0 Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1989). On
Spanish and Portuguese immigrants, see Herbert S. Klein, 'A integragao
social e economica dos imigrantes espanhois no Brasil', Estudos Economicos,
19/3 (1989), 44356, and 'The social and economic integration of Portu-

30. Brazil: society and politics, 18891930 503
guese immigrants in Brazil in the later nineteenth and twentieth centu-

ries', JLAS, 23 (1991), 309-37. There are few studies of Jewish immigra-
tion, the most notable being Jeffrey H. Lesser, 'Pawns of the powerful:
Jewish immigration to Brazil, 19041945' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
New York University, 1989). On the Japanese, see Hiroshi Saito and
Takashi Maeyama, Assimilagdo e integragdo dos japoneses no Brasil (Sao Paulo,
1973) and Nobuya Tsuchida, 'The Japanese in Brazil, 1908-1941' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1978).
All these general works on immigration in Brazil give a great deal of
attention to the state of Sao Paulo. For a bibliography on immigration in
Sao Paulo, see Boris Fausto, Historiografia da imigracdo para Sao Paulo (Sao
Paulo, 1991). Of the many studies specifically on Sao Paulo, the most
outstanding are Michael M. Hall, 'The origins of mass immigration in
Brazil, 18711914' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University,
r
969); Thomas Holloway, Immigrants on the Land: Coffee and Society in Sao
Paulo, 1886-1934 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980); Zuleika Alvim, Brava
gente! Os italianos em Sao Paulo, 18701920 (Sao Paulo, 1986); Arlinda
Rocha Nogueira, A imigracdo japonesa para a lavoura cafeeira paulista,
19081922 (Sao Paulo, 1973). Immigration and the transition in the
coffee areas from slave labour relations known as the 'colonato' is the
theme of Jose de Souza Martins, 0 cativeiro da terra (Sao Paulo, 1979). For
a suggestive debate on the upward social mobility of immigrants, eco-
nomic diversification and the creation of political parties in Sao Paulo, see
Mauricio Font, 'Coffee planters, politics and development in Brazil',
LARR, 24/3 (1989), 127-35'; Verena Stolcke, 'Coffee planters, politics
and development in Brazil: A comment on Mauricio Font's analysis,
LARR, 24/3 (1989), 136-42; Mauricio Font, 'Perspectives on social
change and development in Sao Paulo: A reply', LARR, 24/3 (1989),
Among the social movements in rural areas, the Canudos episode is

dealt with in Euclides da Cunha's classic account, Os sertoes (Rio de Janeiro,
1902), Eng. trans, by Samuel Putnam, Rebellion in the Backlands (Chicago,
1944). An important recent study is Robert M. Levine, Vale of Tears:
Revisiting the Canudos Massacre in Northeast Brazil, 1893-1897 (Berkeley,
1992). The so-called War of the Contestado is the subject of Mauricio
Vinhas de Queiroz, Messianismo e conflito social: A guerra sertaneja do Con-
testado, 1912-1916 (Rio de Janeiro, 1966), Duglas Teixeira Monteiro, Os
errantes do novo seculo: Um estudo sobre 0 surto milenarista do Contestado (Sao
Paulo, 1974) and, most recently, Todd A. Diacon, Millenarian Vision,

Capitalist Reality: Brazil's Contestado Rebellion, 1912-16 (Durham, N.C.,

1991). The relationship between messianic movements and national poli-
tics had been studied by Ralph Delia Cava, 'Brazilian messianism and
national institutions: A reappraisal of Canudos and Joaseiro', HAHR, 48/3
(1968), 40220. On the phenomenon of banditry in Brazil, see Maria
Isaura Pereira de Queiroz, Os cangaceiros (Sao Paulo, 1979); Linda Lewin,
'The oligarchical limitations of social banditry in Brazil: The case of the
"good" thief Antonio Silvino', Past and Present, 82 (1979); Amaury de
Souza, 'The cangaqo and the politics of violence in northeast Brazil', in
Ronald H. Chilcote (ed.), Protest and Resistance in Angola and Brazil:
Comparative Studies (Berkeley, 1972), 10931; and Billy Jaynes Chandler,
The Bandit King: Lampido of Brazil (College Station, Tex., 1978).
There are few historical studies devoted to urbanization in this period.
The most wide-ranging study is Paul Singer, Desenvolvimento econdmico e
evolugdo urbana: andlise da evolucdo economica de Sao Paulo, Blumenau, Porto
Alegre e Recife (Sao Paulo, 1968). On the city of Sao Paulo, see Richard M.
Morse, From Community to Metropolis: A Biography of Sao Paulo, Brazil (New
York, 1974). For the history of Rio de Janeiro, see Eulalia Maria Lahmeyer
Lobo, Historia do Rio de Janeiro: Do capital comercial ao capital industrial e
financeiro, 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1978). Michael L. Conniff, 'Rio de
Janeiro during the great depression, 19281937: Social reform and the
emergence of populism in Brazil' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Stanford
University, 1976), although referring more to the post-1930 period, never-
theless contains a good analysis of the politics of the oligarchy of the city
during the 1920s. On the transformation of the city of Rio de Janeiro, see
Jaime Larry Benchimol, 'Pereira Passos um Haussmann tropical' (unpub-
lished M.A. thesis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, 1982); Jeffrey
D. Needell, 'Rio de Janeiro at the turn of the century: Modernization and
the Parisian ideal', JIAS, 25/1 (1983), 83-103; and Oswaldo Porto
Rocha, 'A era das demoligoes: Cidade do Rio de Janeiro: 18701920'
(unpublished M.A. thesis, Universidade Federal Fluminense, 1983). An
important study is Jeffrey D. Needell, A Tropical Belle Epoque: Elite Culture
and Society in Turn-of-the-Century Rio de Janeiro (Cambridge, Eng., 1987).
Studies on the urban social movements have beeen mainly limited to
the working class. Notable exceptions are Decio Saes, Classe media epolitica
na Primeira Republica brasileira (Petr6polis, 1975) and June E. Hahner,
'Jacobinos versus Galegos'.y/AS1, 18/2 (1976), 125-54, which deals with
the nationalist and multi-class movement in Rio de Janeiro at the end of
the nineteenth century. For a more detailed study of the same theme, see

SO. Brazil: society and politics, 1889-1930 505
Suely Robles Reis de Queiroz, 0/ radicals da Repiiblica (Sao Paulo, 1986).

A more wide-ranging study of the urban poor in politics is June E.
Hahner, Poverty and Politics: The Urban Poor in Brazil, 18701920 (Albu-
querque, N.Mex., 1986). Sidney Chalhoub, Trabalho, lar e botequim: 0
cotidiano dos trabalhadores no Rio de Janeiro da 'belle epoque' (Sao Paulo, 1986)
is a pioneering study of the daily life of the working class of Rio de
Janeiro. The relations between the Republic, the urbanisation of Rio de
Janeiro and the popular classes are explored in a most innovative way by
Jose Murilo de Carvalho in Os bestializados: 0 Rio de Janeiro e a repiiblica que
ndofoi (Sao Paulo, 1985). The popular protest movement against obliga-
tory vaccination that occurred in the capital in 1904 is the theme of
Nicolau Sevcenko, A revolta da vacina: Mentes insanas e corpos rebeldes (Sao
Paulo, 1984). Among studies on the working-class movement and organi-
zation from a predominantly sociological point of view, the most outstand-
ing are Azis Simao, Sindicato e estado: Suas reacoes naformagdo do proletariado
de Sao Paulo (Sao Paulo, 1966); Jose Albertino Rodrigues, Sindicato e
desenvolvimento no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1968); Leoncio Martins Rodrigues,
Conflito industrial e sindicalismo no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1966). From the point
of view of social history, see Sheldon L. Maram, Anarquistas, imigrantes e 0
movimento operdrio brasileiro, 18901920 (Rio de Janeiro, 1979) and Boris
Fausto, Trabalho urbano e conflito social (Sao Paulo, 1976). Michael M.
Hall, 'Immigration and the early Sao Paulo working class', JGSWGL, 12
(1975) provides a convincing criticism of the theory that the foreign
immigrant in Sao Paulo was predisposed to radical ideology. On anarchist
influences on working-class culture, see Francisco Foot Hardman, Nem
pdtria, nem patrdo! Vida operdria e cultura anarquista no Brasil (Sao Paulo,
1984). A detailed description of the anarchist and communist organiza-
tions can be found in John W. F. Dulles, Anarchists and Communists in
Brazil, 1900-1935 (Austin, Tex., 1973). On the formation of the Brazil-
ian Communist party, see Astrogildo Pereira, Formacdo do PCB, 1922
1928: Notas e documentos (Rio de Janeiro, 1962), Ronald H. Chilcote, The
Brazilian Communist Party: Conflict and Integration, 19221972 (New
York, 1974), and Michel Zaidan Filho, PCB (1922-1929): Na busca das
origens de um marxismo nacional (Sao Paulo, 1985). An important more
recent study is Paulo Sergio Pinheiro, Estrategias da ilusdo: A revoluqdo
mundial e 0 Brasil, 1922-1935 (Sao Paulo, 1991). Documents on the
labour movement during the period have been published in Paulo Sergio
Pinheiro and Michael M. Hall, A classe operdria no Brasil, 1889-1930:
Documentos, vol. 1, 0 movimento operdrio (Sao Paulo, 1979), vol. 2, Condigoes

da vida e de trabalho, relacoes com os empresdrios e 0 estado (Sao Paulo, 1981);

and in Edgard Carone, Movimento operdrio no Brasil, 18771944 (Sao
Paulo, 1979). The following testimonies of old militants are worthy of
note: Leoncio Basbaum, Uma vida em seis tempos (Sao Paulo, 1976); Octavio
Brandao, Combates e batalhas (Sao Paulo, 1978); and Angela Maria de
Castro Gomes (ed.), Velhos militantes: Depoimentos (Rio de Janeiro, 1988).
On labour legislation in the 1920s, see Luiz Werneck Vianna, Liberalism) e
sindicato no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1978) and Angela Maria de Castro
Gomes, Burguesia e trabalho: Politica e legislaqdo social no Brasil, 1917-1937
On relations between blacks and whites in Brazil, see Florestan Fer-
nandes, A integracdo do negro a sociedade de classes (Rio de Janeiro, 1964),
translated and abridged under the title The Negro in Brazilian Society (New
York, 1969), Thomas E. Skidmore, Black into White: Race and Nationality
in Brazilian Thought (New York, 1974) and, specifically on Sao Paulo after
the abolition of slavery, George Reid Andrews, Blacks and Whites in Sao
Paulo, Brazil, 18881988 (Madison, Wis., 1991). On the role of women
in Brazilian society, feminism and women's rights, see June E. Hahner,
'Women and work in Brazil, 18501920: A preliminary investigation', in
Alden and Dean (eds.), Essays Concerning the Socioeconomic History of Brazil
and Portuguese India, 87117, 'Feminism, women's rights and the suffrage
movement in Brazil, 18501932', LARR, 15/1 (1980), 6 5 i n , and
Emancipating the Female Sex: The Struggle for Women's Rights in Brazil, 1850
1940 (Durham, N.C., 1990); and Branca Moreira Alves, Ideologia e femi-
nismo: A luta da mulher pelo voto no Brasil (Petr6polis, 1980). A bibliogra-
phy on women, including a general history of women, family organization
and the feminist movement, was published by the Fundacao Carlos Chagas
in Sao Paulo: Mulher brasileira: Bibliografia anotada (Sao Paulo, 1979). A
rare study of an elite family is Darrell E. Levi, Afamilia Prado (Sao Paulo,
1977); Eng. trans., The Prados of Brazil (Athens, Ga., 1987).
There are few studies of the Catholic church in this period. Worthy of
note are Margaret Patricia Todaro, 'Pastors, prophets and politicians: A
study of the Brazilian Catholic church, 1916-1945' (unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, Columbia University, 1971); Thomas C. Bruneau, 0 catolicismo bra-
sileiro em uma epoca de transiqdo (Sao Paulo, 1974); Ralph Delia Cava, 'Catholi-
cism and society in twentieth-century Brazil', LARR, 11/2 (1976), 7-50.
Sergio Miceli, A elite eclesidstica brasileira (Sao Paulo, 1988) maintains that
the Catholic church did not lose its influence during the first republican
regime.

3O. Brazil: society and politics, 1889-1930 507
The best studies on the role of the intellectuals and education are,
respectively, Sergio Miceli, Intelectuais e classe dirigente no Brasil, 1920
1945 (Sao Paulo, 1979) and Jorge Nagle, Educaqdo e sociedade na Primeira
Republica (Sao Paulo, 1974). There are few studies of the role of higher
education on the formation of the political elite, but on graduates in law,
see Alberto Venancio Filho, Das arcadas ao bacharelismo (Sao Paulo, 1977).
An important work on the cultural life of Rio de Janeiro during the Old
Republic is Nicolau Sevcenko, Literatura como missdo: Tensoes socials e criagdo
cultural na Primeira Republica (Rio de Janeiro, 1983). And on Sao Paulo,
see Nicolau Sevcenko, Orfeu extatico na metropole: Sao Paulo, sociedade e
cultura nos frementes anos 20 (Sao Paulo, 1992). Jose Murilo de Carvalho, A
formagdo das almas (Sao Paulo, 1990) is an imaginative work on the con-
struction of various images of the Republic. On Brazilian art and architec-
ture, music and literature in this period, see also essay IX:2. A pioneer
work on the violence of the state against the popular classes is Paulo Sergio
Pinheiro, 'Violencia do estado e classes populares', Dados, 22 (1979), 5
24. An historico-sociological study of criminality is Boris Fausto, Crime e
quotidiano: A criminalidade em Sao Paulo, 18801924 (Sao Paulo, 1984).
Finally, for a rare study of prostitution, see Margaret Rago, Os prazeres da
noite (Sao Paulo, 1991).

VII
SOCIETY, POLITICS, 1930 to c. 1990
1. POPULATION

(Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1974) provides a general overview of popula-
tion in Latin America; chaps. 68 cover trends in the twentieth century. A
second Spanish edition, La poblacion de America Latina: Desde los tiempospre-
colombinos al ano 2000 (Madrid, 1977) includes revisions and an extensive
bibliography. Another, more recent overview in Carmen A. Mir6, 'Amer-
ica Latina: Transicion demografica y crisis economica, social y politica', in
Memorias del Congresso Latinoamerkano de Poblacion y Desarrollo, vol. 1 (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1984), 65-114. In preparation for the 1974 World Population
Conference, the Comite Internacional de Coordinaci6n de Investigaciones
Nacionales en Demograffa (CICRED) sponsored a series of national mono-
graphs in collaboration with Latin American demographic research cen-
ters. This series includes La poblacion de Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1975); La
population du Bresil (Paris, 1974); La poblacion de Chile (Paris, 1974); La
poblacion de Colombia (Bogota, 1974); La poblacion de Costa Rica (San Jose,
C.R., 1976); La poblacidn de Cuba (Havana, 1976); La poblacion de Guate-
mala (Guatemala, 1976); La poblacion de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1976); La
poblacion del Peru (Lima, 1974); and La poblacion de Venezuela (Caracas, n.d.).
Other general country studies include Thomas W. Merrick and Douglas
H. Graham, Population and Economic Development in Brazil: 1800 to the
Present (Baltimore and London, 1979) and Francisco Alba, The Population of
Mexico: Trends, Issues, and Policies (New Brunswick, N.J., 1982).
A useful, but now dated, bibliography is Robert N. Thomas, Population
Dynamics of Latin America: A Review and Bibliography (East Lansing, Mich.,
1973). A review of the coverage and quality of basic demographic data can
be found in Valdecir F. Lopes, 'The traditional sources of demographic
509

510 VII. Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
data in Latin America', in International Union for the Study of Popula-
tion, Proceedings: International Population Conference, vol. 2 (Liege, 1973),
355-66. In 1940, representatives of government statistical offices in the
region formed the Inter-American Statistical Institute (IASI), and its
journal, Estadistica, provides information on the planning and implementa-
tion of statistical programs. Summary descriptions of the contents of Latin
American censuses have been published in Doreen S. Goyer and Eliane
Domschke, The Handbook of National Population Censuses: Latin America and
the Caribbean, North America, and Oceania (Westport, Conn., 1983). See
also Doreen S. Goyer, International Population Census Bibliography. Revision
and Update 194577 (New York, 1980) and Carole Travis (ed.), A Guide to
Latin American and Caribbean Census Material: A Bibliography and Union List
(London, 1990). Official publications of census and vital statistical agen-
cies have been reported in the journal Population Index on a regular basis
since the 1930s.
Given the variability in timing and reliability of official reports, many
demographers rely on compilations of data by the Centro Latinoamericano
de Demografia (CELADE), whose Boletin Demogrdfico provides periodic
summaries of important demographic indicators. CELADE adjusts for
differences in time references as well as reporting errors. CELADE data are
available in machine-readable form, as described in its Boletin de Banco de
Datos. CELADE compilations are also included in United Nations publica-
tions, for example United Nations, Department of International Economic
and Social Affairs, World Population Prospects: Estimates and Projections as
Assessed in 1982 (New York, 1985).
Mortality patterns in Latin America and their implications are mapped
in Eduardo E. Arriaga, New Life Tables for Latin American Populations in the
Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Berkeley, 1968) and Mortality Decline
and Its Demographic Effects in Latin America (Berkeley, 1970), as well as
Eduardo E. Arriaga and Kingsley Davis, 'The pattern of mortality decline
in Latin America', Demography, 6 (1969), 223-42, and in Jorge L. So-
moza, 'The trend of mortality and the expectation of life in Latin Amer-
ica', Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, 43 (1965), 219-33. Shifts in
causes of death are further outlined in Alberto Palloni, 'Mortality in Latin
America: Emerging patterns', Population and Development Review, 7 (1981),
623-49, and Alberto Palloni and Randy Wyrick, 'Mortality decline in
Latin America: Changes in the structure of causes of death', Social Biology,
28 (1981), 187-236. A comparison of Latin America and other regions is
made in George J. Stolnitz, 'Recent mortality trends in Latin America,

i, Population 511
Asia, and Africa', Population Studies, 19 (1965), 11138. General discus-

sion of the causes of the mortality transition can be found in Thomas
McKeown, The Modern Rise of Population (New York, 1976), and Samuel
H. Preston, Mortality Decline in National Populations (New York, 1976) and
'Causes and consequences of mortality decline in less developed countries
during the twentieth century', in Richard A. Easterlin (ed.), Population
and Economic Changes in Developing Countries (Chicago, 1980), 289360.
The topic of natural immunity is addressed in William H. McNeill,
Plagues and Peoples (New York, 1976). The issue of social class differences
in mortality is discussed in Ruth R. Puffer and Wynne G. Griffith, 'The
Inter-American investigation of mortality', in United Nations, World Popu-
lation Conference 1965, vol. 2 (New York, 1967), 426-32; Hugo Behm,
'Socio-economic determinants of mortality in Latin America', Population
Bulletin of the United Nations, 13 (1980), 1 15; and Charles Wood and Jose
A. Magno de Carvalho, 'Mortality, income distribution, and rural-urban
residence in Brazil', Population and Development Review, 4 (1978), 40520.
Further information on mortality trends can be found in Mark Farren,
Infant Mortality and Health in Latin America: An Annotated Bibliography
(Ottawa, 1984).
Data on birth rates in Latin America are assessed in Andrew Collver,
Birth Rates in Latin America: New Estimates of Historical Trends and Fluctua-
tions (Berkeley, 1965). The Committee on Population and Demography of
the U.S. National Research Council reviewed fertility and mortality trends
in a number of Latin American countries. Their reports include: Fertility
and Mortality Changes in Honduras (Washington, D.C., 1980); Levels and
Recent Trends in Fertility and Mortality in Colombia (Washington, D.C.,
1982); Levels and Recent Trends in Fertility and Mortality in Brazil (Washing-
ton, D.C., 1983); and Fertility and Mortality in Bolivia and Guatemala
(Washington, D.C., 1985).
Fertility determinants and their implications are traced by Arthur M.
Conning, 'Latin American fertility trends and influencing factors', in
International Union for the Scientific Study of Population, International
Population Conference, vol. 2 (Liege, 1973), 125-47, and in Eduardo E.
Arriaga, The nature and effects of Latin America's non-western trends in
fertility', Demography, 7 (1970), 4 8 3 - 5 0 1 . Alternative views of the compa-
rability of Latin American fertility patterns to those of industrialized
countries are found in Steven E. Beaver, Demographic Transition Theory
Reinterpreted: An Application to Recent Natality Trends in Latin America (Lex-
ington, Mass., 1975) and Frank W. Oechsli and Dudley Kirk, 'Moderniza-

512 VII. Economy, society, politics, 193010 c. 1990
tion and the demographic transition in Latin America and the Caribbean',
Economic Development and Cultural Change, 23 (1975), 391-419.
On intermediate variables affecting fertility, see Kingsley Davis and
Judith Blake, 'Social structure and fertility: An analytical framework',
Economic Development and Cultural Change, 4 (1956), 2 1 1 - 3 5 , a n d John
Bongaarts, 'Intermediate variables and marital fertility', Population Studies,
30 (1976), 22741. Calculations of the contribution of each proximate
determinant to fertility decline in several Latin American countries are
found in John Bongaarts and Robert G. Potter, Fertility, Biology and
Behavior: An Analysis of the Proximate Determinants (New York, 1980).
Survey data on fertility trends in the region are summarized in Robert
Lightbourne and Susheela Singh, 'The World Fertility Survey, charting
global childbearing', Population Bulletin, 37 (1978); Leo Morris et al.,
'Contraceptive prevalence surveys: A new source of family planning data',
Population Reports, Series M, No. 5 (1981), and Kathy A. London et al.,
'Fertility and family planning surveys: An update', Population Reports,
Series M. No. 8 (1985). On breastfeeding and fertility in Latin America,
see Phyllis T. Piotrow et al., 'Breastfeeding, fertility and family plan-
ning', Population Reports, Series J, No. 24(1981). Information on abortion
is found in Christopher Tietze, Induced Abortion: A World Review, 5 th ed.
(New York, 1983) and Santiago Gaslonde Sainz, 'Abortion research in
Latin America', Studies in Family Planning, 7 (1976), 211-17.
The literature on declines in fertility in Latin America is reviewed in
Raul Urzua, 'Social science research on population and development in
Latin America', Report of the International Review Group on Social Science
Research on Population and Development (Mexico, D.F., 1978), Appendix 11.
Country studies include Thomas W. Merrick and Elza Berquo, The Determi-
nants of Brazil's Recent Rapid Fertility Decline (Washington, D.C., 1983);
Luis Hernando Ochoa, 'Patterns of fertility decline in Latin America with
special reference to Colombia', in International Union for the Scientific
Study of Population, International Population Conference, vol. 1 (Manila,
1981), 2 5 - 4 8 ; Paula E. Hollerbach and Sergio Diaz-Briquets, Fertility
Determinants in Cuba (Washington, D.C., 1983); and Francisco Alba and
Joseph E. Potter, 'Population and development in Mexico since 1940: An
interpretation', Population and Development Review, 12 (1986), 415-29.
Data on marriage patterns and their impact on fertility are reported in
Alice Henry and Phyllis T. Piotrow, 'Age at marriage and fertility', Popula-
tion Reports, Series M, No. 4 (1979) and Jane S. Durch, Nuptiality Patterns
in Developing Countries: Implications for Fertility (Washington, D.C., 1980).

i . Population 513
The European marriage pattern that Latin American countries follow to a

limited extent is described in John Hajnal, 'Age at marriage and propor-
tions marrying', Population Studies, 7 (1953), m 3 6 . Further discussion
of these patterns is found in Zulma C. Camisa, La nuprialidad de las mujeres
solteras en America Latina (San Jose, C.R., 1977) and Carmen Arretx,
'Nuptiality in Latin America', in International Union for the Scientific
Study of Population, International Population Conference: London 1969, vol.
3 (Liege, 1971), 212753. The questions of family structure and kin
relationships are examined in Thomas K. Burch and Murray Gendell,
'Extended family structure and fertility: Some conceptual and method-
ological issues', Journal of Marriage and the Family, 32 (1970), 227-36 and
Francesca M. Cancian, Louis Wolf Goodman, and Peter H. Smith, 'Capi-
talism, indistrialization, and kinship in Latin America', Journal of Family
History, 3 (1978), 31936. The latter article is an introduction to a special
issue of the journal on the family in Latin America.
An international comparison of data on households headed by women
is presented in Nadia H. Youssef and Carol Hetler in 'Establishing the
economic condition of woman-headed households in the Third World: A
new approach', in Mayra Buvinic, Margaret A. Lycette, and William
McGreevey (eds.), Women and Poverty in the Third World (Baltimore,
1983). The literature on survival strategies is reviewed in Marianne
Schmink, 'Household economic strategies: Review and research agenda',
LARR, 19I3 (1984), 35-56, with further discussion in Thomas W.
Merrick, 'Perspectives on Latin American population research', Items, 37
(1983), 1721. Links between reproduction of population and the labour
force are described in Susana Torrado, 'Sobre los conceptos de estrategias
familiares de vida y proceso de reproduccion de la fuerza de trabajo: Notas
teorico-metodol6gicas', Demografia y Economia, 15 (1981), 20433. See
also Maria Helena Henriques and Nelson do Valle Silva, 'Analise sobre
ciclo vital atraves de parametros de nupcialidade: Estudo do contexto
Latino-americano', and Associagao Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais,
Anais: Segundo Encontro Nacional (Sao Paulo, 1980), 66786; Brigida
Garcia, Humberto Mufioz and Orlandina de Oliveira, Hogares y trabaja-
dores en la Ciudad de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1982); and Elizabeth Jelin,
'Familia, unidad domestica y division de trabajo (Que sabemos? Hacia
d6nde vamos?)', in Memorias del Congreso Latinoamericano de Poblacion y
Desarrollo, vol. 2 (Mexico, D.F., 1983), 645-74. For links between
family structure and migration, see Carlos Brambila Paz, Migration y
formacion familiar en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1985).

514 VH- Economy, society, politics, 1930 toe. 1990
For an introductory discussion on racial differences in Latin America,

see the chapter 'The concept of social race in the Americas', in Charles
Wagley, The Latin American Tradition (New York, 1968), 155-74. With
specific reference to Brazil, see T. Lynn Smith, Brazil: People and Institu-
tions, 4th ed. (Baton Rouge, La., 1972). On Guatemala, see John D.
Early, The Demographic Structure and Evolution of a Peasant System: The
Guatemalan Population (Boca Raton, Fla., 1982). A synopsis of the data on
national origin in the 1950 round of Latin American censuses was pre-
pared by Giorgio Mortara and reported in Characteristics of the Demographic
Structure of the American Countries (Washington, D.C., 1964). Data on
languages spoken by Latin American populations have been compiled in
Kenneth Ruddle and Kathleen Barrows, Statistical Abstract of Latin Amer-
ica 1972 (Los Angeles, 1974).
Urban population growth trends and definitional differences in measur-
ing urban populations are treated in United Nations, Growth of the World's
Urban and Rural Population 1920-2000 (New York, 1969) and Patterns of
Rural and Urban Population Growth (New York, 1980); the most recent
compilation of urban population for Latin America is available from
CELADE through its computerized demographic data base. Denton R.
Vaughan provides a useful bibliography in Urbanization in Twentieth Cen-
tury Latin America: A Working Bibliography (Austin, Tex., 1969). Robert
Fox has recompiled data on the populations of municipios of metropolitan
areas of Latin American countries in Urban Population Growth Trends in
Latin America (Washington, D.C., 1975) and, with Jerrold W. Huguet, in
Population and Urban Trends in Central America and Panama (Washington,
D.C., 1977). Useful reviews of issues relating to urbanization are found in
Richard M. Morse, 'Recent research on Latin American urbanization: A
selective survey with commentary', LARR, 1 (1965), 3574; Douglas
Butterworth and John K. Chance, Latin American Urbanization (Cam-
bridge, Eng. 1981); John M. Hunter, Robert N. Thomas, and Scott
Whiteford, Population Growth and Urbanization in Latin America (Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1983); and Ligia Herrera and Waldomiro Pecht, Crecimiento
urbano de America Latina (Santiago, Chile, 1976).
Analyses of the contribution of migration and other demographic and
definitional factors to urban growth are presented in John D. Durand and
Cesar A. Pelaez, 'Patterns of urbanization in Latin America', Milbank
Memorial Fund Quarterly, 43, Part 2 (1965), 168-91; Robert H. Weller,
John Macisco, Jr. and George Martine, 'The relative importance of the
components of urban growth in Latin America', Demography, 8 (1971),

i. Population 515
22532; and Eduardo Arriaga, 'Components of city growth in selected

Latin American countries', Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, 46 (1968),
237-52. On the question of primacy, see Harley L. Browning, 'Primacy
variation in Latin America during the twentieth century', in Instituto de
Estudios Peruanos, Urbanization y proceso social en America Latina (Lima,
1972) and Christopher Chase-Dunn, 'The coming of urban primacy in
Latin America', Comparative Urban Research, 11 (1985), 1431.
For synopses of research on internal migration in Latin America, see
Alan Simmons, Sergio Diaz-Briquets, and Aprodicio A. Laquian, Social
Change and Internal Migration (Ottawa, 1977); Juan C. Elizaga, Migraciones
a las areas metropolttanas de America Latina (Santiago, Chile, 1970) and
'Internal migration: An overview', International Migration Review, 6 (1972),
12146; Michael P. Todaro, 'Internal migration in developing countries',
in R. A. Easterlin (ed.), Population and Economic Change in Developing Coun-
tries (Chicago, 1980); and Andrei Rogers and Jeffrey G. Williamson,
'Migration, urbanization, and Third World development: An overview',
Economic Development and Cultural Change, 30 (1982), 463-82. A useful
bibliography on migration was prepared under the auspices of the Consejo
Latino-Americano de Ciencias Sociales (CLACSO): Las migraciones en Amer-
ica Latina (Buenos Aires, 1975).
On factors affecting migration, see Jorge Balan, Why People Move (Paris,
1981) and a study of Monterrey, Mexico, Jorge Balan, Harley L. Browning
and Elizabeth Jelfn, Men in a Developing Society (Austin, Tex., 1973); Alan
B. Simmons and Ramiro Cardona, 'Rural-urban migration: Who comes,
who stays, who returns? The case of Bogota, Colombia', InternationalMigra-
tionReview, 6(1972), i 6 6 - 8 i ; a n d M . G. Castro etal., Migration in Brazil:
Approaches to Analysis and Policy Design (Liege, 1978); and on the conse-
quences of migration, see Humberto Munoz, Orlandina de Oliveira, and
Claudio Stern, Migration y desigualdadsocial en la Ciudadde Mexico (Mexico,
D.F., 1977). See also Wayne A. Cornelius, 'The political sociology of
cityward migration in Latin America: Toward empirical theory', and Bruce
Herrick, 'Urbanization and urban migration in Latin America, an econo-
mist's view,' in Francine F. Rabinovitz and Felicity M. Trueblood, Latin
American Urban Research, vol. 1 (Beverly Hills, Calif., 1971), 95-147 and
7182. On migrant-native differences, see Jorge Balan, 'Migrant-native
socioeconomic differences in Latin American cities: A structural analysis',
LARR, 4/1 (1969), 3 - 2 9 .
For reviews of international migration trends in Latin America, see
Mary M. Kritz and Douglas T. Gurak, 'International migration trends in

Latin America: Research and data survey', International Migration Review,

13 (1979), 40727, and Sergio Diaz-Briquets, International Migration
within Latin America (New York, 1983). The Kritz/Gurak paper intro-
duces a special issue of International Migration Review on international
migration in Latin America, which includes papers by Susana Torrado,
'International migration policies in Latin America'; Lelio Marmora, 'Labor
migration policies in Colombia'; Saskia Sassen-Koob, 'Economic growth
and immigration in Venezuela'; Juan M. Carron, 'Shifting patterns in
migration from bordering countries to Argentina, 1914-70'; and Adriana
Marshall, 'Immigrant workers in the Buenos Aires labor market". Also
useful are Mary M. Kritz, 'International migration patterns in the Carib-
bean Basin: An Overview', and Adriana Marshall, 'Structural trends in
international migration: The southern cone of Latin America', in Mary M.
Kritz, Charles B. Keely, and Silvano M. Tomasi (eds.), Global Trends in
Migration: Theory and Research on International Population Movements (New
York, 1981).
Latin American immigration to the United States is reviewed in Doug-
las S. Massey and Kathleen M. Schnabel, 'Recent trends in Hispanic
immigration to the United States', International Migration Review, 17
(1983), 21244. Estimates of the numbers of illegal immigrants in the
United States are assessed in Jacob S. Siegel, Jeffrey S. Passel, and J.
Gregory Robinson, 'Preliminary review of existing studies on the number
of illegal residents in the United States', Staff Report, U.S. Select Commit-
tee on Immigration and Refugee Policy (Washington, D.C., 1981), Ap-
pendix E, and Daniel B. Levine, Kenneth Hill, and Robert Warren (eds.),
Immigration Statistics: A Story of Neglect (Washington, D.C., 1985). On
immigrants' impact on the United States, see the essays in George J.
Borjas and Marta Tienda (eds.), Hispanics in the U.S. Economy (Orlando,
Fla., 1985). See also Barry R. Chiswick, 'Illegal aliens in the United
States labor market: Analysis of occupational attainment and earnings',
International Migration Review, 18 (1984), 71432; Lawrence H. Fuchs,
'Cultural pluralism and the future of American unity: The impact of
illegal aliens', International Migration Review, 18 (1984), 80013; Wayne
A. Cornelius, A. L. Chavez and J. Castro, The Mexican Immigrants in
Southern California: A Summary of Current Knowledge (San Diego, Calif.,
1982); Thomas Mullerand Thomas Espenshade, The Fourth Wave, Califor-
nia's Newest Immigrants (Washington, D.C., 1985); and Kevin McCarthy
and R. Burciaga Valdez, Current and Future Effects of Mexican Immigration in
California (Santa Monica, Calif., 1986). For an analysis of links between

i . Population 517
conditions in Mexico and migration to the United States, see Harry Cross
and James A. Sandos, Across the Border (Berkeley, 1981).
Latin American labour-force participation patterns are compared to
other regions in J o h n D . Durand, The Labor Force in Economic Development
(Princeton, N.J., 1976) and in a recent re-compilation of data by the
International Labour Office, Economically Active Population, 19502025
(Geneva, 1986). Under-reporting of women's economic activities in Latin
America is examined in Catalina H. Wainerman and Zulma Recchini de
Lattes, El trabajo feminino en banquillo de los acusados: La medicion censal en
America Latina (Buenos Aires, 1975)- Sectoral shifts are examined in
Ruben Katzman, 'Dinamica de la poblacion activa en America Latina',
and trends in female participation in Teresita Barbieri, 'Incorporacion de
la mujer a la economia urbana de America Latina', both in Memorias del
Congreso Latinoamericano de Poblacion y Desarrollo, vol. 1 (Mexico, D . F . ,
1984), 33554 and 35589. Barbieri's article includes an extensive
bibliography.
The literature on population and economic development in Latin Amer-
ica is surveyed in Michael Conroy, 'Recent research in economic demogra-
phy related to Latin America: A critical survey and an agenda', LARR, 9/1
(1974), 3-27. The Economic Commission for Latin America published a
volume reflecting the perspective of that organization in Poblacion y desar-
rollo en America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1975). Ansley Coale and Edgar M.
Hoover, Population Growth and Economic Development in Low-Income Countries
(Princeton, N.J., 1958) is the classic presentation of the neo-Malthusian
position on the question, and includes a case study for Mexico using an
economic-demographic model. Coale presents a retrospective assessment
of the Mexican case study in 'Population growth and economic develop-
ment: The case of Mexico,' Foreign Affairs, 56 (1978), 41529. Critiques
of the neo-Malthusian approach are presented in William W. Murdoch,
The Poverty of Nations: The Political Economy of Hunger and Population (Balti-
more and London, 1980), chap. 1, and in Angel Fucaraccio, 'Birth control
and the argument of savings and investment', International Journal of
Health Services, 3 (1973), 13344. Country cases are presented in Merrick
and Graham, Population and Development in Brazil and Alba and Potter,
'Population and development in Mexico since 1940', cited above. For a
general review of research on the population and development link, see
Thomas W. Merrick, 'World population in transition', Population Bulletin,
41 (1986), 17-38-
On population policy, Terry L. McCoy, The Dynamics of Population in

Latin America (Cambridge, Mass., 1974) provides a useful sampling of
views, including J. M. Stycos on 'Politics and population control in Latin
America', Thomas Sanders on 'The relationship between population plan-
ning and belief systems: The Catholic church in Latin America', and Jose
Conquegra, 'Birth control as the weapon of imperialism', a Marxian view
of foreign assistance for family planning programs. Dorothy Nortman,
Population and Family Planning Programs: A Compendium of Data, 12 th ed.
(New York, 1985) is a basic source of information on policies and pro-
grams. Country-specific bibliographies on policy were prepared by the
Programa de Investigaciones Sociales sobre Problemas de Poblacion Rele-
vantes para Politicas de Poblacion en America Latina (PISPAL) in the
series Inventario de investigaciones sociales relevantes para politicas de poblacion,
vol. 1, Argentina; vol. 2, Brasil; vol. 3 , Colombia; vol. 4 , Chile; vol. 5,
Mexico (Santiago, Chile, 1975).
Region-wide population projections are compiled periodically by
CELADE in its Boletin Demogrdfico; they are also maintained in the
CELADE data base. CELADE projections are incorporated in the United
Nations' World Population Prospects: Estimates and Projections as Assessed in
1982 (New York, 1985). National statistical offices also prepare and
publish projections periodically. See, for example, Instituto Nacional de
Estadistica, Geografia y Informatica/Consejo Nacional de Poblaci6n,
Proyecciones de la poblacion de Mexico y de las entidades federativas: 1980
2010 (Mexico, D.F., 1985).
2. THE LATIN AMERICAN ECONOMIES,

1929-1939
Economic performance and policy in the 1930s in Latin America has

generated a substantial literature as a result of two factors in particular.
First, the view put forward after 1950 by the United Nations Economic
Commission for Latin America {and the Caribbean] (ECLA{Q), that the
1930s marked a crucial turning point in the transition from export-led
growth to import-substituting industrialization (ISI) (see ECLA, Economic
Survey of Latin America, 1949 [New York, 1951]) led to a wave of investiga-
tions to test this particular hypothesis. Secondly, the debt crisis in the
1980s inevitably invited comparisons with the debt crisis in the 1930s,
with scholars searching for similarities and differences in Latin American
responses to the two shocks.

2. Latin American economies, 1929-1939 519
In view of the magnitude of the external shock applied to Latin America

at the beginning of the 1930s, it is appropriate in a bibliographical essay
to begin by referring to the literature on the international economy be-
tween the two world wars. A most important source is Charles Kin-
dleberger, The World in Depression (Berkeley and London, 1986), which is a
revised version of a classic book first published in 1973 and expanded with
greater reference to the Latin American experience. There are a number of
excellent surveys on world performance and policy, including Arthur
Lewis, Economic Survey, 191939 (London, 1949) and H. W. Arndt, The
Economic Lessons of the 1930s (London, 1944). Long-run trends in world
trade, including the 1930s, are analysed in Alfred Maizels, Industrial
Growth and World Trade (Cambridge, Eng., 1963) and P. Lamartine Yates,
Forty Years of Foreign Trade (London, 1959). More specialist works, cover-
ing topics essential for a proper understanding of the Latin American
economies in the 1930s, are Karl Brunner (ed.), The Great Depression
Revisited (New York, 1981) and Peter Temin, Did Monetary Forces Cause the
Great Depression? (New York, 1976). The 1929 stock market crash is the
subject of J. Kenneth Galbraith, The Great Crash, 1929 (Boston, 1955),
and the gold standard is competently described in William Brown, Jr.,
The International Gold Standard Reinterpreted: 19141934 (New York,
1940). There is an excellent study of international capital flows in Royal
Institute of International Affairs, The Problem of International Investment
(Oxford, 1937).
There are a number of good general works on the Latin American
economies in the 1930s. These include Carlos Diaz-Alejandro, 'Stories of
the 1930s for the 1980s', in Pedro Aspe Armella, Rudiger Dornbusch
and Maurice Obstfeld (eds.), Financial Policies and the World Capital Mar-
ket: The Problem of Latin American Countries (Chicago and London, 1983).
A similar comparison, this time involving Asia as well as Latin America,
is Angus Maddison, Two Crises: Latin America and Asia, 1929-38 and
1973-83 (Paris, 1985). There is also an early study by Royal Institute of
International Affairs, The Republics of South America (Oxford, 1937),
which is still very useful on issues of trade, investment and employment.
The most comprehensive study is Rosemary Thorp (ed.), Latin America in
the 1930s (London and New York, 1984), which has overview chapters
by Carlos Diaz-Alejandro and Charles Kindleberger as well as case stud-
ies on all the major republics and some of the minor ones. Another book
worthy of note, although it is primarily concerned with the 1920s, is
Paul Drake, The Money Doctor in the Andes (Durham, N.C., and London,

), which gives an excellent account of the financial reforms carried

out in the Andean countries as a result of the missions led by E. W.
Kemmerer.
The problems of international capital flows to Latin America in the
1930s are addressed in a number of books. Of particular interest, although
covering a longer period, is Barbara Stallings, Banker to the Third World:
U.S. Portfolio Investment in Latin America, 19001986 (Berkeley and Lon-
don, 1987). There is still much of interest in J. Fred Rippy, British
Investments in Latin America, 1822-1949 (Minneapolis, Minn., 1959),
although more recent scholarship suggests that some of the statistics
should be interpreted with caution. ECLA, External Financing in Latin
America (New York, 1965) also has illuminating early chapters on the
inter-war period. The ECLA thesis on the 1930s as a turning-point is
reflected in the relevant chapters of Celso Furtado, Economic Development of
Latin America (Cambridge, Eng., 1970).
The debt problems caused by the defaults of the 1930s have been the
subject of several excellent studies. Among these are Barry Eichengreen
and Peter Lindert (eds.), The International Debt Crisis in Historical Perspective
(Cambridge, Mass., 1989), which contains an important article by Erika
Jorgensen and Jeffrey Sachs entitled 'Default and renegotiation of Latin
American foreign bonds in the interwar period' as well as case studies of
Brazil and Mexico. Historical comparisons are pushed even further back in
Albert Fishlow, 'Lessons from the past: Capital markets during the 19th
century and the inter-war period', International Organization, 39/3 (1985)
and Carlos Marichal, A Century of Debt Crises in Latin America: From
Independence to the Great Depression, 1820-1930 (Princeton, N.J., 1989).
Together with Richard Portes, Barry Eichengreen has written a number of
studies on debt defaults in the 1930s which include many examples from
Latin America. See, for example, Barry Eichengreen and Richard Portes,
'Debt and default in the 1930s: Causes and consequences', European Eco-
nomic Review, 30 (1986), 599640. There is also a fine comparative study
of debt crises in Latin America by David Felix, 'Alternative outcomes of
the Latin American debt crisis: Lessons from the past', LARR, 22/2
(1987), 3 - 4 6 .
Studies on the role of industrialization in the 1930s, and in particular
the part played by import substitution, have a long pedigree. In addition
to the ECLA study referred to above, a good source is ECLA, The Process of
Industrialization in Latin America (New York, 1966), which is a classic
statement of the argument that the external shock at the beginning of the

2. Latin American economies, 19291939 521
1930s induced through import substitution a rapid process of industrializa-

tion in the larger countries. As part of its early work, ECLA prepared
substantial monographs on many of the Latin American republics which
remain an invaluable source on the role of industrialization in the 1930s.
See, for example, Comision Economica para America Latina (CEPAL), El
desarrollo economic/) de la Argentina (Santiago, Chile, 1959) and CEPAL, El
desarrollo econdmico del Brasil (Santiago, Chile, 1956). There is also a good
study of import substitution in the 1930s, stressing the role played by the
change in relative prices, in Richard Lynn Ground, 'The genesis of import
substitution in Latin America', CEPAL Review, 36 (1988), 179203.
Earlier studies on industrialization in the 1930s, although less theoreti-
cal, can still be consulted to advantage. See, for example, George Wythe,
Industry in Latin America (New York, 1945) and Lloyd Hughlett (ed.),
Industrialization of Latin America (New York, 1946). ECLA has also pre-
pared a number of industry case studies which shed light on the growth of
particular manufacturing sectors in the 1930s. See, for example, ECLA,
Labour Productivity of the Cotton Textile Industry in Five Latin American
Countries (New York, 1951). There is also an important early study on
foreign investment in Latin American manufacturing, including the first
half of the 1930s, in Dudley Phelps, The Migration of Industry to South
America (New York, 1937).
There are many works on individual republics which are worthy of
mention, although most of them are concerned with a period longer than
the decade of the 1930s. The outstanding work on Argentina remains the
book by Carlos Diaz-Alejandro, Essays on the Economic History of the Argen-
tine Republic (New Haven, Conn., 1970), which combines theory, analysis
and econometrics in a judicious and effective blend. A less quantitative,
but still concise, work is Paul W. Lewis, The Crisis of Argentine Capitalism
(Chapel Hill, N.C., and London, 1990). There are several important
studies by Argentine economists, including Adolfo Dorfman, Cincuenta
anos de industrializacidn en la Argentina, 193080: Desarrollo y perspectivas
(Buenos Aires, 1983) as well as Guido Di Telia and Manuel Zymelman,
Los ciclos econdmicos argentinos (Buenos Aires, 1973). The meat industry has
generated a number of good monographs, among which should be men-
tioned Simon Hanson, Argentine Meat and the British Market (Stanford,
Calif., 1938) and Peter H. Smith, Politics and Beef in Argentina (New York,
1969). State intervention in foreign trade is discussed in Roger Gravil,
'State intervention in Argentina's export trade between the wars', JLAS,
2/2 (1970), 147-73, a n d V. Salera, Exchange Control and the Argentine

Market (New York, 1941) explores Argentina in the period when peso
convertibility began to break down.
Brazil has been particularly well served by works of economic history
which include the 1930s. The post-1929 period is singled out for special
consideration in Celso Furtado, The Economic Growth of Brazil (Berkeley,
1963). Carlos Manuel Pelaez, Historia da industrializagao brasileira (Rio de
Janeiro, 1972) devotes a great deal of space to Brazil's coffee policies in the
1930s and in doing so takes issue with parts of Furtado's analysis. Pedro S.
Malan, Regis Bonelli, Marcelo de P. Abreu and Jose de C. Pereira, Politica
economica externa e industrializagdo no Brasil, 1939-52 (Rio de Janeiro,
1977) takes up the story at the end of the 1930s, but still has much of
interest to say. A. V. Villela and W. Suzigan, Politica do governo e crescimento
da economia brasileira, 18891945 (Rio de Janeiro, 1973) is excellent on
the question of economic policy in the 1930s. Albert Fishlow, 'Origins
and consequences of import substitution in Brazil', in L.E. di Marco (ed.),
International Economics and Development: Essays in Honor of Raul Prebisch
(New York, 1972) is one of the best sources for Brazilian industrialization
in the interwar period, while Warren Dean, The Industrialization of Sao
Paulo, 18801945 (Austin, Tex., 1969) has stood the test of time ex-
tremely well. There are also useful chapters on the 1930s in Nathaniel
Leff, Underdevelopment and Development in Brazil: Economic Structure and
Change, 18221947, vol. 1 (London, 1982).
Chilean economic performance in the 1930s has inspired a number of
fine monographs. Industrialisation is the theme of H. Kirsch, Industrial
Development in a Traditional Society: The Conflict Between Entrepreneurship and
Modernization in Chile (Gainesville, Fla., 1977) as well as of Oscar Mufioz,
Crecimiento industrial de Chile, 19141965 (Santiago, Chile, 1968). The
same theme is also explored in considerable depth in Gabriel Palma,
'Growth and structure of Chilean manufacturing industry from 1830 to
1935: Origins and development of a process of industrialization in an
export economy' (unpublished D. Phil, dissertation, University of Ox-
ford, 1979). More general questions of Chilean structure, performance and
policy in the 1930s are examined in Gabriel Palma, 'From an export-led to
an import-substituting economy: Chile 1914-39', in Rosemary Thorp
(ed.), Latin America in the 1930s, cited above, and in Anibal Pinto, Chile,
un caso de desarrollo frustrado (Santiago, Chile, 1959), while the agricultural
sector is the subject of Mats Lundahl, 'Agricultural stagnation in Chile,
193055: A result of factor market imperfections?', in Mats Lundahl
(ed.), The Primary Sector in Economic Development (London, 1985).

Mexico, despite its size and importance, has not attracted as much
scholarly attention in this period as one might have expected. This is a
consequence of the greater importance attached to the post-1940 period in
explaining industrialisation and rapid structural change in Mexico. Never-
theless, there is an excellent monograph in the structuralist tradition by
Rene Villarreal, El desequilibrio externo en la industrialization de Mexico,
19291975 (Mexico, D.F., 1976). The contributions by Enrique Carde-
nas, 'The Great Depression and industrialisation: The case of Mexico', and
Valpy Fitzgerald, 'Restructuring through the Depression: The state and
capital accumulation in Mexico, 192540,' in Rosemary Thorp (ed.),
Latin America in the 1930s, cited above, are particularly illuminating as
there are sharp differences between both authors at various points of the
analysis. See also Enrique Cardenas, La industrialization mexicana durante la
Gran Depresidn (Mexico, D.F., 1987). Industrialization in Mexico is the
subject of Sanford Mosk, Industrial Revolution in Mexico (Berkeley, 1950).
It is also explored in Stephen Haber, Industry and Underdevelopment, 1890
1940: The Industrialization of Mexico, 1890-1940 (Stanford, Calif., 1989),
a pathbreaking work which uses firm-level data to undermine numerous
myths about industrialization in Mexico as well as to develop a number of
interesting hypotheses.
The economic performance and policy of some republics in the 1930s
has still not received the attention it deserves. Nevertheless, a number of
studies are worthy of special mention. In the case of Colombia, scholars are
well served by Jose Antonio Ocampo and Santiago Montenegro, Crisis
mundial, protection e industrialization (Bogota, 1984), whose first three
chapters are of particular importance for the study of the 1930s. Marco
Palacios, Coffee in Colombia, 1850-1970 (Cambridge, Eng., 1980), al-
though devoted to the country's premier product, has much of interest to
say on the broader issues of the 1930s. There is a range of excellent articles
on the 1930s in El Banco de la Republica, antecedentes, evolution y estructura
(Bogota, 1990), a work devoted to the central bank's history which in the
process illuminates many aspects of economic policy. The Peruvian experi-
ence is covered well in Geoffrey Bertram and Rosemary Thorp, Peru 1890
1977; Growth and Policy in an Open Economy (London, 1978), while com-
parative economic policy in Colombia and Peru is the theme of Rosemary
Thorp, Economic Management and Economic Development in Peru and Colombia
(London, 1991).
There are very few studies devoted in whole or even in part to the
economics of the Caribbean basin countries in the 1930s. There is an

excellent account of Cuban financial problems before the creation of a

central bank in Henry Wallich, Monetary Problems of an Export Economy: The
Cuban Experience, 19141947 (Cambridge, Mass., 1950). There is a good
chapter devoted to Puerto Rico in the 1930s in James Dietz, Economic
History of Puerto Rico (Princeton, N.J., 1986) and in the case of Haiti, Mats
Lundahl, Peasants and Poverty: A Study of Haiti (London, 1979) can be used
to advantage. A rare study of industrialisation in the Dominican Repub-
lic, although mainly concerned with a later period, is Frank Moya Pons,
'Import-substitution industrialization policies in the Dominican Repub-
lic, 192561', HAHR, 70/4 (1990), 53977. Economic development in
the five Central American republics is addressed in several chapters of
Victor Bulmer-Thomas, The Political Economy of Central America since 1920
(Cambridge, Eng., 1987), while the political economy of Venezuela up to
the death of Juan Vicente Gomez is the subject of William Sullivan,
'Situation economica y poh'tica durante el periodo de Juan Vicente
Gomez', in Fundaci6n John Boulton, Politica y economia en Venezuela,
1810-19-/6 (Caracas, 1976).
An important part of the bibliography on the Latin American econo-
mies in the 1930s is obtained from studies of particular commodities,
since a handful of primary product exports continued to exercise an over-
whelming influence on the economic life of the region even after the
decline of world trade. A number of books, devoted to commodities in
general, are still extremely useful. These include J. F. Rowe, Primary
Commodities in International Trade (Cambridge, Eng., 1965) and Joseph
Grunwald and Philip Musgrove, Natural Resources in Latin American Devel-
opment (Baltimore and London, 1970). The classic works on coffee are C.
Wickizer, The World Coffee Economy with Special Reference to Control Schemes
(Stanford, Calif, 1943) and Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO),
The World's Coffee (Rome, 1947). The economics of sugar in the 1930s is
explored in B. C. Swerling, International Control of Sugar, 191841 (Stan-
ford, Calif., 1949). Oil, primarily of importance to Venezuela in the
1930s, is the subject of Brian McBeth, Juan Vicente Gomez and the Oil
Companies in Venezuela, 190835 (Cambridge, Eng., 1983) and tin, of real
interest only to Bolivia, is examined in John Hillman, 'Bolivia and British
tin policy', JLAS, 22/2 (1990), 289315. The banana trade, of great
importance to many Caribbean basin countries, is examined in Thomas
Karnes, Tropical Enterprise: Standard Fruit and Steamship Company in Latin
America (Baton Rouge, La. and London, 1978), while a most unflattering
portrait of the United Fruit Company is painted in Charles Kepner and Jay

3- Latin American economies, 1939-c. 1950 525
Soothill, The Banana Empire: A Case Study in Economic Imperialism (New
York, 1935). The tobacco trade, of considerable importance to Cuba in the
1930s, is competently discussed in the first part of Jean Stubbs, Tobacco on
the Periphery (Cambridge, Eng., 1985). The classic work on wheat, a key
export for Argentina, remains W. Mandelbaum, The World Wheat Economy,
18551939 (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), while Clark Reynolds explores
the economics of copper in 'Development problems of an export economy:
The case of Chile and copper' in Markos Mamalakis and Clark Reynolds
(eds.), Essays on the Chilean Economy (Homewood, 111., 1965).
Economic statistics are an important element in the study of the Latin
American economies in the 1930s. In addition to country sources, the
League of Nations played a useful role in bringing together time-series
data for most of the Latin American republics in the interwar period. The
relevant annual publications are League of Nations, Statistical Yearbook
(Geneva), League of Nations, International Trade Statistics (Geneva) and
International Institute of Agriculture, International Yearbook of Agricultural
Statistics (Rome). In addition, the League of Nations published occasional
documents providing an invaluable collection of data for Latin America on
a comparable basis. See, for example, League of Nations, Public Finance
1928-3-7 (Geneva, 1938). ECLA/CEPAL has also prepared time-series
data bringing together its own researches and country sources in a series of
helpful publications. See in particular CEPAL, Series histdricas del crecimiento
de America Latina (Santiago, Chile, 1978) and CEPAL, America Latina:
Relacidn de Precios del Intercambio (Santiago, Chile, 1976). The occasional
reports for each republic by the British Department of Overseas Trade are
full of useful statistics as well as being a good contemporary source. The
Council of Foreign Bondholders, Annual Report (London), brings together
in one volume all the statistics for each republic considered most directly
relevant to questions of debt repayment. Finally, many time-series data for
the 1930s are presented in James W. Wilkie (ed.), Statistics and National
Policy, Statistical Abstract of Latin America Supplement 3 (Los Angeles,
1974)-
3. THE LATIN AMERICAN ECONOMIES,

1939-C1950
Very little literature on the economic development of Latin America specifi-

cally addresses the 1940s. Analyses tend to see the 1929 Depression as

526 VII. Economy, society, politics, 1930 toe. 1990
initiating the shift to import-substituting industrialization in the form that

is recognizable by the 1950s, and give little attention to the precise problem-
atic of the Second World War and its aftermath. The wealth of studies of the
1930s therefore simply finds no parallel in the next decade. The interna-
tional economy is, however, more fully studied, since this was a period of
strong institutional innovation. See, for example, S. W. Black, A Levite
among the Priests: Edward M. Bernstein and the Origins of the Bretton Woods
System (Oxford, 1991). Robert A. Pollard, Economic Security and the Origins of
the Cold War, 19451950 (New York, 1985) is an important study of the
immediate postwar period, especially, for our purposes, chapter 9: 'Natural
resources and national security: U.S. policy in the developing world, 1945
50'. K. Kock, International Trade Policy and the GATT, 1947196J (Stock-
holm, 1969), is a useful source on GATT and the role of the United States.
Longer-run general studies of the international economy that incorporate
this period include: Alfred Maizels, Industrial Growth and World Trade: An
Empirical Study of Trends in Production, Consumption and Trade in Manufactures,
18991959 (Cambridge, Eng., 1963) and P. Lamartine Yates, Forty Years of
Foreign Trade: A Statistical Handbook with Special Reference to Primary Products
and Underdeveloped Countries (London, 1959). Two works on foreign invest-
ment which cover a longer span of Latin American economic history but
which are useful for this period are Barbara Stallings, Bankers to the Third
World: U.S. Portfolio Investment in Latin America, 1900-1986 (Berkeley,
1987) and J. Fred Rippy, British Investments in Latin America, 18221949
(Minneapolis, Minn., 1959). The latter, however, must be used with care.
See also Mira Wilkins, The Maturing Enterprise: American Business Abroad
from 1914 to 1970 (Cambridge, Mass., 1974). On U.S.Latin American
economic relations in the immediate post-war period, see Stephen G. Rabe,
'The elusive conference: United States economic relations with Latin Amer-
ica, 19451952', Diplomatic History, 2/3 (1978), 27994. A particularly
interesting study of U.S. interests in this period, which explicitly deals with
Argentina, is Sylvia Maxfield and James H. Nolt, 'Protectionism and the
internationalization of capital: U.S. sponsorship of import-substituting
industrialization in the Philippines, Turkey and Argentina', International
Studies Quarterly, 34 (1990), 4 9 - 8 1 .
On Latin America during the Second World War the outstanding general
study is R. A. Humphreys, Latin America and the Second World War, vol. i,
193942 (London, 1981), vol. 2, 194245 (London, 1982). This masterly
work has both general sections and extensive country-by-country coverage.
For both the war and the post-war period, ECLA studies provide a wealth of

3. Latin American economies, 1939~C-I95 527
both data and analysis. See ECLA, The Economic Development of Latin America
and Its Principal Problems (Lake Success, N. Y., 1950); Economic Survey of Latin
America, 1949 (New York, 1951); Foreign Capital in Latin America (New
York, 1955); Inter-Latin American Trade (New York, 1957); External Financ-
ing in Latin America (New York, 1965); and, above all, The Economic Develop-
ment of Latin America: The Post-War Period (New York, 1964). Industrializa-
tion is more specifically documented in ECLA, The Process ofIndustrialization
in Latin America (New York, 1966) and in the country monographs pro-
duced in the 1950s and early 1960s as El desarrollo economico del . . . There
are also some valuable sectoral studies by ECLA: for example, Labour Produc-
tivity of the Cotton Textile Industry in Five Latin American Countries (New York,
1951). Later works of ECLA which constitute major sources of data are Series
historicas de crecimiento en America Latina (Santiago, Chile, 1978) and America
Latina: Relacion deprecios del intercambio (Santiago, Chile, 1976). Apart from
ECLA, the principal comparative source of data is James W. Wilkie, Statis-
tics and National Policy, Statistical Abstract of Latin America, Supplement 3
(Los Angeles, 1974). For a discussion of ECLA-led ideological develop-
ments in the post-war period, see Joseph L. Love, 'Economic ideas and
ideologies in Latin America since 1930', CHLA vol. VI, part 1 (1994), and
E. V. K. Fitzgerald, 'ECLA and the formation of Latin American economic
doctrine', in D. Rock (ed.), Latin America in the 1940s: War and Postwar
Transitions (Berkeley, 1994).
Much of the country-specific literature has been cited in essay VII:2, on
the Latin American economies in the 1930s, since it takes the form of
longer-run country studies which yield insights for particular decades, or
can be found in the bibliographical essays on individual countries. The
following, however, deserve mention:
On Brazil, Marcelo de Paiva Abreu, 'Crise, crescimento e modern-
izagao autoritario, 19301945', and Sergio Besserman Vianna, 'Polit-
ica economica externa e industralizagao: 1946195 r' in Marcelo de
Paiva Abreu (ed.), A Ordem do progresso: Cem anos de politica economica
republicana, 1889-1989 (Rio de Janeiro, 1990); Pedro Malan et al.,
Politica economica externa e industrializaqdo no Brasil, 193252 (Rio de
Janeiro, 1977); B. Gupta, 'Import substitution in capital goods: The
case of Brazil, 1929-1979' (unpublished D.Phil, thesis, Oxford, 1989);
M. A. P. Leopoldi, 'Industrial associations and politics in contemporary
Brazil' (unpublished D.Phil, thesis, Oxford, 1984); and Sonia Draibe,
Rumos e metamorfoses: Estado e industrializa$ao no Brasil: 193 0-1960 (Rio
de Janeiro, 1985).

On Mexico, Stephen R. Niblo, The Impact of War: Mexico and World War
II, La Trobe University, Institute of Latin American Studies, Occasional
Paper no. 10 (Melbourne, Aus., 1988); Rene Villarreal, El desequilibrio
externo en la industrializacion de Mexico 19291975 (Mexico, D.F., 1976);
C. W. Reynolds, The Mexican Economy, Twentieth Century Structure and
Growth (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1970); L. Solis, Planes de
desarrollo economico y social en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1975); S. Mosk, Indus-
trial Revolution in Mexico (Berkeley, 1950); R. J. Shafer, Mexican Business
Organizations: History and Analysis (Syracuse, N.Y., 1973), on the role of
entrepreneurs; C. Hewitt de Alcantara, The Modernization of Mexican Agri-
culture (Geneva, 1976), on agriculture; and I. M. de Navarrette, La
distribucion del ingreso y el desarrollo en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., i960), a study
on income distribution unique for its period.
On Argentina, Carlos F. Diaz Alejandro, Essays on the Economic History of
the Argentine Republic (New Haven, Conn., 1970); A. Dorfman, Cincuenta
anos de industrializacion en la Argentina, 193080 (Buenos Aires, 1983); G.
Di Telia and M. Zymelman, Los ciclos econdmicos argentinos (Buenos Aires,
1973); Guido Di Telia and D. C. Watt (eds.), Argentina between the Great
Powers, 1939-46 (London, 1989); C. A. MacDonald, 'The United States,
the Cold War and Peron', in C. Abel and C. M. Lewis (eds.), Latin
America, Economic Imperialism, and the State (London, 1985); and Carlos
Escude, Gran Bretana, los Estados Unidos y la declinacion argentina, 1942
1949 (Buenos Aires, 1983).
On Uruguay, M. H. J. Finch, A Political Economy of Uruguay since 1870
(London, 1981).
On Chile, L. Ortega et al., CORFO: 50 anos de realizaciones, 19391989
(Santiago, Chile, 1989); Oscar Munoz, Crecimiento industrial de Chile,
19141965 (Santiago, Chile, 1968); and A. Hirschman, Journeys Toward
Progress: Studies of Economic Poiicy-Making in Latin America (New York,
1963).
On Peru, Geoffrey Bertram and Rosemary Thorp, Peru 18901977:
Growth and Policy in an Open Economy (London, 1978).
On Colombia, Jose Antonio Ocampo and Santiago Montenegro, Crisis
mundial, proteccion e industrializacion (Bogota, 1984).
On Venezuela, M. Ignacio Purroy, Estado e industrializacion en Venezuela
(Caracas, 1982).
On Central America, Victor Bulmer-Thomas, The Political Economy of
Central America since 1920 (Cambridge, Eng., 1987).

4- Latin American economies, 19501990 529
4. T H E LATIN AMERICAN E C O N O M I E S ,
1950 1990
WORLD ECONOMY
The most methodical attempt to explain the economic history of Devel-

oped Market Economies (DMEs) since the Second World War can be found
in the work of A. Maddison; see especially Phases of Capitalistic Development
(Oxford, 1982); 'Growth and slowdown in advanced capitalist economies:
Techniques of quantitative assessment', Journal of Economic Literature, 25
(1987), 64998; 'Growth and fluctuations in the world economy, 1870
i960', Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Quarterly Review (September 1965); The
World Economy in the 20th Century (OECD, Paris, 1989); and 'A comparison
of the levels of GDP per capita in developed and developing countries,
18001980', The Journal of Economic History, 43 (1983), 15978. See also
I. Kravis and R. Lipsey, 'The diffusion of economic growth in the world
economy, 1950-1980', in J. Kendrick (ed.), International Comparisons of
Productivity and Causes of Its Slowdown (Cambridge, Mass., 1984). Excel-
lent interpretations of the 'Golden Age of Capitalism' (1950-73), both in
developed and developing economies, and the causes of its decline, can be
found in S. Marglin and J. B. Schor (eds.), The Golden Age of Capitalism:
Reinterpreting the Postwar Experience (Oxford, 1990), especially Marglin's
'Lessons of the Golden Age: An overview', and A. Glyn, A. Hughes, A.
Lipietz and A. Singh, 'The rise and fall of the Golden Age'. See also the
influential book by R. Rowthorn and J. Wells, De-industrialization and
Foreign Trade (Cambridge, Eng., 1987). On developments in the world
economy during the early years of the period, see S. Kuznets, Economic
Growth and Structure (London, 1966). Statistical information can be found
in the yearly publications of the OECD {Historical Statistics and National
Accounts, Paris); the World Bank {World Tables and World Development Re-
port, Oxford); and in the OECD, IMF and World Bank databases.
Historical statistics and some analysis of the economic development of
Third World countries can be found in the work of A. Maddison already
cited and in P. Bairoch, The Economic Development of the Third World since
1900 (London, 1977), and 'The main trends in national economic dispari-
ties since the Industrial Revolution', in P. Bairoch and M. Levy-Leboyer,
Disparities in Economic Development since the Industrial Revolution (London,
1981). The World Bank regularly produces extensive sets of statistics for

53 VIL Economy, society, politics, 193010c. 1990
Less Developed Countries (LDCs); see especially World Economic Outlook;
World Development Report, and World Bank databases. See also IMF, Interna-
tional Financial Statistics and IFS Database; UNIDO, Database; United
Nations, Statistical Yearbook and Yearbook of International Trade Statistics,
and Industry and Development Global Report, 1987; ILO, World Labour Re-
port; and UNCTAD, Handbook of International Trade and Development Statis-
tics, 1984. I. Kravis, A. Heston and R. Summers, World Product and
Income: International Comparisons of Real Gross Product (Baltimore, 1988) is a
useful attempt at producing comparable statistics for LDCs which is being
constantly updated. B. R. Mitchell, International Historical Statistics (Lon-
don, 1983) provides a helpful summary of country data.
ECLA is the best source of data on Latin American countries during this
period. See the yearly Economic Surveys of Latin America and Statistical
Yearbook for Latin America and the Caribbean (Santiago, Chile). It is not
possible to mention all the many other relevant works of ECLA here, but
publications such as Direccion y estructura del comercio latinoamericano (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1984) provide useful data and analysis on different aspects of
Latin American development. However, there are still some discrepancies
between some ECLA and other UN sources. For a discussion of this
problem, see J. Wells, Latin America at the Cross-Roads (Santiago, Chile,
1988).
There are relatively few comparative analyses of Latin American perfor-
mance with that of other regions of the Third World. But A. Fishlow, 'Some
reflections on comparative Latin American economic performance and pol-
icy', and A. Hughes and A. Singh, 'The world economic slowdown and the
Asian and Latin American economies: A comparative analysis of economic
structure, policy and performance', in T. Banuri (ed.), Economic Liberalisa-
tion: No Panacea (Oxford, 1991); K. Suk Kim and M. Roemer, Growth and
StructuralTransformation (Cambridge, Mass., 1981); A. Singh 'Third World
industrialization and the structure of the world economy', in D. Curry
(ed.), Microeconomic Analysis: Essays in Microeconomics and Development (Lon-
don, 1981), and 'Third World competition and de-industrialization in
advanced countries', inT. Lawson, J. G. PalmaandJ. Sender(eds-), Kaldor's
Political Economy (London, 1989); J. Sachs, 'External debt and macro-
economic performance in Latin America and East Asia', Brookings Paper on
Economic Activity, vol. 2, 1985; and S. Naya, M. Urrutia, S. Mark and A.
Fuentes, Lessons in Development: A Comparative Study ofAsia and Latin America
(San Francisco, 1989). For a comparison of Latin America and the Scandina-
vian countries, see M. Blomstrom and P. Meller (eds.), Diverging Paths: A

Century of Latin American and Scandinavian Economic Development (Washing-

ton, D.C., 1991).
The experience of the NICs, which has become an obligatory point of
comparison for any study of recent economic developments in the Third
World, is discussed in H.-J. Chang, The Political Economy of Industrial
Policy: Reflections on the Role of the State Intervention (Cambridge, Eng.,
1994). Chang shows how some of the NICs' most ardent enthusiasts
such as I. Little (Economic Development [New York, 1982]) and D. Lai (The
Poverty of Development Economics [London, 1983]) have missed the most
crucial issue of the postwar economic experience of these countries:
namely, their high degree of pragmatism in economic policy making. See
also R. Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Govern-
ment in East Asian Industrialization (Princeton, N.J., 1990).
LATIN AMERICA
On Latin American economic development during this period, the most

influential body of work is obviously that of R. Prebisch (see below and
essay VIII:3). Besides those of Prebisch, the best known contributions are
from A. O. Hirschman (see, for example, Ensayos sobre desarrollo y America
Latina [Mexico, D.F., 1981]); Carlos Diaz-Alejandro (see his collected
essays, edited by Andres Velasco, Debt, Stabilization and Development [Ox-
ford, 1989]); F. Fajnzylber (see for example Unavoidable Industrial Restructur-
ing in Latin America [London, 1990]); A. Fishlow (see particularly his work
on Brazil, for instance, 'Brazilian size distribution of income', American
Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings, 62 [1972], 391-402); L. Taylor
(for instance, Stabilization and Growth in Developing Countries: A Structuralist
Approach [London, 1989]); E. Bacha (see his collected essays, Elmilagroy la
crisis: Economia brasilena y latinoamericana ensayos [Mexico, D.F., 1986]);
and R. Ffrench-Davis (see Economia internacional: Teoria y politicas para el
desarrollo, 2nd ed. [Mexico, D.F., 1985]). ECLA's Changing Production
Patterns with Social Equity (Santiago, Chile, 1990), largely based on F. Fajn-
zylber's ideas, and Social Equity and Changing Production Patterns: An Inte-
grated Approach (Santiago, Chile, 1992) have also been very influential.
Other valuable contributions include J. Wells, Latin America at the Cross-
roads; R. Ffrench-Davis and E. Tironi (eds.), Latin America and the New
International Economic Order (London, 1982); J. Serra, Ensayos criticos sobre el
desarrollo latinoamericano (Mexico, D.F., 1983); C. Furtado, Elsubdesarrollo
latinoamericano (Mexico, D.F., 1987); P. Meller (ed.), The Latin American

Development Debate: Neostructuralism, Neoconservatism, and Adjustment Processes

(Boulder, Colo., 1991); E. Duran (ed.), Latin America and the World Reces-
sion (Cambridge, Eng., 1985); O. Sunkel (ed.), Eldesarrollo desde dentro: Un
enfoque neoestructuralista para America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1991), Eng.
trans., Development from Within: Towards a Neo-Structuralist Approach for
Latin America (Boulder, Colo., 1993); V. L. Urquidi, Unay otras investiga-
ciones (Mexico, D.F., 1993); J. A. Ocampo, 'The macroeconomic effects of
import controls: A Keynesian Analysis', Journal of Development Economics,
27 (1987); R. E. Feinberg and R. Ffrench-Davis (eds.), Development and
External Debt in Latin America (South Bend, Ind., 1988; see especially R.
Dornbusch, 'World economic issues of interest to Latin America'); and J.
G. Palma, 'Dependency: A formal theory of underdevelopment, or a meth-
odology for the analysis of concrete situations of underdevelopment?',
World Development, 6/7-8 (1978), 881924, republished in G. M. Meier
(ed.), Leading Issues in Economic Development, 5th ed. (Oxford, 1988).
The role of the external sector in Latin American development during
this period has received considerable attention, reflecting its importance
in the economic fortunes of the region. The work of Raul Prebisch and
ECLA in general (particularly during its 'classical' period) have been the
most influential. For a review of this literature, see J. G. Palma, 'De-
pendencia y desarrollo: Una visi6n critica', in D. Seers (ed.), La teoria de la
dependencia: Una revaluation critica (Mexico, D.F., 1987). See also O. Rodri-
guez, La teoria del subdesarrollo de la CEPAL (Mexico, D.F., 1980); ECLA,
Elpensamiento de la CEPAL (Santiago, Chile, 1969); A. Gurrieri, La Obra
de Prebisch en la CEPAL (Mexico, D.F., 1987); J. Hodara, Prebisch y la
CEPAL: Sustancia, trayectoria y contexto institutional (Mexico, D.F., 1987);
and J. G. Palma, 'Raul Prebisch', 'Structuralism' and 'Dependency
Theory', in J. Eatwell et al., The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economic
Theory and Doctrine (London, 1988). For an analysis of this sector in the
1970s, see R. Ffrench-Davis (ed.), Intercambio y desarrollo, 2 vols. (Mexico,
D.F., 1981).
The rapid growth of exports of manufactures has been one of the most
interesting issues in the recent economic development of the region. See
for example ECLA's Analysis and Perspectives of Latin American Industrial
Development (Santiago, Chile, 1979); C. Diaz-Alejandro, 'Some characteris-
tics of recent export expansion in Latin America', Yale Economic Growth
Center Papers, No. 209, 1974; IDB, Economic and Social Progress in Latin
America (Washington, D.C., 1986); and M. Movarec, 'Exports of manufac-
tured goods to the centres: Importance and significance', CEPAL Review,

4- Latin American economies, 1950-1990 533
17 (1982), 4 7 - 7 7 . On the 'maquila' contribution to these exports, see R.

Katzman and C. Reyna (eds.) Fuerza de trabajo y movimientos labor ales en
America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1979), and PREALC, Mas alia de la
regulacidn (Santiago, Chile, 1990).
On the effects of trade liberalization and neoliberal experiments in Latin
America in general, see A. Foxley, Neo-Conservative Experiments in Latin
America (Berkeley, 1983); J. Ramos, Neo-Conservative Economics in the South-
ern Cone of Latin America, 1973-1983 (Baltimore, 1986); R. Ffrench-
Davis, 'The Monetarist experiment in Chile: A critical survey', World
Development, I I / I I (1983), 905-26; R. Cortazar, A. Foxley and V.
Tokman, Legados del monetarismo (Buenos Aires, 1984); and S. Edwards and
A. Cox-Edwards, Monetarism and Liberalization: The Chilean Experience
(Cambridge, Mass., 1987). See also V. Corbo and P. Meller, 'Alternative
trade strategies and employment implications: Chile', in A. Krueger et
al., Trade and Employment in Developing Countries (Washington, D.C.,
1979), and R. Ffrench-Davis and M. Marfan, 'Selective policies under a
structural foreign-exchange shortage', in H. Singer et al. (eds.), Adjust-
ment and Liberalization in the Third World (New Delhi, 1991). The
monetarist view is put forward by T. G. Congdon, Economic Liberalism in
the Southern Cone of Latin America (London, 1985).
On the structuralist approach to inflation, see J. Noyola, 'El desarrollo
economico y la inflacion en Mexico y otros paises latinoamericanos', In-
vestigation Economica (4th quarter, 1956); O. Sunkel, 'Inflation in Chile:
An unorthodox approach', in International Economic Papers, 10 (i960); A.
Pinto, Ni estabilidad ni desarrollo - la politica del FM1 (Santiago, Chile,
1958), and Inflacidn: rakes estructurales (Mexico, D.F., 1980); and N.
Kaldor, 'Economic problems of Chile', in Essays on Economic Policy II
(London, 1964). For an analysis of inflation during the latter part of this
period, see for example R. Thorp and L. Whitehead (eds.), Inflation and
Stabilization in Latin America (London, 1979); J. P. Arellano (ed.), Inflacion
rebelde en America Latina (Santiago, Chile, 1990); J. Ross, On Models of
Inertial Inflation (Helsinki, 1988); and M. Bruno, G. Di Telia, R. Dorn-
busch and S. Fischer (eds.), Inflation and Stabilization: The Experiences of
Israel, Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia and Mexico (Cambridge, Mass., 1988).
On manufacturing industry and ISI, the works of Prebisch and ECLA
were the most influential until the 1970s (see above). On critical analyses
of Latin American ISI, the best work is F. Fajnzylber, La industrialization
trunca (Mexico, D.F., 1983). See also F. Fajnzylber (ed.), Industralizacidn e
internationalization en la America Latina, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1982); M.

534 VIL Economy, society, politics, 1930 toe. 1990
Nolff, Desarrollo industrial latinoamericano (Mexico, D.F., 1983); and O.

Munoz, 'El proceso de industrializacidn: Teorias, experiencias y politicas',
in O. Sunkel (ed.), El desarrollo desde dentro. A comprehensive analysis of
the capital goods industry in the region can be found in D. Chudnovsky
and M. Nagao, Capital Goods Production in the Third World (London,
1983). For the capital goods industry in Brazil, see D. Chudnovsky, 'The
entry into the design and production of complex capital goods: The experi-
ences of Brazil, India and South Korea', and 'The capital goods industry
and the dynamics of economic development in LDCs: The case of Brazil',
in M. Fransman (ed.), Machinery and Economic Development (London, 1986).
On agrarian issues, see A. Garcia, Desarrollo agrario y la America Latina
(Mexico, D.F., 1986); M. Twomey and A. Helwege (eds.), Modernization
and Stagnation: Latin American Agriculture into the 1990s (Washington,
D.C., i 9 9 i ) ; a n d A . Figueroa, 'Desarrollo agricola en la America Latina', in
O. Sunkel (ed.), El desarrollo desde dentro. On environmental issues and Latin
America, see O. Sunkel and N. Gligo, Estilos de desarrollo y medio ambiente en
la America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1986); N. Gligo, 'Medio ambiente y
recursos naturales en el desarrollo latinoamericano', in O. Sunkel (ed.), El
desarrollo, and J. Vial (ed.), Desarrollo y medio ambiente: Hacia un enfoque
integrador (Santiago, Chile, 1991). On technological issues in the region,
see F. R. Sagasti, Ciencia, tecnologia y desarrollo latinoamericano (Mexico,
D.F., 1986). On the role of foreign capital in Latin America, see C. Vaitsos,
Inter-country Income Distribution and Transnational Enterprises (Oxford, 1974);
D. Chudnovsky, Empresas multinacionales y ganancias monopolicas en una econo-
mia latinoamericana (Mexico, D.F., 1975), and J. J. Villamil (ed.), Capital-
ismo transnacional y desarrollo regional (Mexico, D.F., 1985). On labour
issues, the best-known work is that of PREALC. See for example Modelos de
empleo y politica economica: Una decada de experiencias del PREALC (Santiago,
Chile, 1987). See also V. E. Tokman, 'Mercados de trabajo y empleo en el
pensamiento economico latinoamericano', in O. Sunkel (ed.), El desarrollo.
On gender-based wage differentials, see P. Gonzalez, 'El diferencial de
ingresos entre hombres y mujeres: Teoria, evidencia e implicaciones de
politica', in Coleccidn de Estudios CIEPLAN, 34 (June 1992).
INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES
The best known analysis of Argentina's mounting economic problems is

found in C. Diaz-Alejandro, Essays on the Economic History of the Argentine
Republic (New Haven, Conn., 1970), and Exchange Rate Devaluation in a

Semi-industrialized Country: The Experience of Argentina, 19551961 (Cam-

bridge, Mass., 1965). See also G. Di Telia and R. Dornbusch, The Politi-
cal Economy of Argentina, 1946-83 (London, 1989); A. Dorfman, Cincuenta
anos de industrializacion en la Argentina, 193080: Desarrollo y perspectivas
(Buenos Aires, 1983); and R. Mallon and J. V. Sourrouille, Policy Making
in a Conflictive Society (Cambridge, Mass., 1975).
On Brazil, see M. de Paiva Abreu (ed.), A Ordem doprogresso: Cem anos de
politica economica republicana, 18891989 (Rio de Janeiro, 1990); W. Baer,
The Brazilian Economy: Growth and Development, 3rd. ed. (New York,
1989); and E. Bacha, El milagro y la crisis, cited above.
On Mexico, see L. Solis, La economia mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1985); E.
Cardenas (ed.), Historia economica de Mexico, 4 vols. (Mexico, D. F., 1990- );
R. Villarreal, Industrializacion, deuda y desequilibrio externo en Mexico: Un
enfoque neo-estructuralista (Mexico, D.F., 1988); and N. Lustig, Distribution
del ingreso y crecimiento en Mexico: Un andlisis de las ideas estructuralistas
(Mexico, D.F., 1981). On the Mexican economy during the early years of
this period, see also C. W. Reynolds, The Mexican Economy: Twentieth-
century Structure and Growth (New Haven, Conn. 1970).
On Colombia, see C. Diaz-Alejandro, Foreign Trade Regimes and Economic
Development: Colombia (New York, 1976); G. Colmenares and J. A.
Ocampo, Historia economica de Colombia (Bogota, 1987); R. Thorp, Eco-
nomic Management and Economic Development in Peru and Colombia (Bas-
ingstoke, Eng., 1991); and J. A. Ocampo and E. Lora, Introduction a la
macroeconomia colombiana (Bogota, 1990). On Venezuela, see R. Haus-
mann, Shocks externos y ajuste macroeconomico (Caracas, 1990), and M. I.
Purroy, Estado e industrializacion (Caracas, 1986). On Peru, see R. Thorp,
Economic Management, cited above, and G. Bertram and R. Thorp, Peru,
1890-1977: Growth and Policy in an Open Economy (New York, 1979). On
Central America, see V. Bulmer-Thomas, Studies in the Economies of Central
America (London, 1988), and The Political Economy of Central America since
The literature on Chile is extensive. For statistical data, see M. Mama-
lakis, Historical Statistics of Chile (Westport, Conn., 1978- ). For the
earlier years of this period, see O. Mufioz, Crecimiento industrial de Chile,
1914-65 (Santiago, 1968); R. Ffrench-Davis, Politicas economicas en Chile,
1952-19JO (Santiago, 1973); A. Pinto, Chile, una economia difitil (Santi-
ago, 1964); M. Mamalakis, The Growth and Structure of the Chilean Econ-
omy from Independence to Allende (New Haven, Conn., 1976); and R.
Ffrench-Davis and O. Munoz, 'Economic and political instability in

Chile', in S. Teitel (ed.), Towards a New Development Strategy in Latin

America (Washington, D.C., 1992). On the process of industrialization
during this period, see O. Munoz, Chile y su industrializacion: Pasado,
crisis y opciones (Santiago, 1986). For the Popular Unity period the best
book is S. Bitar, Transicion, socialismo y democracia: La experiencia chilena
(Mexico, D.F., 1979; Eng. trans. Chile: Experiment in Democracy, Philadel-
phia, 1986). See also J. G. Palma (ed.), La via chilena al socialismo
(Mexico, D.F., 1973). For the economic consequences of the Pinochet
dictatorship, see Foxley, Ramos and Ffrench-Davis on neo-liberal experi-
ments, cited above, and CIEPLAN, El modelo econdmico chileno: Trayectoria
de una critica (Santiago, Chile, 1982).
The literature on the economics of the Cuban revolution is huge. See for
example C. Mesa-Lago (ed.), Revolutionary Change in Cuba (Pittsburgh,
Pa., 1971), and The Economy of Socialist Cuba: A Two Decade Appraisal
(Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1981); Claes Brundenius, Revolutionary Cuba: The
Challenge of Economic Growth and Equity (Boulder, Colo., 1984); F. Perez-
Lopez, Measuring Cuban Economic Performance (Austin, Tex., 1987); and
Andrew Zimbalist and Claes Brundenius, The Cuban Economy: Measurement
and Analysis of Socialist Performance (Baltimore, 1989).
EXTERNAL FINANCE
On the role of external finance in economic development the best book

remains C. Kindleberger, Manias, Panics and Crashes: A History of Financial
Crises (London, 1978). For an analysis of the 1980s debt crisis in an
historical perspective, see C. Kindleberger, 'Historical perspective on to-
day's Third World debt problem', in C. Kindleberger, Keynesianism vs.
Monetarism and Other Essays in Financial History (London, 1985). On the
negative consequences for both LDCs and DMEs of the large transfer of
financial resources from the Third World, Keynes's The Economic Conse-
quences of Peace (London, 1919) remains indispensable. See also M. Marcel
and J. G. Palma, 'Third World debt and its effects on the British econ-
omy: A southern view of economic mismanagement in the North', Cam-
bridge Journal of Economics, 12/3 (1988), 361400, and J. G. Palma, 'UK
lending to the Third World from the 1973 oil shock to the 1980s debt
crisis: On financial "manias, panics and (near) crashes" ', in P. Arestis and
V. Chick (eds.), Financial Development and Structural Change: A Post-
Keynesian Perspective (London, 1994).

C. Diaz-Alejandro's analyses of Latin American external finances re-

main the most influential. See for example, 'Latin American debt: I
don't think we are in Kansas anymore', Brookings Papers on Economic
Activity, 2 (1984), and 'Some aspects of the development crisis in Latin
America', in R. Thorp and L. Whitehead (eds.), Latin American Debt and
the Adjustment Crisis (Oxford, 1987). See also R. Ffrench-Davis and R.
Devlin, Una breve historia de la crisis de la deuda latinoamericana (Santiago,
Chile, 1992) and 'Diez anos de crisis de la deuda latinoamericana',
Comercio Exterior, 43 (1993); R. Devlin, 'External finance and commercial
banks: Their role in Latin America's capacity to import between 1951
and 1975', CEPAL Review, 5 (1978); E. Bacha and C. Diaz-Alejandro,
'Los mercados financieros: Una vision desde la semi-periferia', in R.
Ffrench-Davis (ed.), Las relaciones financieras externas: su efecto en la econo-
mia latinoamericana (Mexico, D.F., 1983); C. Diaz-Alejandro, 'Interna-
tional finance: Issues of special interest for developing countries', in R.
Ffrench-Davis and E. Tironi (eds.), Latin America and the New Interna-
tional Economic Order; R. Ffrench-Davis (ed.), Relaciones financieras exter-
nas: su efecto en la economia latinoamericana (Mexico, D . F . , 1983); M.
Wionczek (ed.), Politics and Economics of the Latin American Debt Crisis
(Boulder, Colo., 1985); S. Griffith-Jones, Managing World Debt (New
York, 1988); and John Williamson, Latin American Adjustment: How
Much Has Happened (Washington, D.C., 1990). The supply side of the
debt crisis is analyzed in R. Devlin, Debt and Crisis in Latin America: The
Supply Side of the Story (Princeton, N.J., 1989).
L. Taylor, in his University of Cambridge 'Marshall Lectures' {Varieties of
Stabilization Experiences [Oxford, 1989]), discusses critically many of the
region's stabilization experiences during the 1980s and concludes that
'[financial and trade] liberalization and regressive income distribution
were not a wise policy mix'. P. Meller, 'Un enfoque analitico-empirico de
las causas del actual endeudamiento externo chileno', Coleccidn Estudios
CIEPLAN, 20 (1988), and R. Ffrench-Davis and J. deGregorio, 'Origenes
y efectos del endeudamiento externo en Chile', TE, 54 (1987) reach a
similar conclusion.
The exception to the 'dance of the millions' during the 1970s is the
case of Colombia; see G. Perry, R. Junguito and N. de Junguito, 'Po-
litica econ6mico y endeudamiento externo en Colombia', and E. Bacha,
'Apertura financiera y sus efectos en el desarrollo nacional', both in R.
Ffrench-Davis (ed.), Relacionesfinancierasexternas, cited above.

ECONOMIC INTEGRATION
On Latin American economic integration the ideas of Prebisch were the

most influential during the early part of this period; see The Latin American
Common Market (New York, 1959). For analyses of ECLA and Prebisch's
ideas on the subject, see V. L. Urquidi, Trayectoria del Mercado Cumiin
Latinoamericano (Mexico, D.E, i960); O. Rodriguez, La teoria del desar-
rollo, J. Hodara, Prebisch y la CEPAL and A. G. Gurrieri, La obra de
Prebisch, cited above; J. M. Salazar, 'Present and future integration in
Central America', CEPAL Review, 42 (1991); and V. Kumar Bawa, Latin
American Integration (Atlantic Highlands, N.J., 1980).
Reviews of the Latin American economic integration experience are
contained in INTAL's annual reports; R. Ffrench-Davis, 'Economic inte-
gration in Latin America: Failures and successes', in R. Garnaut (ed.),
ASEAN in a Changing Pacific and World Economy (Canberra, 1980); 'Eco-
nomic Integration in Latin America,' in IDB, Economic and Social Progress
in Latin America, cited above; G. Rosenthal, 'Un examen critico a treinta
anos de integracion en America Latina', ECLA mimeo (November 1990).
On intra-Latin American trade in manufactures, see BID-INTAL, El
comercio intralatinoamericano en los anos 80 (Washington, D.C., 1987). On
tariff preferences, see A. Aninat, R. Ffrench-Davis and P. Leiva, 'La
integracion andina en el nuevo escenario de los anos ochenta', in H.
Munoz and F. Orrego (eds.), La cooperacidn regional en America Latina
(Mexico, D.F., 1987).
On foreign direct investment and transnational corporations in regional
integration, see E. Tironi, 'Economic integration and foreign direct invest-
ment policies: The Andean case' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, MIT, 1976);
E. Lahera and F. Sanchez, Estudio comparativo de la Decision 24 en los paises
del Grupo Andino: Situacion actualy perspectivas (Santiago, Chile, 1985); and
E. White, 'Las inversiones extranjeras y la crisis economica en America
Latina', in R. E. Feinberg and R. Ffrench-Davis (eds.), Debt and Develop-
ment in Latin America: Basis for a New Consensus (South Bend, Ind., 1988).
On NAFTA (the free trade zone between the United States, Canada and
Mexico which would be the largest in the world, with a combined GDP in
1990 of US$ 6.2 trillion and US$ 720 billion combined exports), see S.
Saborio, The Premise and the Promise: Free Trade in the Americas (Oxford,
1992). The 'Argentina-Brazil' accord ofJuly 1986 was the most outstand-
ing bilateral agreement of the 1980s, covering issues as varied as the

renegotiation of tariff preferences, binational firms, investment funds,

biotechnology, economic research and nuclear coordination. See INTAL,
'Neuvos acuerdos para consolidar la integracion argentino-brasilena',
Integration Latinoamericana, 129 (1987).
INCOME DISTRIBUTION AND POVERTY
On Latin American income distribution there are very few country or

comparative analyses. As is well known, data for income distribution are
rather unreliable due to both methodological problems and the fact that it
is an extremely sensitive political issue. The best source is ECLA; see
especially its publications in the 'Serie Distribucion del Ingreso' (for exam-
ple, No. 3, 'Antecedentes estadfsticos de la distribucion del ingreso en
Chile, 194082 [Santiago, Chile, 1987]). See also A. di Filippo, 'Raices
historicas de las estructuras distributivas en America Latina', ECLA, Serie
Monografias No. 18, 2nd ed. (Santiago, Chile, 1983); and ECLA,
'Estructura del gasto en consumo de los hogares segiin finalidad del gasto,
por grupos de ingreso', Cuadernos Estadfsticos de la CEPAL, 8 (Santiago,
Chile, 1984).
The most interesting and influential work on income distribution
within ECLA was done by Fernando Fajnzylber; see especially 'Indus-
trializacion en America Latina: De la "caja negra" al "casillero vacio" ',
Cuardernos de la CEPAL, 60 (Santiago, Chile, 1990), and Unavoidable
Industrial Restructuring in Latin America, cited above. Also, ECLA, Trans-
formation productiva con equidad (Santiago, Chile, 1990), the organization's
most influential publication since Prebisch's death, was strongly influ-
enced by Fajnzylber's ideas.
Another UN organization, PREALC, has done extensive research on in-
come distribution, particularly in its relationship with the labour market.
See for example, Buscando la equidad (Santiago, Chile, 1986). See also R.
Infante, Mercado de trabajo y deuda social en los 80 (Santiago, Chile, 1991).
The World Bank also publishes data on income distribution for some
Latin American countries; see its yearly World Development Report, various
issues (Washington, D.C.). For work on income distribution related to
some countries of the region done within the bank's framework, see G.
Psacharopoulos, Essays on Poverty, Equity and Growth (New York, 1991).
A. Foxley (ed.), Distribution del ingreso (Mexico, D.F., 1974), and
Oscar Mufioz (ed.), Distribucion del ingreso en America Latina (Buenos

Aires, 1979) are valuable collections of articles on Latin American in-

come distribution. For an excellent analysis of political issues related to
distributional conflict, see A. O. Hirschman and M. Rothschild, 'Chang-
ing tolerance for inequality in development', Quarterly Journal of Econom-
ics, 87/4 (1973), 544-66.
On Brazilian income distribution, see A. Fishlow, 'Distribucion del
ingreso por tramos en Brasil', in A. Foxley (ed.), Distribucion del ingreso,
and 'Brazilian size distribution of income', American Economic Review, 62
(1972), and C. H. Wood and J. A. Magno de Carvalho, The Demography of
Inequality in Brazil (Cambridge, Eng., 1988). On Chile, besides ECLA,
'Antecedentes estadisticos', cited above, see F. J. Labbe and L. Riveros, La
vision neoddsica y la actual distribucion de los ingresos en Chile, Documento de
Trabajo No. 33, CED (Santiago, Chile, 1987). On Colombia, see ECLA,
'La distribucion del ingreso en Colombia: Antecedentes estadisticos y
caracteristicas socioeconomicas de los receptores', Cuadernos Estadisticos
de la CEPAL, 14 (Santiago, Chile, 1988). On Mexico, see N. Lustig,
Mexico: The Social Impact of Adjustment, Brookings Institution (Washing-
ton, D.C., 1991). On Peru, see R. C. Webb, Government Policy and the
Distribution of Income in Peru, 196373 (Princeton, N.J., 1972).
On poverty in Latin America, see especially O. Altimir, 'La dimension
de la pobreza en America Latina', Cuadernos de la CEPAL, No. 27 (1979);
and 'The extent of poverty in Latin America', World Bank Staff Working
Paper, No. 522 (1982). Altimir's definition of the 'poverty line' is country
specific and is based on an amount equal to twice the cost of a nutritionally
adequate diet. That of the 'indigence line' is an income that would only
cover this diet once. See also Sergio Molina, 'Poverty: Description and
analysis of policies for overcoming it', CEPAL Review, 18 (1982), 87110;
PREALC, Deuda Social: Que esP, Cudnto esP, Como se pagaP (Santiago,
Chile, 1988); CELADE, Boletin Demografico (January 1985 and July
1987); and E. Cardoso and A. Helwege, 'Below the line: Poverty in Latin
America', World Development, 20/1 (1992), 1937.
P. Musgrove, 'Food needs and absolute poverty in urban South Amer-
ica', Review of Income and Wealth, 30/1 (1985), 6383 is a study of nutri-
tion in ten Latin America cities in 19669. A. Gilbert and J. Gugler,
Cities, Poverty and Development: Urbanisation in the Third World (Oxford,
1992) includes an examination of the relationship between the hypertro-
phy of Latin America's service sector, income distribution and poverty.
Finally, see ECLA, Una estimation de la magnitudde la pobreza en Chile, 1987
(Santiago, Chile, 1990), Panorama social de America Latina (Santiago,

5. Urban growth and urban social structure 541
Chile, 1991) and Magnitudde la pobreza en America Latina en los anos ochenta
5. URBAN GROWTH AND URBAN

SOCIAL STRUCTURE
There are few historical accounts that summarize the general processes of
urbanization in Latin America or that provide histories of particular Latin
American cities for the entire period since 1930. A valuable account of the
early (1940s and 1950s) urbanization processes is Philip Hauser (ed.),
Urbanization in Latin America (New York, 1961), which was published by
the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), reflecting its new-found preoccupation with urban issues in
developing countries. The issues covered were demographic trends, em-
ployment, economic development, migration, housing, and planning.
Richard Morse, 'Latin American cities: Aspects of function and structure,'
CSSH, 16/4 (1962), 47393 reviews research on urbanization in the
1950s and early 1960s, and his two-part article, 'Trends and issues in
Latin American urban research, 19651970/ LARR, 6/1 (1971), 352
and 6/2 (1971), 1975 examines trends in the mid and late 1960s. An
important source of information and analysis is the annual series Latin
American Urban Research (Beverly Hills, Calif), which was published from
1970 to 1976, each year having a different thematic focus, including
migration, urban poverty, and metropolitanization.
From a more anthropological perspective, Douglas Butterworth and
John Chance, Latin American Urbanization (Cambridge, Eng., 1981) takes
account of studies carried out in the 1940s but concentrates on the 1960s
and 1970s. The demographic perspective, analysing the evolution of ur-
ban primacy and the preoccupation with rapid population and urban
growth in Latin America, is found in Glenn H. Beyer (ed.), The Urban
Explosion in Latin America (Ithaca, N.Y., 1967). A more recent analysis of
trends in city growth and urbanization is Robert W. Fox, Urban Population
Trends in Latin America (Washington, D.C., 1975). There are a number of
overviews of the urbanization process provided by geographers and plan-
ners. One of the most complete is Jorge Hardoy's broad survey, Urbaniza-
tion in Latin America (Garden City, N.J., 1975), that includes pre-colonial
as well as more contemporary patterns. It provides a model of the stages of
change in Latin American urbanization, focussing on the functions of the

cities in different periods. Alan Gilbert, Jorge Hardoy and Ronaldo

Ramirez, Urbanization in Contemporary Latin America (Chichester, 1982),
covers political and social trends, but also focusses on the physical growth
of cities, particularly the development of infrastructure and housing.
In the 1970s, there was an increasing concern with the political econ-
omy of urban growth in Latin America, emphasizing the interconnection
between politics, economic development and patterns of urbanization.
One of the first examples is Paul Singer, Economia politica da urbanizagdo
(Sao Paulo, 1973), which interpreted both the growth and the social
problems of the large cities of Latin America as a reflection of the uneven
process of capitalist development. A similar perspective is taken by Bryan
Roberts, Cities of Peasants (London, 1978), which provides an account of
urban development in comparative perspective since the 1940s, but con-
centrates on the 1960s and 1970s. Alejandro Portes and John Walton,
Urban Latin America: The Political Condition from Above and Below (Austin,
Tex., 1976) also provides comparative data on Latin American urbaniza-
tion and its social consequences, and in a second volume, Labor, Class and
the International System (New York, 1981), Portes and Walton place the
Latin American experience within the context of the development of the
world economy.
URBANIZATION TRENDS IN SPECIFIC COUNTRIES
The major sources of data on the overall pattern of urbanization in Latin

America are the population censuses of the different countries of the
region. Several Latin American countries have censuses from the end of the
nineteenth century, permitting the analysis of long trends. By 1940, most
Latin American countries conducted a general population survey. These
surveys include data on age and sex distributions of the population, their
occupations, and, often, data on migration, ethnicity and religion. Some
countries have carried out decennial censuses from that period (Mexico,
Brazil, and Argentina from 1947), while others have been less regular
(Peru, Colombia). In general, the accuracy and comparability of the cen-
suses have increased with time, though the lack of institutional continuity
in the offices responsible for the censuses has, at times, resulted in loss of
comparability through using different criteria of classification. One of the
major factors in improving the censuses has been the influence of the
United Nations in persuading governments to use standard classifications
for characteristics such as definition of urban, occupation and industry. By

^. Urban growth and urban social structure 543
i960, all the major Latin American countries subscribed to the interna-
tional conventions, and the census data can be compared more easily,
though always with caution. A detailed analysis of the changes in classifica-
tion can be found in Doreen S. Goyer and Eliane Domschke, The Handbook
of National Population Censuses (Westport, Conn., 1983).
Another important source of urban data are the household surveys
carried out by the statistical offices to monitor changes in fertility, migra-
tion, and labour force. Because of their smaller size and greater availability
in raw data form, these have the advantage over the censuses of enabling
researchers to cross-tabulate data at the household as well as the individual
level and to carry out multivariate analysis. In Mexico, data for the overall
urban population and the three major metropolitan areas were provided
from the 1970s by the Encuesta Continua sobre Ocupacion (The Ongoing
Employment Survey). The Urban Labour Force Survey (ENEU) provides
detailed data for specific cities on a quarterly basis, beginning in the
1980s. In Brazil, the PNAD (Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domi-
cilio) has provided similar data, with interruptions, since 1967: see Diana
Sawyer (ed.), PNAD em Foco (Belo Horizonte, 1988).
Two of the countries that provide the best examples of detailed analyses
of urbanization patterns using census data are Argentina and Mexico.
Researchers from CENEP (Center for Population Studies), such as Zulma
Rechinni and Alfredo Lattes, have carried various analyses through the
years of the changing patterns of Argentine urbanization. La poblacion de
Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1975) contains detailed analyses up to 1970 of
migration (both internal and international), changes in the urban system,
urban growth and changes in the labour force. Alfredo Lattes, Algunas
dimensiones de la urbanizacion reciente y futura en America Latina (Buenos
Aires, 1984) updates the analysis to the 1980 and places it within the
general Latin American picture, providing statistics on changes in labour
force and in city size distributions. In Mexico, perhaps the first systematic
analysis was carried out by Harley L. Browning, 'Urbanization in Mexico',
(unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Berkeley, 1962), in his account of the nature
of urban primacy and the changes in the Mexican urban system. The
Colegio de Mexico's La dindmica de la poblacion de Mexico (Mexico, D.F.,
1970) provides an analysis comparable to that of La poblacion de Argentina.
The most comprehensive analysis remains that of Luis Unikel, Constancio
Ruiz and Gustavo Garza, El desarrollo urbano de Mexico (Mexico, D.F.,
1976); the authors combine economic and population censuses to analyse
the economic specialization of cities and its relation to population growth

544 Vll. Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
and labour force characteristics. For Brazil, Juarez Brandao Lopez,

Desenvolvimento e mudan$a social (Sao Paulo, 1976) provides an overview and
interpretation of urbanization which also uses available census material. A
good example of using partial data to provide an analysis of urbanization
in the absence of census data is Jose Matos Mar's Las barriadas de Lima
(Lima, 1957). There were no Peruvian censuses between 1940 and 1961,
and Matos Mar brings together survey data on the processes of migration
and urban settlement to provide an account of the pattern of population
concentration in Lima.
MIGRATION AND URBAN ASSIMILATION
The rapid urban growth of Latin America that began in the 1940s was
based, to an important extent, on migration from rural to urban areas.
Migration brought to the towns and cities of Latin America a population
that, at times, was ethnically distinct and often of lower socio-economic
and educational levels in comparison to urban natives. This circumstance
created a research agenda that focussed on two main issues: the origins of
migrants and the reasons for their migration; and how they fared in the
cities compared with native residents.
The classic analysis of migration and its consequence for urban social
structure can be found in Gino Germani's two major works, Politka y
sociedad en una epoca de transition (Buenos Aires, 1968) and Estructura social
de la Argentina (1955; Buenos Aires, 1987). His analysis concentrates on
the difference between the earlier international migration and the subse-
quent internal migrations and its consequences for class differences and
politics in Buenos Aires.
The migration programme of the Population and Development Com-
mission of CLACSO (Latin American Council of Social Sciences) initiated
in the early 1970s studies of the overall patterns of migration in Latin
America. This programme also gave rise to theoretical discussions of the
economic and social factors affecting rural-urban movements, of which the
Humberto Munoz, Orlandina de Oliveira, Paul Singer and Claudio Stern
volume, Las migrations internas en America Latina (Buenos Aires, 1974),
was perhaps the most influential on the direction of future research.
An important characteristic of the studies of ruralurban migration and
migrant adaptation in specific countries was their use of surveys carried
out in places of origin and/or destination, rather than estimates based on
censuses. In Jorge Balan, Harley Browning and Elizabeth Jelin, Men in a

3- Urban growth and urban social structure 545
Developing Society: Geographic and Social Mobility in Monterrey (Austin, Tex.,

1973) the analysis was based both on a survey in Monterrey and on one
carried out in a village, Cedral, from which many Monterrey migrants
came. The Monterrey study, like the subsequent study of Mexico City by
Humberto Mufioz, Orlandina de Oliveira and Claudio Stern, Migracion y
desigualdadsocial en la Ciudad de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1977), analysed the
absorption of rural and small town migrants into the urban economic
structure. The economic success of migrants was shown, in both studies,
to depend more on the job opportunities of the period of their arrival than
on cultural contrasts between migrants and natives. The selectivity of
migration - whether migrants came from richer or poorer areas and were
better qualified than those that did not move - was shown to be a signifi-
cant factor in migrant adaption to the city in Colombia (Ramon Cardona,
La migracion rural-urbana {Bogota, 1978}) as well as in Brazil (Douglas
Graham, 'Divergent and convergent regional economic growth and inter-
nal migration in Brazil, 19401960,' Economic Development and Cultural
Change 18/3, [1970], 36282), and in other countries of the region such
as Chile (Juan Elizaga, Migraciones a las areas metropolitans de America
Latina {Santiago, Chile, 1970]).
Adapting to the city is a complex process that is affected not only by
selectivity, but also by ongoing relations between place of origin and place
of destination, and the capacity of migrants to establish their own commu-
nities in the place of destination. The pioneer study of these processes is
Oscar Lewis, 'Urbanization without breakdown: A case study,' Scientific
Monthly, 75/1 (1952), which looks at how migrants from the village of
Tepotztlan, Mexico, adapt to the city while conserving their traditional
forms of social organization. A more detailed study of these processes in
Lourdes Arizpe, Migracion, etnicismo y cambio economico: Un estudio sobre
migrantes campesinos a la ciudad de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1978) which shows
how migrants from villages with very different economic structures used
their networks in Mexico City to occupy particular niches in the city
economy, with consequences for the likelihood of return migration. Other
examples of studies of migrant adaption, emphasizing social networks and
the factors in places of origin and destination affecting these are Robert
Kemper's study of Tzintzuntzan migrants in Mexico City, Migration and
Adaptation (Beverly Hills, Calif., 1977), and Douglas Butterworth's study
of Tilantongo migrants to the same city, Tilantongo, comunidad mixteca in
transcion (Mexico, D.F., 1975). Perhaps the most complete study of these
processes in Mexico, taking into account rural as well as urban social

structure, factors of attraction and repulsion, and the significance of house-
hold networks and strategies is Douglas Massey, Rafael Alarcon, Jorge
Durand and Hector Gonzalez, Return to Aztldn (Berkeley, 1987). The
major city of destination is not, however, Mexico City but Los Angeles.
An interesting comparison with Mexican international migration is pro-
vided by Sherri Grasmuck and Patricia Pessar in Between Two Islands
(Berkeley, 1991), in which they analyse Dominican rural and urban migra-
tion to New York.
Many studies of migrant adaption to Latin American cities were carried
out, especially in the 1960s and 1970s. Examples from countries other
than Mexico are Juarez Brandao Lopes's study of rural migrants in Sao
Paulo, 'Aspects of the adjustments of rural migrants to urban-industrial
conditions,' in Hauser (ed.), Urbanization in Latin America, Mario Mar-
gulis's study on provincial migrants in Buenos Aires, Migracion y mar-
ginalidad en la sociedad argentina (Buenos Aires, 1974), and Teofilo Alta-
mirano's studies of Aymara and Quechua migration to Lima, Presencia
andina en Lima metropolitan (Lima, 1984) and Cultura andina y pobreza
urbana (Lima, 1988). The concentration of adaption studies in countries
such as Mexico and Peru is, to a certain extent, explained by the existence
of an important indigenous population affected by the rapid urbanization
of the respective countries. Studies of migrant adaption in Bolivia have
acquired salience with the rapid growth of La Paz in recent years, though
Hans Buechler's article on the role of fiestas in migrant adaptation is an
antecedent: 'The ritual dimension of rural-urban networks: The fiesta
system in the Northern Highlands of Bolivia,' in William Mangin (ed.),
Peasants in Cities (Boston, 1970). An interesting example is Godofredo
Sandoval, Xavier Alb6, and Tomas Greaves, Nuevos lazos con el campo (La
Paz, 1987) on Aymara identity in La Paz.
URBAN STRATIFICATION
Closely linked to the studies of migrant adaptation are those that look at
social mobility within the cities of Latin America. Conscious of the rapid
changes in the economic structure of Latin American cities from the 1940s
onwards, various researchers took up the issues of whether or not a 'new'
urban middle class was emerging, and the extent and significance of
upward social mobility from manual to non-manual occupations. Since
Argentina had the most developed urban economy of the region by the
1940s, the first studies were undertaken there under the direction of Gino

3 . Urban growth and urban social structure 547
Germani. See, besides Germani's own volumes cited above, Torcuato di

Telia, Argentina, sociedad de masas (Buenos Aires, 1974), Clases sociales y
estructuraspoliticas (Buenos Aires, 1965), and Estratificacidn social e inestabili-
dadpolitica en Argentina y Chile (Buenos Aires, 1962) and Jose Luis de Imaz,
La clase alta de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires, 1962) and Los que tnandan
(Buenos Aires, 1964), which analyse the changes in the character of the
urban middle class, explore the nature of the urban upper class, and exam-
ine the changing composition of the working class with industrialization.
The intellectual climate within which these studies developed was that
of the discussion of modernization as a global though uneven process.
Latin American social scientists collaborated with their North American
counterparts in exploring the possibilities of achieving a balanced develop-
ment and identifying the obstacles to that development. See, for example,
Joseph Kahl (ed.), La industrialization en America Latina (Mexico, D.F.,
1965), Seymour Martin Lipset and Aldo Solari (eds.), Elites and Develop-
ment in Latin America (New York, 1967), and Irving Horowitz (ed.),
Masses in Latin America (New York, 1968). Other collections were orga-
nized under the auspices of United Nations agencies: CEPAL's El desarrollo
social de America Latina en la postguerra (Santiago, Chile, 1966) and
UNESCO's Sociologia del desarrollo (Paris, 1970). All these volumes contain
empirical analyses of the changing urban class structure in Latin America
and of social mobility, stressing the importance of education and of the rise
of a white-collar service sector. The authors stress the differences in class
structure between Latin America and the advanced industrial world. They
use these differences to show the specificity of the changes in the Latin
American occupational structures that result from the pattern of growth of
the industrial sectors, such as the early importance of the service sectors
and the weakness of manufacturing. In those countries with a more devel-
oped industrial structure, such as Argentina and Brazil, attention is given
to the emergence of an industrial working class; while in countries such as
Peru, with little large-scale urban industry, emphasis is given, as will be
seen in a subsequent section, to urban marginality.
Representative surveys of the economically active population of two
Latin American cities permitted a more precise estimate of the extent of
social mobility. In their study of Monterrey, Men in a Developing Society,
Balan, Browning and Jelin used life and work histories to explore the
pattern of mobility, both geographical and social, in the 1960s. They
found, for instance, that overall levels of social mobility were as high as in
the advanced industrial countries, though social origins and education

had a different significance in enhancing life chances. Mufioz, Oliveira

and Stern's similar study of Mexico City, Migracidn y desigualidad social,
also showed high levels of social mobility resulting from the expansion of
non-manual as well as skilled manual jobs. Interestingly, they were able
to link position in the occupational structure to the relative expansion of
the different sectors of the economy at the moment when new workers
entered the Mexico City labour market. Contrary to received opinion, this
resulted in rural migrants becoming industrial workers in the manufactur-
ing sector.
In the 1960s, there was already a growing'preoccupation with theoreti-
cal issues to do with the dependency of Latin America and its consequences
for stifling and distorting development. In the field of urban stratification
and mobility this resulted, in the 1970s, in fewer empirical analyses. The
predominant analyses of class structure took up conceptual issues, but
rarely were these related to empirical studies. Examples are the Instituto
de Investigaciones Sociales, Mexico, Las clases sociales en America Latina
(Mexico, D.F., 1973) and Clases sociales y crisis politica en America Latina
(Mexico, D.F., 1977), and Fernando Henrique Cardoso (ed.), Estado y
sociedad en America Latina (Buenos Aires, 1973).
The empirical tradition did not disappear. The 1970s and 1980s saw an
expansion of qualitative analyses of urban social classes, particular of the
urban poor, and these will be reviewed in a subsequent section. There
were relatively few studies of the industrial working class and its forma-
tion. An example from Mexico is Menno Vellinga's study of class forma-
tion in Monterrey, Industrializacidn, burguesia y clase obrera (Mexico, D.F.,
!979)- 1 Cn el sudor de tu frente (Guadalajara, 1986), Agustin Escobar
uses life histories and household data of more than 1000 manufacturing
workers in Guadalajara, Mexico, in 1982 to examine whether a clearly
defined industrial working class was emerging in that city. Studies of the
middle and upper classes are less common. John Walton's study of the
elites of Guadalajara and Monterrey in Mexico, and Medellin and Cali in
Colombia, Elites and Economic Development (Austin, Tex., 1987) provides
interesting data on the organization of elites under different economic
conditions, on their attitude toward the state, and on the economic sectors
which they represent. Larissa Lomnitz and Marisol Perez Lizuar, A Mexi-
can Elite Family, 1820-1980 (Princeton, N.J., 1986) carried out a case
study of a Mexican elite family, analysing the changes in family organiza-
tion and interests through time, and providing detailed information on
the social networks that are used to enhance and consolidate their power.

j. Urban growth and urban social structure 549
This study is particularly interesting since the family's fortunes have been
tied to the evolution of the Mexico City economy, and the family has had
to take account of the changing role of government in the economy.
By the late 1970s, there is a return to census-based analysis of the
evolution of the urban class structure. Some of the articles in Ruben
Katzman and Jose Luis Reyna's Fuerza de trabajo y movimientos laborales en
America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1979) use available data to explore the
heterogeneity of the tertiary sector - containing 'informal' employment,
modern middle-class employment as well as more traditional manual
workers - and its link to changes in the class structure. An influential
exploration of the heterogeneity of the tertiary sector is Harley Browning's
discussion of the tertiarization process: 'Algunos problemas del proceso de
terciarizacion en America Latina', in Jorge Hardoy and Richard Schaedel
(eds.), Las ciudades de America Latina (Buenos Aires, 1975). Carlos Fil-
gueira and Carlo Geneletti, Estratificacion y movilidad ocupacional en America
Latina (Santiago, Chile, 1981) provides an extensive analysis of the pat-
terns of mobility between 1950 and 1980, contrasting the experience of
the different Latin American countries. An even more complete analysis is
provided by the social affairs division of CEPAL under the direction of
John Durston, in Transformacion ocupacional y crisis social en America Latina
(Santiago, Chile, 1989) which, among other analyses, looks at the role of
education in social mobility from 1950 to 1980, and at the changing
significance of self-employment. CEPAL has an arrangement with the
census authorities in Latin America whereby special tabulations from the
censuses or household surveys are provided on a regular basis. Conse-
quently, CEPAL can carry out more detailed analyses of occupational
change and mobility than can those researchers who have to rely only on
official tabulations.
URBAN LABOUR MARKETS AND INFORMALIZATION
By the 1980s, some of the major sources of information on urban class

structure were the studies of urban labour markets. These differ from the
analyses of occupational mobility not only by having a more specific focus,
but also by making greater use of survey data and the re-analysis of the raw
census data. An early example is Victor Tokman and Paulo Souza (eds.), El
empleo en America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1976), which brings together a
series of articles emphasizing the growing heterogeneity of labour markets
and occupational structures in Latin America. PREALC's Mercado de trabajo

encifras, 1950-1980 (Santiago, Chile, 1982) brings together a comprehen-
sive set of data on labour market trends for the 1980s. The most detailed
analysis, though based on one country, of the evolution of labour markets is
Brigida Garcia's account of changes in Mexican labour markets, both at the
national and regional level: Desarrollo economico y absorcidn de la fuerza de
trabajo en Mexico, 1950-1980 (Mexico, D.R, 1988).
New themes emerge, such as the increase in female labour force partici-
pation. Useful analyses for the whole of Latin America are Edith
Pantelides, Estudio de la poblacion feminina economicamente activa en America
Latina, 19501970 (Buenos Aires, 1976) and Elizabeth Jelin, La mujer y
el mercado de trabajo urbano, Estudios CEDES (Buenos Aires, 1979). One of
CEPAL's working documents (LC-R.504), America Latina: Las mujeres y los
cambios socio-ocupacionales, 6080 (Santiago, Chile) details the occupational
changes for women brought by their increasing labour-force participation.
Good analyses exist of these changes for individual countries such as, for
Argentina, Zulma Recchini de Lattes, Dindmica de la fuerza de trabajo
feminina en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1983); for Brazil, Cristina
Bruschini, Tendencias daforga de trabalho feminina brasileira nos anos setenta e
oitenta (Sao Paulo, 1989); and, for Mexico, Orlandina de Oliveira and
Brigida Garcia, 'Expansion del trabajo feminino y transformaci6n social en
Mexico: 195087', in La sociedad mexicana en el umbral del milenio (Mexico,
D.F., 1990). Accompanying this interest in the general changes in female
labour force participation was one in the forms of work that women did.
John Humphrey's study of women workers in a Brazilian plant, Gender and
Work in the Third World: Sexual Divisions in Brazilian Industry (London,
1987), showed both how women were undertaking new types of skilled
work, and how the jobs that women did were devalued in comparison to
those of men.
An increasing preoccupation in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly of
PREALC (the International Labour Office's Latin American branch), is
with the so-called informal economy. PREALC's concern has been with
the consequences of the growth of micro-enterprise (defined to include the
self-employed) for urban poverty in Latin America. PREALC's analyses
have tended to rely on census data and urban employment surveys. Conse-
quently, the findings concentrate on the individual characteristics of those
in the informal economy and pay less attention to the organization of
enterprises and their linkages with the rest of the economy. Good exam-
ples of PREALC's approach and analyses are Victor Tokman, 'El sector
informal: Quince anos despues', TE, 215 (1987), 513-36, and two vol-

5 Urban growth and urban social structure 551
umes published in 1990: Urbanization y sector informal en America Latina,

6080 (Santiago, Chile) and Empleo en America Latina y la heterogeneidaddel
sector informal (Santiago, Chile). Case studies of the workings of informal
enterprises and of their linkages to the rest of the economy are found in
Ray Bromley, Casual Work and Poverty in Third World Cities (Chichester,
Eng., 1979) and in Alejandro Portes, Manuel Castells and Lauren Benton,
The Informal Economy (Baltimore, 1989). A valuable set of studies compar-
ing the informal sector in five of the Central American countries is Juan-
Pablo Perez Sainz and Rafael Menjivar, Informalidad urbana en Cen-
troamerica (San Jose, C.R., 1991). These studies combine survey data with
case material on micro-enterprises to provide an overview of the impact of
the economic and political crises of the 1980s on the Central American
urban economies.
Since labour markets depend both on the structure of demand and on
that of supply, their analysis links research on class structures and social
mobility to changes in the organization of industry and the services.
Fernando Fajnzylber, La industrialization trunca de America Latina (Buenos
Aires, 1983) points to the changes that followed the ending of the import-
substitution model of industrialization as some Latin American countries
sought to develop export industrialization, while others stagnated as they
failed to find a new niche. Since the new industries and the services linked
to them have specific labour requirements, and since they often have a
pronounced regional location, they are likely to increase the heterogeneity
of the class structure, both within countries and between countries.
URBAN POVERTY AND HOUSEHOLD STRATEGIES
Though the Latin American cities of the 1930s and 1940s contained
considerable numbers of poor people, urban poverty did not become an
issue for analysis and policy until the 1950s, and a major issue only in the
1970s and particularly in the 1980s (as a result of the economic crisis). In
the earlier period, the major social problems of the cities tended to be seen
as resulting from the mass migration of an unacculturated rural popula-
tion. Indeed, what was to become one of the major influences on poverty
research, Oscar Lewis's various studies of poor families in Mexico City and
in San Juan (Puerto Rico), originated in a preoccupation with the adjust-
ment of rural migrants to the city. The 'culture of poverty' thesis, as
developed in such works as Children of Sanchez (New York, 1961) and La
Vida (New York, 1966) emphasized the fatalism of the poor and their

social and economic marginality. These themes became prominent in the

work of Chilean sociologists who described the spatial as well as the social
isolation of the poor in Santiago de Chile, living in irregular settlements
without urban services or adequate housing. See, for example, Roger
Vekemans and Jorge Giusti, 'Marginality and ideology in Latin American
development,' Studies in Comparative International Development, 5 (1969
70). These studies of the 1950s and early 1960s tended to emphasize the
incapacity of the poor to help themselves. This was challenged by an
increasing number of studies in the 1960s that documented the various
strategies that poor people used to overcome their poverty. In a series of
articles, for example, 'Housing settlement types, arrangements for living,
proletarianization and the social structure of the city', in Wayne Cornelius
and Felicity Trueblood (eds.), Latin American Urban Research (Beverly
Hills, Calif., 1974), Anthony Leeds showed the ways in which the poor
helped build the Latin American cities of the 1960s through land inva-
sion, self-constructed housing and small-scale economic enterprise. The
theme was elaborated by William Mangin, 'Latin American squatter settle-
ments: A problem and a solution', LARR, 2/3 (1967), 65-95 and for Peru
by Jose Matos Mar, Urbanizacion y barriadas en America del Sur (Lima,
1968). In the 1960s, there were a series of city studies of poverty based on
intensive case studies of urban neighborhoods. The titles of these studies
are indicative of the emphasis on the active role of people and their
networks in coping with urban life: see, for example, Teodor Caplow's and
Sheldon Stryker's study of San Juan, Puerto Rico, The Urban Ambience
(Totowa, N.J., 1964), Lisa Peattie's study of Ciudad Guyana, The View
from the Barrio (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1968), Bryan Roberts's study of Guate-
mala City, Organizing Strangers (Austin, Tex., 1973), Janice Perlman's
study of Rio de Janeiro, The Myth of Marginality (Berkeley, 1976), and
Larissa Lomnitz's study of Mexico City, Networks and Marginality (New
York, 1977).
In the 1970s and 1980s, studies of poverty focussed increasingly on
working-class households and their wider relationships. Comparisons with
households from other social classes became more common in the 1980s as
one means to assess the impact of the economic crisis of these years on the
different sectors of the urban population. These studies have often com-
bined survey data with ethnographic materials to explore household organi-
zation over the household life cycle. They have focused on the economic
contributions made by different household members and the tensions, as
well as solidarities, created by the need to combine forces in face of

3 . Urban growth and urban social structure 553
economic difficulty. A general review is provided by Marianne Schmink,

'Household economic strategies: Review and research agenda', LARR,
19/3 (1983), 87101. A useful study for Chile is Dagmar Raczynski and
Claudia Serrano, Mujer y familia en un sector popular urbano (Santiago, Chile,
1984), which looks particularly at strategies in the face of unemployment.
Brigida Garcia, Humberto Munoz and Orlandina de Oliveira compare
family strategies in two Brazilian cities, one from the center-south, Sao
Jose dos Campos, and one from the north-east, Recife, in Familia y mercado
de trabajo (Mexico, D.F., 1983). Elisabete Bilac, Familias de trabalhadores
(Sao Paulo, 1978) looked at the difference between middle- and working-
class families in Sao Paulo. Elizabeth Jelin and Maria del Carmen Feijoo,
Trabajo y familia en el ciclo de vida feminina, Estudios CEDES (Buenos Aires,
1978) looked at the daily life of working-class families in Buenos Aires
and their survival strategies over a period of three years. In Mexico, a series
of studies have tried to look at changes over time, whether by re-
interviewing the same families at different moments, by taking compara-
ble samples at different times, or by using life histories to reconstruct
patterns of change. Mercedes Gonzalez de la Rocha, Recursos de la pobreza
(Guadalajara, 1986) begins the analysis of poor families in Guadalajara,
Mexico, at the high point of Mexico's economic boom, and she follows the
same families through the crisis years of the 1980s. Henry Selby, Arthur
Murphy, and Stephen Lorenzen, The Mexican Urban Household (Austin,
Tex., 1990) provide a view of the household economy in several Mexican
cities in the 1970s and look at the situation in one of these cities, Oaxaca,
in the 1980s. In a study of Queretaro in 1982 and in 1988 and of Puerto
Vallarta and Le6n in 1988, Sylvia Chant, Women and Survival in Mexican
Cities (Manchester, 1991), compares the family structure and coping strate-
gies of low-income households, examining the ways in which different
types of family (single parent, nuclear, extended) make life easier (or
otherwise) for the adult woman.
URBAN ECOLOGY
There was an early interest in the urban ecology of Latin America, reflect-
ing in part studies made in the United States. Thus in the 1940s and
1950s there were several studies of the spatial organization of large Latin
American cities. See, for example, Teodor Caplow, 'The social ecology of
Guatemala City', Social Forces, 28/2 (1949), which emphasized the 'tradi-
tional' pattern of spatial organization with the major governmental and

554 V7/. Economy, society, politics, 1930 toe. 1990
commercial functions, as well as elite housing, located in the center of the

city. Ruben Reina's Parana (Austin, Tex., 1973) followed this emphasis,
stressing the relatively clear spatial segregation of the different social
sectors in Parana, Argentina.
The studies of the 1970s and 1980s tended to link spatial organization
with the peculiar pattern of economic development in the region, empha-
sizing the over-concentration in the largest cities. John Friedman's studies
in Chile and Venezuela, Regional Development Policy: A Case Study of Venezu-
ela (Cambridge, Mass., 1966) and Urban and Regional Development in Chile
(Santiago, Chile, 1969), argued for the construction of regional growth
poles. In his later studies, such as Life Space and Economic Space (New
Brunswick, N.J., 1988), Friedman was more pessimistic about regional
planning in the face of capitalist development in Latin America. He
pointed to the huge imbalances created by the economic growth of the
1970s and the urgent need to decentralize urban political and economic
systems.
The concern with these imbalances led to an interest in the 1970s and
1980s in the phenomenon of intermediate cities. Jorge Hardoy and David
Satterthwaite, Small and Intermediate Urban Centres (London, 1986) provide
data showing the increasing importance of intermediate centres relative to
the large metropolises, while Thompson Andrade documents the diversifi-
cation of the Brazilian urban system in Sistema urbano e cidades medias no
Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1979). Another set of small and intermediate urban
centers that have been relatively neglected in research are the cities of the
Caribbean and Central America. Useful data on these cities for the period
from the 1960s onwards are given in the two volumes edited by Alejandro
Portes and Mario Lungo, Urbanizacidn en Centroamerica (San Jose, C.R.,
1992) and Urbanizacidn en el Caribe (San Jose, C.R., 1992).
While the studies of urban neighborhoods reviewed in the previous
section provide rich ethnographic data on the nature of urban life, they do
not give an overall picture of the dynamics of urban spatial organization
and the factors shaping that organization. Alan Gilbert and Peter Ward,
Housing, the State and the Poor (Cambridge, Eng., 1988) provides such a
picture for Colombia and Mexico in the 1970s and early 1980s, showing
the way that the urban land market brings even squatter settlements into
its orbit. Raquel Rolnik, Lucio Kowarick and Nadia Somekh, Sao Paulo:
Crise e mudanqa (Sao Paulo, 1991), brings together an impressive set of
data describing the changes in Sao Paulo's spatial organization in the
1980s, and its implications for the distribution of poverty. A comparative

j>. Urban growth and urban social structure 555
review of urban development and urban poverty is given in Matthew Edel

and Ronald Hellman (eds.), Cities in Crisis: The Urban Challenge in the
Americas (New York, 1989).
The social actors responsible for changing urban space squatters, con-
struction companies, land developers, and the state feature in Marta
Schteingart's analysis of the chaotic construction of Mexico City: Los prod-
uctores del espacio habitable (Mexico, D.F., 1990). The logic that attends this
disorder - that of a poorly regulated and uneven capitalist development -
is described in Lucio Kowarick, A espoliagdo urbana (Rio de Janeiro, 1980),
concentrating mainly on the case of Sao Paulo.
The importance of the state in regulating or not regulating urban
development is the theme of several volumes: Gustavo Garza and Marta
Schteingart, La accidn habitacionaldelestado en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1978)
reviews housing policies in Mexico since the 1960s; Oscar Yujnovsky
provides an overview of Argentine government policies on housing since
the 1940s in Claves politicas del problema habitacional argentino (Buenos
Aires, 1984); Gil Shidlo, Social Policy in a Non-Democratic Regime (Boulder,
Colo., 1990) concentrates on the various forms of state subsidy for housing
in Brazil, and how these subsidies rarely reach the poorest sectors of the
urban population. The close relationship between urban spatial organiza-
tion, poor physical infrastructure, and social deprivation that has emerged
as a result of the rapid growth of Latin America's cities is explored in Peter
Ward's Mexico City (London, 1990). Claude Bataillon and Louis Panabiere
provide a somewhat different perspective of the same city, exploring urban
symbolism, customs and the culture of the different zones in Mexico
aujourd'hui: La plus grande ville du monde (Paris, 1988). One account that
combines ethnographic data and other data to provide a general account of
a city's development and of its spatial and social organization is Leo
Despres, Manaus (Albany, N.Y., 1991).
URBAN POLITICS AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
There have been relatively few studies that focus specifically on the urban
politics of Latin America. The studies of Germani, Di Telia, and Imaz,
mentioned above, focus on urban politics in Argentina, but their aim is to
illuminate the general process of political change. Wayne Cornelius, Poli-
tics and the Migrant Poor in Mexico City (Stanford, Calif., 1975) was one of
the first to use specifically urban variables in his case, the legality of
neighborhoods to understand the pattern of urban politics. His empha-

sis on the vertical relationships of patronage and clientelism that structure

urban politics is echoed and extended in David Collier's Squatters and
Oligarchs (Baltimore, 1973), which examines the underpinnings of authori-
tarian rule in Peru. For Mexico, Jorge Alonso brings together a collection
of papers on social movements in the metropolitan area of Mexico City, Los
movimientos sociales en el Valle de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1985), and Jorge
Montano, Los pobres de la ciudad en los asentamientos espontdneos (Mexico,
D.F., 1976) provides an account of urban social movements in Monterrey.
Ernesto Pastrana and Monica Threlfall, Pan, techo y poder: El movimiento de
pobladores en Chile ("1970-/973) (Buenos Aires, 1974) examines the differ-
ent strategies used by political parties in Chile to secure the support of
low-income urban inhabitants, such as clientelism, incorporation, and
grass-roots mobilization, and show the limitations of each up to the
military coup of 1973. The Chilean urban movements are re-evaluated in
Manuel Castells, The City and the Grassroots (London, 1983), which pro-
vides an overview of what Castells calls the social basis of urban populism,
using cases of urban movements of the 1970s in Lima and Mexico City as
well as Santiago, Chile.
6. AGRARIAN STRUCTURES
There are few detailed historical studies of changes in the agrarian struc-
ture in the period. There are exceptions, but these are case studies of local-
level processes. One of these exceptions in Luis Gonzalez, Pueblo en Vilo:
Microhistoria de San Jose de Gracia (Mexico, D.F., 1972); Eng. trans., San
Jose de Gracia: Mexican Village in Transition (Austin, Tex., 1974), a careful
reconstruction of social and economic change in the Mexican historian's
home town, which is the centre of a mainly ranching economy in the west
of Mexico. A useful historical account, written by an anthropologist,
again for Mexico and for a ranching economy, is Frans Schryer, The Ran-
cheros of Pisaflores: The History of a Petty Bourgeoisie in Twentieth Century
Mexico (Toronto, 1980), which traces political and social change up to the
late 1970s. Gavin Smith's Livelihood and Resistance: Peasants and the Politics
of Land in Peru (Berkeley, 1989) is also written by an anthropologist, and
provides a detailed historical study of the struggles of one community for
land from 1850 to the mid-1970s, showing how changes in livelihood
affected political action and consciousness. For Brazil, Verena Stolcke's

6. Agrarian structures 557
Coffee Planters, Workers and Wives (New York, 1988) gives a history of the
labour system on the Sao Paulo coffee plantations from 1850 to 1980 as it
passed from slavery to forms of share-cropping to casual wage labour.
Reconstructing the history of rural change in Latin America since 1930
depends on three major sources. First are the population and agricultural
censuses for individual countries. These become more generally available
from the 1950s onwards, though some countries, such as Brazil, Argen-
tina, and Mexico, have agricultural censuses from the turn of the century.
Second are the mainly anthropological studies of local communities in
Latin America, of which there are relatively few in the 1930s and 1940s,
though they increase rapidly in number from the 1950s onwards. Third
are surveys of rural conditions sponsored by government or international
agencies, which become more frequent as international aid programmes
expand, especially in the 1960s.
THE 1930S TO THE 1950S
The anthropological studies of the 1930s and 1940s sought to document

the nature of indigenous rural society in Latin America. The anthropolo-
gists were mainly North American and were influenced by the ethno-
graphic and functionalist traditions first developed in studies of Africa and
Asia. In Latin America, they adapted their approach to take into account
the greater market and urban involvement of rural populations, but still
tended to choose field locations in what appeared to be relatively isolated
areas with a strong indigenous culture. A classic example is Robert Red-
field's study of Tepotzldn (Chicago, 1930) which, in the 1920s, was a
village of mainly Nahuatl-speaking Indians in the Mexican state of
Morelos. The Handbook of South American Indians, 7 vols. (Washington,
D.C., 1946-50) edited by Julian Steward, documents the diversity of
rural cultures through various ethnographic reports.
The 1940s also saw a series of surveys of agriculture and agricultural
populations often instigated by U.S. government agencies concerned with
hemispheric resources and security. Carl Taylor's survey of rural Argen-
tina, Rural Life in Argentina (Baton Rouge, La., 1948), George McBride's
studies in Mexico, The Land Systems of Mexico (New York, 1923), and
Chile, Chile, Land and Society (New York, 1936), and Harry Tschopik's
review of highland Peru, Highland Communities of Central Peru (Washing-
ton, D.C., 1947) are examples of these studies. The U.S. government also

sponsored a series of studies of particular production sectors: for example,
Walter McCreery and Mary Bynum, The Coffee Industry in Brazil (Washing-
ton, D.C., 1930). Taylor's Rural Life in Argentina is particularly valuable
since he describes one of the most advanced agricultural economies of its
day. His review of small- and large-scale commercial farming enterprises
and of the market town system that serviced them is a useful counterpoint
to the studies elsewhere in Latin America of peasant communities and
traditional estates.
The 1950s saw an upsurge in community studies that addressed more
directly than had been the case for earlier studies the issues of social and
economic change brought about by the increasing integration of the peas-
ant community into the national economy and polity. Many of these
studies were carried out by North American anthropologists and sociolo-
gists, but there was an increasing presence of Latin American social scien-
tists. In Mexico, Gonzalo Aguirre Beltran explored the dilemmas facing
the Indian population in a modernizing economy in El proceso de acultura-
cion (Mexico, D.F., 1957) and Regiones de refugio (Mexico, D.F., 1967).
Oscar Lewis's restudy of Tepotztlan, Life in a Mexican Village (Urbana, 111.,
1951) questions Redfield's emphasis on community cohesion and homoge-
neity through a detailed ethnography of the village economy and its
external links. Lewis also uses archival materials to demonstrate the degree
of conflict and social division present in the village when Redfield was
undertaking his research there. George Foster began, in this period, his
long involvement with a Tarascan community in the state of Michoacan,
reported in Tzintzuntzan (Boston, 1967), in which he explored the
atomism and competitive individualism of peasant society. The presence
of a significant Indian population in the Chiapas area of Mexico and in
Guatemala ensured that peasant communities in this region were well
documented by anthropologists. Most of these were village community
studies, such as Ricardo Pozas, Chamula (Mexico, D.F., 1959) or John
Gillin, San Luis Jilotepeque (Guatemala City, 1958), but they included
Manning Nash's study of the impact of industrialization on an Indian
village community: Machine Age Maya (Menasha, Wis., 1958).
The exploration of the impact of broader social changes on the local
community and its relationships is the focus of Rodolfo Stavenhagen,
Social Classes in Agrarian Societies (Garden City, N.Y., 1975), in which he
reports his own studies of ethnic relations in the Chiapas area of Mexico
and reviews the Mesoamerican literature on ethnicity. Race and ethnicity
is also an important theme of rural studies in Brazil in this period. Charles

Wagley, Race and Class in Rural Brazil (Paris, 1952) is one source, as is
Marvin Harris, Patterns of Race in the Americas (New York, 1964).
In Peru, the focus on community development became paramount.
Allan Holmberg and his Cornell collaborators conducted a series of studies
in and around the highland settlement of Vicos, documenting the ways in
which traditional haciendas could be transformed into co-operative peasant
enterprises; see Vicos: Metodo y prdctica de antropologia aplicada (Lima, 1966).
This exercise in applied social change was subsequently reviewed by Henry
Dobyns, Paul Doughty and Harold Lasswell in Peasants, Power and Applied
Social Change: Vicos as a Model (New York, 1971) and by George Stein,
Countrymen and Townsmen in the Callejon de Huaylas, Peru (Buffalo, N.Y.,
1974). A similar emphasis on the possibilities of peasant co-operation and
modernization in Peru is found in studies of the same period by Richard
Adams, A Community in the Andes (Seattle, 1959), Jose Maria Argiiedas,
'Evolution de las comunidades indigenas', Revista del Museo Nacional (Lima,
1957), Oscar Nunez del Prado, Kuyo Chico (Chicago, 1973), and Gabriel
Escobar, Sicaya (Lima, 1973). Other countries of Latin America are less
well documented in this period, but there are important exceptions. Or-
lando Fals-Borda, Peasant Society in the Colombian Andes (Gainesville, Fla.,
1955) provides an account of the social and economic roots of land conflict
in Colombia. In The People of Puerto Rico (Urbana, 111., 1956) Julian Stew-
ard, Robert Manners, Eric Wolf, Elena Padilla, Sidney Mintz and Raymon
Scheel document the diversity of rural social organization, linked to peas-
ant cultivation and plantation agriculture.
THE 1960S TO THE 1980S
In the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s research on rural communities increas-

ingly concentrated on the impact of urbanization and rural-to-urban migra-
tion. Population increase, the rapid growth of the cities, and their demand
for food and labour drew attention to the diminishing capacity of village
agriculture to retain population and to produce for the urban market.
Micro-studies of village agriculture were no longer only the domain of
anthropologists, but attracted agronomists, economists, geographers and
political scientists. Government and international agencies themselves
conducted local-level studies.
The community-study tradition continued, strengthened by the emer-
gence in several Latin American countries of research institutes committed
to the study of rural change. In Peru, the Instituto de Estudios Peruanos

carried out a series of village studies whose focus was migration, economic
diversification and social mobility: see, for example, Fernando Fuenzalida,
J. Villaran, T. Valiente, and J. Golte, Estructuras tradicionales y economia de
mercado: La comunidad de indigenas de Huayopampa (Lima, 1968), and Gior-
gio Alberti and Rodrigo Sanchez, Poder y conflicto social en el Valle del
Mantaro (Lima, 1974). In Mexico, the founding of a national research
center for social anthropology (first CISINAH, then CIESAS) under the
leadership of Angel Palerm, himself the author of Agricultura y sociedad en
Meso-America (Mexico, D.F., 1972), together with the continuing contri-
bution of the Instituto Nacional Indigenista, resulted in numerous studies
of the dynamics of village life throughout the country. See, for example,
Arturo Warman, Y venimos a contradecir: Los campesinos de Morelos y el Estado
Nacional (Mexico, D.F., 1976, Eng. trans., 1980), Guillermo Bonfil,
Cholula: La ciudad sagrada en la era industrial (Mexico, D.F., 1973), and
Guillermo de la Pefia, A Legacy of Promises: Agriculture, Politics and Ritual
in the Morelos Highlands of Mexico (Austin, Tex., 1981). Similar develop-
ments occurred elsewhere in Latin America. Thus, the understanding of
change in the 1970s and onwards in Chile is aided by the monographic
publications of the Grupo de Investigacion Agraria, such as Rigoberto
Rivera and Maria E. Cruz, Pobladores rurales (Santiago, Chile, 1984). In
Brazil, the group of researchers based at the Museo Nacional in Rio de
Janeiro undertook studies of change among the peasantry and the complex
articulations of peasant economy and the wider capitalist economies. An
example is Lydia Sigaud, Os Clandestinos e os Direitos: Estudo sobre trabalha-
dores da cana de agucar en Pernambuco (Sao Paulo, 1979). The founding of the
Centro de Estudios de la Realidad Economica y Social (CERES), based in
La Paz and Cochabamba, Bolivia, furthered rural research through numer-
ous publications such as Bolivia: La fuerza historica del campesinado, edited
by Fernando Calderon and Jorge Dandier (La Paz, 1984).
North American scholars continued to contribute to the community-
study tradition. See, for example, Evon Vogt, Zinacantan: A Maya Commu-
nity in the Highlands of Chiapas (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), Frank Cancian,
Change and Uncertainty in a Peasant Economy (Stanford, Calif, 1972), and
George Collier, Fields of the Tzotzli (Austin, Tex., 1975). Benjamin Orlove
and Glynn Custred (eds.), Land and Power in Latin America (New York,
1980) provides a re-evaluation of the utility of the community/hacienda
dichotomy.
There was also a growing interest in regional studies which sought to
understand peasant organization and livelihoods in terms of a wider re-

gional economy. For Brazil, Shepard Forman, The Brazilian Peasantry

(New York, 1975) documents the survival of peasant farming in particular
regional contexts, looking at marketing systems and state intervention.
An interesting collection of studies with a regional focus is Carol Smith's
edited volumes, Regional Analysis, Vol. 1 & 2 (New York, 1976), which
discuss several Latin American cases, including Smith's own work on
regional marketing in Guatemala and Gordon Appleby's on export mono-
culture and regional social structure in Puno, Peru. This theme is devel-
oped by Benjamin Orlove in Alpacas, Sheep and Men: The Wool Export
Economy and Regional Society in Southern Peru (New York, 1977), and in
Norman Long and Bryan Roberts, Miners, Peasants and Entrepreneurs: Re-
gional Development in the Central Highlands of Peru (Cambridge, Eng.,
1984).
An increasingly important theme is how the peasantry survives economi-
cally in face of the increasing commercialization of agriculture from the
1960s onwards. Eduardo Archetti and Kristi Anne St0len, Explotacion
familiar y acumulacion de capital en el campo argentino (Buenos Aires, 1975),
provide a valuable account of what happened in the 1960s to the family
farm in Argentina. The transformation of the peasant economy through
cash-crop production, in this case coffee, is the central theme of William
Roseberry, Coffee and Capitalism in the Venezuelan Andes (Austin, Tex.,
1983). Likewise, Stephen Gudeman, The Demise of a Rural Economy (Lon-
don, 1978) documents how the involvement of peasant farmers in sugar
production in Panama gradually undermined their self-sufficiency. The
articulation of the village economy with large-scale commercial produc-
tion and its negative consequences for the viability of traditional crafts is
the theme of Scott Cook, Zapotec Stoneworkers: The Dynamics of Rural Simple
Commodity Production in Modern Mexican Capitalism (Washington, D.C.,
1982), a study of the Oaxaca region of Mexico.
In an interesting study of a Peruvian highland community, spanning a
twenty-year period, William Mitchell, Peasants on the Edge (Austin, Tex.,
1991) documents the increasing diversification of the village economy.
Out-migration is a fundamental means of livelihood as population in-
crease decreases the amount of arable land while the cost of agricultural
inputs rises, and government price controls, aimed at subsidizing urban
consumption, further reduced the gains from farming. Diversification
and dependence on out-migration is also the theme of Julian Laite,
Industrial Development and Migrant Labour (Manchester, Eng., 1981), a
study of the interdependence of the Peruvian highland village economy

and the mining sector and its partly negative consequences for agricul-
tural development. Jane Collins, Unseasonal Migrations: The Effects of
Rural Labor Scarcity in Peru (Princeton, N.J., 1988) further documents
the negative effects of temporary migration on food production in the
highlands of Peru. In this case, the cash crop, coffee, which is the reason
for the migration, offers only limited possibilities due to soil exhaustion
and market prices.
The limits on the development of peasant farming, despite the various
government and international programmes to foster it from the 1960s
onwards, is brought out in two notable studies, both on Peru, by econo-
mists using village-level data. Jose Maria Caballero, Economia agraria de la
sierra peruana (Lima, 1981) provides an account of the agrarian structures
of Peru up to the agrarian reform of 1969. Alberto Figueroa, Capitalist
Development and the Peasant Economy in Peru (Cambridge, Eng., 1984) pro-
vides village data on consumption, production and migrant labour for the
1970s, showing the considerable extent to which even remote highland
villages were embedded in commodity exchange and the wage economy.
The increasing importance of internal migrations is reflected in various
studies of the processes which result in people leaving the village, and
which tie them permanently or semi-permanently to their urban destina-
tions. For Peru, a general overview of migration is provided by Hector
Martinez, Migraciones internas en el Peru (Lima, 1980). David Preston,
Farmers and Towns: RuralUrban Relations in Highland Bolivia (Norwich,
Eng., 1978) has documented the factors influencing ruralurban and
ruralrural migration in Bolivia. Robert Kemper, Campesinos en la ciudad:
Gente de Tzintzuntzan (Mexico, D.F., 1976) followed migrants from the
village studied by George Foster to Mexico City, documenting the types of
people who left and the niches they occupied in the Mexico City economy.
In Peru, Teofilo Altamirano, Presencia andina en Lima metropolitana (Lima,
1984) explores the networks between central highland villages and their
migrants in Lima, contrasting migrants from a poor ex-hacienda zone with
migrants from a relatively rich peasant small-holder zone.
The forces leading to internal migration also result in substantial inter-
national migration. Scott Whiteford, Workers from the North: Plantations,
Bolivian Labor and the City in North-West Argentina (Austin, Tex., 1981)
describes the migration patterns of Bolivian peasants to the sugar-
producing region of Salta in Argentina, and how the migrant household
organizes its resources to survive in the slack periods of labour demand.
Perhaps the most complete study of the international migration process is

Douglas Massey, Rafael Alarcon, Jorge Durand and Hector Gonzalez,

Return to Aztldn (Berkeley, 1987). Four sending communities in Mexico
are studied, two urban, two rural, as is one major receiving community,
Los Angeles. In the two village communities, access to land is a determin-
ing factor in who migrates, but migration has become a permanent feature
of life and work careers at the village level. Social networks channel
migrants to Los Angeles, and the strength of the links there, over time,
result in permanent residence.
AGRARIAN STRUCTURE AND AGRARIAN REFORM
In 1930, the agrarian structures of Latin America were still mainly charac-
terized by markedly unequal access to land, and by the use of land monopo-
lies to control labour. In the centuries-old struggle between peasants and
landlords, the peasant sought enough land to avoid dependence on the
landlord, and the landlord sought to ensure that dependence by control of
land and other resources. This struggle took different forms depending on
the particular system of production for example, hacienda, plantation, or
tenant farming and the relative political strength of landowners. See, in
particular, Kenneth Duncan and Ian Rutledge (eds.), Land and Labour in
Latin America (Cambridge, Eng., 1977), a collection of essays that covers
different historical periods and provides a typology of land-holding sys-
tems present in Latin America by the early twentieth century.
Even in Mexico, where agrarian reform had been initiated by the Mexi-
can Revolution of 1910, control over land continued to be a major issue in
the 1930s. David Ronfeldt, Atencingo: The Politics of Agrarian Struggle in a
Mexican Ejido (Stanford, Calif., 1973) describes the ways in which the
peasants who were given control of sugarcane land as ejidatorios in the state
of Morelos still remained dependent on the processing monopoly main-
tained by the privately owned sugar refinery. Agrarian reform was slow in
Mexico, with substantial delays in the granting of titles, as documented in
Guillermo de la Pena, Legacy of Promises. The ejido was usually divided into
individual plots that were given in usufruct to households, and were often
insufficient in size and soil quality to provide an adequate income. Collec-
tive ejidos were established, especially under the administration of Cardenas
(1934-40), but they also faced difficulties arising out of insufficient capi-
tal, competition from private landholders, and the power exercised by
traders and government intermediaries. Their history is documented in
Susana Glantz, El ejido colectivo de Nueva Italia (Mexico, D.F., 1974),

Tomas Martinez Saldana, El costo social de un e'xito politico: La politica expan-

sionista del estado mexicano en el agro lagunero (Chapingo, Mex., 1980), and
Cynthia Hewitt de Alcantara, The Modernization of Mexican Agriculture:
Socio-economic Implications of Technological Change, 1940-1970 (Geneva,
1976).
In Peru the polarization between hacienda and peasant community was
viewed by many in the 1930s as the major obstacle to economic and
political progress. The socialist writer Jose Carlos Mariategui, in Siete
ensayos de interpretacion de la realidadperuana (Lima, 1928) argued the case
for strengthening community organization as the basis for a collective
agriculture to replace the hacienda system.
In those parts of Latin America where land was being brought into pro-
duction for the first time the typical frontier scenario the hacienda-
community conflict was absent. The settlement of the coffee lands of Sao
Paulo attracted large numbers of immigrants from Europe, as described by
Warren Dean, The Industrialization of Sao Paulo (Austin, Tex., 1969). A
contrast emerged between the 'old' and 'new' West of Sao Paulo where, as
Thomas H. Holloway, Immigrants on the Land (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980)
shows, large landowners were unable to exercise a monopoly over resources,
permitting a certain degree of economic mobility for immigrant farmers.
The major pressures for land reform in Latin America were felt mainly
in those areas where unequal access to land was exacerbated by increasing
demographic growth and changes in economic opportunities. This en-
couraged both landowners and peasants to engage in more intensive
forms of cultivation. In the 1950's both the pressures and the opportuni-
ties increased. Urbanization created a demand for foodstuffs, while the
renewal of world trade following the Second World War continued the
demand for export crops. Also in this period there was mounting interna-
tional pressure on Latin American governments to modernize their eco-
nomic structures. The generally 'archaic' agrarian structure of Latin
America was identified by the Economic Commission for Latin America
in Development Problems in Latin America (Austin, Tex., 1969) as a major
obstacle to economic development. The issue of agrarian reform was
made more complex in this period by new technologies that encouraged
direct production rather than sharecropping, and favored medium-scale
but intensively farmed enterprises. The central argument of Alain de
Janvry, The Agrarian Question and Reformism in Latin America (Baltimore,
1981) is that the pace and nature of the agrarian reform process re-

sponded to the specific constraints on, and opportunities for, capital

accumulation in agriculture in Latin America.
In some countries, such as Brazil, agrarian reform did not take place
since capital accumulation could be furthered by geographical expansion
rather than structural and technological reform, as Joe Foweraker shows in
The Struggle for Land: A Political Economy of the Pioneer Frontier in Brazil from
1930 to the Present Day (Cambridge, Eng., 1981). In three Latin American
countries, however, major agrarian reforms were enacted after 1950 that
effectively eliminated the large landed estate. Bolivia was the first to enact
agrarian reform in 1952 after armed struggle by peasant groups. This is
documented in David Heath, John C. Erasmus and Hans C. Buechler,
Land Reform and Social Revolution in Bolivia (New York, 1969). In 1969 a
reform-oriented military government in Peru initiated a far-reaching agrar-
ian reform that transformed the large estates into production co-operatives
and encouraged peasant communities to establish farming. Various com-
mentators have provided a critical appraisal of the reform, indicating its
drawbacks for the peasant producer. See, for example, Jose Maria Caba-
llero, Agricultura, reforma agraria y pobreza campesina (Lima, 1980), Cynthia
McClintock, Peasant Cooperatives and Political Change in Peru (Princeton,
N.J., 1981), and David Horton, Land Reform and Reform Enterprises in Peru
(Madison, Wis., 1974). In Chile, the Christian Democrat government of
Eduardo Frei initiated agrarian reform in 1967. This was subsequently
extended under the presidency of Salvador Allende so that at the time of
the coup d'etat of 1973, 43 per cent of land was in the reform sector. An
evaluation of these processes is found in David Lehmann (ed.), Agrarian
Reform and Agrarian Reformism (London, 1974) and in Cristobal Kay,
'Chilean agrarian reform', America Latina, 17 (1976). The most recent
experiment in agrarian reform is that of Nicaragua following the Revolu-
tion of 1979. The evaluations of this reform are as of yet provisional.
Carmen Deere, R. Marchetti, and N. Reinhardt, 'The peasantry and the
development of Sandinista agrarian policy, 19791984', LARR, 20/3
(1985), 75109 provide an evaluation up to the mid-1980s, and Laura
Enriquez, Harvesting Change (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1991), takes the analysis
to 1990 and examines the impact of the reform on the export agricultural
sector. This sector had hitherto relied on a ready supply of cheap peasant
labour, which became less readily available, partly because of the Contra
war, and partly because of the improved opportunities for peasant farm-
ing, especially in co-operatives.

STATE INTERVENTION AND THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF

AGRICULTURE
There was a substantial foreign presence in agriculture in the 1930s. This

mainly took the form of direct investment in export crops, such as sugar,
coffee and tropical fruits. An interesting account of this kind of foreign
investment and its vicissitudes over time is provided by Philippe Bour-
geois in his account of the United Fruit Company: Ethnicity at Work:
Divided Labor on a Central American Banana Plantation (Baltimore, 1989).
In this early period, the state in Latin America was mainly a bystander
in the drive to modernize agriculture. It provided some infrastructure and
policing for the export zones, but was not involved directly in promoting
agricultural development. This role had changed substantially by the
1960s. International agencies and foreign governments, particularly that
of the United States, exerted pressure on Latin American governments to
develop their agricultural resources. Financial and technical aid was chan-
nelled through Latin American governments, and these, in turn, began to
create agricultural development programmes. The development of a state
agricultural bureaucracy is illustrated in Merilee S. Grindle (ed.), The
Politics and Policy of Implementation (Princeton, N.J., 1980) and in a case
study by Grindle, Bureaucrats, Politicians, and Peasants in Mexico (Berkeley,
1977), which shows how central control over agricultural production intro-
duces bureaucratic politics into the management of agriculture. This argu-
ment is further developed in Martinez Saldana, El costo social de un exito
politico, cited above. The extension of bureaucratic management of agricul-
ture raises the issue of the interface between peasant producers and govern-
ment agencies. Norman Long (ed.), Encounters at the Interface: A Perspective
on Social Discontinuities in Rural Development (Wageningen, Neth., 1989)
explores the difficulties of implementing central policies in face of the
resistance both of lower-level bureaucrats and of the various rural interest
groups to whom they have to accommodate. The extension of government
development agencies has also been considerable in Brazil. Stephen Bun-
ker, Underdeveloping the Amazon: Extraction, Unequal Exchange and the Failure
of the Modern State (Urbana, 111., 1985) explores the internal and external
conflicts that beset the vast agency SUDAM, as it seeks to control Amazo-
nian development. Antonio Medeiros documents the massive expansion of
state employment in the agricultural bureaucracy between 1964 and 1982
in Politics and Intergovernmental Relations in Brazil (New York, 1986).
Foreign investment in agriculture also began to change from the 1960s

onwards. Though many of the old export crops remained attractive sources
of investment, new opportunities emerged. These were in new export
crops such as soybeans or seasonal fruits and vegetables, in the provision of
agricultural inputs such as machinery, fertilizer and insecticide, and in the
production of industrialized foodstuffs and dairy products for the internal
urban market. One of the first accounts of the changing international
market for foodstuffs and its consequences for local producers in Latin
America is Ernest Feder, Strawberry Imperialism (The Hague, 1977). A
more complete account of the consolidation of a world market for food-
stuffs and its implications for Latin America can be found in S. E. Sander-
son, The Transformation of Mexican Agriculture: International Structure and the
Politics of Rural Change (Princeton, N.J., 1986), and Sanderson (ed.), The
Americas in the New International Division of Labor (New York, 1985).
Though in the 1960s and 1970s the state played a leading role in
providing the institutional means for agricultural development, by the
1980s fiscal pressures seriously limited the state's capacity to intervene in
the agricultural sector. The internationalization of agriculture and its
dependence on new investment and technology resulted in direct link-
ages between foreign and local capital and the producer, marginalizing
the state. There was an increasing reliance on market mechanisms for
promoting agricultural development, as in the 1991 decree privatizing
the key unit of the Mexican agrarian reform, the ejido.
By 1990, the major issue promoting state intervention in agriculture
was the environmental issue. Strong pressures from international agen-
cies, foreign governments, and non-governmental organizations, through
such mechanisms as debt swaps, led to a reassertion of the need for
government intervention in agriculture. David Goodman and Michael
Redclift (eds.), Environment and Development in Latin America: The Politics of
Sustainability (Manchester, Eng., 1991) reviews the increasing ecological
vulnerability of Latin America, the erosion of the possibilities of sustain-
able development, and the need for state intervention. A useful review of
the question of sustainable agriculture, and the role of outside agencies in
this, is provided by Anthony Bebbington, 'Farmer knowledge, insti-
tutional resources and sustainable agricultural strategies,' BLAR, 9/2
(1990), 203-28.
The number of new actors involved in agricultural development in
Latin America had multiplied to include not only national and local actors
but also a variety of international actors, ranging from multinational
corporations to United Nations agencies and non-governmental organiza-

tions concerned with ecological issues and with the problem of devising
sustainable development strategies. The complex play of forces at work is
documented in Marianne Schmink and Charles Wood, Contested Frontiers in
Amazonia (New York, 1992), which depicts a continuing competition for
resources among actors of widely different powers and interests: state
agencies, ranchers, goldminers, rubber tappers, Indians, small-scale farm-
ers, and large corporations. In this competition, no actor, not even the
state, triumphs; even the relatively powerless are able to mobilize suffi-
cient outside help to offset their weaknesses.
Amazonia is exceptional in the amount of outside interest it evokes,
with previously ignored groups such as Amazonian Indians becoming the
centre of international attention. Nevertheless, the Amazonia case high-
lights the uncertainties that the changing international context brings to
agrarian development in Latin America, as economic growth slows down,
'developmentalist' confidence wanes, and the traditional export crops de-
crease in importance relative to new ones and to the export of manufac-
tures. Alternative models of development are few, as Philip O'Brien ar-
gues in his chapter on 'Debt and sustainable development' in Goodman
and Redclift (eds.), Environment and Development in Latin America. But,
although the international context, including the indebtedness of Latin
American governments, clearly limits centralized development strategies,
whether implemented by state or private interests, at the same time it
creates space for many small-scale initiatives, as shown in Norman and
Ann Long (eds.), Battlefields of Knowledge: The Interlocking of Theory and
Practice in Social Research and Development (London, 1992). These initiatives
are carried out not only by small-scale producers, entrepreneurs and local
groups but also by frontline development personnel, especially those work-
ing for the numerous non-government organizations that have sprung up
over the past decade.
7. STATE ORGANIZATION
The literature potentially relevant to this topic is vast, but sprawling and
unmanageable. Oscar Oszlak, 'The historical formation of the state in Latin
America', LARR, 16/2 (1981), 332, is a useful start, but deals only with
the nineteenth century, as does his monograph, La formation del estado
argentino (Buenos Aires, 1990). The same is true of Jose Murilo de
Carvalho, 'Political elites and state-building: The case of nineteenth-

7. State organization 569
century Brazil', CSSH, 24 (1982), 378-99, and Fernando Urkoechea, The

Patrimonial Foundations of the Brazilian Bureaucratic State (Berkeley, 1980).
The main arguments of Claudio Veliz, The Centralist Tradition of Latin
America (Princeton, N.J., 1980) remain unpersuasive. Tulio Halperin-
Donghi, The Aftermath of Revolution in Latin America (New York, 1973) is a
useful antidote. See also Horst Pietschmann, El estado y su evolucion al
principio de la colonizacidn espanola de America (Mexico, D.F., 1989); A.
Annino et al., America Latina: Dello stato coloniale allo stato nazione (1750
1940), 2 vols. (Milan, 1987); Oscar Oszlak, Ensayos sobre la formacion
historica del estado en America Latina (San Jose, C.R., 1981); and Arnaldo
Cordova, 'Los origenes del Estado en America Latina', Cuaderno 32, Fa-
culty of Political and Social Sciences, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de
Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1977). For paired comparisons of nineteenth-
century Latin American state-building, see Helgio Trindade, 'A construgao
do estado nacional na Argentina e no Brasil (18101900): Esbocp de uma
analise comparativa', Dados, 28/1 (1985); and Fernando Urkoechea,
'Formagao e expansao do estado burocratico patrimonial na Colombia e
no Brasil', Estudos CEBRAP, 21 (1977). See also Steven Topik, 'The eco-
nomic role of the state in Liberal regimes Brazil and Mexico compared,
1888-1910', in Joseph L. Love and Nils Jacobsen (eds.), Guiding the
Invisible Hand: Economic Liberalism and the State in Latin American History
(New York, 1988).
More pertinent to contemporary history is Enzo Faletto, 'The specificity
of the Latin American state', CEPAL Review, 38 (1989), 7 0 - 8 7 , but it
contains almost no empirical references. For a well-documented paired
comparison focussing on the 1950s, see Kathryn Sikkink, 'Las capacidades
y la autonomia del estado en Brasil y la Argentina: Un enfoque neo-
institucionalista', DE, 32/128 (1993). For a more contemporary analysis,
see Lourdes Sola, 'The state, structural reform and democratization in
Brazil', in William C. Smith, Carlos H. Acuna and Eduardo A. Gamarra
(eds.), Democracy, Markets and Structural Reform in Latin America (New
York, 1993). On the economics of'state shrinking', see Albert Fishlow,
'The Latin American state', Journal of Economic Perspectives, 4/3 (1990), 61
74, which also contains articles by Anne Krueger and others on 'govern-
mental failure'. There are also two helpful articles in CEPAL Review, 46
(April 1992): David Felix, 'Privatizing and rolling back the Latin Ameri-
can state' and Antonio Martin del Campo and Donald R. Winkler, 'State-
owned enterprise reform in Latin America'. The most widely quoted Latin
American contribution to this literature is Hernando de Soto, The Other

Path (London, 1989). Far less well known than de Soto, but of at least
equal interest, is Jose Matos Mar, Crisis del estado y desborde popular (Lima,
1984). From other perspectives it is interesting to compare William
Canak, 'The peripheral state debate', LARR, 19/1 (1984) and Peter Evans,
'Predatory, developmental, and other apparatus: A comparative analysis of
the Third World state', Sociological Forum, 4/4 (1989), and 'The State as
problem and solution: Predation, embedded autonomy and structural
change', in Stephen Haggard and Robert Kaufman (eds.), The Politics of
Economic Adjustment: International Constraints, Distributive Conflicts, and the
State (Princeton, N.J., 1992).
For a pioneering attempt at relevant comparative history of the state, see
J. P. Delerand Y. Saint-Geours, Estadosy naciones en los Andes, 2 vols. (Lima,
1986). See also Benjamin S. Orlove, Michael W. Foley and Thomas F. Love
(eds.), State, Capital, and Rural Society: Anthropological Perspectives on Political
Economy in Mexico and the Andes (Boulder, Colo., 1989) and Alain de Janvry,
'Peasants, capitalism and the state in Latin American culture', in T. Shanin
(ed.), Peasants and Peasant Society, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1987). Two important
contributions by Alfred Stepan deserve mention here: 'State power and the
strength of civil society in the Southern Cone of Latin America', in Peter B.
Evans et al., Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge, Eng., 1985) and The
State and Society: Peru in Comparative Perspective (Princeton, N.J., 1978). A
starting point for the study of the contrasting state structures in Colombia
and Peru is Rosemary Thorp, Economic Management and Economic Development
in Peru and Colombia (Basingstoke, Eng., 1991).
The general comparative historical literature on the state is, of course,
vast. Felix Gilbert (ed.), The Historical Essays of OttoHintze (Oxford, 1975),
in particular, deserves mention. See also John A. Hall (ed.), States in
History (Oxford, 1988), Joel Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-
Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton, N.J.,
1988), and Douglass North, Structure and Change in Economic History (New
York, 1981), Chapter 2, 'A neo-classical theory of the state'. For a conve-
nient review of the general literature in English, see Theda Skocpol,
'Bringing the state back in: strategies of analysis in current research', in
Evans et al., Bringing the State Back In. J. P. Nettl, 'The state as a concep-
tual variable', World Politics, 20 (1968) is a pioneering political science
contribution. It is still worth reading Joseph Schumpeter, 'The crisis of the
tax state', International Economic Papers, 4 (1954). Also recommended are
John Hicks, A Theory of Economic History (Oxford, 1969) and Charles Tilly
(ed.), Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton, N.J., 1975).

j . State organization 571
Most books and articles on Latin America with 'the state' in their titles
fail to address either the theoretical or the historical issues of central
concern for the period since 1930. Thus, Christian Anglade and Carlos
Fortin (eds.), The State and Capital Accumulation in Latin America, 2 vols.
(London, 1985 and 1990) contains a number of useful country studies and
some bold efforts at comparison, but the emphasis is mainly on the mid-
sixties to mid-eighties, and the focus is more on capital accumulation than
on 'the state' as such. The major exceptions are single-country studies (see
below) or analyses of specific isues, such as Adriana Marshall, El empleo
publico frente a la crisis: Estudios sobre America Latina (Geneva, 1990); Car-
melo Mesa-Lago, Social Security in Latin America: Pressure Groups, Stratifica-
tion and Inequality (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1978); Janet Kelly de Escobar (ed.),
Empresas del estado en America Latina (Caracas, 1985); and Celso Garrido
(ed.), Empresarios y estado en America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1988). Region-
wide statistical information on this topic is seldom available in useable
form, despite the IMF's Government Finance Statistics Yearbook, although
some useful comparative data can be gleaned from an attentive reading of
Inter-American Developmental Bank and World Bank reports and the
IMF Staff Papers. For example, useful tables can be found in Robert H.
Floyd, Clive S. Gray and R. P. Short, Public Enterprise in Mixed Economies
(Washington, D.C., 1984). Earlier contributions to this subject include
Laurence Whitehead, 'Public sector finances', in Keith Griffin (ed.), Fi-
nancing Development in Latin America (London, 1971) and E. V. K. Fitzger-
ald, 'Some aspects of the political economy of the Latin American state',
Development and Change, 7/2 (1976). A recent contribution is Felipe
Larrain and Marcelo Selowsky, The Public Sector and the Latin American
Crisis (Washington, D.C., 1991). See also Thomas Scheetz, 'The evolu-
tion of public sector expenditures: Changing political priorities in Argen-
tina, Chile, Paraguay and Peru', Journal of Peace Research, 29/2 (1992).
Relevant contributions on Brazil by Brazilians include Simon Schwartz-
man, 'Regional contrasts within a continental-scale state: Brazil', in S. N.
Eisenstadt and Stein Rokkan (eds.), Building States and Nations (New York,
1973), vol. 2, and Sao Paulo e 0 estado nacional (Sao Paulo, 1975); Sonia
Draibe, Rumos e metamorfoses: Estado e industrializagao no Brasil, 1930-60
(Rio de Janeiro, 1985); Octavio Ianni, Estado e planejamento economico no
Brasil (1930-70) (Rio de Janeiro, 1971); Luciano Martins, Estado capital-
ista e burocracia no Brasilpos-1964 (Rio de Janeiro, 1985). Among the many
books in English, see Lawrence S. Graham, Civil Service Reform in Brazil:
Principles versus Practice (Austin Tex., 1968); Steven Topik, The Political

Economy of the Brazilian State, 18891930 (Austin, Tex., 1987); Werner

Baer, The Brazilian Economy: Growth and Development, 3rd ed. (New York,
J
989); John D. Wirth, The Politics of Brazilian Development, 1930-64
(Stanford, Calif., 1970); Thomas J. Trebat, Brazil's State-Owned Enterprises:
A Case Study of the State as Entrepreneur (Cambridge, Eng., 1983); Stephen
G. Bunker, Underdeveloping the Amazon: Extraction, Unequal Exchange and
the Failure of the Modern State (Chicago, 1985); Ben Ross Schneider, Politics
within the State: Elite Bureaucrats and Industrialisation Policy in Authoritarian
Brazil (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1992). Relevant articles on Brazil include John D.
Frencn, 'The origin of corporatist state intervention in Brazilian industrial
relations, 1930-34: A critique of the literature', L-BR, 28/2 (1991), 1 3 -
26; Barbara Weinstein, 'The industrialists, the state, and the issues of
worker training and social services in Brazil, 1930-50', HAHR, 70/3,
(1990); and Barbara Geddes, 'Building "State" autonomy in Brazil, 1930-
64', Comparative Politics, 22/2 (1990). See also D. R. Dye and C. E. de
Souza e Silva, 'A perspective on the Brazilian state', LARR, 14/1 (1979)
and Edson de Oliveira Nunes and Barbara Geddes, 'Dilemmas of State-led
modernization in Brazil', Instituto Universitario de Pesquisas do Rio de
Janeiro (IUPERJ), Estudos 39 (1985).
Comparable contributions on Mexico would include Nora Hamilton,
The Limits of State Autonomy: Post-Revolutionary Mexico (Princeton, N.J.,
1982); Ilan Bizberg, Estado y sindicalismo en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1990);
Ruth Berins Collier, The Contradictory Alliance: StateLabor Relations and
Regime Change in Mexico (Berkeley, 1992); Maria Amparo Casar and Wilson
Peres, El estado empresario en Mexico: ,-Agotamiento 0 renovacidn? (Mexico,
D.F., 1988); Peter S. Cleaves, Professions and the State: The Mexican Case
(Tuscon, Ariz., 1987); Jose Luis Barros Horcasitas, Javier Hurtado, and
German Perez Fernandez del Castillo (eds.), Transition a la democracia y
reforma del estado en Mexico (Mexico, D . F , 1991); and Alan Knight, 'State
power and political stability in Mexico', in Neil Harvey (ed.), Mexico:
Dilemmas of Transition (London, 1993). For a more traditional left-wing
view, see Mario Huacuja and Jose Woldenberg, Estado y lucha politica en el
Mexico actual (Mexico, D.F., 1976).
The most useful article on Argentina is Carlos Diaz Alejandro, 'The
Argentine state and economic growth: A historical review', in G. Ranis
(ed.), Government and Economic Development (New Haven, Conn., 1971). See
also Benjamin A. Most, 'Authoritarianism and the growth of the state in
Latin America: An assessment of their impact on Argentine public policy
1930-70', Comparative Political Studies, 13 (July 1980). For a highly

8. Democracy 573
provocative interpretation of Peronist statism, see Carlos H. Waisman,

Reversal of Development in Argentina: Postwar Counter-revolutionary Policies and
Their Structural Consequences (Princeton, N.J., 1987). For the contemporary
period, see Ernesto Isuani et al., Estado democrdtico y politica social (Buenos
Aires, 1989). A good guide to the extensive literature on the Uruguayan
state is Henry Finch, A Political Economy of Uruguay since 1870 (London,
1981), which can be updated by consulting Henry Finch (ed.), Contempo-
rary Uruguay: Problems and Prospects (Liverpool, 1989).
On Costa Rica, see Rodolfo Cerdas Cruz, Formacion del estado en Costa
Rica, 2nded. (San Jose, C.R., 1978). On the Honduran state (the classic'ba-
nana republic'), see Dario A. Euraque, 'Zonas regionales en la formacion del
estado hondureno: 18301930s: El caso de la Costa Norte' and Jeffrey D.
Samuels, 'Zonas regionales en la formacion del estado hondureno: La Zona
Central', papers presented to the Latin American Studies Association confer-
ence in Los Angeles (September 1992). Also see Mario Posas and Rafael del
Cid, La construccion del sector publico y del estado nacional en Honduras, 1876
Z
979 (San Jose, C.R., 1981). There is useful material on the Guatemalan
state in Richard N. Adams, Crucifixion by Power: Essays on Guatemalan Na-
tional Social Structure, 1944-1966 (Austin, Tex., 1970). On the Dominican
Republic, Bernardo Vega, Controly represion en la dictadura trujillista (Santo
Domingo, 1986) is very instructive. On Haiti, see Mats Lundahl, 'Under-
development in Haiti: Some recent contributions', JLAS, 23/2 (1991).
For Venezuela, Miriam Kornblith and Luken Quintana, 'Gestion fiscal
y centralizacion del poder en los gobiernos de Cipriano Castro y de Juan
Vicente Gomez', Politeia 10 (1981), and Miriam Kornblith and Thais
Maingon, Estado y gasto publico en Venezuela (19361980) (Caracas, 1985)
are pioneering works. For Bolivia, see Carmenza Gallo, Taxes and State
Power: Political Instability in Bolivia, 1900-1950 (Philadelphia, 1991);
Manuel Contreras, 'Debt, taxes and war: The political economy of Bolivia
1920-1935', JLAS, 22/2 (1990); and Laurence Whitehead, 'The State
and sectional interests: The Bolivian case', European Journal of Political
Research, 3/2 (1975), 11546.
8. DEMOCRACY
In spite of the apparently vast bibliography dealing with democracy in

Latin America, there are many surprising gaps in the literature, particu-
larly in terms of the development of truly comparable studies across coun-

tries and through time. The study of governmental and political institu-
tions, which attracted attention especially among U.S. political scientists
studying Latin American in the 1940s and 1950s, increasingly fell into
disfavor through the 1960s and 1970s. This was a consequence initially of
the sometimes excessive formalism of the earlier literature and of the
onslaught of behavioralist perspectives (which did lead to many electoral
studies); subsequently, it reflected the effects of dependency approaches
which often viewed political processes as epiphenomenal, and then of the
wave of military governments that swept through the region in the late
1960s and 1970s. With the transitions to civilian rule in the late 1970s
and in the 1980s, and a concomitant revalorization of political democracy
and of the importance of the study of institutions, there was a burgeoning
literature on democracy in individual Latin American countries, as well as
in a comparative perspective.
This essay focuses almost exclusively on comparative publications, apart
from a selected list of constitutional works. Several of the social or corpo-
rate actors central to democracy, such as labour, the left and the military,
receive special attention in other bibliographical essays and are barely
noted here. The country-specific bibliographical essays provide references
to the essential country-specific literature on such issues as the history of
democracy, political parties, elections and public policy.
CONSTITUTIONALISM AND PRESIDENTIALISM
Most Latin American countries have useful compendia and analyses of

their constitutions, as the study of constitutional law has a long history in
the region. Although extremely useful, many of these studies do not go
beyond a formal analysis of constitutional doctrines and rules. For Argen-
tina, for example, see Jose Roberto Dromi, Constitution, gobierno y control
(Buenos Aires, 1983); Arturo Enrique Sampay, La reforma constitutional (La
Plata, 1949); Arturo Enrique Sampay (ed.), Las constitutiones de la Argen-
tina, 18101972 (Buenos Aires, 1975); German Jose Bidart Campos,
Historia politica y constitutional argentina (Buenos Aires, 1976); Segundo V.
Linares Quintana, Derecho constitutional e institutions politicas: Teoria empirica
de las institutions politkas (Buenos Aires, 1970); and Jorge R. Vanossi,
Teoria constitutional, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1975-76). For Brazil, see
Constitutes do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1976) and Odacir Soares, A nova
constituicao (Brasilia, 1988). For Chile, see Alejandro Silva Bascunan,
Tratado de derecho constitutional, 3 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1963), Enrique

8. Democracy 575
Silva Cimma, Derecho administrative chileno y comparado, 2nd ed. (Santiago,

Chile, 1969), and Sergio Carrasco Delgado, Genesis y vigencia de los textos
constitucionales chilenos (Santiago, Chile, 1980). For Colombia, see Diego
Uribe Vargas, Las constituciones de Colombia: Segunda edition ampliada y
actualizada, Volumen 1, 2, y 3 (Madrid, 1985), Jaime Vidal Perdomo, La
reforma constitutional de 1968 y sus alcances juridicos (Bogota, 1970), and Luis
Carlos Sachica and Jaime Vidal Perdomo, Aproximacion critica a la
constitution de 1991 (Bogota, 1991). Costa Rican constitutional sources
include Marco Tulio Zeldon et al., Digesto constitutional de Costa Rica (San
Jose, C.R., 1946), Marco Tulio Zeldon, Historia constitutional de Costa Rica
en el bienio, 1948-49 (San Jose, C.R., 1950), Oscar R. Aguilar Bulgarelli,
Evolution politico-constitutional de Costa Rica: Sintesis historica (San Jose,
C.R., 1976), and Mario Alberto Jimenez, Historia constitutional de Costa
Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1979) and Constitutionpolitica de la Republica de Costa
Rica: Anotada y concordada (San Jose, C.R., 1985). For Peru, see Lizardo
Alzamara Silva, Derecho constitutional general y del Peru (Lima, 1942), En-
rique Chirinos Soto, La nueva constitution al alcance de todos (Lima, 1979),
and Moises Tambini del Valle, Las constituciones del Peru (Lima, 1981).
Uruguayan constitutional texts are compiled in Hector Gros Espiell, Las
constituciones del Uruguay (1956; 2nd ed., Madrid, 1978). And, for Venezu-
ela, see Ernesto Wolf, Tratado de derecho constitutional venezolano, 2 vols.
(Caracas, 1945), Esteban Agudo Ereytes et al., Estudios sobre la constitution,
4 vols. (Caracas, 1979), and Allan Randolph Brewer-Carias, Instituciones
politicas y constitucionales, 2 vols. (Caracas, 1985) and Problemas del estado de
partidos (Caracas, 1988).
Studies of comparative Latin American constitutionalism are rare. Anto-
nio Colomer Viadel, Introduction al constitucionalismo iberoamericano (Madrid,
1990) provides a useful introduction to comparative Latin American consti-
tutionalism. Jorge Mario Eastman, Constituciones politicas comparadas de
America del Sur (Bogota, 1991) gives a valuable comparative summary of
South American constitutions in the light of the reforms of the Colombian
Constitution. An impressive treatment of the constitutional and legal
treatment of human rights and national security in Latin America is
Hernan Montealegre, La seguridaddel estado y los derechos humanos (Santiago,
Chile, 1979)-
The classic study on constitutionalism and presidentialism in Latin
America is 'The balance between legislative and executive power: A study
in comparative constitutional law', The University of Chicago Law Review, 5
(1937-8), 566-608. Another early analysis of the presidential and semi-

parliamentary nature of different Latin American governments may be

found in Russell H. Fitzgibbon (ed.), 'Latin America looks to the future', a
special section of the American Political Science Review, 39 (June 1945),
481547, especially the articles by Russell H. Fitzgibbon, 'Constitutional
development in Latin America: A synthesis', 51121, and William S.
Stokes, 'Parliamentary government in Latin America', 52235. See also
Carl J. Friedrich, Constitutional Government and Democracy: Theory and Prac-
tice in Europe and Latin America (Boston, 1941), and W. W. Pierson (ed.),
'Pathology of democracy in Latin America: A symposium', American Politi-
cal Science Review, 44 (March 1950), 100-49, especially the articles by
Arthur P. Whitaker, 'Pathology of democracy in Latin America: A histo-
rian's point of view', 101 18, and Russell Fitzgibbon, 'A political scien-
tist's point of view', 11828. See also William W Pierson and Federico G.
Gil, Governments of Latin America (New York, 1957), Harold Davis (ed.),
Government and Politics in Latin America (New York, 1958) and Thomas Di-
bacco (ed.), Presidential Power in Latin American Politics (New York, 1977).
The distinguished Mexican journal of constitutional law, Boletin Mexi-
cano de Derecho Comparado, has published valuable articles on presidential
regimes on the continent. See Salvador Valencia Carmona, 'Las tendencias
contemporaneas del ejecutivo latinoamericano,' 11/312 (1978), 13356
and Monique Lions, 'Referendum, la delegaci6n del poder legislative y la
responsabilidad de los ministros en America Latina', 5/15 (1972), 46385.
A recent comprehensive attempt to evaluate presidential regimes, with
considerable attention to the Latin American cases, is Richard Moulin, Le
presidentialisme et la classification des regimes politiques (Paris, 1978).
Interest in presidentialism in Latin America increased enormously in
the late 1980s and early 1990s. Consejo para la Consolidacion de la
Democracia (eds.), Presidencialismo vs. parlamentarismo: Materiales para el
estudio de la reforma constitucional (Buenos Aires, 1988) is a useful compila-
tion of articles; one published in English in slightly revised form is Juan
Linz, 'The perils of presidentialism', Journal of Democracy, 1 (1990), 51
69. See also Dieter Nohlen and Mario Fernandez (eds.), Presidencialismo
versus parlamentarismo, America Latina (Caracas, 1991). Juan Linz, Arturo
Valenzuela and collaborators examine general issues and individual coun-
tries in Linz and Valenzuela (eds.), The Failure of Presidentialism: The Latin
American Experience (Baltimore, 1994); see also Scott Mainwaring, Presi-
dentialism in Latin America,' LARR, 25/2 (1990), 159-79.
There has been remarkably little comparative work on Latin American
legislatures. Three edited books which include several comparative chap-

8. Democracy
ters on Latin American legislatures are Allan Kornberg and Lloyd Musolf
(eds.), Legislatures in Developmental Perspective (Durham, N.C., 1970); Wes-
ton H. Agor (ed.), Latin American Legislatures: Their Role and Influence (New
York, 1971); and Joel Smith and Lloyd D. Musolf (eds.), Legislatures in De-
velopment: Dynamics of Change in New and Old States (Durham, N.C., 1979).
See also Steven Hughes and Kenneth Mijeski, Legislative-Executive Policy-
Making: The Cases of Chile and Costa Rica (Beverly Hills, Calif., 1973).
PARTICIPATION, PARTIES AND ELECTIONS
There is currently no centralized Latin American electoral data base, or

depository for Latin American public opinion polls. One useful source of
political statistics is the annual Statistical Abstract of Latin America (Los
Angeles), published since 1955. The Roper Center, University of Connec-
ticut in Storrs, Connecticut, and the Institute for Research in the Social
Sciences, University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, are
beginning to collect Latin American public opinion polls in a form accessi-
ble to all scholars.
Political participation has usually been studied either in a country-
specific fashion or by comparing the political activities of particular
groups, such as labour or the peasantry. One valuable compilation of
articles is John A. Booth and Mitchell Seligson (eds.), Political Participation
in Latin America, 2 vols. (New York, 1978-9). See also Howard Han-
delman, 'The political mobilization of urban squatter settlements', LARR,
10 (1975), 35-72. The best sources on populism are also largely country
specific. However, see Torcuato S. Di Telia, 'Populism and reform in Latin
America', in Claudio Veliz (ed.), Obstacles to Change in Latin America (New
York, 1965); Helio Jaguaribe, Political Development: A General Theory and a
Latin American Case Study (New York, 1973); A. E. Niekerk, Populism and
Political Development in Latin America (Rotterdam, 1974); Octavio Ianni, A
formacao do estado populista na AmSrica Latina (Rio de Janeiro, 1975; 2nd
ed., Sao Paulo, 1989); Michael L. Conniff(ed.), Latin American Populism in
Comparative Perspective (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1982); and Robert H. Dix,
'Populism: Authoritarian and democratic', LARR, 20/2 (1985), 29-52.
There has been extensive research on individual parties and party leaders.
See the bibliographical essays for specific countries. An important volume,
which includes some Latin American case studies, is Seymour Martin Lipset
and Stein Rokkan (eds.), Party Systems and Voter Alignments: Cross-National
Perspectives (New York, 1967); see especially the chapter by Lipset and

Rokkan, 'Cleavage structures, party systems, and voter alignments: An

introduction'. See also Giovanni Sartori, Parties and Party Systems: A Frame-
work for Analysis (Cambridge, Eng., 1976). General works focused on Latin
America include Robert J. Alexander, Latin American Political Parties (New
York, 1973); Ronald McDonald, Party Systems and Elections in Latin America
(Chicago, 1971); Jean-Pierre Bernard et al., Guide to the Political Parties of
South America (Hammondsworth, Eng., 1973); Robert J. Alexander (ed.),
Political Parties of the Americas (Westport, Conn., 1982); Ernest A. Duff,
Leader and Party in Latin America (Boulder, Colo., 1985); Rolando Peredo
Torres, Partidospoliticos en America Latina (Lima, 1986); Ronald McDonald
and J. Mark Ruhl, Party Politics and Elections in Latin America (Boulder,
Colo., 1989); and Scott Mainwaring and Timothy Scully (eds.), Building
Democratic Institutions: Parties and Party Systems in Latin America (Stanford,
Calif., 1994). Extensive material on political parties and their develop-
ment, particularly with regard to labour incorporation, for eight Latin
American countries, may be found in Ruth Berins Collier and David Col-
lier, Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, the Labor Movement, and
Regime Dynamics in Latin America (Princeton, N.J., 1991). On Southern
Cone parties, see Marcelo Cavarozzi and Manuel Antonio Garret6n (eds.),
Muertey resurreccion: Los partidos politicos en el autoritarismo y las transiciones en el
Cono Sur (Santiago, Chile, 1989); see also, on Argentina and Chile, Karen
Remmer, Party Competition in Argentina and Chile: Political Recruitment and
Public Policy, 1890-1930 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1984). Christian Democratic
parties are examined in Edward J. Williams, Latin American Christian Demo-
cratic Parties (Knoxville, Tenn., 1967). Changes in Central American parties
are reviewed in Louis W. Goodman, William M. LeoGrande and Johanna
Mendelson Forman (eds.), Political Parties and Democracy in Central America
(Boulder, Colo., 1992).
Early comparative articles include Robert J. Alexander, 'The Latin
American Aprista parties', Political Quarterly, 20 (1949), 236-47; Federico
G. Gil, 'Responsible parties in Latin America,' Journal of Politics, 15
(1953), 3 3 3 - 4 8 ; and Russell H. Fitzgibbon, 'The Party Potpourri in Latin
America', Western Political Quarterly, 10 (March 1957), 3 - 2 2 . Subsequent
efforts to characterize Latin American parties include John D. Martz,
'Studying Latin American political parties: Dimensions past and present',
Journal of Politics, 26(1964), 5 0 9 - 3 1 ; Alan Angell, "Party systems in Latin
America', Political Quarterly, 37 (1966), 309-23; Robert E. Scott, 'Politi-
cal parties and policy-making in Latin America', in Joseph LaPalombara
and Myron Weiner (eds.), Political Parties and Political Development (Prince-

8. Democracy 579
ton, N.J., 1966); Peter Ranis, 'A two-dimensional typology of Latin

American political parties', Journal of Politics, 38 (1968), 798832; Doug-
las Chalmers, 'Parties and society in Latin America', Studies in Comparative
International Development, 7 (Summer 1972), 10228; Robert Kaufman,
'Corporatism, clientelism, and partisan conflict: A study of seven Latin
American countries', in James M. Malloy (ed.), Authoritarianism and Cor-
poratism in Latin America (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1977); and Mary J. R. Martz,
'Studying Latin American political parties: Dimensions past and present',
JLAS, 12 (1980), 13967. More recent comparative articles include Lili-
ana De Riz, 'Politica y partidos: Ejercicio de analisis comparado: Argen-
tina, Chile, Brasil y Uruguay', DE, 25 (January 1986), 659-82; Scott
Mainwaring, 'Political parties and democratization in Brazil and the South-
ern Cone', Comparative Politics, 21 (October 1988), 91120; and Robert
H. Dix, 'Cleavage structure and party systems in Latin America', Compara-
tive Politics, 22 (October 1989), 2337. Finally, see three useful bibliogra-
phies: Harry Kantor, Latin American Political Parties: A Bibliography
(Gainesville, Fla., 1968), Alejandro Witkes Velasquez, Bibliografia la-
tinoamericana de politica y partidos politicos (San Jose, C.R., 1988), and
Manuel Alcantara, Ismael Crespo and Antonia Martinez, Procesos electorales
y partidos politicos en America Latina (19801992): Guia bibliogrdfica, Duke-
University of North Carolina Program in Latin American Studies, Work-
ing Paper no. 8 (Durham and Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993).
There is an extensive literature analysing elections in Latin American
countries, although again most of it is country specific. From 1963 to
1969, the Institute for the Comparative Study of Political Systems pub-
lished 'election factbooks' of varying quality analysing specific elections in
Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica and Uruguay as part of its Election
Analysis Series. Enrique C. Ochoa, 'The rapid expansion of voter participa-
tion in Latin America: Presidential elections, 1845-1986,' SALA, 25
(1987), 8 6 9 - 9 1 1 , provides a valuable compendium of statistics on elec-
toral turnout in the region. The most complete analysis and compilation
of electoral laws, participation rates and voting results may be found in
Dieter Nohlen (ed.), Enciclopedia electoral latinoamericana y del caribe (San
Jose, C.R., 1993).
Beginning in the 1980s, the Centro Interamericano de Asesoria y
Promocion Electoral (CAPEL), based in San Jose, Costa Rica, began pub-
lishing what has become a lengthy list of publications examining different
features of constitutionalism, electoral laws and procedures, parties and
party systems in Latin America and in specific Latin American countries.

Among the general publications published by CAPEL are: Marcos Kaplan,

'Participacion politica, estatismo y presidencialismo en la America Latina
contemporanea', Cuadernos de CAPEL, 1 (San Jose, C.R., 1985); Francisco
Oliart, 'Campesinado indigena y derecho electoral en America Latina',
Cuadernos de CAPEL, 6 (San Jose, C.R., 1986); Rolando Franco, 'Los
sistemas electorales y su impacto politico', Cuadernos de CAPEL, 20 (San
Jose, C.R., 1987); Augusto Hernandez Becerra et al., Legislation electoral
comparada: Colombia, Mexico, Panama, Venezuela y Centroamerica (San Jose,
C.R., 1986); Jorge Mario Garcia Laguardia, El regimen constitutional de los
partidos politicos en America Latina (San Jose, C.R., 1986); Dieter Nohlen,
La reforma electoral en America Latina: Seis contributiones al debate (San Jose,
C.R., 1987); Manuel Aragon Reyes et al., Elecciones y democracia en America
Latina (San Jose, C.R., 1987); and Juan Jaramillo, Marta Leon Roesch and
Dieter Nohlen (eds.), Poder electoraly consolidation democrdtica: Estudios sobre
la organization electoral en America Latina (San Jose, C.R., 1989). See also
Jorge R. Vanossi et al., Legislation electoral comparada: Argentina, Bolivia,
Brasil, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru y Uruguay (Montevideo, 1988); and
Gabriel Murillo Castano and Marta Maria Villaveces de Ordonez (eds.),
Conferencia interamericana sobre sistemas electorales (Caracas, 1990).
With the transitions to democracy of the 1980s, a number of comparative
studies of elections appeared, including Paul W. Drake and Eduardo Silva,
(eds.), Elections and Democratization in Latin America: 19801985 (San Di-
ego, Calif., 1986) and John A. Booth and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.),
Elections and Democracy in Central America (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989). Sev-
eral Latin American cases are included in Myron Weiner and Ergun
Ozbudun (eds.), Comparative Elections in Developing Countries (Durham,
N . C . , 1987).
Articles with a comparative focus on aspects of elections in Latin Amer-
ica include Ronald H. McDonald, 'Electoral fraud and regime controls in
Latin America', Western Political Quarterly, 25 (1972), 8 1 - 9 3 ; Martin C.
Needier, 'The closeness of elections in Latin America', LARR, 12 (1977),
11521; and Scott Mainwaring, 'Politicians, parties and electoral sys-
tems: Brazil in comparative perspective', Comparative Politics, 24 (1991),
21-43.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
One strand of literature views Latin American presidentialism, centralism

and possibilities for democracy primarily through a cultural prism. A

8. Democracy 581
particularly valuable exposition is Richard Morse, 'The heritage of Latin

America', in Louis Hartz (ed.), The Founding of New Societies (New York,
1964). See also Claudio Veliz, The Centralist Tradition of Latin America
(Princeton, N.J., 1980); Howard Wiarda, The Continuing Struggle for De-
mocracy in Latin America (Boulder, Colo., 1980), and Political and Social
Change in Latin America: The Distinct Tradition (1974; 2nd ed., Amherst,
Mass., 1982; 3rded., Boulder, Colo., 1992); Glen Dealy, The Public Man:
An Interpretation of Latin America and Other Catholic Countries (Amherst,
Mass., 1977); and Lawrence Harrison, Under development Is a State of Mind:
The Latin American Case (Lanham, Md., 1985).
More empirically based studies on political culture, or in a different
philosophical tradition, include Susan Tiano, 'Authoritarianism and politi-
cal culture in Argentina and Chile in the mid-1960s', LARR, 21 (1986),
7398; Norbert Lechner (ed.), Cultura politica y democratizacion (Santiago,
Chile, 1987); and Susan C. Bourque and Kay B. Warren, 'Democracy
without peace: The cultural politics of terror in Peru', LARR, 24 (1989),
7-34-
Generally more optimistic interpretations regarding Latin American de-
mocracy, built around a modernization perspective, emerged in the late
1950s and 1960s. An interpretation inspired by the structural-functionalist
school, may be found in George Blanksten, 'The politics of Latin America1,
in Gabriel Almond and James Coleman (eds.), The Politics ofDeveloping A reas
(Princeton, N.J., i960). Perspectives broadly in the modernization school,
combining culturalist, institutional and behavioural views, include John J.
Johnson, Political Change in Latin America: The Emergence of the Middle Sectors
(Stanford, Calif., 1958); Charles W. Anderson, Politics and Economic Change
in Latin America (Princeton, N.J., 1967); Jacques Lambert, Latin America:
Social Structure and Political Institutions (Berkeley, 1967); Seymour Martin
Lipset and Aldo Solari (eds.), Elites in Latin America (New York, 1967);
Harry Kantor, Patterns of Politics and Political Systems in Latin America (Chi-
cago, 1969); and Kalman Silvert, Essays in Understanding Latin America
(Philadelphia, 1977).
In the 1960s, a strong reaction to modernization, structural-
functionalist and behavioural perspectives that appeared to downplay the
impact of the role of the United States and of social class conflict emerged
from Latin America. Views underscoring dependency, imperialism and
class domination tended to dismiss political democracy as a facade, as
unviable or as a possible instrument toward revolutionary socialism. Two
classic, and quite different, interpretations are Andre Gunder Frank, Capi-

ta/ism and Under development in Latin America (New York, 1967) and Fernando
Henrique Cardoso and Enzo Faletto, Dependency and Development in Latin
America (Berkeley, 1979), the latter first published in Portuguese and in
Spanish in the 1960s. See also Theotonio Dos Santos, Socialismo ofascismo:
Dilema latinoamericano, 2nded. (Santiago, Chile, 1972) and Rodolfo Staven-
hagen, 'The future of Latin America: Between underdevelopment and revo-
lution', LAP, 1 (1974), 12449. Important collections of articles include
James Petras (ed.), Latin America: From Dependence to Revolution (New York,
1973); James Petras and Maurice Zeitlin (eds.), Latin America: Reform or
Revolution? (Greenwich, Conn., 1968); and Ronald H. Chilcote and Joel C.
Edelstein (eds.), Latin America: The Struggle with Dependency and Beyond
(New York, 1974).
The wave of military coups in the 1960s and the early 1970s, including
among the more industrialized countries in Latin America, led to new
interpretations about the difficulties of democracy in the region. The most
significant was Guillermo O'Donnell, Modernization and Bureaucratic-
Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics (Berkeley, 197 3); its argu-
ments were extensively and critically reviewed in David Collier (ed.), The
New Authoritarianism in Latin America (Princeton, N.J., 1979). Non-
culturalist corporatist interpretations of the problems of democracy in Latin
America also appeared at this time; one of the most influential was Philippe
C. Schmitter, 'Still the Century of Corporatism?', Review of Politics, 36/1
(1974), 85131. A noteworthy structuralist interpretation of the reasons
for variations in democratic experiences in Latin America in a comparative
framework also examining European cases is Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Eve-
lyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and
Democracy (Chicago, 1992). Goran Therborn, 'The travail of Latin American
democracy,' New Left Review, No. 11314 (1979), 77109, is an interest-
ing contribution. More focused on social movements is Alain Touraine,
Adores sociales y sistemaspoliticos en America Latina (Santiago, Chile, 1987). A
valuable, if eclectic, interpretive framework and chapters examining the
democratic record of ten Latin American countries can be found in Larry
Diamond, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in
Developing Countries, Vol. 4: Latin America (Boulder, Colo., 1989).
Central to many of these debates about democracy in Latin America is
how to understand the role of the United States. On first the advance and
then the retreat of democracy and the influence, direct and indirect, of the
United States on both during the period immediately after the Second
World War, see Leslie Bethell and Ian Roxborough (eds.), Latin America

8. Democracy 583
between the Second World War and the Cold War, 19441948 (Cambridge,
Eng., 1992). A skeptical view of U.S.-sponsored elections as democracy is
Edward S. Herman and Frank Brodhead, Demonstration Elections: U.S.-
Staged Elections in the Dominican Republic, Vietnam, and El Salvador (Boston,
1984). Diverging views may be found in Julio Coder and Richard R.
Fagen (eds.), Latin America and the United States: The Changing Political
Realities (Stanford, Calif., 1974). Also useful are the articles by Howard J.
Wiarda, 'Can democracy be exported? The quest for democracy in U.S.
Latin American Policy', and Guillermo O'Donnell, 'The United States,
Latin America, democracy: Variations on a very old theme', both in Kevin
Middlebrook and Carlos Rico (eds.), The United States and Latin America in
the 1980s: Contending Perspectives on a Decade in Crisis (Pittsburgh, Pa.,
1986), and several articles in Robert A. Pastor (ed.), Democracy in the
Americas: Stopping the Pendulum (New York, 1989). A detailed examination
of the issues of the United States and democracy in Latin America in the
twentieth century may be found in Abraham F. Lowenthal (ed.), Exporting
Democracy: The United States and Latin America (Baltimore, 1991). See also
Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy: U.S. Policy Toward Latin
America in the Reagan Years (Berkeley, 1991).
Another focus of attention especially in the 1980s and early 1990s has
been the relationship between economic problems and democracy. See
Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel A. Morley (eds.), Latin American Political
Economy: Financial Crisis and Political Change (Boulder, Colo., 1986); John
Sheahan, Patterns of Development in Latin America: Poverty, Repression, and
Economic Strategy (Princeton, N.J., 1987); Barbara Stallings and Robert
Kaufman (eds.), Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, Colo.,
1989); Jeffry A. Frieden, Debt, Development and Democracy: Modern Political
Economy and Latin America, 19651985 (Princeton, N.J., 1991); and Ste-
phen Haggard and Robert Kaufman (eds.), The Politics of Economic Adjust-
ment: International Constraints, Distributive Conflicts and the State (Princeton,
N.J., 1992).
Alongside culturalist and structuralist views of democracy in Latin
America have been others emphasizing political and institutional features
and processes during critical turning points. Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan
(eds.), The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes (Baltimore, 1978) focuses on
when, how and why democracies fail. See the general introduction by Juan
Linz, a book-length chapter on Chile and the 1973 breakdown by Arturo
Valenzuela, and chapters by other authors, some more historical-structural
in interpretation, on five additional Latin American countries.

Literature that is more process-oriented and focused on questions of

institutional and political choice is especially evident in the analysis of
democratic transitions, particularly the wave of transitions of the late
1970s and the 1980s. An early, influential article was Dankwart Rustow,
'Transitions to democracy: Toward a dynamic model', Comparative Politics,
2 (1970), 337-63-
An essential source is Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter and
Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule (Baltimore,
1986), which includes several comparative chapters, discussion on eight
Latin American countries and a lengthy concluding discussion. Samuel P.
Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century
(Norman, Okla., 1991) includes many Latin American cases. See also
Enzo Faletto (ed.), Movimientos populares y alternativas de poder en Latino-
america (Puebla, 1980); Robert Wesson (ed.), Democracy in Latin America:
Promises and Problems (Stanford, Calif., 1982); Archibald Ritter and David
Pollack (eds.), Latin American Prospects for the 1980s: Equity, Democracy and
Development (New York, 1983); Francisco Orrego Vicuna et al., Transicion a
la democracia en America Latina (Buenos Aires, 1985); Alain Rouquie,
Bolivar Lamounier and Jorge Schvarzer (eds.), Como renascem as democracias
(Sao Paulo, 1985); Scott Mainwaring and Eduardo Viola, 'Transitions to
democracy: Brazil and Argentina in the 1980s', Journal of International
Affairs, 38 (1985), 193219; Karen Remmer, 'Redemocratization and the
impact of authoritarian rule in Latin America', Comparative Politics, 17
(1985), 2 5 3 - 7 5 ; James Malloy and Mitchell Seligson (eds.), Authoritari-
ans and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, Pa.,
1987); Enrique Baloyra (ed.), Comparing New Democracies: Transitions and
Consolidations in Mediterranean Europe and the Southern Cone (Boulder, Colo.,
1987); 'Transici6n y perspectivas de la democracia en Iberoamerica',
Pensamiento Iberoamericano, Revista de Economia Politica, 14 (1988), 7317;
Dieter Nohlen and Aldo Solari (eds.), Reforma politica y consolidation demo-
crdtica: Europa y America Latina (Caracas, 1988); Edelberto Torres Rivas,
Repression and Resistance: The Struggle for Democracy in Central America (Boul-
der, Colo., 1989); Carlos Barba Solano, Jose Luis Barros Horcasitas and
Javier Hurtado (eds.), Transiciones a la democracia en Europay America Latina
(Mexico, D.F., 1991); Manuel Alcantara Saez (ed.), 'Numero monografico
sobre politica en America Latina', Revista de Estudios Politicos, 74 (1991);
and John Higley and Richard Gunther (eds.), Elites and Democratic Consoli-
dation in Latin America and Southern Europe (Cambridge, Eng., 1992).
An effort to measure democracy in Latin America, based on the opin-

9. The Left 585
ions of a panel of experts, was initiated by Russell H. Fitzgibbon and has
been periodically updated. See Russell H. Fitzgibbon, 'Measuring demo-
cratic change in Latin America'', Journal of Politics, 39/1 (1967), 12966;
Kenneth F. Johnson, 'Measuring the scholarly image of Latin American
Democracy: 1945 to 1970,' in James W. Wilkie and Kenneth Ruddle
(eds.), Methodology in Quantitative Latin American Studies (Los Angeles,
1976); Kenneth F. Johnson, 'Scholarly images of Latin American political
democracy in 1975', LARR, 11/2 (1976), 129-40; and Kenneth F. John-
son, 'The 1980 Image-Index Survey of Latin American political democ-
racy', LA RR, 17/3(1982), 193-201.
One of the most difficult challenges remains the conceptualization of
political democracy and the development of typologies of democracy. An
essential initial source is the work of Robert A. Dahl, Polyarchy: Participa-
tion and Opposition (New Haven, Conn., 1971). Many of the above-cited
authors (including Linz and Stepan; O'Donnell, Schmitter and White-
head; Diamond, Linz and Lipset; Rueschemeyer, Stephens and Stephens;
Wiarda; and Johnson) have attempted to develop typologies of democracy,
based on factors ranging from stability, to the extent of respect for civil
liberties and political rights, to the degree of inclusiveness of the popula-
tion in the democratic polity, to the degree of civilian control over the
armed forces, to the extension of democracy into the social or the economic
realm.
9. THE LEFT
For the early years of the Communist movement in Latin America, see
Robert Alexander, Communism in Latin America (New Brunswick, N.J.,
1957) and Trotskyism in Latin America: (Stanford, Calif., 1973); and Rollie
Poppino, International Communism in Latin America: A History of the Move-
ment, 1917 to 1963 (New York, 1964). For excellent collections of docu-
ments, see Stephen Clissold (ed.), Soviet Relations with Latin America, 1918
to 1968: A Documentary Survey (London, 1970) and Luis Aguilar (ed.),
Marxism in Latin America (Philadelphia, 1978).
Relations between Latin America and the Comintern are treated in
provocative fashion by Manuel Caballero, Latin America and the Comintern,
1919-1943 (Cambridge, Eng., 1986). Quite outstanding is the detailed
analysis of the Comintern in Central America in Rodolfo Cerdas, La
International Comunista, America Latina y la revolucidn en Centroamerica (San

Jose, C.R., 1986); Eng. trans., The Communist International in Central

America, 19201936 (London, 1993). Two books provide comprehensive
coverage of relations between Latin America and the Soviet Union; Nicola
Miller, Soviet Relations with Latin America, 1959198J (Cambridge, Eng.,
1989), and Eusebio Mujal-Leon (ed.), The USSR and Latin America: A
Developing Relationship (London, 1989). See also the article by Rodolfo
Cerdas Cruz, 'New directions in Soviet policy towards Latin America',
JLAS, 21/1 (1989), 122; and Fernando Bustamante, 'Soviet foreign
policy toward Latin America', JIAS, 32/4 (1990), 3565. Cole Blasier
examines Soviet perceptions of Latin America in The Giant's Rival: The
USSR and Latin America (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1983). See also J. G. Oswald
(ed.), The Soviet Image of Contemporary Latin America: A Documentary History
i9601968 (Austin, Tex., 1970); William E. Ratliff, Castroism and Com-
munism in Latin America, 19591976 (Washington, D.C., 1976); Au-
gusto Varas (ed.), SovietLatin America Relations in the 1980s (Boulder,
Colo., 1986); and Robert Leiken, Soviet Strategy in Latin America (Washing-
ton, D.C., 1982). For the activities of the Socialist International in Latin
America, see Felicity Williams, La Internacional Socialista y America Latina
(Mexico, D.F., 1984).
The polemic between Mariategui and the Comintern was the first of
many debates between orthodoxy and 'heresy' in the world of Latin Ameri-
can communism. On this debate, see Alberto Flores Galindo, La agonia de
Mariategui: La polemica con la Komintem (Lima, 1980); Carlos Franco, Del
Marxismo eurocentrico al Marxismo latinoamericano (Lima, 1981); Harry
Vanden, 'Mariategui, Marxismo, Comunismo and other bibliographical
notes', LARR, 14/3 (1979), 6186 and National Marxism in Latin Amer-
ica: Jose Carlos Mariategui's Thought and Politics (Boulder, Colo., 1986); and
Ricardo Martinez de la Torre, Apuntes para una interpretacion Marxista de la
historia social del Peru (Lima, 1947). Mariategui's best-known book is Seven
Intrepretive Essays on Peruvian Reality (1928; Eng. trans., Austin, Tex.,
1971).
Discussions of the importance of Marxism as an ideology in Latin Amer-
ica are rather few and disappointing. There are exceptions, however, nota-
bly in the writing of Jose Arico: see Marx y America Latina (Lima, 1980);
and 'El Marxismo en America Latina' in Fernando Calderon (ed.), Socialismo,
autoritarismo y democracia (Lima, 1989). Another acute observer is Tomas
Moulian, Democracia y socialismo en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1983). An excel-
lent and detailed exposition of Marxist ideas on underdevelopment is Ga-
briel Palma, 'Dependency: A formal theory of underdevelopment or a meth-

9. The Left 587
odology for the analysis of concrete situations of underdevelopment, World
Development, 6/78 (1978), 881-924. Sheldon Liss, Marxist Thought in
Latin America (Berkeley, 1984) is detailed but rather uncritical. A useful
anthology is Michael Lowy (ed.), El Marxism) en America Latina de 1909 a
neustras dias (Mexico, D.F., 1982), Eng. trans., Marxism in Latin America
from 1909 to the Present (London, 1992). An attempt to rescue the Marxist
tradition for the contemporary Latin American left is Richard Harris, Marx-
ism, Socialism and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, Colo., 1992). See
also the articles contained in NACLA Report, The Latin American Left: A
Painful Rebirth, 25/5 (1992).
Although not directly concerned with Marxism, there is interesting
discussion of the relationship between the Left and culture in Jean Franco,
The Modern Culture of Latin America: Society and the Artist (London, 1967),
and in her book on the Peruvian poet, Cesar Vallejo: The Dialectics of Poetry
and Silence (Cambridge, Eng., 1976). Gerald Martin, Journeys Through the
Labyrinth: Latin American Fiction in the Twentieth Century (London, 1989),
amongst its many other qualities, explores the political commitment of
Latin American writers. One of the few specific studies to take ideas and
ideologies seriously, odd though some of those ideas were, is Donald
Hodges, Intellectual Foundations of the Nicaraguan Revolution (Austin, Tex.,
1986). The ideological and political significance of the Spanish Civil War
for the countries of Latin America is well treated in Mark Falcoff and
Fredrick Pike (eds.), The Spanish Civil War: American Hemispheric Perspectives
(Lincoln, Nebr., 1982). For the important period following the Second
World War, see Leslie Bethell and Ian Roxborough (eds.), Latin America
between the Second World War and the Cold War, 1944-1948 (Cambridge,
Eng., 1992).
There are relatively few memoirs by Marxists, or former Marxists, and
they are not always reliable. But well worth reading for Chile are Elias
Lafertte, Vida de un comunista (Santiago, Chile, 1961); Pablo Neruda,
Confieso que he vivido: Memorias (Barcelona, 1983); and the ex-Comintern
agent turned militant anti-communist, Eudocio Ravines, The Yenan Way
(New York, 1951). For Mexico, see Valentin Campa, Mi testimonio:
Experiencias de un comunista mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1978). Quite outstand-
ing is Roque Dalton's recounting of the life of the veteran Salvadorean
communist, available in English translation, Miguel M^rwo/(Willimantic,
Conn., 1986). On another leading Salvadorean figure, see Jorge Arias
Gomez, Farabundo Marti: Esbozo biogrdfico (San Jose, C.R., 1972). For
Argentina, see Jose Peter, Historia y luchas de los obreros del came (Buenos

Aires, 1947), and Cronicas proletarias (Buenos Aires, 1968). For the mem-
oirs of a leading Comintern agent who was active in Mexico, see M. N.
Roy, Memoirs (Bombay, 1964). And for the memoirs of a labour activist
from the opposite side of the political spectrum, see Serafino Romualdi,
Presidents and Peons: Recollections of a Labor Ambassador in Latin America
(New York, 1967).
On Chinese communism in Latin America after the SinoSoviet split,
see Cecil Johnson, Communist China and Latin America, 19591967 (New
York, 1970) and 'China and Latin America: New ties and tactics', Problems
of Communism, 21/4 (1972); J. L. Lee, 'Communist China's Latin America
policy', Asian Survey (November 1964); Alain Joxe, El conflicto chino
sovietico en America Latina (Montevideo, 1967); and Alan Angell, 'Class-
room Maoists: The Politics of Peruvian schoolteachers under military
government', BLAR, 1/2 (1982), 1-20. See also Ernst Halperin, 'Peking
and the Latin American Communists', China Quarterly (January 1967).
The guerrilla movements that sprang up following the Cuban Revolu-
tion are discussed in great, if uncritical, detail in Richard Gott, Rural
Guerrillas in Latin America (London, 1973). The strategy of such move-
ments derived from Regis Debray's influential if partial account of the
success of the Cuban Revolution in Revolution in the Revolution? (London,
1968). Debray later wrote, in two volumes, A Critique of Arms (London,
1977 and 1978), which sets out his revised theories and includes case
studies of guerrillas in Venezuela, Guatemala and Uruguay. Very revealing
of the problems facing rural guerrilla movements are the diaries of Che
Guevara in Bolivia, edited by Daniel James, The Complete Bolivian Diaries
and Other Captured Documents (London, 1968). See also I. L. Horowitz,
Latin American Radicalism: A Documentary Report on Left and Nationalist
Movements (London, 1969). A more recent account of the revolutionary
Left is Ronaldo Munck, Revolutionary Trends in Latin America, Monograph
Series no. 17, Centre for Developing Area Studies, McGill University
(Montreal, 1984). See also the perceptive article by Steve Ellner, 'The
Latin American Left since Allende: Perspectives and new directions',
LARR, 24/2 (1989), 143-167.
The literature on the Cuban Revolution is huge. Amongst the works
which look at the Cuban Revolution in comparative or theoretical perspec-
tive are James O'Connor, The Origins of Socialism in Cuba (Ithaca, N.Y.,
1970); K. S. Karol, Guerrillas in Power (New York, 1970); D. Bruce
Jackson, Castro, the Kremlin and Communism in Latin America (Baltimore,
); Andres Suarez, Cuba, Castro and Communism, 19591966 (Cam-

9. The Left 589
bridge, Mass., 1967); Bertram Silverman (ed.), Man and Socialism in Cuba
(New York, 1972); Jorge Dominguez, Cuba: Order and Revolution (Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1978). Marxism in Cuba before Castro is described in
Sheldon Liss, Roots of Revolution: Radical Thought in Cuba (Lincoln, Nebr.,
1987). On the pre-Castro Communist party, see Harold Sims, 'Cuban
labor and the Communist Party, 1937-1958', Cuban Studies, 15/1(1985);
and Antonio Avila and Jorge Garcia Montes, Historia del Partido Comunista
de Cuba (Miami, 1970). Maurice Zeitlin, Revolutionary Politics and the
Cuban Working Class (New York, 1967) explores the political ideas of
ordinary Cubans.
The literature on left-wing movements in individual countries varies

greatly in quality. In general, too much is written by passionate support-
ers or by no less passionate opponents.
ARGENTINA
An unusually scholarly treatment of the urban guerrilla in Argentina is

Richard Gillespie, Soldiers ofPeron: Argentina's Montoneros (Oxford, 1982);
but see the review article of the book by Celia Szusterman, in JLAS, 16/1
(1984), 157-70. Relations between Argentina and the USSR are well
treated in Mario Rapoport, 'Argentina and the Soviet Union: History of
political and commercial relations, 1917-1955', HAHR, 66/2 (1986),
239-85; and in Aldo Vacs, Discrete Partners: Argentina and the USSR
(Pittsburgh, Pa., 1984).
For the politics of the Left in Argentina in the inter-war period, see
Horoschi Matsushita, El movimiento obrero argentino, 19301945 (Buenos
Aires, 1983); and David Tamarin, The Argentine Labor Movement, 1930-
1943: A Study in the Origins of Peronism (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1985).
Also useful on the labour movement is Samuel L. Baily, Labor, Nationalism
and Politics in Argentina (New Brunswick, N.J., 1967); and Ronaldo
Munck, Argentina from Anarchism to Peronism (London, 1987). The best
assessment of the way that Peronism captured the support of the Argen-
tine working class is Daniel James, Resistance and Integration: Peronism and
the Argentine Working Class, 1946-19J6 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988). A
savage attack on the Argentine Communist party is Jorge Abelardo Ra-
mos, Historia del estalinismo en Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1969). A more
recent study is Ricardo Falcon and Hugo Quiroga, Contribucion al estudio de
la evolucion ideologica del Partido Comunista Argentino (Buenos Aires, 1984).

For the official account of the Communist party's relations with Peronism,
see Oscar Arevalo, El Partido Comunista (Buenos Aires, 1983). For a Left
Peronist view, see Rodolfo Puiggr6s, Las Izquierdas y el problema nacional
(Buenos Aires, 1973). On the Socialist Party, see Richard J. Walter, The
Socialist Party of Argentina, 18901930 (Austin, Tex., 1977). For Trotsky-
ism, see Osvaldo Coggiola, El Trotskismo en la Argentina, 1960-1985, 2
vols. (Buenos Aires, 1986).
BRAZIL
There are several good studies of the Brazilian Left. For the early years, see
Astrojildo Pereira, Formagdo do PCB (Rio de Janeiro, 1962); John W. F.
Dulles, Anarchists and Communists in Brazil, 19001935 (Austin, Tex.,
1973); and Sheldon Maram, 'Labor and the Left in Brazil, 18901921',
HAHR, 57/2 (1977), 259-72. For a careful and critical examination of a
longer period, see Ronald Chilcote, The Brazilian Communist Party; Conflict
and Integration 1922-1912 (New York, 1974). On the Communist party
see also Leoncio Martins Rodrigues, 'O PCB: Os Dirigentes e a or-
ganizagao', in Boris Fausto (ed.), Historia geral da civilizagao brasileira, vol.
10 (Sao Paulo, 1981). The problems facing the Brazilian Left in trying to
cope with the important post-Second World War conjuncture is well
illustrated in Leslie Bethell's contribution in Leslie Bethell and Ian
Roxborough (eds.), Latin America between the Second World War and the Cold
War, 1944-1948 (Cambridge, Eng., 1992); and John French, 'Workers
and the rise of Adhemarista populism in Sao Paulo, Brazil 1945-1947',
HAHR, 68/1 (1988), 1-43. For the way that the Brazilian state con-
trolled labour, see Kenneth P. Erickson, The Brazilian Corporate State and
Working Class Politics (Berkeley, 1977). See also John W. F. Dulles, Brazil-
ian Communism 19351945- Repression during World Upheaval (Austin,
Tex., 1983). An advocate of armed struggle is Joao Quartim, Dictatorship
and Armed Struggle in Brazil (London, 1971); and a participant, later killed
in a confrontation with the army, is Carlos Marighela, For the Liberation of
Brazil (London, 1971). See also Jacob Gorender, Combate nas trevas: A
Esquerda brasileira; das Husoesperdidas a luta armada (Sao Paulo, 1987). On
the Partido dos Trabalhadores, see Rachel Menegnello, PT: A Formagdo de
un partido, 19J9-1982 (Sao Paulo, 1989), and Leoncio Martins Rodri-
gues, Partidos e sindicatos (Sao Paulo, 1990). Two recent studies of the
Partido dos Trabalhadores are Emir Sader and Ken Silverstein, Without
Fear of Being Happy: Lula, the Workers Party and Brazil (London, 1991); and

9. The Left 591
the outstanding book by Margaret Keck, The Workers Party and Democrati-
zation in Brazil (New Haven, Conn., 1992).
CHILE
The Chilean Left has received considerable attention, reflecting its impor-
tance in the politics of the country. An excellent overall interpretation is
Julio Faundez, Marxism and Democracy in Chile: From 1932 to the Fall of
AUende (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1988). The pioneer of labour
studies in Chile wrote extensively on the politics of the union movement:
See Jorge Barrfa, Trayectoria y estructura del movimiento sindical chileno (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1963), and the Historia de la CUT (Santiago, Chile., 1971).
Relations between the parties of the Left and the unions is also discussed in
Alan Angell, Politics and the Labour Movement in Chile (Oxford, 1972). A
brilliant account of a worker seizure of a factory under the AUende govern-
ment is Peter Winn, Weavers of Revolution: The Yarur Workers and Chile's
Road to Socialism (New York, 1986).
Hernan Ramirez Necochea gives the official PC interpretation in his
influential Origen y formation del Partido Comunista de Chile (Santiago,
Chile, 1965). An excellent unpublished doctoral thesis is Andrew Bar-
nard, 'The Chilean Communist Party, 1922-1947' (unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, University of London, 1977). More recent studies include Car-
melo Furci, The Chilean Communist Party and the Road to Socialism (Lon-
don, 1984); Eduardo Godard Labarca, Corvaldn, 27 horas (Santiago,
Chile, 1973); and Augusto Varas (ed.), El Partido Comunista en Chile
(Santiago, Chile, 1988). Ernst Halperin deals with relations between the
Socialists and Communists in Nationalism and Communism in Chile (Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1965). On the Socialists, see Julio Cesar Jobet, El Partido
Socialista de Chile, 2 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1971); Fernando Casanueva
and Manuel Fernandez, El Partido Socialista y la lucha de closes en Chile
(Santiago, Chile, 1973); and Benny Pollack and Hernan Rosenkranz,
Revolutionary Social Democracy: The Chilean Socialist Party (London, 1986).
Three books develop Socialist rethinking in Chile: Jorge Arrate, La
fuerza democratica de la idea socialista (Santiago, Chile, 1987) and edited
by the same author, La renovacion socialista (Santiago, Chile, 1987); and
Ricardo Lagos, Democracia para Chile: Proposiciones de un socialista (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1986). The most thorough account of the development of the
Socialist party is Paul Drake, Socialism and Populism in Chile, 19321952
(Urbana, 111., 1978). A stimulating more recent account is Ignacio

Walker, Socialismo y democracia: Chile y Europa en perspectiva comparada

There is a huge literature on the Allende government. For accounts
relevant to this chapter, see Eduardo Labarca Godard, Chile al rojo (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1971), which gives a fascinating account of the origins of the
government. For a good review of the literature see Lois Hecht Oppenheim,
'The Chilean road to socialism revisited', LARR, 24/1 (1989), 15583.
Allende's ideas are explored in Regis Debray, Conversations with Allende
(London, 1971). An interesting account by an aide of the president is Joan
Garces, Allendey la experiencia chilena (Barcelona, 1976). The best account of
the political economy of the period is Sergio Bitar, Transicion, socialismo y
democracia: La experiencia chilena (Mexico, D.F., 1979), translated as Chile:
Experiment in Democracy (Philadelphia, 1986). Relations with the Soviet
Union are well treated in Isabel Turrent, La Union Sovietica en America
Latina: El caso de la Unidad Popular Chilena (Mexico, D.F., 1984).
URUGUAY
For the history of Communism in Uruguay, see Eugenio Gomez, Historia

del Partido Comunista del Uruguay (Montevideo, 1961). For the trade union
movement, see Francisco Pinto, Historia del movimiento obrero del Uruguay
(Montevideo, i960); and Hector Rodriguez, Nuestros sindicatos, 1865-
1965 (Montevideo, 1965). For the armed struggle in Uruguay, see the
overly sympathetic account of Alain Labrousse, The Tupamaros (London,
1973)-
BOLIVIA
The basic text on the Bolivian Left is the work by the Trotskyist historian
and activist, Guillermo Lora, accessible in an English translation by Chris-
tine Whitehead and edited by Laurence Whitehead, A History of the Boliv-
ian Labour Movement (Cambridge, Eng., 1977). A rather different book is
by a USAID official, John Magill, Labor Unions and Political Socialization:
A Case Study of the Bolivian Workers (New York, 1974). A detailed examina-
tion of the problems of the contemporary Left in Bolivia is James
Dunkerley, Rebellion in the Veins: Political Struggle in Bolivia (London,
1984). The electoral behaviour of the most radical sector of the work force
is examined in Laurence Whitehead, 'Miners as voters: The electoral pro-
cess in Bolivia's mining camps', JLAS, 13/2 (1981), 313-46.

9. The Left 593
COLOMBIA
The official version of Colombian modern history as seen by that country's

Communist party is Treinta anos de lucha del Partido Comunista de Colombia
(Bogota, i960). The party's views of the union movement are expressed in
Edgar Caicedo, Historia de las luchas sindicales en Colombia (Bogota, 1977).
A Marxist account of popular struggles is Manuel Moncayo and Fernando
Rojas, Luchas obreras y politica laboral en Colombia (Bogota, 1978). Two
important works on labour from a different perspective are Miguel
Urrutia, Development of the Colombian Labor Movement (New Haven, Conn.,
1969) and Daniel Pecaut, Politica y sindicalismo en Colombia (Bogota,
1973). A classic account by a Communist activist in the 1920s and 30s is
Ignacio Torres Giraldo, Los Inconformes (Bogota, 1978). For the early pe-
riod, see also Gonzalo Sanchez, Los 'Bolcheviques' de El Libano (Bogota,
1976). On Gaitan, see Herbert Braun, The Assassination ofGaitdn: Public
Life and Urban Violence in Colombia (Madison, Wis., 1985). On violence,
see Paul Oquist, Violence, Conflict and Politics in Colombia (New York,
1980).
PERU
A good article on the Peruvian Left is Evelyne Huber Stephens, 'The

Peruvian military government, labor mobilization, and the political
strength of the Left', LARR, 18/2 (1983), 57-93. See also Jorge Nieto,
Izquierda y democracia en el Peru, 19751980 (Lima, 1983), and Guillermo
Rochabnin, 'Crisis, democracy and the Left in Peru', LAP, 15/3 (1988),
7796. An excellent article on the guerrilla is Leon Campbell, 'The
historiography of the Peruvian guerrilla movement, i9601963', LARR,
8/1 (1973), 4570; and for an account by a participant see Hector Bejar,
Peru 1965: Apuntes sobre una experiencia guerrillera (Lima, 1969). The Trot-
skyist union organiser gives his version of the peasant struggle in Hugo
Blanco, Land or Death: The Peasant Struggle in Peru (New York, 1972); and
on Hugo Blanco, see Tom Brass, 'Trotskyism, Hugo Blanco and the
ideology of a Peruvian peasant movement', Journal of Peasant Studies, 16/2
(1989), 173-97. The secretary-general of the Communist party, Jorge del
Prado, has written 40 anos de lucha (Lima, 1968). On Sendero Luminoso,
see Gustavo Gorriti, Sendero: Historia de la Guerra Milenaria en el Peru
(Lima, 1990); and Cynthia McClintock, 'Peru's Sendero Luminoso rebel-
lion: Origins and trajectory', in Susan Eckstein (ed.), Power and Popular

Protest, (Berkeley, 1989); and Carlos Ivan Degregori, Ayacucho 1969-

1979: El surgimiento de Sendero Luminoso (Lima, 1990).
VENEZUELA
On Venezuela, Romulo Betancourt, Venezuela, politica y petrdleo (Mexico,

D.F., 1956) is a basic source for many aspects of the politics of that
country. See also the biography by Robert Alexander, Romulo Betancourt
and the Transformation of Venezuela (New Brunswick, N.J., 1982). A Com-
munist activist gives his account in Juan Bautista Fuenmayor, Veinte anos
de historia (Caracas, 1980). For the early period of the Communist move-
ment, see Manuel Caballero, Entre Gomez y Stalin (Caracas, 1989). For the
struggle between Accion Democratica and the Communist party in the
unions, see Steve Ellner, Los partidos politicos y su disputa por el control del
movimiento sindical en Venezuela, 19361948 (Caracas, 1980); and, by the
same author, 'The Venezuelan Left in the era of the Popular Front', JLAS,
11/1 (1979); Hector Lucena, El movimiento obrero y las relaciones laborales
(Carabobo, 1981); and Alberto Pla et al., Clase obrera, partidos y sindicatos
en Venezuela, 1936-1950 (Caracas, 1982). An account of the guerrilla
experience by a disillusioned participant is Angela Zago, Aqui no ha pasado
nada (Caracas, 1972). An outstanding study of the Venezuelan Left in
more recent years is Steve Ellner, Venezuela's Movimiento al Socialismo: From
Guerrilla Defeat to Innovative Politics (Durham, N.C., 1988). A leading
member of the new Left, Teodoro Petkoff, has written Socialismo para
Venezuela? (Caracas, 1970), Razdn y pasion del socialismo (Caracas, 1973) and
Del optimismo de la voluntad: Escritospoliticos (Caracas, 1987).
MEXICO
The major work on the Mexican Left is Barry Carr, Marxism and Communism
in Twentieth-Century Mexico (Lincoln, Nebr., 1992). An excellent set of
essays on Mexico, covering the whole period, is Arnoldo Martinez Verdugo
(ed.), Historia delcomunism en Mixico (Mexico, D.F., 1983). The early years
of the Mexican Left are thoroughly examined in Barry Carr, El movimiento
obrero y la politica en Mexico, 1910-1929 (Mexico, D.F., 1981); and see also
Arnaldo C6rdoba, La clase obrera en la historia de Mexico; Vol. 9: En una epoca
de crisis, 19281934 (Mexico, D.F., 1980) and Manuel Marquez Fuentes
and Octavio Rodriguez Araujo, El Partido Comunista Mexicano, 1919-1943
(Mexico, D.F., 1973). For the crucial Cardenas years, see Samuel Le6n and

9. The Left 595
Ignacio Marvan, La clase obrera en la historia de Mexico: En el Cardenismo
I
934~I94 (Mexico, D.F., 1985), and Arturo Anguiano, Guadalupe
Pacheco and Rogelio Viscaino, Cardenas y la izquierda mexicana (Mexico,
D.F., 1975). The influential artist and leading Communist party member
David Alfaro Siqueiros has written his memoirs, Me llamaban el coronelazo
(Mexico, D.F., 1977). A good account of the early Left is Gaston Garcia
Canni, Elsocialismo en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1969). There is no satisfactory
biography of the influential Lombardo Toledano; see, however, R. Millon,
Mexican Marxist: Vicente Lombardo Toledano (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1966). Karl
Schmitt, Communism in Mexico (Austin, Tex., 1965) has some useful informa-
tion. Barry Carr, 'Mexican Communism, 19681981: EuroCommunism
in the Americas?' JLAS, 17/1 (1985), 20128, is an important article.
Middle class fears of Marxism are well described in Soledad Loaeza, Clases
medias y politica en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1988). For the recent period see
Barry Carr and Ricardo Anzaldua Montoya (eds.), The Mexican Left, the
Popular Movements, andthe Politics ofAusterity (San Diego, Calif., 1986); and
also by Barry Carr, 'The creation of the Mexican Socialist Party'', Journal of
Communist Studies, 4/3 (1988).
CENTRAL AMERICA
A superb study of Central America with many insights for the successes
and the failures of the Left in that region is James Dunkerley, Power in
the Isthmus: A Political History of Modern Central America (London, 1988);
see also Robert Wesson (ed.), Communism in Central America and the
Caribbean (Stanford, Calif., 1982). A good review essay is John Booth,
'Socioeconomic and political roots of national revolts in Central Amer-
ica', LARR, 26/1 (1991), 3374. For European Socialist interest in
Latin America, see Eusebio Mujal Leon, European Socialism and the Crisis
in Central America (Washington, D.C., 1989).
On the tragic events of 1932 in El Salvador, see Thomas Anderson,
Matanza: El Salvador's Communist Revolt of 1932 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1971)
and Vinicio Gonzalez, 'La insurrecion salvadorena de 1932 y la gran
huelga hondureiia de 1954', RMS, 40/2 (1978). On El Salvador, see also
Tommie Sue Montgomery, Revolution in El Salvador (Boulder, Colo.,
1982); Enrique Baloyra, El Salvador in Transition (Chapel Hill, N.C.,
1982); James Dunkerley, The Long War: Dictatorship and Revolution in El
Salvador (London, 1982); and Jenny Pearce, Promised Land; Peasant Rebel-
lion in Chalatenango, El Salvador (London, 1986), an account sympathetic

596 VIL Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
to the guerrillas. On Honduras, see Victor Meza, Historia del movimiento

obrero hondureno (Tegucigalpa, 1980), and Mario Posas, Lucha ideoldgica y
organization sindkal en Honduras (Tegucigalpa, 1980).
The standard biography of Sandino in Nicaragua is Neill Macaulay, The
Sandino Affair (Chicago, 1967); see also Gregorio Selser, Sandino: General
de hombres libres (Buenos Aires, 1959); and Sergio Ramirez, Elpensamiento
vivo de Sandino (San Jose, C.R., 1974). An official view of the Sandinista
movement is Humberto Ortega, 50 anos de lucha sandinista (Managua,
1979). Of the huge number of accounts of the revolution, the book by
George Black is useful for its concentration on ideological aspects, Triumph
of the People: The Sandinista Revolution in Nicaragua (London, 1981). On
Costa Rica, the important civil war of 1948 is examined in John P. Bell,
Crisis in Costa Rica: The 1948 Revolution (Austin, Tex., 1971). See also
Gilberto Calvo and Francisco Zunigo (eds.), Manuel Mora: Discursos 1934
l
919 (San Jose, C.R., 1980). Though written from a decidedly Cold War
standpoint, there is a great deal of useful information in Ronald Schneider,
Communism in Guatemala 19441954 (New York, 1958). A rather distinct
view is offered in Eduardo Galeano, Guatemala: Occupied Country (New
York, 1969).
10. THE MILITARY IN POLITICS
Few political institutions or social groups in Latin America have attracted

as much sustained scholarly interest as the military. The corpus of aca-
demic literature consists mainly of studies of institutional, behavioural
and cultural aspects of the armed forces as political actors. To a lesser
extent, the corpus also contains institutional military histories as well as
sociological studies of the military organizations as social groups.
The focus of this bibliographical essay is primarily on academic litera-
ture dealing with the domestic political role of Latin American military
establishments. Conventional military histories that deal with the military
institutions exclusively in their military personae - the Chaco War, the
Brazilian Expeditionary Force, and, more significantly, the Falklands/
Malvinas War - are not included. Also excluded are the institutional
histories and biographies officially sanctioned by the various military
establishments themselves. Official military publications and in-house
journals comprise a corpus of literature quite distinct from academic stud-
ies. For a superb academic analysis of the official corpus of military litera-

io. The military in politics 597
ture in Latin America and elsewhere, see Frederick M. Nunn, The Time of
the Generals: Latin American Professional Militarism in World Perspective (Lin-
coln, Nebr., 1992). This exclusion, however, does not cover books written
by military personnel in their individual capacity, such as academic works
and autobiographies.
LATIN AMERICA
The decade of the 1960s was a time of pioneering academic work in the
new multi-disciplinary field of Area Studies. These years also represented
the zenith of the 'behavioural revolution' then underway in the discipline
of political science in North American academe, with its emphasis on
analytical studies that were empirical, quantitative, comparative and
inter-disciplinary. It is in this intellectual climate that the classical litera-
ture on military politics in Latin America was written. In the region itself,
the 'twilight of the tyrants' in the late 1950s had been swiftly followed by
another wave of military coups, resulting in the establishment of a new
breed of military regimes that appeared to be more durable than their
predecessors. In other parts of the world, decolonization from European
rule had given rise to a host of new polities in which the military establish-
ments soon came to dominate the political process, thereby laying the
ground for comparative regional studies of military politics in Asia, Africa
and Latin America.
It is interesting that despite the prevalent academic fashion, the litera-
ture on Latin American military politics in the 1960s was never domi-
nated by quantitative analytical works, and in the main remained rooted
firmly in the historical analytical tradition. When compared with present-
day standards of academic rigour in social and political research, the
classical literature frequently seems impressionistic, besides being riddled
with factual errors. This, however, should not detract from the pioneering
nature of these works. John J. Johnson, The Military and Society in Latin
America (Stanford, Calif., 1964) represents the classical literature on Latin
American military politics at its very best. Edwin Lieuwen's two books,
Arms and Politics in Latin America (New York, 1961) and Generals vs.
Presidents: Neomilitarism in Latin America (London, 1964) were both ex-
tremely influential in their time. Other works of significance in this
academic genre are Gino Germani and K. H. Silvert, Estructura social e
intervention militar en America Latina (Buenos Aires, 1965); Willard F.
Barker and C. Neale Ronning, Internal Security and Military Power: Counter-

Insurgency and Civic Action in Latin America (Columbus, Ohio, 1966); and
Jose Nun, Latin America: The Hegemonic Crisis and the Military Coup (Berke-
ley, 1969). Also noteworthy in this context are Irving L. Horowitz, 'The
military elites', in Seymour M. Lipset and Aldo Solari (eds.), Elites in
Latin America (New York, 1967); Jose Nun, 'The middle-class military
coup', in Claudio Veliz (ed.), The Politics of Conformity in Latin America
(New York, 1967); and Lyle McAlister, 'The Military', in John J. Johnson
(ed.), Continuity and Change in Latin America (Stanford, Calif., 1964).
Apart from academic works specifically on Latin American military
politics, a number of other studies on military politics in general were
published in the 1960s. Of these, Samuel Finer's The Man on Horseback:
The Role of the Military in Politics (London, 1962) remains a classic. Morris
Janowitz, The Military in the Political Development of New Nations: An Essay
in Comparative Analysis (Chicago, 1964) is another fine work. Both Finer
and Janowitz allude to Latin American examples frequently in their books.
William Gutteridge, Military Institutions and Power in the New States (Lon-
don, 1964) is based far more on African examples, but is nevertheless
worthy of study. See also John J. Johnson (ed.), The Role of the Military in
Underdeveloped Countries (Princeton, N.J., 1962). Another significant work
in this area is Samuel P. Huntington (ed.), Changing Patterns of Military
Politics (New York, 1962). In his later works, The Soldier and the State: The
Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge, Mass., 1967)
and Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, Conn., 1968). Hun-
tington came to emphasise institutional weaknesses in civilian polities as a
causal factor for military takeovers, an analysis that many of his contempo-
raries held to be both normative and tautological.
Academic works on military sociology comprise an important part of
the classical corpus on military politics. Two studies by Morris Janowitz,
Sociology and the Military Establishment (New York, 1959) and The Profes-
sional Soldier: A Social and Political Portrait (Glencoe, 111., i960) can be
regarded as precursors. Morris Janowitz (ed.), The New Military: Changing
Patterns of Organization (New York, 1964) and two books edited by Jacques
Van Doom, Armed Forces and Society: Sociological Essays (The Hague, 1968)
and The Military Profession and Military Regimes: Commitments and Conflicts
(The Hague, 1969), contain many valuable contributions. The literature
was taken forward and consolidated in the two companion volumes co-
edited by Janowitz and Van Doom, On Military Ideology and On Military
Intervention (Rotterdam, 1971).
Finally, the classical literature on Latin American military politics also

consists of comparative case studies of specific countries. See, for example.

Luigi Einaudi and Alfred C. Stepan, Latin American Institutional Develop-
ment: Changing Military Perspectives in Peru and Brazil (Santa Monica, Calif.,
1971); Liisa North, CivilMilitary Relations in Argentina, Chile and Peru
(Berkeley, 1966); Lyle N. McAlister, Anthony Maingot, and Robert Pot-
ash (eds.), The Military in Latin American Sociopolitical Evolution: Four Case
Studies (Washington, D.C., 1970); and Charles D. Corbett, The Latin
American Military as a Socio-Political Force: Case Studies of Bolivia and Argen-
tina (Miami, 1972).
The study that most clearly marks a break with the classical literature on
Latin American military politics is Guillermo O'Donnell, Modernization and
Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics (Berkeley,
1973). O'Donnell's BA model had an enormous influence on subsequent
literature. Two scholarly responses are Karen L. Remmer and Gilbert W.
Merkx, 'Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism revisited', LARR, 17/2 (1982), 3 -
40 and Fernando Henrique Cardoso, 'On the characterization of authoritar-
ian regimes in Latin America', in David Collier (ed.), The New Authoritarian-
ism in Latin America (Princeton, N.J., 1979).
Apart from Guillermo O'Donnell, a number of other academic studies
of Latin American military politics were published in the heyday of mili-
tary governments. Among them, the more noteworthy are Virgilio
Beltran, El papel politico y social de las FFAA en America Latina (Caracas,
1970); Philippe C. Schmitter (ed.), Military Rule in Latin America: Func-
tion, Consequences and Perspectives (Beverly Hills, Calif, 1973); Jacques Van
Doom, The Soldier and Social Change (Beverly Hills, Calif., 1975); Guido
Vicario, Militari e politica in America Latina (Rome, 1978); Mauricio
Solaiin and Michael A. Quinn, Sinners and Heretics: The Politics of Military
Intervention in Latin America (Urbana, 111., 1973); Issac Sandoval Rodri-
guez, Las crisis politicas latinoamericanas y el militarismo (Mexico, D.F.,
1976); Mario Esteban Carranza, Fuerzas armadas y estado de excepcion en
America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1978); James M. Malloy (ed.), Authoritari-
anism and Corporatism in Latin America (London, 1977); and Irving Louis
Horowitz and Ellen Kay Trimberger, 'State power and military national-
ism in Latin America', Comparative Politics, 8/2 (1976). Roberto Calvo, La
doctrina militar de la seguridad nacional: Autoritarismo politico y neoliberalismo
economico en el Cono Sur (Caracas, 1979) is a particularly stimulating book.
Denis Martin, Alain Rouquie, Tatiana Yannapolous, and Philippe De-
craene, Os Militares e 0 poder na America Latina e na Africa (Lisbon, 1975)
presents a fascinating comparison between the two regions.

6oo VII. Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
Other significant studies from the 1970s on military politics which

include Latin American cases are: Bengt Abrahamson, Military Professional-
ism and Political Power (Beverly Hills, Calif., 1972); Edward Feit, The
Armed Bureaucrats: Military Administrative Regimes and Political Development
(Boston, 1973); Eric A. Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and
Governments (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1977); Catherine McArdle Kelleher
(ed.), Political-Military Systems: Comparative Perspectives (Beverly Hills, Ca-
lif., 1974); Claude E. Welch, Jr. (ed.), Civilian Control of the Military:
Theory and Cases from Developing Countries (Albany, N.Y., 1976); Sheldon
W. Simon (ed.), The Military and Security in the Third World: Domestic and
International Impacts (Boulder, Colo., 1978); Morris Janowitz, Military
Institutions and Coercion in the Developing Nations (Chicago, 1977); Amos
Perlmutter, The Military and Politics in Modern Times: On Professionals,
Praetorians and Revolutionary Soldiers (New Haven, Conn., 1977); and
Alain Rouquie (ed.), La Politique de Mars: Les processespolitiques au sein des
partis militaires (Paris, 1981).
With the reemergence of democracy in the region in the 1980s some
excellent books have been published on military politics in Latin America.
Frederick M. Nunn, Yesterday's Soldiers: European Military Professionalism in
South America, 18901940 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1983) provides essential his-
torical background. Alfred Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics: Brazil and
the Southern Cone (Princeton, N.J., 1988), is outstanding. Alain Rouquie,
L'etat militaire en Amerique latine (Paris, 1982); Sp. trans. El estado militar
en America Latina (Buenos Aires, 1984); Eng. trans. The Military and the
State in Latin America (Berkeley, 1987) is one of the finest books ever
published on Latin American military politics. Also important is Genaro
Arriagada Herrera, El pensamiento politico de los militares: Estudios sobre Chile,
Argentina, Brasily Uruguay, 2nd ed. (Santiago, Chile, 1986). Other works
include George Philip, The Military in South American Politics (London,
1985); Karen L. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Boston, 1989);
Paul Cammack and Philip O'Brien (eds.), Generals in Retreat: The Crisis of
Military Rule in Latin America (Manchester, Eng., 1985); Augusto Varas,
La politica de las armas en America Latina (Santiago, Chile, 1988); Pablo
Gonzalez Casanova, Los militares y la politica en America Latina (Mexico,
D.F., 1988); Augusto Varas (ed.), La autonomia militar en America Latina
(Caracas, 1988); and Abraham F. Lowenthal and J. Samuel Fitch (eds.),
Armies and Politics in Latin America (New York, 1986). Robert Wesson's
two edited books, New Military Politics in Latin America (New York, 1982)
and The Latin American Military Institution (New York, 1986) are also

worth reading. Finally, John Markoff and Silvio R. Duncan Baretta,

'What we don't know about military coups: Observations on recent South
American polities', Armed Forces and Society, 12/2 (1986) is a well-written
and thought-provoking article.
Brian Loveman and Thomas M. Davies, Jr. (eds.), The Politics of Anti-
politics: The Military in Latin America, 2nd ed. (Lincoln, Nebr., 1989) is a
useful compilation of reading materials on Latin American military poli-
tics. Amos Perlmutter and Valerie Plave Bennett (eds.), The Political
Influence of the Military: A Comparative Reader (New Haven, Conn., 1980)
includes material on other regions as well.
Alain Rouquie, 'Demilititarization and the institutionalization of
military-dominated polities in Latin America', in Guillermo O'Donnell,
Philippe Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Au-
thoritarian Rule: Prospects for Democracy (Baltimore, 1986), is one of the best
pieces on the process of transition from military authoritarian rule to some
form of civilian democratic governance from the perspective of the mili-
tary establishments. James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.),
Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pitts-
burgh, Pa., 1987) is another useful work on this subject. Also worth
reading are Martin C. Needier, 'The military withdrawal from power in
South America', Armed Forces and Society, 6/4 (1980) and Karen L.
Remmer, 'Redemocratization and the impact of authoritarian rule in Latin
America', Comparative Politics, 17/3 (1985), 25375. Samuel E. Finer,
'The retreat to the barracks: Notes on the practice and theory of military
withdrawal from seats of power', Third World Quarterly, 7/1 (1985) and
Talukder Maniruzzaman, Military Withdrawal from Politics: A Comparative
Study (Cambridge, Mass., 1987) are the best multi-regional studies of
military withdrawals from power.
In post-authoritarian political situations, the relations that the civilian
democratic regime establishes with its military institutions is a factor of
cardinal importance in the consolidation of democracy. By far the best
work on this crucial subject is Louis W. Goodman, Johanna S. R.
Mendelson, and Juan Rial (eds.), The Military and Democracy: The Future
of CivilMilitary Relations in Latin America (Lexington, Mass., 1990).
Merilee S. Grindle's article, 'Civilmilitary relations and budgetary poli-
tics in Latin America', Armed Forces and Society, 13/2 (1987) looks at an
important area of civilmilitary disputation. Another excellent book is
Paul W. Zagorski, Democracy vs. National Security: CivilMilitary Relations
in Latin America (Boulder, Colo., 1992), which contains comparative

6o2 VII. Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
analyses of civilmilitary relations in the areas of human rights, internal

security, military reform and reform of the state. The novelty of this
book lies in the systematic manner in which it focuses upon the various
areas of civilmilitary disputation that arise in the post-authoritarian
period. Finally, Morris Janowitz (ed.), Civil-Military Relations: Regional
Perspectives (Beverly Hills, Calif, 1981) presents a comparative view with
other regions.
The annual publications of the International Institute of Strategic Stud-
ies (IISS), London, and the Stockholm International Peace Research Insti-
tute (SIPRI) contain updated information on the related issues of military
expenditures and arms purchases. World Military Expenditures and Arms
Transfers, the official publication of the U.S. Arms Control and Disarma-
ment Agency (ACDA), is also a useful source of information. Significant
works over the years on Latin American military expenditures include
Joseph E. Loftus, Latin American Defense Expenditures: 19381965 (Santa
Monica, Calif., 1968) and Gertrude E. Heare, Trends in Latin American
Military Expenditures, 19401910: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia,
Peru, and Venezuela, U.S. Department of State, Office of External Re-
search, Publication 8618 (Washington, D.C., 1971). Another worth-
while contribution is Geoffrey Kemp, 'The prospects for arms control in
Latin America: The strategic dimension', in Philippe C. Schmitter (ed.),
Military Rule in Latin America: Function, Consequences and Perspectives (Bev-
erly Hills, Calif., 1973). Josef Goldblat and Victor Millan, TheFalklandsl
Malvinas War: Spur to Arms Buildup (Stockholm, 1983) is also useful.
Augusto Varas, Militarization and the Internal Arms Race in Latin America
(Boulder, Colo., 1985) is the best book on the subject. Robert E. Looney,
The Political Economy of Latin American Military Expenditures: Case Studies of
Venezuela and Argentina (Lexington, Ky., 1986) is a fine comparative study.
John Child, Unequal Alliance: The Interamerican Military System, 1938
1978 (Boulder, Colo., 1980) is a superb history of the U.S.-dominated
multilateral military arrangement in the Western Hemisphere. Jan Knip-
pers Black, Sentinels of Empire: The United States and Latin American Milita-
rism (New York, 1986) is another useful study of U.S.Latin American
military relations. Lars Schoultz, National Security and United States Policy
Toward Latin America (Princeton, N.J., 1987), also contains important
material on this subject. Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Foreign military assis-
tance, national military spending and military rule in Latin America', in
Schmitter (ed.), Military Rule in Latin America: Function, Consequences and
Perspectives (Beverly Hills, Calif, 1973) is an important contribution. A

related publication of interest is 'Some relationships between U.S. mili-
tary training in Latin America and weapons acquisition patterns: 1959
1969', Arms Control Project, Center for International Studies, MIT
(February 1970). J. Samuel Fitch, 'The political impact of U.S. military
aid to Latin America', Armed Forces and Society, 5/3 (1979) makes interest-
ing reading.
In the Latin American military tradition an important place has been
assigned to books on geopolitics, and it is one of the favourite topics on
which the generals and admirals of the region have written books. The
names of the Brazilian generals Golbery do Couto e Silva (Geopolitica do
Brasil [Rio de Janeiro, 1967]) and Carlos de Meira Mattos (A Geopolitica e
as projecoes do poder [Rio de Janeiro, 1977]); the Chilean generals Chrismar
Escuti {Geopolitica: Leyes que se deducen del estudio de la expansion de los estados
[Santiago, Chile, 1968]) and Augusto Pinochet Ugarte {Geopolitica:
Di/erentes etapas para el estudio geopolitico de los estados [Santiago, Chile,
1968]) and the Argentine general Juan E. Guglialmelli (numerous articles
in Estrategia [Buenos Aires]) stand out. John Child, Geopolitics and Conflict
in South America: Quarrels Among Neighbors (New York, 1985) is an excel-
lent work that summarises the various national views. Argentine and
Chilean admirals have written innumerable books and articles on Antarc-
tica and the disputed insular territories in the South Atlantic. Virginia
Gamba-Stonehouse covers these different standpoints superbly in her
book, Strategy in the Southern Oceans: A South American View (London,
1989)-
Military Balance, the annual publication of IISS, London, is the stan-
dard source on comparative arsenals. Adrian J. English's two books, Armed
Forces of Latin America: Their Histories, Development, Present Strength and
Military Potential (London, 1984) and Regional Defence Profile No. 1: Latin
America (London, 1988), are superb.
There is no academic study of the training and socialisation process in
Latin American military educational establishments, either comparative or
country-specific. However, Michael D. Stephens (ed.), The Educating of
Armies (London, 1989) contains a chapter on military education in post-
Revolutionary Cuba.
Nearly all the literature cited above relates to Latin American armies, a
word which is mistakenly treated by most scholars as being synonymous
with military. Robert L. Scheina, Latin America: A Naval History 1810-
19S7 (Annapolis, Md., 1987) is therefore a valuable addition to the
corpus on Latin American military politics.

ARGENTINA
There are two excellent studies of the Argentine army. Robert A. Potash,
The Army and Politics in Argentina, is the result of many years of sustained
and focused scholarship. The first volume, subtitled Yrigoyen to Peron
(Stanford, Calif., 1969), covers the years 192845. Peron to Frondizi (Stan-
ford, Calif., 1980) analyses events up to 1962; a further volume in the
future is to be devoutly wished for. Alain Rouquie, Poder militar y sociedad
politica en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1981/1982); original Fr. Pouvoir
militaire et societe politique en republique argentine (Paris, 1978) is also pub-
lished in two volumes, with the first volume covering the period up to the
GOU coup of 1943 and the second volume taking the story forward to the
return of Peron in 1973. Potash and Rouquie have both written superb
political histories, but they differ in perspective: the former approaches
the topic as a historian, the latter as a political scientist. Taken together,
they provide the reader with what is easily the most authoritative aca-
demic coverage of any Latin American military institution and its role in
politics. See also F. Lafage, L'Argentine des dictatures, 1930-1983: Pouvoir
militaire et ideologie contre-revolutionnaire (Paris, 1991).
Argentine military politics in the period between the fall of Peron in
1955 and the fall of Frondizi in 1962 are examined in Carlos A. Florit, Las
fuerzas armadas y la guerra psicologica (Buenos Aires, 1963) and Rogelio
Garcia Lupo, La rebelion de los generales (Buenos Aires, 1963). J. Ochoa de
Eguileor and Virgilio R. Beltran, Las fuerzas armadas hablan (Buenos
Aires, 1968) is a useful study of a slightly later period. A left-wing
perspective on Argentine militarism can be found in Jorge Abelardo Ra-
mos, Historia politica del ejercito argentino (Buenos Aires, 1973). Jorge A.
Paita (ed.), Argentina: 19301960: Sur (Buenos Aires, 1961) contains an
excellent chapter on the armed forces by Horacio Sueldo. Marvin Gold-
wert, Democracy, Militarism, and Nationalism in Argentina, 19301966: An
Interpretation (Austin, Tex., 1972) is another worthwhile study of Argen-
tine military politics. Goldwert's analytical classification of the Argentine
armed forces into the two opposing camps of 'liberal nationalists' and
'integral nationalists' is both interesting and illuminating.
Guillermo O'Donnell, Bureaucratic Authoritarianism: Argentina, 1966
I
973> in Comparative Perspective (Berkeley, 1988) and William C. Smith,
Authoritarianism and the Crisis of the Argentine Political Economy (Stanford,
Calif., 1989) are both distinguished books on the military regimes of the

'revolucion argentina". Like Potash and Rouquie, they are a couple of

scholarly studies that are best read together. However, far from comple-
menting each other, O'Donnell and Smith view Argentine military poli-
tics in general, and the period 196673 in particular, from radically
different perspectives. And unlike O'Donnell, whose book focuses on the
period 196673, Smith analyses the period 197683 as well. Other books
worth reading on the 196673 period are Roberto Roth, Los anos de
Ongania: Relato de un testigo (Buenos Aires, 1980); Ruben M. Perina,
Ongania, Levingston, Lanusse: Los militares en la politico, argentina (Buenos
Aires, 1983); and Carlos Alberto Quinterno, Militares y populismo (La crisis
argentina desde 1966 hasta 1976) (Buenos Aires, 1978).
Dario Canton, La politica de los militares argentinos: 1900-1971 (Buenos
Aires, 1971) is superb in its analysis of Argentine military politics in the
twentieth century as viewed from the vantage point of the ouster of
General Ongania and the collapse of the so-called Argentine Revolution of
1966. Robert Potash looks at the same period from the viewpoint of
military professionalism in 'The impact of professionalism on the twenti-
eth century Argentine Military', Program in Latin American Studies,
Occasional Papers Series No. 3, University of Massachusetts (Amherst,
Mass., 1977). Felix Luna, De Peron a Lanusse (Buenos Aires, 1972), deals
with the period from the fall of Peron to his final return from exile. One of
the best general articles on Argentine military politics is James Rowe,
'Argentina's restless Military', in Robert D. Tomasek (ed.), Latin American
Politics: Studies of the Contemporary Scene (New York, 1970). Philip B.
Springier, 'Disunity and disorder: Factional politics in the Argentine
military', in Henry Bienen (ed.), The Military Intervenes: Case Studies in
Political Development (Hartford, Conn., 1968) analyses fissures and divi-
sions within the Argentine military institutions. See also Silvio Waisbord,
'Politics and identity in the Argentine Army: Cleavages and the genera-
tional factor', LARR, 26/2 (1991), 157-70.
Nunca Mas (London, 1986), the official report of the Comision Nacional
sobre la Desaparicion de las Personas (CONADEP), which was set up by
the Alfonsin administration to investigate the 'disappearences' of the 'dirty
war', is by far the best account of the extra-legal terror unleashed by the
military state during the Proceso de Reorganizaci6n Nacional (197683).
Juan E. Corradi, 'The mode of destruction: Terrorism in Argentina', Telos,
54 (Winter 19823), is a good article on this grim topic. Other articles
that are useful for the Proceso period include Ronaldo Munck, 'The "mod-

ern" military dictatorship in Latin America: The case of Argentina (1976-
1982)', LAP, 12/4 (1985), 41-47, and David Pion-Berlin, 'The fall of
military rule in Argentina: 1976-1983',//AS1, 27/2 (1985), 55-76. See
also Andres Fontana, 'Political decision making by a military corporation,
19761983' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas, Aus-
tin, 1987).
A number of articles have appeared on the process of transition from
military authoritarian rule to civilian democratic governance in Argentina.
Of these, the most useful and interesting are Alain Rouquie, 'Argentina,
the departure of the military: End of a political cycle or just an episode?',
International Affairs (London), 59/4(1983), 57586, and Ronaldo Munck,
'Democratization and demilitarization in Argentina, 19821985', BLAR,
4/2 (1985), 8593. See also Andres Fontana, Fuerzas armadas, partidos polit-
icosy transicidn a la democracia en Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1984). An impor-
tant area of civilmilitary disputation during the Alfonsin administration
was the question of military reform. Carlos J. Moneta, Ernesto Lopez and
Anfbal Romero, La reforma militar (Buenos Aires, 1985) and Augusto
Varas, 'Democratizacion y reforma militar en la Argentina', Documento de
Trabajo, FLACSO (Santiago 1986), are the most thought-provoking aca-
demic contributions on this topic. Civilmilitary relations during the
Alfonsin administration itself are analysed superbly in David Pion-Berlin,
'Between confrontation and accommodation: Military and government pol-
icy in democratic Argentina', JLAS, 23/3 (1991), 543-71.
Felix Luna, Golpes militares y salidas electorates (Buenos Aires, 1983) is a
brief summary of Argentine military politics since 1930. Scholarly studies
of Argentine military politics are severely handicapped by the lack of
memoirs by Argentine military officers. General Alejandro Lanusse's lat-
est memoirs, entitled Protagonista y testigo (Reflexiones sobre 70 anos de nuestra
historia) (Buenos Aires, 1989), are a welcome exception to this general
rule. This book supercedes his earlier memoir, Mi testimonio, not only on
account of the later publishing date but also because the second version is
far less self-serving than the first. Rogelio Garcia Lupo, 'Los Alsogaray:
Una dinastia militar', Politica, 7/712 (1968) is an excellent article on one
of Argentina's patrician military families.
While the in-house journals of Argentina's military institutions fre-
quently carry articles and essays on military sociology, this is an area that
has been grossly understudied by academics. The one obvious exception in
this regard is the tiny chapter on the military in Jose Luis de Imaz, Los que
mandan {Those Who Rule) (Albany, N.Y., 1970). Since the mid-1980s La

Nation (Buenos Aires) has carried a number of newspaper articles on mili-

tary sociology written by retired naval captain Carlos Raimondi. How-
ever, the study by General Benjamin Rattenbach, Sociologia militar: Una
contribution al estudio (Buenos Aires, 1958), remains the best contribution
on this topic by a military officer in book form.
Finally, most of the literature on Argentine military politics focuses on
the Army and tends to ignore or marginalize the part played by the other
military institutions. For a different perspective on the role of the military
in Argentine political history, see Varun Sahni, 'The Argentine navy as an
autonomous actor in Argentine politics' (unpublished D.Phil, disserta-
tion, University of Oxford, 1991).
BRAZIL
The academic literature on Brazilian military politics since the 1930s is

vast in quantity and of a consistently high standard. Understandably,
most of this literature deals with the 196485 military period. Fortu-
nately, the preceding period has not been completely neglected by schol-
ars. Jose Murilo de Carvalho, 'Armed forces and politics in Brazil: 1930
1945', HAHR, 62/1 (1982), 193-223, is excellent. See also Frank D.
McCann, 'The Brazilian army and the problem of mission, 19391964',
JLAS, 12/1 (1980), 107-26. Thomas Skidmore, Politics in Brazil,
1930-1964 (New York, 1967) is indispensable. John W. F. Dulles,
Unrest in Brazil: Political Military Crises 1955-1964 (Austin, Tex., 1970)
also looks at Brazilian military politics in the period preceding the coup
of 1964. Nelson Werneck Sodre, Historia militar do Brasil (Rio de Ja-
neiro, 1965) is a pro-military book written by a leftist historian in the
immediate aftermath of the coup. One of the best studies of the over-
throw of the Goulart administration in 1964 is Phyllis R. Parker, Brazil
and the Quiet Intervention, 1964 (Austin, Tex., 1979).
The single most important work on the 21 years of military rule that
followed the 1964 coup is Thomas E. Skidmore, The Politics of Military
Rule in Brazil, 1964-1985 (Oxford, 1988). During the military period
itself a number of useful studies of the regime were published outside
Brazil and, after the abertura initiated by the Geisel administration, in
Brazil as well. Of these, the most notable are Alfred Stepan, The Military
in Politics: Changing Patterns in Brazil (Princeton, N.J., 1971); Ronald M.
Schneider, The Political System of Brazil: The Emergence of a 'Modernizing'
Authoritarian Regime (New York, 1971); Alfred Stepan (ed.), Authoritarian

Brazil: Origins, Policies, Future (New Haven, Conn., 1973); Eliezer Rizzo
de Oliviera, As Forgas armadas: Politka e ideologia no Brasil, 1964-1969
(Petropolis, 1976); Edmundo Campos Coelho, Em busca de identidade: 0
Exercito e a politka na sociedade brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1976); Alfredo
Amaral Gurgel, Seguranca e democracia (Rio de Janeiro, 1975); and Henry
H . Keith (ed.), Perspectives on Armed Politics in Brazil (Tempe, Ariz.,
1976). An interesting analysis of the first decade of military rule can be
found in Barry Ames, Rhetoric and Reality in a Military Regime: Brazil since
1964 (Beverly Hills, Calif., 1975). See also Carlos Castelo Branco, Os
Militares no poder, 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1977/1978). Alain Rouquie
(ed.), Les Partis militaires au Bresil (Paris, 1980) and Philippe Faucher, Le
Bresil des militaires (Montreal, 1981), are both significant books on Brazil-
ian military politics and the best contributions on this subject in the
French language. Other important contributions on Brazilian military
politics written during the military years include the doctoral dissertation
by Alexandre de Souza Costa Barros, 'The Brazilian military: Professional
socialization, political performance and state building' (University of Chi-
cago, 1978) and Frank McCann's article, 'Origins of the "new professional-
ism" of the Brazilian military', JIAS, 21/4 (1979).
Much has been made of the ideological role of the Escola Superior de
Guerra in the 1964 coup and the subsequent military period. Antonio de
Arruda, ESG: Historia de sua doutrina (Rio de Janeiro, 1980) is a useful
work on the subject. In conjunction with this study, the following publica-
tions of the ESG are also worth reading: Doutrina bdsica (Rio de Janeiro,
1979), Complements da doutrina (Rio de Janeiro, 1981), and Fundamentos da
doutrina (Rio de Janeiro, 1981).
During the Costa e Silva and Medici administrations the Army intelli-
gence agency, the Servico Nacional de Informacdes (SNI), became a virtual
'army within an army'. An excellent work on this topic is Ana Lagda, SNI:
Como nasceu, como fonciona (Sao Paulo, 1983). Alfred Stepan's Rethinking
Military Politics: Brazil and the Southern Cone (Princeton, N.J., 1988) is a
remarkable comparative study that illuminates the 196485 military pe-
riod with much-needed hindsight. A good book on the Brazilian military
institutions in the immediate post-authoritarian period is Eliezer Rizzo de
Oliviera (ed.), Militares, pensamento e agaopolitka (Campinas, 1987). Stan-
ley Hilton, 'The Brazilian Military: Changing strategic perceptions and
the question of mission', Armed Forces and Society, 13 (1987) is another
worthwhile contribution.
For a wide-ranging political history of the Brazilian army, see Frank

D. McCann's fine study, A Nagdo armada: Ensaios sobre a historia de
exercito brasileiro (Recife, 1989). Frederick M. Nunn, 'Military profession-
alism and professional militarism in Brazil, 18701970', JLAS, 4/1
(1972), 2954, is another significant contribution. Robert A. Hayes,
The Armed Nation: The Brazilian Corporate Mystique (Tempe, Ariz., 1989)
will likewise be read by students of Brazilian military politics with
much profit.
CHILE
Despite Chile's long history of stable representative government and

strong institutionalised political parties, the Chilean military institutions
were not neglected by academic scholars in the period before the coup of
1973. Roy Allen Hansen's unpublished doctoral dissertation, 'Military
culture and organizational decline: A study of the Chilean Army' (Univer-
sity of California, Los Angeles, 1967), and Alain Joxe, Las fuerzas armadas
en el sistema politico chileno (Santiago, Chile, 1970), were important pre-
1973 studies of the Chilean military institutions and military politics.
Also worth mentioning in this context is Frederick M. Nunn, Chilean
Politics, 19201931: The Honorable Mission of the Armed Forces (Albuquer-
que, N. Mex., 1970). Published soon after the 1973 coup, Liisa North's
The Military in Chilean Politics (Toronto, 1974) was an important addition
to the literature on Chilean military politics. Another excellent book
covering the period before the coup is Frederick M. Nunn, The Military in
Chilean History: Essays on Civil-Military Relations, 1810-1973 (Albuquer-
que, N.Mex., 1976).
On the 1973 coup Paul E. Sigmund, The Overthrow of Allende and the
Politics of Chile, 1964-1976 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1977) and Arturo Valenzu-
ela, The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Chile (Baltimore, 1978) are the
best academic works. Less objective studies of the coup are Pio Garcia
(ed.), Fuerzas armadas y elgolpe de estado en Chile (Mexico, D.F., 1974) and
James Petras and Morris Morley, The United States and Chile: Imperialism
and the Overthrow of the Allende Government (New York, 1975). Nathaniel
Davis, The Last Two Years of Salvador Allende (Ithaca, N.Y., 1985) is a
remarkably honest account by the U.S. ambassador to Chile during the
Allende administration.
One of the best studies of the Pinochet period is Samuel Valenzuela and
Arturo Valenzuela (eds.), Military Rule in Chile: Dictatorship and Oppositions
(Baltimore, 1986). Brian Loveman, 'Military dictatorship and political

610 V/7. Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
opposition in Chile, 1973-1986', JIAS, 28/4 (1986-87), 1-38, covers

similar ground. The chapter by Augusto Varas, 'The crisis of legitimacy of
military rule in the 1980s', in Paul W. Drake and Ivan Jaksic (eds.), The
Struggle for Democracy in Chile, 19821990 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1991) is
superb. The second part of Karen L. Remmer's book, Military Rule in
Latin America (Boston, 1989), focuses on the Pinochet period and presents
a useful analysis of the military regime's policy initiatives and their impact
on Chile. Manuel Antonio Garreton, El proceso politico chileno (Santiago,
Chile, 1983); Eng. trans. The Chilean Political Process (Boston, 1989) is
also deserving of study.
The characteristic that most differentiates the post-197 3 military re-
gime in Chile from its counterparts in the region is the personalist nature
of the dictatorship. The best study of the monopolising of power by
Pinochet is Arturo Valenzuela, 'The military in power: the consolidation
of one-man rule', in Drake and Jaksic (eds.), The Struggle for Democracy in
Chile. A fascinating book in this context is Ascanio Cavallo, Manuel
Salazar, and Oscar Sepiilveda, La historia oculta del regimen militar (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1988). Genaro Arriagada, La politica militar de Pinochet (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1985); Eng. trans. Pinochet: The Politics of Power (Boston, 1988)
is another interesting and stimulating work. The most significant political
struggle within the Chilean armed forces after the 1973 coup was between
Pinochet and the Air Force commander General Gustavo Leigh. With the
latter's dismissal in 1978 Pinochet's position became unassailable. This
crucial episode is covered in Florencia Varas, Gustavo Leigh: El general
disidente (Santiago, Chile, 1979), a series of interviews.
Some of the best studies of Chilean military politics during the Pino-
chet period were published by the Santiago-based Facultad Latino-
americana de Ciencias Sociales (FLACSO) in the period following the
Constitution of 1980: Augusto Varas, Felipe Agiiero, and Fernando
Bustamante, Chile, democracia, fuerzas armadas (Santiago, Chile, 1980);
Varas and Agiiero, Elproyectopolitico militar (Santiago, Chile, 1982); Hugo
Friihling, Carlos Portales, and Varas, Estado y fuerzas armadas en el proceso
politico (Santiago, Chile, 1983); and Varas, Los militares en elpoder: Regimen
y gobierno militar en Chile, 1973-1986 (Santiago, Chile, 1987). Stephen
Suffern, 'Les forces armees chiliennes entre deux crises politiques: 1973-
1989', Problemes d'AmSrique Latine, 85/3 (1987) is a useful contribution.
For a dictator's-eye view of Chilean politics, see Augusto Pinochet
Ugarte, Politica, politiqueria, y demagogia (Santiago, Chile, 1983). See also
his El dia decisivo: 11 de septiembre de 1973 (Santiago, Chile 1980). The first

two volumes of Pinochet's autobiography are of little interest: Camino

recorrido: Memorial de un soldado (Santiago, Chile, 1990). The first volume
covers the period to 1973, and the second 1973-80; there will no doubt
be more. Another noteworthy military autobiography is by Pinochet's
predecessor, General Carlos Prats Gonzalez, Memorias: Testimonio de un
soldado (Santiago, Chile, 1985).
On civilmilitary relations during and after the transition to democ-
racy, see Brian Loveman, '<;Misi6n cumplida? CivilMilitary relations and
the Chilean political transition', JIAS, 33/3 (1991). Inform Rettig (Informe
de la Comision Nacional de Verdady Reconciliation), 2 vols. (Santiago, Chile,
1991) is the Chilean equivalent of the Argentine Nunca Mas. The commis-
sion was set up by the Aylwin administration to report officially on human
rights violations during the military regime.
PERU
Military politics in Peru has come to be closely identified with the reform-
ist military regime that came to power after the 'left-wing' coup in 1968.
On the military before 1968 the best book is Victor Villanueva, El milita-
rismo en el Peru (Lima, 1962). See also Allen Gulach, 'Civil-military
relations in Peru: 1914-1945' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Univer-
sity of New Mexico, 1973). J o r S e Rodriguez Beruff, Los militares y elpoder:
Un ensayo sobre la doctrina militar en el Peru, 1948-1968 (Lima, 1983) is an
excellent study of Peruvian military politics before General Velasco's 1968
coup. Another important contribution in this context is Frederick Nunn,
'Professional militarism in twentieth century Peru: Historical and theoreti-
cal background to the Golpe de Estado of 1968', HAHR, 59/3 (1979),
391417. Luigi Einaudi's book, The Peruvian Military: A Summary Politi-
cal Analysis (Santa Monica, Calif., 1969), written soon after the 1968
coup, also makes for good reading. Daniel M. Masterson, Militarism and
Politics in Latin America: Peru from Sanchez Cerro to Sender0 Luminoso (New
York, 1991) is excellent.
A string of interesting books on Peruvian military politics were written
by Victor Villanueva in the first few years of the Revolutionary Govern-
ment of the Armed Forces, including {Nueva mentalidad militar en el Peru?
(Buenos Aires, 1969) and Ejercito peruano: Del caudillaje andrquico al milita-
rismo reformista (Lima, 1973). Two'articles by Julio Cotler are essential:
'Political crises and military populism in Peru', Studies in Comparative
International Development, 6/5 (19701) and 'Concentraci6n del ingreso y

6i2 VII. Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
autoritarismo politico en el Peru', Sociedady Politka, 1I4 (1973); the latter

piece actually led to Cotler's expulsion from the country. See also Jose Z.
Garcia, 'Military government in Peru, 19681971' (unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, University of New Mexico, 1973); Luigi Einaudi, 'Revolu-
tion from within: Military rule in Peru since 1968', Studies in Comparative
International Development, 8/1 (1973); Jane S. Jaquette, 'Revolution by Fiat:
The context of policy-making in Peru', Western Political Quarterly, 25/4
(1972); and Carlos A. Astiz and Jose Z. Garcia, 'The Peruvian Military:
Achievement orientation, training, and political tendencies', Western Politi-
cal Quarterly, 25/4 (1972). The ideological role attributed to the Centro de
Altos Estudios Militares (CAEM) in post-1968 Peru is identical to that of
the Escola Superior de Guerra in the post-1964 Brazil. Victor Villanueva's
book on the subject, El CAEM y la revolucion de las fuerzas armadas (Lima,
1972), is therefore a work of some significance. Villanueva's Cien anos del
ejercito peruano: Frustraciones y cambios (Lima, 1971) and Francisco Jose del
Solar, El militarismo en el Peru (Caracas, 1976) are both long-term studies of
Peruvian military politics written during the reformist military period.
The post-1968 military regime generated an enormous scholarly inter-
est overseas. Three superb studies that emerged during the military period
are Abraham F. Lowenthal (ed.), The Peruvian Experiment: Continuity and
Change Under Military Rule (Princeton, N.J., 1975); K. J. Middlebrook
and D. Scott Palmer, Military Government and Political Development: Lessons
from Peru (Beverly Hills, Calif., 1975); and Alfred Stepan, The State and
Society: Peru in Comparative Perspective (Princeton, N.J., 1978). George
Philip, The Rise and Fall of the Peruvian Military Radicals (London, 1978) is
another useful contribution on post-1968 military politics. See also David
Booth and Bernardo Sorj (eds.), Military Reformism and Social Classes: The
Peruvian Experience, 1968-90 (London, 1983).
A thoughtful and thought-provoking look back at the reformist mili-
tary period is presented in Cynthia McClintock and Abraham Lowenthal
(eds.), The Peruvian Experiment Reconsidered (Princeton, N.J., 1983). Eve-
lyne Stephens, 'The Peruvian military government, labor mobilization,
and the political strength of the Left', LARR, 18/2 (1983), 5793, takes a
much-needed look at the crucial issue of the position of leftist groups
during the Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces. Alan Angell,
'El gobierno militar peruano de 1968 a 1980: El fracaso de la revolucion
desde arriba', Foro Internacional, 25 (1984) is a useful summary of the
military period.

CENTRAL AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN
Richard Milieu's study of the Somocista National Guard, Guardians of the

Dynasty: A History of the Guardia National and the Somoza Family (Mary-
knoll, N.Y., 1977) is perhaps the finest work on a military institution in
Central America. Constantino Urcuyo Fournier's doctoral dissertation, 'Les
Forces de securite publique et la politique au Costa Rica, i9601978',
(Universite de Paris-V, 1980), is a valuable contribution on military poli-
tics in a country that officially abolished its armed forces four decades ago.
Useful pieces on Guatemalan military politics include Kenneth J. Grieb,
'The Guatemalan Military and the Revolution of 1944', TA, 32/4 (1976);
Richard N. Adams, 'The Guatemalan Military', Studies in Comparative
International Development, 4/5 (1968); and George Black's contributions in
'Garrison Guatemala', NACLA's Report of the Americas, 17/1 (1983). The
picture of Salvadorean military politics presented in Charles W. Anderson,
'El Salvador: The Army as reformer', in Martin C. Needier (ed.), Political
Systems of Latin America (New York, 1970) should be compared with the
view presented a decade later in William M. LeoGrande and Carla Anne
Robbins, 'Oligarchs and officers: The crisis in El Salvador', Foreign Affairs,
58 (Summer 1980). An important recent contribution is Alain Rouquie,
Guerres etpaix en Amerique Centrale (Paris, 1992). Steve C. Ropp, Panaman-
ian Politics: From Guarded Nation to National Guard (New York, 1982) is an
excellent study of the Omar Torrijos period. Renato Pereira, Panama:
Fuerzas armadas y politica (Panama City, 1979) is another worthwhile book
on Panamanian military politics before Noriega. G. Pope Atkins, Arms and
Politics in the Dominican Republic (Boulder, Colo., 1981) is an excellent
work. See also Howard J. Wiarda, Dictatorship and Development: The Methods
of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic (Gainesville, Fla., 1968). Marvin
Goldwert's comparative study, The Constabulary in the Dominican Republic
and Nicaragua (Gainesville, Fla., 1962) makes for interesting reading. Luis
Humberto Guzman, Politicos en uniforme: Un balance depoder del EPS (Mana-
gua, 1992), is the only book-length study of the Sandinista army.
The U.S. role in Central America and the Caribbean remains a factor of
paramount importance. A fine study on this subject is Don L. Etchison,
The United States and Militarism in Central America (New York, 1975)- John
Saxe-Fernandez, 'The Central American Defence Council and Pax Ameri-
cana', in Irving Louis Horowitz (ed.), Latin American Radicalism: A Docu-
mentary Report on Left and Nationalist Movements (New York, 1969) comple-

merits Etchison's study well. In this context the book by the overthrown
Dominican leader Juan Bosch, El pentagonismo: Sustituto de imperialismo
(Mexico, D.F., 1968), is interesting despite being polemical.
Cuban military politics in the period before the Cuban Revolution is
covered superbly in Louis A. Perez, Jr., Army Politics in Cuba, 18981958
(Pittsburgh, Pa., 1976). Another worthwhile study is Rafael Fermoselle,
The Evolution of the Cuban Military, 14921986 (Miami, 1987). Jaime
Suchlicki (ed.), The Cuban Military Under Castro (Coral Gables, Fla.,
1989), and Jorge I. Dominguez, 'The civic soldier in Cuba', in Catherine
Kelleher (ed.), Political-Military Systems: Comparative Perspectives (Beverly
Hills, Calif., 1974) analyse civilmilitary relations in the Castro period.
BOLIVIA
Gary Prado Salmon's study of Bolivian military politics, Poder y FFAA,

19491982 (La Paz, 1984), could well become a minor classic. James
Dunkerly, Origenes del poder militar: Historia politica e institutional del ejercito
boliviano hasta 1935 (La Paz, 1987), already is one. Although this book only
covers the period up to the end of the Chaco War, it nevertheless merits a
mention in this post-1930 bibliography because it goes a long way in
explaining the historical background for the military interventions that
have plagued Bolivian politics from the late 1940s onwards. Herbert S.
Klein's articles, 'David Toro and the establishment of "Military Socialism"
in Bolivia', HAHR, 45/1 (1965), and 'German Busch and the era of "Mili-
tary Socialism" in Bolivia', HAHR, 47/2 (1967) take a close look at the brief
'military socialist' period following the Chaco War. Dunkerley's Rebellion in
the Veins: Political Struggle in Bolivia, 19521982 (London, 1984) contains
an excellent treatment of Bolivian military politics. Guillermo Bedregal,
Los milttares en Bolivia: Ensayo de interpretacidn sociologica (La Paz, 1971) is
well worth study. William H. Brill, Military Intervention in Bolivia: The
Overthrow of Paz Estenssoro and the MNR (Washington, D.C., 1967) has not
lost its academic appeal over the years. Jean-Pierre Lavaud, L'instability
politique de I'Amerique Latine: le cas bolivien (Paris, 1991) is an excellent recent
contribution, a large part of which deals specifically with the military.
COLOMBIA AND ECUADOR
A useful article on military politics in Colombia in the period following La

violencia is J. Le6n Helguera, "The changing role of the military in Colom-

bia', JIAS, 3/3 (1961), 3 5 - 8 . Richard Maullin's book, Soldiers, Guerrillas,

and Politics in Colombia (Lexington, Mass., 1973), remains a classic study of
Colombian military politics. J. Mark Ruhl, Colombia: Armed Forces and
Society (Syracuse, N.Y., 1980) was a welcome addition to the literature.
Other noteworthy books in recent years on military politics in Colombia
include Alvaro Echeverria, Elpodery los militares: Un andlisis de los ejercitos del
continentey Colombia (Bogota, 1978) and Alfredo Pena, Democraciay golpemili-
tar (Bogota, 1979). A useful history of Colombian military politics is pro-
vided in Gonzalo Bermudez Rossi, Elpoder militar en Colombia: De la colonia
alFrente National (Bogota, 1982). OlgaBehat, Las guerras de la paz (Bogota,
1985) deserves to be read. The former commander-in-chief of the Colom-
bian Army, General Fernando Landazabal Reyes, wrote a series of inter-
esting books on various aspects of military politics in the 1980s, including
Conflicto social (Medellin, 1982); Paginas de controversia (Bogota, 1983); El
precio de la paz (Bogota, 1985); and La integration national (Bogota, 1987).
J. Samuel Fitch, The Military Coup d'Etat as a Political Process: Ecuador,
1948-1966 (Baltimore, 1977) is a useful study of military politics in
Ecuador in the post-war period. It is well complemented by Augusto
Varas and Fernando Bustamante, Fuerzas armadas y politica en Ecuador
(Quito, 1978) and Anita Isaacs, Military Rule and Transition in Ecuador,
1972-1992 (Oxford, 1993). See also Anita Isaacs, 'Problems of demo-
cratic consolidation in Ecuador', BLAR, 10/2 (1991), 221-38.
MEXICO
Although Mexico is one of the most important countries in the region and
shares a long land border with the United States, the Mexican military es-
tablishment has been sorely understudied. The reason for this neglect is ob-
vious: the Mexican military institutions have been peripheral to the politi-
cal process since the late 1930s. David Ronfeldt (ed.), The Modern Mexican
Military: A Reassessment (La Jolla, Calif, 1984) and Roderic A. Camp,
Generals in the Palacio: The Military in Modern Mexico (New York, 1992) thus
fill a yawning gap in the political science literature on Mexico. Edwin
Lieuwen, Mexican Militarism: The Political Rise and Fall of the Revolutionary
Army, 1910-40 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1968) is a fine study of the politi-
cal power of the Army in the years following the Mexican Revolution and its
ultimate marginalization following the 'institutionalization' of the revolu-
tion in the 1930s. Other books of significance on the Mexican military
establishment are Jorge Alberto Lozoya, El ejirtito mexicano: 1911-1965

6i6 VII. Economy, society, politics, 1930 toe. 1990
(Mexico, D.F., 1971) and Guillermo Boils, Los militares y la politka en
Mexico: 19151974 (Mexico, D.F., 1975). Franklin D. Margiotta's article,
'Civilian control and the Mexican Military: Changing patterns of political
influence', in Claude E. Welch, Jr., (ed.), Civilian Control of the Military:
Theory and Cases from Developing Countries (Albany, N. Y., 1976), is a useful
contribution to the literature on military politics in Mexico.
PARAGUAY AND URUGUAY
For Paraguay, Andrew Nickson, 'The overthrow of the Stroessner regime:

Re-establishing the status quo', BLAR, SI2 (1989), 185-209 not only
covers the February 1989 coup against Stroessner but also includes an
excellent historical overview of the relations between the military and the
Colorado Party.
Written amidst the gathering storm that finally led to direct military
intervention in Uruguay in 1973, Gabriel Ramirez, Las FFAA uruguayasy
la crisis continental (Montevideo, 1972) makes interesting retrospective
reading. In recent years the literature on military politics in Uruguay has
received an enormous boost with the writings of Carina Perelli and Juan
Rial. Perelli and Rial, De mitos y memorias politicas: La represidn, el miedo y
despues . . . (Montevideo, 1986) is a superb book on the repression of the
military period. See also Paul C. Sondrol, '1984 revisited? A re-
examination of Uruguay's military dictatorship', BLAR, 11/2 (1992),
187203. Rial, Las FFAA: Soldados politicos garantes de la democracia?
(Montevideo, 1986) and Perelli, Someter 0 convencer: El discurso militar en el
Uruguay de la transition y la redemocratizacion (Montevideo, 1987) are excel-
lent contributions on the military in the democratic transition. Charles G.
Gillespie, Negotiating Democracy: Politicians and Generals in Uruguay (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1991) is superb. See also Cristina Torres, 'Las fuerzas arma-
das en la transicion hacia la democracia', in Charles Gillespie (ed.), Uru-
guay y la democracia (Montevideo, 1985). Carina Perelli, Los militares y la
gestidn politka (Montevideo, 1990) and Juan Rial, Las fuerzas armadas en los
anos 90: Una agenda de discusion (Montevideo, 1990) present thought-
provoking views on the future of civil-military relations in Uruguay.
VENEZUELA
In spite of the passage of years since its publication, Winfield J. Burg-

graaff, The Venezuelan Armed Forces in Politics, 1935-1959 (Columbia,

11. The urban working class and labour movements 617
Mo., 1972) remains the classic study of military politics in Venezuela.

Angel Ziems, El Gomerismo y la formation del ejertito national (Caracas,
1979) is a fine historical work. Jose Vicente Rangel, Luis Esteban Rey,
Pompeyo Marquez, and German Lariet, Militares y politica {Una polemica
inconclusa) (Caracas, 1976) is a stimulating contribution to the subject.
Another noteworthy book is Anibal Romero, Seguridad, defensa y demo-
cratia (Caracas, 1980). Gene E. Bigler, 'The armed forces and patterns of
civilmilitary relations', in John D. Martz and D. J. Myers (eds.), Venezu-
ela: The Democratic Experience (New York, 1977) is an easily accessible and
comprehensive study. Luis Enrique Rangel Bourgoin, Nosotros los militares
(Caracas, 1983) deserves mention.
There is a tendency for scholars of Latin American military politics to
ignore those countries in which the armed forces seem to be firmly under
civilian control. The danger inherent in this scholarly neglect is that an
unstudied military institution can over a period of time become a 'no-go
zone' for scholars, and consequently a terra incognita. This danger is well
illustrated by the Venezuelan case. The paucity of academic studies on
Venezuelan military politics over the years has led to a woeful inadequacy
of our collective knowledge on the subject. The inability of scholars to
explain the events of 1992 is all too evident.
11. T H E U R B A N W O R K I N G CLASS A N D
LABOUR MOVEMENTS
The literature on labour movements and the working class in Latin Amer-
ica in the period since 1930 is most abundant for Brazil and Mexico,
followed by Argentina, Chile, Colombia and Peru. There is a limited
literature on the remaining countries. Works dealing specifically with
occupational structure, and with the political parties of the Left, have been
omitted; they are covered in other bibliographic essays in this volume.
Works dealing with labour law have also been omitted, unless these have a
specific historical or substantive focus.
There are a number of general surveys of the field. Of these, perhaps the
most interesting (though also highly debated) are R. B. Collier and D.
Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, N.J., 1991), and C. Berg-
quist, Labor in Latin America (Stanford, Calif, 1986). The former is a
massive interpretative effort of the political incorporation of labour and its
effects on political development in eight countries: Argentina, Chile,

Brazil, Uruguay, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru and Mexico. The latter,

employing an interpretative scheme drawn from dependency and labour
process theories, compares Chile, Argentina, Venezuela and Colombia. An
earlier work which is still a useful and reliable introduction is Hobart
Spalding, Jr., Organized Labor in Latin America (New York, 1977). See also
Moises Poblete Troncoso and Ben Burnett, The Rise of the Latin American
Labor Movement (New York, i960); R. J. Alexander, Labor Relations in
Argentina, Brazil and Chile (New York, 1962); Victor Alba, Politics and the
Labor Movement in Latin America (Stanford, Calif., 1968); Carlos Rama,
Historia del movimiento obrero y social latinoamericano contempordneo (Barcelona,
1976); and Moises Poblete Troncoso, El movimiento obrero latinoamericano
(Mexico, D.F., 1976). A careful Marxist account is J. Godio's Historia del
movimiento obrero latinoamericano, 3 vols. (San Jose, C.R., 197985). There
is also a four-volume collection of country studies (of uneven quality):
Pablo Gonzalez Casanova (ed.), Historia del movimiento obrero en America
Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1984).
Historiographical and theoretical discussions on Latin American labour
history include Kenneth Paul Erickson et al., 'Research on the urban
working class and organized labor in Argentina, Brazil and Chile: What is
left to be done?', LARR, 9/2 (1974); Charles Bergquist, 'What is being
done? Some recent studies on the urban working class and organized labor
in Latin America', LARR, 16/2 (1981), 203-223; and Emilia Viotti da
Costa, 'Experience versus structures: New tendencies in the history of
labor and the working class in Latin America - What do we gain? What
do we lose?, International Labor and Working-Class History, 36 (Fall 1989).
An historically-oriented survey of the sociological literature is Francisco
Zapata, 'Towards a Latin American sociology of labour', JLAS, 22/2
(1990), 375402. See also, from a sociological perspective, two general
books by Francisco Zapata: Trabajadores y sindicatos en America Latina (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1988) and El conflicto sindical en America Latina (Mexico, D.F.,
1986). The first contains a series of essays on general topics and some case
studies of Chilean and Mexican unions. The second is the only sustained
comparative work on strike activity in Latin America.
Several works dealing specifically with women workers are mentioned
below in the review of the literature on individual countries. In addi-
tion, June Nash and Helen Icken Safa (eds.), Sex and Class in Latin
America (New York, 1980) has several papers on women workers, as does
Magdalena Le6n (ed.), Sociedad, subordination y feminismo, vol. 3 (Bogota,
1982).

Two articles deal in a systematic way with the diversity of Latin Ameri-
can experiences and offer typologies: Samuel Valenzuela, 'Movimientos
obreros y sistemas politicos: Un analisis conceptual y tipologico', DE, 23/
91 (1983), and Ian Roxborough, 'The analysis of labour movements in
Latin America: Typologies and theories', BLAR, 2/2 (1981), 8195.
On labour in the period at the end of the Second World War and the
beginning of the Cold War, see Leslie Bethell and Ian Roxborough (eds.),
Latin America Between the Second World War and the Cold War, 1944-1948
(Cambridge, Eng., 1992). A number of works focus on the international
dimensions of Latin American labour in the period from the 1930s to the
1950s. See J. Kofas, The Struggle for Legitimacy: Latin American Labor and
the United States, 19301960 (Tempe, Ariz., 1992), which relies heavily
on United States archives; L. Quintanilla Obregon, Lombardismo y sindi-
catos en America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1982) on the CTAL; and two works
which deal with Latin America as part of a larger international political
project: Ronald Radosh, American Labor and United States Foreign Policy
(New York, 1969) and Gary Busch, The Political Role of International Trade
Unions (London, 1983). The autobiographical account of Serafino Romu-
aldi, Presidents and Peons: Recollections of a Labor Ambassador in Latin America
(New York, 1967) also deserves mention.
Edward Epstein (ed.), Labor Autonomy and the State in Latin America
(Boston, 1989) provides an overview of labour relations in the 1970s and
1980s. Francisco Zapata et al., El sindicalismo latinoamericano en los ochenta
(Mexico, D.F., 1986) contains essays on the 1980s by some of the leading
specialists in Latin America.
MEXICO
On Mexico, single-volume interpretations which serve as a useful point

of departure include I. Bizberg, Estado y sindicalismo en Mexico (Mexico,
D.F., 1990). A more ambitious work is the 17-volume collection under
the general editorship of P. Gonzalez Casanova, La clase obrera en la
historia de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1980-8). Vols. 9-15 cover the period
since 1930. See, in particular, A. Cordova, En una epoca de crisis (1928-
1934) (Mexico, D.F., 1980); J. Basurto, Del avilacamachismo al ale-
manismo (1940-1962) (Mexico, D.F., 1984); and J. L. Reyna and R.
Trejo Delarbe, De Adolfo Ruiz Conines a Adolfo Lopez Mateos (19521964)
(Mexico, D.F., 1981). Published collections of conference papers on
Mexican labour history include: Jose Woldenberg et al., Memorias del

encuentro sobre historia del movimiento obrero, 3 vols. (Puebla, 19801);

Miguel Angel Manzano et al., Memoria del primer coloquio regional de
historia obrera (Mexico, D.F., 1977); Guillermina Bahena et al., Memoria
del segundo coloquio regional de historia obrera, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1979);
and Elsa Cecilia Frost et al. (eds.), El trabajo y los trabajadores en la
historia de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1979).
The 1930s, and in particular the Cardenas presidency (193440), is a
period which has attracted researchers and has produced a polemical litera-
ture. Works with a focus on labour include A. Anguiano, El estado y la
politica obrera del cardenismo (Mexico, D.F., 1975); J. Basurto, Cardenas y el
poder sindical (Mexico, D.F., 1983); J. Ashby, Organized Labor and the
Mexican Revolution under Ldzaro Cardenas (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1963). Two
volumes of the series under the general direction of Daniel Cosio Villegas
and published by the Colegio de Mexico, Historia de la Revolucidn Mexi-
cana, 23 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1977 ), are of interest for their interpreta-
tions of the labour movement: L. Meyer, El conflicto social y los gobiernos del
Maximato, vol. 13 (Mexico, D.F., 1978); and A. Hernandez Chavez, La
mecdnica cardenista, vol. 16 (Mexico, D.F., 1979).
The events of the 1940s and the 1948 Charrazo are detailed in three fine
works: V. M. Durand Ponte, La ruptura de la nation (Mexico, D.F., 1986);
V. M. Durand Ponte et al., Las derrotas obreras, 1946-1952 (Mexico,
D.F., 1984); and R. Loyola (ed.), Entre la guerra y la estabilidadpolitica: El
Mexico de los 40 (Mexico, D.F., 1986). There are also important comments
on labour in this period in three of the volumes in the Historia de la
Revolucidn Mexicana series: L. Medina, Del cardenismo al avilacamachismo,
vol. 18 (Mexico, D.F., 1978); B. Torres, Mexico en la Segunda Guerra
Mundial, vol. 19 (Mexico, D.F., 1979); and L. Medina, Civilismo y mod-
ernization del autoritarismo, vol. 20 (Mexico, D.F., 1979).
A useful survey of the 1950s is O. Pellicer de Brody and J. L. Reyna, El
afianzamiento de la estabilidad politica (Mexico, D.F., 1978), vol. 22 of the
Colegio de Mexico series. The various works cited below on the railway
workers are also worth consulting for this period.
The period of union militancy in the 1970s is dealt with by R. Trejo
Delarbe, Estepuno si se ve (Mexico, D.F., 1987). The same author has also
produced the very helpful Cronica del sindicalismo en Mexico (19J61988)
(Mexico, D.F., 1990), which is an industry-by-industry account of labour
conflict in this period. Another chronology is the four volumes of Jose Luis
Cecena Gamez (ed.), Movimiento obrero, 1970-1980 (Cronologia) (Mexico,
D.F., 1981).

For Mexico there are a number of studies of particular industries, unions

and labour confederations. The most thorough study of union organiza-
tions in the 1970s is a work produced by the research department of the
Ministry of Labour: C. Zazueta and R. de la Pena, La estructura del Congreso
del Trabajo (Mexico, D.F., 1984). A useful collection, based largely on
periodical and secondary sources and dealing with the major unions, is the
five volumes under the editorship of J. Aguilar, Los sindicatos nacionales
(Mexico, D.F., 1986-9). There is also J. Aguilar (ed.), Historia de la
CTM, 1936-1990, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1990), though this also relies
heavily on periodical and secondary sources. Also on the CTM there are A.
Aziz Nassif, El estado mexicano y la CTM (Mexico, D.F., 1989); S. Yanez
Reyes, Genesis de la burocracia sindical cetemista (Mexico, D.F., 1984). None
of the other confederations has received nearly as much attention, though
the excellent book by F. Barbosa Cano, La CROM de Luis N. Morones a
Antonio Hernandez (Puebla, 1980) does devote a few pages to the CROM in
the 1930s and 1940s. On oil workers, see A. Alonso y R. Lopez, El
sindicato de trabajadores petroleros y sus relaciones con PEMEX y el estado,
19701985 (Mexico, D.F., 1986); and V. Novelo, La dificil democracia de
lospetroleros (Mexico, D.F., 1991). On miners, seej. L. Sariego, Enclavesy
minerales en el norte de Mexico: Historia social de los mineros de Cananea y Nueva
Rosita, 1900-1970 (Mexico, D.F., 1988); and L. Reygadas, Proceso de
trabajo y accion obrera: Historia sindical de los mineros de Nueva Rosita, 1929
1979 (Mexico, D.F., 1988). There are a number of works on the railway
workers, most of which focus on the strikes of 1958, including: A.
Alonso, El movimiento ferrocarrilero en Mexico, 1958/1959 (Mexico, D.F.,
1972); and E. Stevens, Protest and Response in Mexico (Cambridge, Mass.,
1974). Union militancy in the steel industry in the 1970s is dealt with by
I. Bizberg, La accion obrera en Las Truchas (Mexico, D.F., 1982). The
unions in the electricity-generating industry are analysed by S. Gomez
Tagle, Insurgencia y democracia en los sindicatos electricistas (Mexico, D.F.,
1980) and Mark Thompson, 'Collective bargaining in the Mexican electri-
cal industry', British Journal ofIndustrial Relations, 8/1 (1970). For secon-
dary school teachers and their unions, see A. Loyo Brambila, El movimiento
magisterial de 1958 en Mexico (Mexico, 1979); Enrique Avila Carrillo and
Humberto Martinez Brizuela, Historia del movimiento magisterial, 1910
1989 (Mexico, D.F., 1990), and two books by G. Pelaez: Las luchas
magisterial de 195660 (Mexico, D.F., 1984) and Historia del Sindicato
nacional de Trabajadores de la Educacion (Mexico, D.F., 1984); as well as
Stevens, Protest and Response, mentioned above. There are several works on

the automobile industry. I. Roxborough, Unions and Politics in Mexico: The

Case of the Automobile Industry (Cambridge, Eng., 1984), and J. Aguilar,
La politica sindical en Mexico: Industria del automovil (Mexico, D.F., 1982)
deal with the industry in the 1970s. An extended comment on these is
Kevin Middlebrook, 'Union democratization in the Mexican automobile
industry: A reappraisal', LARR, 24/2 (1988), 6993. Two more recent
studies with a labour process perspective are J. Carrillo (ed.), La nueva era
de la industria automotriz en Mexico (Tijuana, 1990); and Y. Montiel, Proceso
de trabajo, accion sindicaly nuevas tecnologias en Volkswagen de Mexico (Mexico,
D.F., I 9 9 i ) .
There is a useful two-volume collection of papers on women in the
labour force: Jenifer Cooper et al. (eds.), Fuerza de trabajo feminino urbano en
Mexico (Mexico, 1989). Also worthy of note are Vicki Ruiz and Susan
Tiano (eds.), Women on the U.S.Mexico Border (Boston, 1987), Lourdes
Beneria and Martha Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender: Industrial
Homework, Subcontracting, and Household Dynamics in Mexico City (Chicago,
1987); and Maria Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, For We Are Sold. I and My
People: Women and Industry in Mexico's Frontier (Albany, N. Y., 1983).
Many important labour leaders have yet to find a biographer, and most
of the existing biographies lack balance and objectivity. On Vicente Lom-
bardo Toledano there is the hagiographic R. Millon, Mexican Marxist -
Vicente Lombardo Toledano (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1966) and the almost dia-
metrically opposed F. Chassen de L6pez, Lombardo Toledano y el movimiento
obrero mexicano (191J/1940) (Mexico, D.F., 1977). A number of largely
journalistic books have more recently appeared on Fidel Velazquez, includ-
ing Fernando Amilpa Trujillo, Fidel Velazquez: Mi amigo Amilpa (Mexico,
D.F., 1991); Agustin Sanchez Gonzalez, Fidel: Una historia depoder (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1991); Jorge Mejia Prieto, Fidel Velazquez: 47 anos de historia y
poder (Mexico, D.F., 1980); and Carlos Velasco, Fidel Velazquez (Mexico,
D.F., 1986). An interesting autobiography is Valentin Campa, Mi
testimonio: Memoria de un comunista mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1978). Campa
was a leader of the railway workers and has much to say about the forties
and fifties.
On the history of wages in Mexico, there are two careful studies: P.
Gregory, The Myth of Market Failure: Employment and the Labor Market in
Mexico (Baltimore, 1986) and J. Bortz, 'El salario obrero en el Distrito
Federal, 19391975', Investigacion Economica (OctoberDecember 1977).
Finally, there is a book of photographs, Victorial Novelo (ed.), Obreros
somos: Expresiones de la cultura obrera (Mexico, D.F., 1984).

BRAZIL
There are no satisfactory substantial published English-language surveys

of Brazilian labour since 1930, though the doctoral dissertation of Timo-
thy Harding, 'The political history of organized labor in Brazil' (Stanford
University, 1973) can be recommended as a place to start. In Portuguese a
very good introduction is provided by Leoncio Martins Rodrigues, 'Sindi-
calismo e classe operaria (19301964)', in B. Fausto (ed.), Historia geral
da civilizagdo brasileira, vol. 10 (Sao Paulo, 1981). An orthodox Marxist
interpretation, with considerable detail and a sensitive periodization, is
provided by L. Werneck Vianna, Liberalismo e sindicato no Brasil (Rio de
Janeiro, 1978). A classic work dealing with the state of Sao Paulo is A.
Simao, Sindicato e estado (Sao Paulo, 1966). Eder Sader et al., Movimento
operdrio brasileiro, 19001979 (Belo Horizonte, 1980) is a series of short
interpretative essays. Kenneth Paul Erickson, The Brazilian Corporative
State and Working-Class Politics (Berkeley, 1977) focuses on the question of
corporatism and state control. Leoncio Martins Rodrigues has produced
two interesting general essays: Trabalhadores, sindicatos e industrializagdo
(Sao Paulo, 1974) and La clase obrera en el Brasil (Buenos Aires, 1969).
The period between 1930 and 1945 is, in historiographical terms, a
veritable minefield. Historians of this period have disputed the relation-
ship between organized labour and the state, with some seeing the Estado
Novo as a political project largely independent of organized social forces,
and with others taking the view that both labour and industrialists exerted
some important influence on policy-making during the Estado Novo.
Among the more important published works are: Robert Rowland, 'Classe
operaria e estado de compromisso', Estudos CEBRAP, 8 (1974); R. Barbosa
de Araujo, 0 Batismo do trabalho: A experiencia de Lindolfo Collor (Rio de
Janeiro, 1981); Angela Maria de Castro Gomes, A Invengdo do trabalhismo
(Rio de Janeiro, 1988); R. Antunes, Classe operaria, sindicatos e partido no
Brasil: Da revolugdo de 30 ate a Alianga Nacional Libertadora (Sao Paulo,
1982); and the brief but interesting Kazumi Munakata, A Legislagdo
trabalhista no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1981), all of which concentrate on the
1930s. Zelia Lopes da Silva, A Domesticagdo dos trabalhadores nos anos 30
(Sao Paulo, 1990) and Rene Gertz, 'Estado Novo: Um inventario historio-
grafico', in Jose Luiz Werneck da Silva (ed.), 0 Feixe e 0prisma: uma revisdo
do Estado Novo (Rio de Janeiro, 1991), discuss some of the historiographi-
cal issues. Angela de Castro Gomes, Burguesia e trabalho: Politica e legislagdo
social no Brasil, 1917-1937 (Rio de Janeiro, 1979), although mainly

dealing with an earlier period, is also very useful. Joao Almino, Os Demo-
cratas autoritdrios: Liberdades individuals, de associagdo politica e sindical na
constituinte de 1946 (Sao Paulo, 1980) discusses the debates around the
1946 Constitution, with particular emphasis on labour. A survey of the
period of the Estado Novo is contained in A. C. Bernardo, Tutela e
autonomia sindical: Brasil, 19301945 (Sao Paulo, 1982). The crucial
period of the mid-forties is dealt with in considerable detail by John
French's The Brazilian Workers' ABC (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992), which, as
the title indicates, is a study of the ABC region of Sao Paulo. A careful
study of the period between 1945 and the late 1960s is Heloisa Helena
Teixeira de Souza Martins, 0 Estado e a burocratiza$do do sindicato no Brasil
(Sao Paulo, 1979). Filling a gap is J. A. Moises, Greve de massa e crise
politica (Sao Paulo, 1978), which is a study of the 'strike of the three
hundred thousand' in Sao Paulo in 19534, making the point that even in
the 'quiet years' there was still considerable union militancy.
The period of labour insurgency during the Goulart presidency in the
early 1960s is discussed in a number of general works covering this
period, including Erickson, The Brazilian Corporative State and Working
Class Politics, cited above. Specifically on the PTB and the CGT (and
sometimes covering a broader historical span) are Lucflia de Almeida
Neves Delgado, CGT no Brasil, 1961-1964 (Belo Horizonte, 1981) and
PTB: Do Getulismo ao reformismo, 1945-1964 (Sao Paulo, 1989); Luis
Alberto Moniz Bandeira, Brizola e 0 trabalhismo (Rio de Janiero, 1979);
Maria Victoria Benevides, 0 PTB e 0 trabalhismo (Sao Paulo, 1989); and
Maria Andrea Loyola, Os Sindicatos e 0 PTB: Estudo de urn caso em Minas
Gerais (Petr6polis, 1980).
The definitive work on trends in Brazilian wages is John Wells, 'Indus-
trial accumulation and living standards in the long-run: The Sao Paulo
industrial working class, 193075', parts 1 and 2, Journal of Development
Studies, 19/2-3 (1983).
A number of early case studies by sociologists provide an insight into
industrial relations in the fifties and sixties. J. Brandao Lopes in Crise de
Brasil arcaico (Sao Paulo, 1967), deals with the textile industry in 1958
and in Sociedade industrial no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1964) he reports two cases
of factories studied in 1957. L. Martins Rodrigues, Industrializacdo e
atitudes operdrias (Sao Paulo, 1970) reports the results of a survey in a Sao
Paulo car factory in 1963. More recent studies by sociologists and anthro-
pologists which deserve mention are V. M. Candido Pereira, 0 Coragdo da

fdbrica (Rio de Janeiro, 1979) and textile workers in Rio, and J. S. Leite
Lopes, 0 Vapor do diabo (Rio de Janeiro, 1978) on the sugar industry in
Pernambuco). J. S. Leite Lopes, A Tegelagem dos conflitos de classe (Sao Paulo,
1988) is a study of the textile city of Paulina, Pernambuco, relying heavily
on anthropological fieldwork to reconstruct the history of a mill-town in
the mid-twentieth century.
Union organization and leadership in Brazil has been well covered. J. A.
Rodrigues, Sindicato e desenvolvimento no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1968) is a gen-
eral study of Brazilian union organization with data up to 1961. O.
Rabello, A Rede sindicalpaulista (Sao Paulo, 1965) gives a useful snapshot
of union organizations in Sao Paulo in 1964, and can be supplemented
with a survey of Sao Paulo union leaders, carried out in 1963, by J. V.
Freitas Marcondes, Radiografia da lideranca sindical paulista (Sao Paulo,
1964). There is a helpful study of the Confederac,ao Nacional dos Trabal-
hadores na Industria (CNTI) in S. A. Costa, Estado e controle sindical no
Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1986). On the union organizations of the 1980s, there
are four excellent short studies by L. Martins Rodrigues: Partidos e sindi-
catos (Sao Paulo, 1990), CUT: Os militantes e a ideologia (Sao Paulo, 1990),
Forga Sindical (Sao Paulo, 1993), and Retrato da CUT (Sao Paulo, 1991).
There is also M. Grondin, Perfil dos dirigentes sindicais na Grande Sao Paulo
(Sao Paulo, 1985).
The importance of Sao Paulo, particularly in the 1970s and 1980s, has
led to a massive output of work on the metalworking industries. Many of
these works are listed below in the section on the insurgency of the 1970s
and 1980s. In addition, there is Braz Jose de Araujo, Operdrios em luta:
Metalurgicos da Baixada Santista (1933-1983) (Rio de Janeiro, 1985),
Dennis Linhares Barsted, Mediqdo deforgas: 0 movimento grevista de 1953 e a
epoca dos operdrios navais (Rio de Janeiro, 1982), and Jose Ricardo
Ramalho's study of a state-owned automobile factory which concentrates
on the 1940s and 1950s, Estado-patrdo e luta operdria (Sao Paulo, 1989).
The metalworkers' union of Sao Bernardo published a fascinating collec-
tion of photographs: Aloizio Mercante Oliva (ed.), Imagens da luta, 1905
1985 (Sao Bernardo, 1987).
An excellent history of a Brazilian mining union is Y. de Souza Grossi,
Mina de Morro Velho: A Extracdo do homen (Rio de Janeiro, 1981). A history
of the Sao Paulo bankworkers between 1923 and 1944 is L. Bicalho
Canedo, 0 Sindicalismo bancdrio em Sao Paulo (Sao Paulo, 1978). The history
of the chemical and pharmaceutical workers' union of Sao Paulo has been

written by A. Troyano, Estado e sindicalismo (Sao Paulo, 1978). Dock-

workers are treated by Barsted, cited above (for Rio de Janeiro) and Ingrid
Sarti, Porto Vermelho (Rio de Janeiro, 1981) (for the port of Santos).
The union insurgency of the late 1970s onward has received extensive
treatment, mainly by social scientists. Many of these works focus on the
metalworkers of Greater Sao Paulo. Among the more useful works are J.
Humphrey, Capitalist Control and Workers' Struggle in the Brazilian Auto
Industry (Princeton, N.J., 1982), V. M. Durand Ponte, Crisis y movimiento
obrero en Brasil: Las huelgas metalurgicas de 19781980 (Mexico, D.F.,
1987), Eder Sader, Quando novos personagens entraram em cena: Experiencias e
lutas dos trabalhadores da Grande Sao Paulo, 19701980 (Rio de Janeiro,
1988) and Maria Hermfnia Tavares de Almeida, 'O Sindicalismo brasileiro
entre a conservac,ao e a mudanga', in Bernardo Sorj and Maria Herminia
Tavares de Almeida (eds.), Sociedade e politica no Brasilpds-64 (Sao Paulo,
1983).
On the situation in the 1980s, two useful works are Armando Boito, 0
Sindicalismo de estado no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1991), and Armando Boito (ed.),
0 Sindicalismo brasileiro nos anos 80 (Sao Paulo, 1991). In English a helpful
survey is Margaret Keck, 'The new unionism in the Brazilian transition' in
Alfred Stepan(ed.), Democratizing Brazil (New York, 1989). An interesting
and broad-ranging essay is Antonio Guimaraes and Nadya Araujo Castro,
'Espacios regionales de construccion de la identidad: La clase trabajadora en
Brasil despues de 1977', Estudios Sociologies, 7/21 (1989).
Women workers have been relatively well studied in Brazil. Rosalina de
Santa Cruz Leite, A operdria metalurgica (Sao Paulo, 1984) reports extensive
interviews with women metalworkers; Jessita Martins Rodrigues, A mulher
operdria (Sao Paulo, 1979) is a study of women textile workers in San Jose
dos Campos, in the state of Sao Paulo. A thorough sociological treatment
is John Humphrey, Gender and Work in the Third World: Sexual Divisions in
Brazilian Industry (London, 1987).
ARGENTINA
A useful introduction in English to the history of the labour movement in

Argentina from a Marxist perspective is R. Munck, Argentina: From Anar-
chism to Peronism (London, 1987). In Spanish, also from a Marxist perspec-
tive, there is Julio Godio's five-volume overview, El movimiento obrero
argentino (Buenos Aires, 198791). A special number of the Boletin de
Estudios Latinoamericanos y del Caribe 31 (December 1981) is dedicated to

historical perspectives on the working class of Argentina and Chile. Carlos

Waisman, Modernization and the Working Class (Austin, Tex., 1982) is a
theoretically oriented discussion by a sociologist of the process of labour
incorporation in Argentina, Germany and Britain.
Most of the work on Argentine unionism is, of course, closely bound up
with the debates on the origins and nature of Peronism. The 1930s are
usually viewed either as a prelude to Peronism or as the last stages of an
alternative project of (potentially) Socialist unionism. On the origins of
Peronism, an older but still useful work is Samuel Baily, Labor, National-
ism, and Politics in Argentina (New Brunswick, N.J., 1967). The view of
Peronism stressing the importance of recent migration to the city and the
'massification' of the working class was challenged by a wave of revisionist
historiography. The pioneering work was M. Murmis and J. C. Portan-
tiero, Estudios sobre los origines del peronismo (Buenos Aires, 1971), where
they argued that popular support for Peron came as much from the estab-
lished working class as from recent immigrants to the city. This line of
argument was strengthened by the publication of Juan Carlos Torre's
article, 'Sobre as origens do peronismo a CGT e o 17 de outubro de
1945', Estudos CEBRAP, 16 (1976). Another important article is Daniel
James, 'October 17th and 18th, 1945: Mass protest, Peronism and the
Argentine working class', Journal of Social History, 21 (1988), 44161.
This gave rise to a lively debate, conducted largely in the pages of
Desarrollo Economico. Several of the articles in this debate have been repro-
duced in Juan Carlos Torre (ed.), La formation del sindicalismo peronista
(Buenos Aires, 1986). Accounts of the origins of Peronist unionism taking
account of both orthodox and revisionist positions include J. C. Torre, La
vieja guardia sindical y Peron (Buenos Aires, 1990), H. Matsushita,
Movimiento obrero argentino, 19301945 (Buenos Aires, 1983), Elena Su-
sana Pont, Partido Laborista: Estado y sindicatos (Buenos Aires, 1984), and
H. del Campo, Sindicalismo y peronismo (Buenos Aires, 1983). A study
which concentrates on the railway workers is D. Tamarin, The Argentine
Labor Movement, 19301945 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1985). Also on rail-
way workers, see Joel Horowitz, 'Los trabajadores ferroviarios en la Argen-
tina (1920-1943): La formacion de una elite obrera', DE, 25/99 (1985).
Paul Buchanan, 'State corporatism in Argentina: Labor administration
under Peron and Ongania', LARR, 20/1 (1985), 6 1 - 9 5 , examines the role
of the Ministry of Labour. Some of the articles published in Torre (ed.), La
formacion del sindicalismo peronista, cited above, treat the period of the first
Peronist governments (1946-55) and Alvaro Abos, La columna vertebral:

Sindicates y peronisnw (Buenos Aires, 1983) take a broad look at unionism in

Argentina from 1946 to 1976.
The international projection of Peronist unionism via the Agrupacion
de Trabajadores Latinoamericanos Sindicalistas (ATLAS) is covered by
most works dealing with international unionism cited above, and has been
specifically covered by Manuel Urriza, CGT y ATLAS: Historia de una
experiencia sindical latinoamericana (Buenos Aires, 1988) and Daniel Par-
cero, La CGTy el sindkalismo latinoamericano (Buenos Aires, 1987).
The relations between the military government that overthrew Peron in
1955 and the unions are discussed in Juan Carlos Torre and Santiago Senen
Gonzalez, Ejercito y sindicatos (los 60 dias de Lonardi) (Buenos Aires, 1969).
The most important work on the Peronist 'resistance' period between the
overthrow of Peron in 1955 and the return of the Peronists to power in
1973 is Daniel James, Resistance and Integration: Peronism and the Argentine
Working Class, 1946-76 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988), which has a subtle
and sophisticated analysis of the factors creating a specifically Peronist
working-class identity. Another general survey of the same period is
Graciela Ducatenzeiler, Syndicats et politique en Argentine, 1955-1973
(Montreal, 1980). An important work on the Frondizi government of the
late 1950s is Marcelo Cavarozzi, Sindicatos y politica en Argentina (Buenos
Aires, 1984). Ernesto Salas has written a detailed study of the occupation
of a meatpacking plant by the workers in 1959: La resistencia peronista: La
toma del frigorifico Lisandro de la Torre, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1990). A
sociological study of the Argentine working class carried out in the mid-
1960s has recently been republished: Torcuato Di Telia, Politica y clase
obrera (Buenos Aires, 1983).
The 1960s and 1970s are covered by Osvaldo Calello and Daniel
Parcero, De Vandora Ubaldini, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1984). The relation-
ship between unions and the military dictatorship of 1966-73 is treated
by Alvaro Abos, Las organizaciones sindicalesy elpoder militar (19761983)
(Buenos Aires, 1984). Focussing more directly on the Radical and
Justicialista parties is Daniel Rodriguez Lamas, Radicales, peronistas y el
movimiento obrero (19631973), 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1989). Arturo Fer-
nandez has also published a study of the ideology of the Peronist union
leadership during this period: Ideologias de los grupos dirigentes sindicales
(1966-1973), 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1986).
The events of the 'Cordobazo' of 1969 are covered by F. Delich, Crisis y
protesta social: Cordoba, mayo de 1969 (Buenos Aires, 1970), and by Beba C.
Balve and Beatriz S. Balve, '69: Huelga politica de masas (Buenos Aires,

1989). The second round of 1971 is the subject of B. Balve et al., Lucha de
calles, lucha de clases (Buenos Aires, 1973).
Juan Carlos Torre, Los sindkatos en el gobierno, 1973-19J6 (Buenos
Aires, 1983) is the most reliable and useful work on the labour movement
during the short-lived Peronist government of 197376.
The military dictatorship of 1976-83 is covered in Bernardo Gallitelli
and Andres Thompson (eds.), Sindicalismo y rigimenes milt tares en Argentina
y Chile (Amsterdam, 1982), and by Pablo Pozzi, Oposkion obrera a la
dictadura (Buenos Aires, 1988).
There are a number of works by social scientists on the period since the
return to democracy in 1983. The most useful of these is R. Gaudio and A.
Thompson, Sindicalismo peronistalgobierno radical: Los anos de Alfonsin (Bue-
nos Aires, 1990). The article by James McGuire, 'Union political tactics
and democratic consolidation in Alfonsin's Argentina, 19831989',
LARR, 27/1 (1992) 3774 is particularly helpful in explaining the complex
factional line-up in the CGT. On labour-management relations, O. Mo-
reno, La nueva negociacion: La negociacion colectiva en la Argentina (Buenos
Aires, 1991) is very helpful. The Ministry of Labour published two useful
collections of statistical data: Sindkatos: Elecciones 1984-1986 (Buenos
Aires, 1988) and Estructura sindkal en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1987).
Union organization is dealt with in detail in Ruben Zorrilla, Estructura
y dindmica del sindicalismo argentino (Buenos Aires, 1974). Studies of the
leadership and its political tendencies include Alejandro Francisco Lama-
drid, Politica y alineamientos sindicales (Buenos Aires, 1988); Ruben
Zorrilla, Lideres del poder sindkal (Buenos Aires, 1988) and, by the same
author, El liderazgo sindkal argentino (Buenos Aires, 1988). Working-class
living standards are considered in Adriana Marshall, 'La composition del
consumo de los obreros industriales de Buenos Aires, 19301980', DE,
21/83 (1981).
Given the importance of organized labour in Argentina, it is perhaps
somewhat surprising that there are not more studies of individual indus-
tries or unions. Notable exceptions are I. M. Roldan, Sindkatos y protesta
social en la Argentina: Un estudio de caso: El Sindkato de Luz y Fuerza de
Cordoba (19691974) (Amsterdam, 1978); Federico Neiburg, Fdbrka y
Villa Obrera: Historia social y antropologia de los obreros del cemento, 2 vols.
(Buenos Aires, 1988), and Natalia Duval, Los sindkatos das istas: SiTraC
[19101971) (Buenos Aires, 1988), a study of auto workers. A study of
working conditions for teachers in the 1970s is Mariano Narodowski and
Patricio Narodowski, La crisis laboral docente (Buenos Aires, 1988).

URUGUAY AND PARAGUAY
On Uruguay, see Enrique Rodriguez, Un movimiento obrero maduro (Montevi-

deo, 1988), and Francisco Pintos, Historia del movimiento obrero del Uruguay
(Montevideo, i960). On Paraguay, see Ramiro Barboza, Los sindkatos en el
Paraguay: Evolution y estructura actual (Asuncion, 1987).
CHILE
The monograph by Alan Angell, Politics and the Labour Movement in Chile
(London, 1972) is still a standard reference for the structure and organiza-
tion of Chilean labour to the 1960s. See also Jorge Barria, El movimiento
obrero en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1971), and James Petras and Maurice
Zeitlin, El radicalisms politico de la clase trabajadora chilena (Buenos Aires,
1969). On copper miners in the 1960s, see Jorge Barria, Los sindkatos de la
gran mineria del cobre (Santiago, Chile, 1970) and Manuel Barrera, El
conflicto obrero en el enclave cuprifero (Santiago, Chile, 1973). Francisco Za-
pata has a chapter of his Trabajadores y sindkatos en America Latina (Mexico,
D.F., 1987) devoted to copper miners during the Pinochet dictatorship.
He has also written two other short works: Los mineros de Chuquicamata:
Productores 0 proletarios? (Mexico, D.F., 1975) and Las relaciones entre el
movimiento obrero y elgobierno de Allende (Mexico, D.F., 1974). Information
on strikes and on the attitudes of union leaders in the 1960s is available in
Manuel Barrera, El sindkato industrial como instrumento de lucha de la clase
obrera chilena (Santiago, Chile, 1971). A minor classic is Torcuato Di Telia
et al., Sindkato y comunidad (Buenos Aires, 1967), which compares union
militancy in the coal mines of Lota and the steel plant of Huachipato,
based on field work in the mid-fifties.
The most interesting work on the Allende period is Peter Winn,
Weavers of Revolution (New York, 1986). A detailed study of a textile mill
which was expropriated during the Popular Unity government, it de-
scribes the way in which the micropolitics of the factory articulated with
national-level politics. The results of a survey of worker participation in
management in 35 enterprises during the Allende government are ana-
lysed in Juan Espinosa and Andrew Zimbalist, Economic Democracy: Work-
ers' Participation in Chilean Industry, 19701973 (New York, 1978).
On the Pinochet period, see Jaime Ruiz-Tagle, El sindicalismo chileno
despues del Plan Laboral (Santiago, Chile, 1985); Guillermo Campero and
Jose Valenzuela, El movimiento sindical chileno en el capitalismo autoritario

(Santiago, Chile, 1981); Manuel Barrera et al., Sindicates y estado en el Chile

actual (Geneva, 1985); Manuel Barrera and Gonzalo Falabella (eds.),
Sindicato bajo regimenes militares (Geneva, 1989) (which deals with Argen-
tina, Brazil and Chile); Francisco Zapata et al., El sindicalismo latino-
americano en los ochenta (Santiago, Chile, 1986); J. Samuel Valenzuela and
Arturo Valenzuela (eds.), Military Rule in Chile (Baltimore, 1986); and
Rigoberto Garcia (ed.), Chile 1973-1974 (Stockholm, 1985).
BOLIVIA
Bolivian labour history is dominated by the five-volume work of Trotskyist

Guillermo Lora. This is available in an abridged version in English: A
History of the Bolivian Labour Movement (Cambridge, Eng., 1977). See also
Jorge Lazarte, Movimiento obrero y procesospoliticos en Bolivia (La Paz, 1989),
and Steven Volk, 'Class, union, party: The development of a revolutionary
union movement in Bolivia (19051952)', Science and Society, 39/1 (1975).
John Magill, Labor Unions and Political Socialization: A Case Study of Bolivian
Workers (New York, 1974) deals specifically with the miners. Also on
miners is Laurence Whitehead, 'Sobre el radicalismo de los trabajadores
mineros de Bolivia', RMS, 42/4 (1980). June Nash, We Eat the Mines and
the Mines Eat Us (New York, 1979), is an interesting account by an anthro-
pologist of the role of belief-systems in creating community and occupa-
tional cohesiveness among tin miners. Domitla Barrios de Chungara, Let
Me Speak! (London, 1978), is a powerful testimony by a female activist
from the mining camps.
PERU AND ECUADOR
For Peru the obvious place to start is Denis Sulmont, El movimiento obrero
peruano (18901980) (Lima, 1980). An early and influential analysis of
Peruvian labour, based on the notion of 'political bargaining', is James
Payne, Labor and Politics in Peru (New Haven, Conn., 1965), with a focus
on the late 1950s and early 1960s. A study of the textile labour force in
the late fifties is David Chaplin, The Peruvian Industrial Labor Force (Prince-
ton, N.J., 1967). Piedad Pareja, Aprismo y sindicalismo en el Peru (Lima,
1980), is the best source for the Bustamente government of 19458. The
structure of the working class in the 1970s is discussed in Pedro Galin et
al., Asalariadosy closespopulares en Lima (Lima, 1986), and a sophisticated
analysis of the self-identity of workers is Jorge Parodi, 'Ser obrero es algo

relativo': Obreros, clasismo y politica (Lima, 1986). Other general works are
Jose Barba Caballero, Historia del movimiento obrero peruano (Lima, 1981),
and Alberto Moya Obeso, Sindicalismo aprista y clasista en el Peru (1920
T
95^) (Trujillo, Peru, 1977). Specifically on mineworkers there are
Jaysuno Abramovich, Andlisis socioeconomico del trabajador minero en el Peru
(Lima, 1983), Julian Laite, IndustrialDevelopment andMigrantLabour'(Man-
chester, 1981); Heraclio Bonilla, El minero de los Andes (Lima, 1974); Dirk
Kruijt and Menno Vellinger, Labor Relations and Multinational Corporations
(Assen, Neth., 1979). Two works deal with the role of worker manage-
ment in the industrial communities established under the military govern-
ment of Velasco Alvarado: Giorgio Alberti et al., Estado y clase: La
comunidad industrial en el Peru (Lima, 1977) and Evelyne Huber Stephens,
The Politics of "Workers' Participation (New York, 1980).
On Ecuador, Osvaldo Albornoz, Historia del movimiento obrero ecuatoriano
(Quito, 1983); Osvaldo Albornoz et al., 28 de mayo y fundacion de la CTE
(Quito, 1984), concentrating on Ecuador in the 1940s; and Juan-Pablo
Perez Sainz, Clase obrera y democracia en el Ecuador (Quito, 1985).
COLOMBIA
A good introduction to labour in Colombia is Daniel Pecaut, Politica y

sindicalismo en Colombia (Bogota, 1973)- Also worth consulting are Edgar
Caicedo, Historia de la luchas sindicales en Colombia (Bogota, 1982), and
Victor Manuel Moncayo and Fernando Rojas, Luchas obreras y politica la-
boral en Colombia (Bogota, 1978). Another survey, using Payne's notion of
'political bargaining', is Miguel Urrutia, The Development of the Colombian
Labor Movement (New Haven, Conn., 1969). Mauricio Archila Neira has
written two works focussing on the cultural identity of the early Colom-
bian working class: Aqui nadie es forastero: Testimonios sobre la formacion de
una cultura radical: Barrancabermeja, 19201950 (Bogota, 1986), and
Cultura e identidad obrera: Colombia, 1910-1945 (Bogota, 1991). Fo-
cussing on the Catholic church and the formation of the Union de
Trabajadores de Colombia in 1946 and its subsequent development, is
Kenneth Medhurst, The Church and Labour in Colombia (Manchester,
1984). The condition of the working class of Bogota in the 1950s is
outlined by Camilo Torres, Laproletarizacion de Bogota (Bogota, 1987). An
interesting and detailed study of factory workers in Medellfn in the 1960s
is Charles Savage and George Lombard, Sons of the Machine: Case Studies of
Social Change in the Workplace (Cambridge, Mass., 1986). Another useful

study from the 1960s, this time of an oil town, is A. Eugene Havens and
Michel Romieux, Barrancabermeja: Conflictos sociales en torno a un centro
petrolero (Bogota, 1966). The union situation in the 1970s and early 1980s
is covered by a series of fine case studies in Hernando Gomez Buendia et
al., Sindicalismo y politica economica (Bogota, 1986).
VENEZUELA
Julio Godio has written a three-volume work on Venezuelan labour which

reproduces and summarizes a large number of documents: Julio Godio, El
movimiento obrero venezolano, 3 vols. (Caracas, 1980, 1982 and n.d.). The
first volume covers 1850-1944, the second, 1945-80, and the third,
196580 in more detail. Godio has also written a history of the
Confederation de Trabajadores de Venezuela: 50 anos de la CTV (19361986)
(Caracas, 1986). On the crucial period of the 1930s and 1940s the best
source is Steve Ellner, Los partidos politicos y su disputa por el control del
movimiento sindical en Venezuela 19361948 (Caracas, 1980). A study of oil
workers, focusing on the years between 1936 and 1957, is Hector Lucena,
El movimiento obrero petrolero (Caracas, 1982). A survey of labour organiza-
tion in the 1970s is Cecilia Valente, The Political, Economic, and Labor
Climate in Venezuela (Philadelphia, 1979).
CENTRAL AMERICA
A general discussion of the labour market in Central America in the

postwar period was produced under the auspices of the ILO: Guillermo
Garcia Huidobro et al., Cambio y polarization ocupational en Centroamerica
(San Jose, C.R., 1986). Manning Nash, Machine Age Maya: The Industrial-
ization of a Guatemalan Community (Chicago, 1958) is an anthropological
study of the adaptation of workers to industrial discipline in a textile mill
in the Guatemalan highlands in the 1950s. On Honduras, see Mario
Posas, Luchas del movimiento obrero hondureho (San Jose, C.R., 1981). On El
Salvador, see Rafael Menjivar, Formation y lucha del proletariado industrial
salvadoreno (San Salvador, 1979); For Costa Rica there is Daniel Camacho
(ed.), Desarrollo del movimiento sindical en Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R.,
1985), which, after a brief historical survey, deals mainly with the post-
war period.
A standard account of the history of Nicaraguan labour is Carlos Perez
Bermudez and Onofre Guevara, El movimiento obrero en Nicaragua (Mana-

gua, 1985). An interesting revisionist account of the relations between

labour and the early Somoza regime is Jeffrey Gould, ' "For an organized
Nicaragua": Somoza and the Labour Movement, 19441948', JLAS, 19/2
(1987), 35387. The role of labour in the 1979 revolution is treated by
Carlos Vilas, 'The workers' movement in the Sandinista Revolution', in
Richard Harris and Carlos Vilas (ed.), Nicaragua: A Revolution Under Seige
(London, 1985).
CUBA
There is, not surprisingly, little scholarly work on the history of the
Cuban labour movement. Jean Stubbs, Tobacco on the Periphery: A Case
Study in Cuban Labour History, i8601958 (Cambridge, Eng., 1985)
stands out as an exception, and indicates both what can be done and what
still remains to be done. A sociological study based on a survey carried out
in 1962 by Maurice Zeitlin, Revolutionary Politics and the Cuban Working
Class (Princeton, N.J., 1967), provides us with a detailed view of Cuban
workers' attitudes in the early phase of the revolution. A stridently anti-
communist account is Rodolfo Riesgo, Cuba: El movimiento obrero y su
entorno socio-politico (Miami, 1985). A series of essays focussing on the
economic condition of the Cuban working class between 1933 and 1958 is
Carlos del Toro, Algunos aspectos economicos, sociales y politicos del movimiento
obrero cubano (Havana, 1974). The post-revolutionary period is covered in
Linda Fuller, Work and Democracy in Socialist Cuba (Philadelphia, 1992).
12. RURAL MOBILIZATIONS
Three well-known attempts to build a typology of peasant movements in

Latin America in the twentieth century are Anibal Quijano, 'Contempo-
rary peasant movements', in Seymour Lipset and Aldo Solari (eds.), Elites
in Latin America (New York, 1967); Henry A. Landsberger, 'The role of
peasant movements and revolts in development', in H. A. Landsberger
(ed.), Latin American Peasant Movements (Ithaca, N.Y., and London, 1969),
and Gerrit Huizer, Elpotencial revolucionario del campesinado (Mexico, D.F.,
1973)-
Other useful collections of articles on rural unrest are Rodolfo Staven-
hagen (ed.), Agrarian Problems and Peasant Movements in Latin America (New
York, 1970); Ernest Feder (ed.), La lucha de clases en el campo: Andlisis

12. Rural mobilizations 635
estructural de la economia latinoamerkana (Mexico, D.F., 1975), and Henri

Favre (ed.), 'Les mouvements indiens paysans aux XVIIIe, XIXe et XXe
siecles', Actes du XLIIe Congres International des Americanistes (Paris, 1976).
But the most complete and up-to-date collective work, including chapters
on every Latin American country, is Pablo Gonzalez Casanova (ed.), Histo-
riapolitka de los campesinos latinoamericanos, 4 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1984
85). An illuminating synthesis is Henri Favre, 'L'Etat et la paysannerie en
Mesoamerique et dans les Andes', Etudes Rurales, 8 1 - 2 (1981), 2 5 - 5 5 . 1
a more abstract vein, a model for the changing nature of the rural social
order and the increasing diversification of rural actors is provided by Eric
R. Wolf, 'Fases de la protesta rural en America Latina', in Feder (ed.), La
lucha de clases en el campo.
On the significance oicaudillos and caciques, see the pioneering essays by
Eric R. Wolf, 'Aspects of group relations in a complex society: Mexico',
American Anthropologist, 58 (1956), 1065-78, and Frangois Chevalier,
' "Caudillos" et "caciques" en Amerique: Contribution a l'etude des liens
personnels', Melanges offerts a Marcel Bataillon par les hispanistes frangais,
Bulletin Hispanique, 51 (1962). See also Eric R. Wolf and Edward C.
Hansen, 'Caudillo politics: A structural analysis', CSSH, 9 (1967), 168
79, and Guillermo de la Pena, 'Poder local, poder regional: Perspective
socio-antropologicas', in Jorge Padua and Alain Vanneph (eds.), Poder
local, poder regional (Mexico, D.F., 1986), 2756.
The classic 'pre-revisionist' account of banditry in the Brazilian North-
east is Maria Isaura Pereira de Queiroz, Os cangaceiros: Les bandits d'honneur
bresiliens (Paris, 1968; Portuguese trans. Sao Paulo, 1977), on which Eric
J. Hobsbawm drew for his portrait of Bandits (London, 1969). The revi-
sionist literature includes Peter Singelmann, 'Political structure and social
banditry in Northeast Brazil', JLAS, 7/1 (1975), 5 9 - 8 3 ; Billy Jaynes
Chandler, The Bandit King: Lampido of Brazil (College Station, Tex.,
1978); and Linda Lewin, 'The oligarchical limitations of social banditry in
Brazil: The Case of the "Good Thief" Antonio Silvino', Past and Present, 82
(1979), 11646. In an otherwise commendable work, 'Los campesinos y
la politica en Brasil', in P. Gonzalez Casanova (ed.), Historia politica de los
campesinos latinoamericanos, vol. 4 (1985), 983, Jose de Souza Martins
seems to ignore the revisionist literature and supports the vision of Pereira
de Queiroz and Hobsbawm. An intelligent, moderately anti-revisionist
synthesis is Gilbert Joseph, 'On the trail of Latin American bandits: A re-
examination of peasant resistance', LARR, 25/3 (1990), 7 - 5 3 . Lewis
Taylor's exhaustive study of Bandits and Politics in Peru: Landlord and

Peasant Violence in Hualgayoc, 190030 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988) is the

most valuable source for a history of conflict in the northern Peruvian
Sierra during the Leguia period.
General accounts of the agrarian situation and the activities of peasant
leagues in post-revolutionary Mexico are Eyler N. Simpson, The Ejido:
Mexico's Way Out (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1937); Gerrit Huizer, La lucha
campesina en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1970), and Armando Bartra, Los
herederos de Zapata: Movimientos campesinos posrevolucionarios en Mexico (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1985). There is a vast bibliography on Mexican caudillos
agrarii...:. Felipe Carrillo Puerto has been eulogized by Francisco Jose
Paoli and Enrique Montalvo in El socialismo olvidado de Yucatan (Mexico,
D.F., 1980). A more critical (though still sympathetic) view on the same
character can be found in Gilbert Joseph, 'Mexico's "Popular" Revolution:
Mobilization and myth in Yucatan', LAP, 6/3 (1979) 46-65; see also his
Revolution from Without: Yucatan, Mexico and the United States (Cambridge,
Eng., 1982). Jose Guadalupe Zuno's memoirs, Reminiscencias de una vida
(Guadalajara, 1956), is a useful document on his governorship of Jalisco.
A good biography of Francisco J. Mugica (written when the caudillo was
55) is Armando de Maria y Campos, Mugica (Mexico, D.F., 1939). More
analytical accounts are those by Heather Fowler Salamini, "Revolutionary
caudillos: Francisco Mugica and Adalberto Tejada', in D. A. Brading
(ed.), Caudillo and Peasant in the Mexican Revolution (Cambridge, Eng.,
1980), and Jorge Zepeda Patterson, 'Los caudillos en Michoacan: Fran-
cisco J. Mugica y Lazaro Cardenas', in Carlos Martinez Assad (ed.),
Estadistas, caciquesy caudillos (Mexico, D.F., 1988). Paul Friedrich's Agrar-
ian Revolt in a Mexican Village, 2nd ed. (Chicago, 1977), is not only the
best characterization of Primo Tapia and his following but also a lucid
analysis of caciquismo in post-revolutionary Michoacan. Equally valuable is
the sequel to this book, also by Friedrich: Princes of Naranja: An Essay in
Anthrohistorical Method (Austin, Tex., 1986). On Adalberto Tejeda and the
Veracruz peasant leagues, Heather Fowler Salamini has written an out-
standing monograph: Agrarian Radicalism in Veracruz, 192038 (Lincoln,
Nebr., 1978); Romana Falcon and Soledad Garcia adopt a biographical
approach in La semilla en el surco: Adalberto Tejeda y el radicalismo en Veracruz
(Mexico, D.F., 1986). Saturnino Cedillo's peasant army is well portrayed
in several books: Beatriz Rojas, La pequena guerra: Carrera Torres y los
Cedillo (Zamora, 1983); Dudley Ankerson, Agrarian Warlord: Saturnino
Cedillo and the Mexican Revolution in San Luis Potosi (DeKalb, 111., 1984),
and particularly Romana Falcon, Revolucion y caciquismo: San Luis Potosi,

12. Rural mobilizations
(Mexico, D.F., 1984). The social conditions for the emer-

gence of the Cedillista movement are analysed by Mari-Jose Amerlinck,
'From hacienda to ejido: The San Diego de Rio Verde case' (unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, State University of New York, Stony Brook, 1980),
and Victoria Lerner, 'Los fundamentos socioeconomicos del cacicazgo en el
Mexico posrevolucionario: El caso de Saturnino Cedillo', HM, 23/3
(1980).
Of the many studies on the agrarian strategies of Lazaro Cardenas, see in
particular Eyler N. Simpson, The Ejido: Mexico's Way Out (Chapel Hill,
N.C., 1937), an honest testimony and a rigourous analysis; Arnaldo
Cordova, La politica de masas del cardenismo (Mexico, D.F., 1974); Luis
Gonzalez, Los dias delpresidente Cardenas (Mexico, D.F., 1981) (Historia de
la revolution mexicana, 15), and Nora Hamilton, The Limits of State Auton-
omy: Post-revolutionary Mexico (Princeton, N.J., 1982). A critical point of
view on the relations between Cardenismo and the peasants is provided in
Marjorie Becker, 'Black and white and color: Cardenismo and the search
for a Campesino ideology', CSSH, 29 (1987), 45365. On Sinarquismo,
Nathan Whetten wrote a lucid chapter in his Rural Mexico (Chicago,
1948). Recent analyses are provided by Jean Meyer, El sinarquismo ,-un
fascismo mexicano? (Mexico, D.F., 1979); Servando Ortoll, 'Las legiones, la
base y el sinarquismo: <;Tres organizaciones distintas y un solo fin
verdadero?', in Jorge Alonso (ed.), El PDM, movimiento regional (Guadala-
jera, 1989), 17-64, and Ruben Aguilar and Guillermo Zermeno, Hacia
una reinterpretacion del sinarquismo actual (Mexico, D.F., 1988). Cesar
Moheno gives the point of view of the peasant supporters of the movement
in Las historias y los hombres de San Juan (Zamora, 1985).
James Dunkerley, Power in the Isthmus: A Political History of Modern
Central America (London, 1988), includes examination of rural mobiliza-
tions in the 1920s and 1930s. On Sandino, see Gregorio Selser, Sandino:
General de hombres libres, 2nd ed. (San Jose, C.R., 1972). Some information
about Sandino's army is given by Jaime Wheelock Roman, Imperialism) y
dictadura: Crisis de una formation social (Mexico, D.F., 1975); but a thor-
ough study of the internal organization of the movement is still lacking.
On the 1932 Salvadorean uprising and ensuing massacre, see Thomas P.
Anderson, Matanza: El Salvador Communist Revolt of1932 (Lincoln, Nebr.,
1971) which has good data but a misleading title: the revolt was more
ethnic than 'Communist' and Rafael Menjivar Larin, El Salvador: El
eslabon mas pequeno (San Jose, C.R., 1980). Roque Dalton constructed an
ironic collage with different versions of the massacre in his Historias

probibidas del Pulgarcito (Mexico, D.F., 1977). Dalton also transcribed and
edited the memoir of one of the Communist leaders of the revolt: Miguel
Mdrmol: Los sucesos de 1932 en El Salvador (San Salvador, 1972).
On Indian resistance in the Bolivian Andean region between the two
World Wars, see the opening chapters of two comprehensive books on the
subject: Fernando Calderon and Jorge Dandier (eds.), Bolivia: La fuerza
historica del campesinado (Cochabamba, 1984), and Silvia Rivera Cusican-
qui, 'Oprimidos pero no vencidos': Luchas del campesinado aymara y qhecbwa de
Bolivia, 19001980 (Geneva, 1986). Two excellent accounts of the
changes in the Central Peruvian Sierra are Norman Long and Bryan Rob-
erts (eds.), Peasant Cooperation and Capitalist Expansion in Central Peru
(Austin, Tex., 1978) (the chapter by Carlos Samaniego being particularly
relevant for the understanding of the 1930s), and Florencia E. Mallon, The
Defense of Community in Peru's Central Highlands (Princeton, N.J., 1983).
Compulsory and compulsive reading is Jose Carlos Mariategui's classic,
Siete ensayos de interpretacion de la realidad peruana (Lima, 1928, English
trans. Austin, Tex., 1975). On the rural impacts of Legufa's reforms, see
Francois Chevalier, 'Official indigenismo in Peru in 1920: Origins, signifi-
cance, and socio-economic scope', in Magnus Morner (ed.), Race and Class
in Latin America (New York, 1970); and Wilfredo Kapsoli and Wilson
Reategui, El campesinadoperuano, 19/91930 (Lima, 1987).
On the historiography of rural upheaval and politics in Colombia, see
Jesus Antonio Bejarano, 'Campesinado, luchas agrarias e historia social en
Colombia: Notas para un balance historiografico', in P. Gonzalez Casanova
(ed.), Historia politica de los campesinos latinoamericanos, vol 3, 972. A
classic description of La Violencia is German Guzman, Orlando Fals Borda
and Eduardo Umana Luna, La Violencia en Colombia, 2 vols. (Bogota,
19634). In his article 'Violence and the break-up of tradition in Colom-
bia', in Claudio Veliz, ed., Obstacles to Change in Latin America (New York,
1965), Orlando Fals Borda emphasized intra-elite conflict as the main
detonator of endemic conflict. Paul Oquist's Violence, Conflict and Politics in
Colombia (New York, 1980) is a study on the historical roots and heteroge-
neous structural causes of this period. John Walton uses the Colombian
case to exemplify the relationships between seemingly parochial peasant
movements and national political conflicts in his Reluctant Rebels: Compara-
tive Studies of Revolution and Under development (New York, 1984). A detailed
and innovative regional study is Carlos Miguel Ortiz Sarmiento, Estado y
subversion en Colombia: La Violencia en El Quindio, Anos j>o (Bogota, 1985).
On the importance of banditry, see Dario Betancourt and Martha L.

12. Rural mobilizations
Garcia, Matones y cuadrilleros: Origen y evolution de la violencia en el occidente

Colombiano, 2nd ed. (Bogota, 1991).
The best overall view of the social and political history of Guatemala
during the years of populist reforms and their tragic aftermath remains
Richard Newbold Adams, Crucifixion by Power: Essays on Guatemalan
National Social Structure, 19441966 (Austin, Tex., 1970), which in-
cludes a chapter by Brian Murphy on 'The stunted growth of campesino
organizations' (43878). Equally useful as a source of economic and
social data is Nathan L. Whetten, Guatemala: The Land and the People
(New Haven, Conn., 1961). Whetten explicitly compares the Mexican
and the Guatemalan agrarian reform programmes. A lyrical defence of
the Guatemalan Indian and the need for agrarian reform is to be found in
Guatemala: has lineas de su mano by Luis Cardoza y Aragon (Mexico,
D.F., 1955). Neale J. Pearson's 'Guatemala: The peasant union move-
ment, 19441954', in H. Landsberger (ed.), Latin American Peasant
Movements, includes a good deal of useful data on the federations. In
turn, Stokes Newbold's (pseudonym of Richard N. Adams) post-coup
interviews of jailed peasants - supporters of Arbenz and members of
sindicatos show that the Guatemalan revolution included a broad spec-
trum of ideas on social reform, and political ideology and affiliation
('Receptivity to Communist-fomented agitation in rural Guatemala', Eco-
nomic Development and Cultural Change, 5/4 (1957). Thomas and Marjorie
Melville, who lived several years as missionaries in rural Guatemala,
provide a moving chronicle of both the changes under Arbenz and the
ruthless repression against thousands of Indians after the military coup in
Guatemala: The Politics of Land Ownership (New York, 1971). An indis-
pensable recent study is Piero Gleijeses, Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan
Revolution and the United States, 1944-54 (Princeton, N J . , 1991).
On the agrarian mobilizations which followed the Bolivian revolution,
Robert J. Alexander, The Bolivian National Revolution (New Brunswick,
N J . , 1958) maintained that they were not spontaneous but organized
from above, whereas Richard W. Patch, 'Bolivia: U.S. assistance in a
revolutionary setting', in Richard N. Adams et al., Social Change in Latin
America Today (New York, i960), 108-76, defended exactly the opposite
view. Subsequent research has shown that the nature of mobilizations
varied according to region. For instance, the strength of grassroots organi-
zations in Cochabamba and the clarity of their demands has been thor-
oughly documented by Jorge Dandier in El sindicalismo campesino en Bo-
livia: Los cambios estructurales en Ucurena (Mexico, D.F., 1969); see also his

chapters (with Juan Torruco), 'El Congreso Nacional Indigena de 1945 y la

rebelion campesina de Ayopaya (1947)' and 'Campesinado y reforma
agraria en Cochabamba (19523): Dinamica de un movimiento campesino
en Bolivia', in F. Calderon and J. Dandier (eds.), Bolivia: Lafuerza historica
del campesinado. Dwight B. Heath shows a situation of peasant passivity in
the eastern lowlands, in 'Bolivia: Peasant syndicates among the Aymara of
the Yungas - a view from the grass roots', in H. A. Landsberger, Latin
American Peasant Movements. See also Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui, Oprimidos
pero no vencidos, cited above. On the consequences of agrarian reform, see
Jonathan Kelley and Herbert S. Klein, Revolution and the Rebirth of Inequal-
ity: A Theory Applied to the National Revolution in Bolivia (Berkeley, 1966),
and Andrew Pearse, 'Campesinado y revolution: El caso de Bolivia', in
Calderon and Dandier (eds.)> Bolivia.
The history of the Ligas Camponesas in Brazil has been written with great
sympathy by Clodomiro Santos de Moraes, 'Peasant Leagues in Brazil', in
R. Stavenhagen (ed.), Agrarian Problems and Peasant Movements in Latin
America. Moraes, himself a participant, bitterly regrets the internal quarrels
among peasant members and frequent strategic blunders of the leadership.
Still sympathetic but more analytical are the works of Cynthia N. Hewitt,
'Brazil: The peasant movement of Pernambuco, 1961 1964', in H. Lands-
berger (ed.), Latin American Peasant Movements, cited above, 37498; Shep-
ard Forman, The Brazilian Peasantry (New York, 1975), and Fernando
Antonio Azevedo, As Ligas Camponesas (Rio de Janeiro, 1982). Francisco
Juliao provides his own version in three books: Quesdo Ligas Camponesas (Rio
de Janeiro, 1962), Cambdo: La cara oculta de Brasil (Mexico, D.F., 1968),
and Brasil: Antes y despues (Mexico, D.F., 1968). A critical assessment of the
organization and its main leader can be found in Anthony Leeds, 'Brazil and
the myth of Francisco Juliao', in Joseph Maier and Richard Weatherhead,
Politics of Change in Latin America (New York, 1964), 190204. To Leeds's
accusations that Juliao was a careerist, that his methods were highly
paternalistic, that there were no genuine popular leaders in Brazil, and that
the whole Pernambuco mobilization was the consequence of elite internal
quarrels Jose de Souza Martins, in 'Los campesinos y la politica en Brasil',
cited above, opposes a view in which rural unrest is explained in terms of the
deep contradictions existing in Brazilian agrarian economy and not only
in the Northeast although he recognizes the divisions and hesitations of
the political parties and urban groups competing for the support of the rural
population.

An overview of rural violence in the sierra before the 1968 military

takeover is provided by Howard Handelman, Struggle in the Andes: Peasant
Mobilization in Peru (Austin, Tex., 1975). See also Edward Dew, Politics in
the Altiplano: The Dynamics of Change in Rural Peru (Austin, Tex., 1969),
on peasant mobilizations in the Department of Puno. The best analysis of
the movement at La Convencion and Lares is Eduardo Fioravanti,
Latifundismo y sindicalismo agrario en el Peru (Lima, 1972). See also Wesley
W. Craig, Jr., From Hacienda to Community: An Analysis of Solidarity and
Social Change in Peru (Ithaca, N.Y., 1967). Eric Hobsbawm analyses the
situation of the haciendas and the labour conditions from which the move-
ment sprang in 'A case of neo-feudalism: La Convencion, Peru, J LAS, 1/1
(1969), 31-50. William F. Whyte uses the case of La Convencion, among
others, to argue against the thesis of'the political passivity' of the peasants
in 'Rural Peru - peasants as activists', in D. B. Heath (ed.), Contemporary
Cultures and Societies in Latin America, 2nd ed. (New York, 1974), and
Hugo Blanco (the Trotskyist leader) gives his own account in Land or
Death: The Peasant Struggle in Peru (New York, 1972). An interesting
account of the agrarian struggle in a single village throughout the 1960s is
Gavin Smith and Pedro Cano, 'Some factors contributing to peasant land
occupations in Peru: The example of Huasicancha, 19631968', in Long
and Roberts, Peasant Cooperation and Capitalist Expansion in Central Peru.
A very useful reader on the history of indigenismo, written from a critical
point of view, is Claude Bataillon et al., Indianidad, etnocidio e indigenismo
en America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1988); see also Marie-Chantal Barre,
Ideologias indigenistas y movimientos indios (Mexico, D.F., 1983), and Insti-
tuto Nacional Indigenista (ed.), INI: 40 anos (Mexico, D.F., 1940). The
writings of Gonzalo Aguirre Beltran are an intelligent defence of the
official Mexican indigenismo; see for instance his Teoria y prdctica de la
educacion indigena (Mexico, D.F., 1973), and his classic El proceso de
aculturacion y el cambio sociocultural en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1970). On the
Peruvian case, see Thomas Davies, Indian Integration in Peru: A Half Cen-
tury of Experience (Lincoln, Nebr., 1974).
On the situation in the Mexican countryside from 1940 to 1970, the
writings of Arturo Warman, Los campesinos, hijos predilectos del regimen
(Mexico, D.F., 1972) and Ensayos sobre el campesinado mexicano (Mexico,
D.F., 1980), and Roger Bartra, Estructura agraria y clases sociales en Mexico
(Mexico, D.F., 1974) and Campesinado y poder politico en Mexico (Mexico,
D.F., 1982) are still useful as representatives of two opposite theoretical

tendencies: Warman defends a 'peasantization' of Mexican agriculture

whereas Bartra sees the future in 'proletarianization'. In addition, Warman
wrote an outstanding regional study of Morelos: '. . . We Come to Object',
Mexican Peasants and the State (Baltimore, 1980). On the taming of the
CNC, see Moises Gonzalez Navarro, La Confederation National Campesina:
Un grupo de presion en la reforma agraria mexkana (Mexico, D.F., 1968).
There are no detailed studies of the regional functioning of the UGOCM
and the CCI, but good case material can be found in monographs such as
Fernando Salmer6n Castro, Los limites del agrarismo: Proceso politico y
estructuras depoderen Taretan, Michoacdn (Zamora, 1989). On Jaramillo, see
Ruben M. Jaramillo and Froylan C. Manjarrez, Ruben Jaramillo: Auto-
biografia y asesinato (Mexico, D.F., 1967); Raul Macin, Ruben Jaramillo:
Profeta olvidado (Montevideo, 1970), and Carlos Fuentes's reporting in
Politica magazine, included in his Tiempo mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1973).
David Ronfeldt, Atencingo: The Politics of Agrarian Struggle in a Mexican
Ejido (Stanford, Calif., 1973) chronicles repression against peasants and
peasant resistance from 1940 to 1970. On the Guerrero guerrillas, there
are only a brief article by Francisco Gomezjara, 'El proceso politico de
Genaro Vazquez hacia la guerrilla campesina', Revista Mexkana de Ciencias
Politkas y Sociales, 88 (1977), and two journalistic accounts: Orlando
Ortiz, Genaro Vazquez (Mexico, D.F., 1974), and Luis Suarez, Lucio Ca-
banas, el guerriHero sin esperanza (Mexico, D.F., 1984).
For a brilliant synthesis on the conditions of rural Cuba at the end of
the 1950s, see Eric Wolf Peasant Wars in the Twentieth Century (New York,
1969) chap. 6. For an official and rather rhetorical version of peasant
participation in the Cuban revolution, see Adolfo Martin Barrios, 'Histo-
ria politica de los campesinos cubanos', in Pablo Gonzalez Casanova (ed.),
Historia politica de los campesinos latinoamerkanos, vol. 1, 4092. A descrip-
tive overview and also a passionate and fascinating testimony of the armed
struggle in Latin America throughout the 1960s is Richard Gott's Rural
Guerrillas in Latin America (London, 1970). Adolfo Gilly, journalist and
militant Trotskyite, also wrote a personal testimony of the guerrillas in
those years: La senda de la guerrilla (Mexico, D.F., 1986). For an interest-
ing analysis of the guerrillas' conditions of viability, see Timothy P.
Wickham-Crowley, 'Winners, losers, and also-rans: Toward a comparative
sociology of Latin American guerrilla movements', in Susan Eckstein
(ed.), Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley,
1989), 13281. See also Regis Debray, 'Latin America: The Long
March', New Left Review, 3 (1965). (Ten years later, Debray wrote a self-

critical analysis, La critica de las armas [Mexico, D.F., 1975], 2 vols.) On

the Venezuelan Peasant Federation, see John Duncan Powell, Political
Mobilization of the Venezuelan Peasant (Cambridge, Mass., 1971). A per-
sonal, highly emotional eulogy of Camilo Torres, which includes letters
and private documents, is German Guzman Campos, Camilo: Presencia y
destino (Bogota, 1967). The disastrous adventure of Che Guevara in Bo-
livia was recorded by its two main protagonists: see El diario del Che en
Bolivia (Mexico, D.F., 1967), and Inti Peredo, Mi campana con el Che
(Mexico, D.F., 1971). An unsympathetic but thorough account is Robert
F. Lamberg, 'El Che en Bolivia: La 'Revolucion' que fracaso', Problemas del
Comunismo, 27/4 (1970), 2638.
The Central American tragedy of repression and violence from the
1960s to the 1980s is recorded in the (already cited) books by Adams,
North, Gott, and Dunkerley. A useful reader is Daniel Camacho and
Rafael Menjivar (eds.), Movimientos populares en Centroamerica (San Jose,
C.R., 1985); the comparative perspective is also explicitly used by John
Booth, 'Socioeconomic and political roots of national revolts in Central
America', LARR, 26/1 (1991), 3374. A thorough study of the Sal-
vadorean peasant revolution in two specific regions is Carlos Rafael
Cabarrus, Genesis de una revolucion: Andlisis del surgimiento y desarrollo de la
organizacidn campesina en El Salvador (Mexico, D.F., 1983); less analytical
but equally instructive is Jenny Pearce's Promised Land: Peasant Rebellion in
Chalatenango, El Salvador (London, 1986). On the situation of El Salvador
after 1980, see Ignacio Medina Nunez, El Salvador: Entre la guerra y la
esperanza (Guadalajara, 1990). On the crucial revolutionary role played by
migrant labourers, see two articles by Jeffrey Paige: 'Social theory and
peasant revolution in Vietnam and Guatemala', Theory and Society, 12
(1983), 699737, and 'Cotton and revolution in Nicaragua', in Peter
Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol (eds.), State versus
Market in the World System (Beverly Hills, Calif., 1985). An official but
well-informed version of the Nicaraguan agrarian reform is Jaime Whee-
lock Roman, Entre la crisis y la agresidn: La reforma agraria sandinista
(Managua, 1985).
The best data on the initial steps in the Peruvian agrarian reform are
still those provided by Jose Maria Caballero and Elena Alvarez, Aspectos
cuantitativos de la reforma agraria (Lima, 1980); see also Jose Matos Mar and
Jose Manuel Mejia, La reforma agraria en el Peru (Lima, 1980). Cynthia
McClintock conducted an in-depth study of nine co-operatives and a
control community, which allowed her to write a lucid book: Peasant

Cooperatives and Political Change in Peru (Princeton, N.J., 1981). A detailed

local-level analysis of the functioning of new government agencies can be
found in Norman Long and David Winder, 'From peasant community to
production co-operative', Journal of Development Studies, 12/1 (1975), 75
94. A reappraisal of the process of social reform after ten years is in
Abraham Lowenthal and Cynthia McClintock (eds.), The Peruvian Experi-
ment Reconsidered (Princeton, N.J., 1983). A longer time span is covered by
Tanya Korovkin, Politics of Agricultural Co-operativism: Peru, 19691983
(Vancouver, Can., 1990), though she concentrates on the analysis of three
cotton estates.
On the background of peasant agitation in Chile, see Almino Affonso et
al., Movimiento campesino chileno (Santiago, Chile, 1970), and Arnold
Bauer, Chilean Rural Society to 1930 (Cambridge, Eng., 1975). Robert
Kaufman's The Politics of Land Reform in Chile (Cambridge, Mass., 1972),
dissects the rather complicated alliances and divisions among classes and
groups in the Chilean countryside. See also Brian Loveman, Struggle in the
Countryside: Politics and Rural Labor in Chile, 1919-1973 (Bloomington,
Ind., 1976). A grassroots view of Frei's agrarian reform is James Petras
and Hugo Zemelman, Peasants in Revolt: A Chilean Case Study, 196519JI
(Austin, Tex., 1972). On the Chilean Socialist experiment, a good over-
view is in J. A. Zammit (ed.), The Chilean Road to Socialism (Brighton,
1973). See also Fernando Mires, La rebelion permanente: Las revoluciones
sociales en America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1988), chap. 6. A critical ap-
praisal covering the agrarian situation under Frei, Allende and Pinochet is
Leonardo Castillo and David Lehmann, 'Chile's three agrarian reforms:
The Inheritors', BLAR, 1/2 (1982), 21-44, which complements Leh-
mann's earlier account of Frei's period, 'Agrarian reform in Chile: An essay
in contradictions', in D. Lehmann (ed.), Agrarian Reform and Agrarian
Reformism (London, 1974). A broad analysis of the Pinochet years was
written by Sergio Gomez and Jorge Echenique, La agricultura chilena: Las
dos caras de la modernizacion (Santiago, Chile, 1988).
The rise and decline of the ANUC in Colombia is lucidly chronicled
and analysed by Leon Zamosc, The Agrarian Question and the Peasant Move-
ment in Colombia (Cambridge, 1986). An updated synthesis of the same
work is 'Peasant struggles in the 1970s in Colombia' in Susan Eckstein
(ed.), Power and Popular Protest. See also Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui, Politica e
ideologia en el movimiento campesino colombiano: El caso de la ANUC (Geneva
and Bogota, CINEP, 1987), and Cristina Escobar and Francisco de Roux,
'Movimientos populares en Colombia (1970-1983)', in Daniel Camacho

and Rafael Menjivar (eds.), Los movimientos populates en America Latina

(Mexico, D.F., 1989).
The diversification and capitalization of peasant agriculture is analysed
in Guillermo de la Pena, A Legacy of Promises: Agriculture, Politics and
Ritual in the Morelos Highlands of Mexico (Austin, Tex., 1981). An overview
of rural unrest in Mexico from 1970 to the mid-1980s is Blanca Rubio,
Resistencia campesina y explotacion rural en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1987); see
also a more analytical interpretation in Michael W. Foley, 'Agenda for
mobilization: The agrarian question and popular mobilization in contem-
porary Mexico,' LARR, 26/2 (1991), 3974. The crisis of CNC control in
a particular region is narrated in Eric Villanueva, Crisis henequenera y
movimientos campesinos en Yucatan, 19661983 (Mexico, D.F., 1985); see
also Clarisa Hardy, El estado y los campesinos: La Confederacion Nacional
Campesina (CNC) (Mexico, D.F., 1984). On the Echeverria years, see
Steven E. Sanderson, Agrarian Populism and the Mexican State: The Struggle
for Land in Sonora (Berkeley, 1981), and Fernando Rello, Burguesia,
campesinos y estado en Mexico: El conflicto agrario de 1976 (Geneva, 1987). On
the struggle for local political control, see Adriana Lopez Monjardin, La
lucha por los ayuntamientos: Una Utopia viable (Mexico, D.F., 1986). The
expansion of wage rural labour is documented in Luisa Pare, Elproletariado
agrkola en Mexico: ^Campesinos sin tierra 0 proletaries agricolas? (Mexico,
D.F., 1977), and Enrique Astorga Lira, Mercado de trabajo rural en Mexico:
La mercancia humana (Mexico, D.F., 1985). On the last decade, see Luisa
Pare, 'Movimiento campesino y politica agraria en Mexico, 19761982',
RMS, 47/4 (1985), 8 5 i n ; Gustavo Gordillo, Campesinos al asalto del
cielo: De la expropriacion esfatal a la apropiacion campesina (Mexico, D.F.,
1988). Jonathan Fox and Gustavo Gordillo, 'Between state and market:
The campesinos' quest for autonomy', in Wayne Cornelius et al., Mexico's
Alternative Political Futures (La Jolla, Calif., 1989), 131-72; and most of
all Neil Harvey, Peasant Movements and the Mexican State, 19791990
(London, 1991). The (less than fortunate) lot of Mexican agriculture and
smallholding groups during the years of De la Madrid is described by Jose
Luis Calva, Crisis agrkola y alimentaria en Mexico, 19821988 (Mexico,
D.F., 1988).
The extent of peasant unrest and resistance to SINAMOS after the
Peruvian agrarian reform is reviewed in Diego Garcia Sayan, Tomas de
tierras en el Peru (Lima, 1982). Information on the rise of Sendero
Luminoso is provided by the reporting of Raul Gonzalez in his articles 'Por
los caminos de Sendero', Quehacer (Lima), 19 (October 1982), and 'Las

batallas de Ayacucho', Quehacer, 21 (February 1983). Carlos Ivan Degreg-

ori deals with the regional origins, social context and development of the
movement in two lucid and informative essays: 'Sendero Luminoso: Los
hondos y mortales desencuentros', Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Docu-
mentos de Trabajo, Serie Antropologia, No. 2 (Lima, 1985), and 'Sendero
Luminoso: Lucha armada y Utopia autoritaria', Instituto de Estudios
Peruanos, Documentos de Trabajo, Serie Antropologia, No. 3 (Lima,
1985). A broad analytical perspective, linking Sendero with the develop-
ment of the Peruvian state, is adopted by Henri Favre, 'Peru: Sendero
Luminoso y horizontes ocultos', Cuadernos Americanos, 4/4 (1987), 2958;
see also the interview with Henri Favre (conducted by Carlos Ivan
Degregori y Raul Gonzalez) in Quehacer (Lima), 54 (1988), 4 8 - 5 8 . In
turn, Cynthia McClintock's emphasis is on the particular situation of
impoverishment of the southern highlands peasantry, in her paper 'Why
peasants rebel: The case of Peru's Sendero Luminoso', World Politics, 37/1
(1984), 4885. On the renewed crisis of the Colombian state, see
Comision de Estudios sobre la Violencia (ed.), Colombia: Vio/encia y
democracia: Informe presentado ante el Ministerio de Gobierno (Bogota, 1987)
(which includes a discussion of rural problems, 190210), Fabio Castillo,
Los jinetes de la cocaina (Bogota, 1987), and Jenny Pearce, Colombia: Inside
the Labyrinth (London, 1990), especially part 3; see also the review article
by Wolfgang Heinz, 'Guerrillas, political violence, and the peace process
in Colombia', LARR, 14/3 (1989), 249-58.
A good deal of the literature on the 'new social movements' is reviewed
in the collection of papers edited by David Slater, New Social Movements and
the State in Latin America (Amsterdam, 1985); see also Fernando Calderon
(ed.), Los movimientos sociales ante la crisis (Buenos Aires, 1986), and Eliza-
beth Jelin (ed.), Ciudadania e identidad: Las mujeres en los movimientos sociales
latino-americanos (Geneva, 1987). On the invasion of the Brazilian Amazon
after 1970, see Joe Foweraker, The Struggle for Land: A Political Economy of
the Pioneer Frontier in Brazil from 1930 to the Present Day (Cambridge, Eng.,
1981), and two books by Jose de Souza Martins, Expropriacdo e violencia: A
questdopolitica no campo (Sao Paulo, 1980), esp. chap. 4, and A militarizagao
da questdo agrdria no Brasil (Petr6polis, 1984). Abundant documentary
evidence on the new Indian organizations throughout Latin America can
be found in Guillermo Bonfil (ed.), Utopia y revolucion: El pensamiento
politico contempordneo de los indios en America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1981).
See also Claude Bataillon et al., Indianidad, etnocidio e indigenismo en Amer-
ica Latina, and Marie-Chantal Barre, Ideologias indigenistas y movimientos

13- Women in twentieth-century Latin America 647
indios, cited above. On the emergence of new political actors (including

the katarista movement) in Bolivia, see James M. Malloy and Eduardo
Gamarra, Revolution and Reaction in Bolivia, 1964-1985 (New Brunswick,
N.J., 1988). On katarismo, the best account is still Silvia Rivera
Cusicanqui, Oprimidos pero no vencidos . . . cited above, part 3. See also
Xavier Albo, 'From MNRistas to Kataristas to Katari', in Steve J. Stern
(ed.), Resistance, Rebellion and Consciousness in the Andean World, 18th to 20th
Centuries (Madison, Wis., 1987). On the COCEI in Oaxaca, see Mari-
France Prevot-Shapira and Helene Riviere D'Arc, 'Les zapoteques, le PRI
et la COCEI: Affrontements autour des interventions de l'etat dans
l'lsthme de Tehuantepec', Amerique Latine, 15 (1983), 6471. On the
UCEZ in Michoacan, see Jorge Zepeda Patterson, 'No es lo mismo agrio
que agrario ni comunero que comunista, pero se parecen', in J. Tamayo
(ed.), Movimientos sociales en el occidente de Mexico (Guadalajara, 1986). A
more critical perspective on the UCEZ and the new ethnic political organi-
zations is in Luis Vazquez Leon, Ser indio otra vez: La purepechizacion de los
tarascos serranos (Mexico, D.F., 1992).
13. WOMEN IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY

LATIN AMERICA
There is no scarcity of documentary sources on women in twentieth-

century Latin America, and there are several recent important bibliographi-
cal sources in English. An indispensable introduction is K. Lynn Stoner
(ed.), Latinas of the Americas: A Source Book (New York, 1989), which
includes Georgette Dorn, 'Bibliographies: Bibliography'. Meri Knaster
(ed.), Women in Spanish America: An Annotated Bibliography (Boston, 1977)
remains an useful source for works published before 1975; it was the first
serious effort to collect an interdisciplinary and chronologically comprehen-
sive bibliography on subjects related to women. Stoner's bibliography
covers publications between 1975 and 1987 and contains important biblio-
graphical essays by well-known scholars, assessing the state of the art in
several fields.
Shorter historiographical essays published after Knaster's work provide
useful surveys of the state of research. See Asuncion Lavrin, 'Some final
considerations on trends and issues in Latin American women's history', in
Asunci6n Lavrin (ed.), Latin American Women: Historical Perspectives (West-
port, Conn., 1978), 30232; Marysa Navarro, 'Research on Latin Ameri-

can Women,' Signs: Journal of 'Women in Culture and Society, 1/5 (1979),
111-20; June Hahner, 'Recent research on women in Brazil,' LARR, 20/3
(1985), 16379; K. Lynn Stoner, 'Directions in Latin American women's
history, 19771985', LARR, 22/2 (1987), 101-34; and Asuncion Lav-
rin, 'Women, the family and social change,' World Affairs, 150/2 (1987),
10928, 'La mujer en Mexico: Veinte anos de estudio, 1968-1988:
Ensayo historiografico', in Simposio de Historiografia Americanista (Mexico,
D.F., 1990), 54593, and 'Women's studies', in Paula H. Covington
(ed.), Latin America and the Caribbean: A Critical Guide to Research Sources
(New York, 1992), 74354 (complemented by a bibliography compiled
by Aimee Algier-Baxter, 75588). Women, Culture and Politics in Latin
America (Berkeley, 1990), the result of an interdisciplinary seminar, in-
cludes essays on several topics and a useful guide to periodical literature.
There are two syntheses of the history of Latin American women: Ann
M. Pescatello, Power and Pawn: The Female in Iberian Societies and Cultures
(Westport, Conn., 1976), a comprehensive survey that falls short of being
an adequate study or a trenchant inquiry; and Francesca Miller, Latin
American Women and the Quest for Social Justice (Hanover, N.H., 1991), a
more successful attempt to summarize the history of women in the twenti-
eth century. Among the few national histories allocating chapters to fam-
ily, women and daily life is Jaime Jaramillo Uribe (ed.), Nueva historia de
Colombia (Bogota, 1989). Silvia Rodriguez Villamil and Graciela Sapriza,
in Mujer, estado y politica en el Uruguay del siglo XX (Montevideo, 1984),
survey several key historical themes such as welfare, education, and civil
and political rights in that country. Felicitas Klimpel's La mujer chilena (El
aporte femenino alprogreso de Chile, 19101960) (Santiago, Chile, 1962) is
not strictly a historical book, but contains important historical informa-
tion on education, the law, professional organizations, etc.
Collections of essays, thematically or chronologically arranged, are help-
ing to build a strong foundation of in-depth historical studies. Several
include information on twentieth-century history. See, for example,
Asuncion Lavrin (ed.), Latin American Women: Historical Perspectives, cited
above; Carmen Ramos (ed.), Presenciay transparencia: La mujer en la historia
de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1987); Ronaldo Vainfas (ed.), Historia e sex-
ualidade no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1986). The following focus on the
twentieth century: Ann Pescatello (ed.), Female and Male in Latin America
(Pittsburgh, Pa., 1973), one of the first collections of essays in English on
current women's themes, and Edna Acosta Belen (ed.), The Puerto Rican
Woman (New York, 1979). June Nash and Helen Safa (eds.), Sex and Class

in Latin America (New York, 1975) and Women and Change in Latin America
(South Hadley, Mass., 1986), have broadened the range of questions
raised by Pescatello's collection.
Interdisciplinary collections of essays on social and economic issues
published mostly in Latin America have helped to establish the validity of
women and gender studies in the area, while offering important insights
from within to outside readers. See, for example, Magdalena Leon de Leal
(ed.), La mujer y el desarrollo en Colombia (Bogota, 1977); Paz Covarrubias
and Rolando Franco (comps.), Chile: Mujer y sociedad (Santiago, Chile,
1978); Magdalena Leon (ed.), Sociedad, subordinacion y feminismo (Bogota,
1982); Ministerio del Estado para la Participacion de la Mujer en el Desar-
rollo, Venezuela: Biografia inacabada: Evolucidn social, 1936-1983 (Caracas,
1983); GRECMU, Investigacion sobre la mujer e investigacion feminista: Balance
y perspectiva de la decada de la mujer en America Latina (Montevideo, 1984);
Nora Galer et al., Mujery desarrollo (Lima, 1985); Maria Angelica Meza, La
otra mitadde Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1986); Maria Cristina Laverde Toscano
and Luz Helena Sanchez Gomez, Voces insurgentes (Bogota, 1986).
WOMEN IN THE LABOUR FORCE
Although several recent works on labour history include information on

women, we lack an adequate coverage of the process of women's incorpora-
tion into the labour force, or of their participation in the labour move-
ments of any given country prior to the 1950s. In this field much remains
to be done. Among the few works focusing on the period prior to the
Second World War are, June Hahner, 'Women and work in Brazil', in
Dauril Alden and Warren Dean (eds.), Essays Concerning the Socioeconomic
History of Brazil and Portuguese India (Gainesville, Fla., 1977), 87117;
Dawn Keremetsis, 'La industria de empaques y sus trabajadoras: 1910
1940', Encuentro (Guadalajara), 2/1 (1984), 5774, and 'Latin American
women workers in transition: Sexual division of labor force in Mexico and
Colombia in the textile industry', TA, 40 (1984), 491504; Silvia Rodri-
guez Villamil, 'El trabajo femenino en Montevideo, 18801914', in N.
Filgueira et al., La mujer en el Uruguay: Ayer y hoy (Montevideo, 1983).
While these works provide data on workers, working conditions and
legislation, other studies underline the dynamics of ideology and the
realities of the labour market. See, for example, Catalina H. Wainerman
and Marysa Navarro, El trabajo de la mujer argentina: Un andlisis preliminar
de las ideas dominantes en las primeras decadas del siglo XX (Buenos Aires,

1979); Catalina Wainerman, La mujer y el trabajo en la Argentina desde la

perspectiva de la Iglesia Catolica (Buenos Aires, 1980); Sandra McGee
Deutsch, 'The Catholic church, work, and womanhood in Argentina,
1890-1930', Gender and History, 3/3 (1991); 304-25; Maria Valeria J.
Pena and Elca M. Lima, 'Lutas ilusorias: A mulher na politica operaria na
Primeira Repiiblica,' in Carmen Barroso and Albertina Oliveira Costa
(eds.), Mulher, Mulberes (Sao Paulo, 1983), 17-34; Asuncion Lavrin,
'Women, labor and the left: Argentina and Chile, 1900-1925', The Jour-
nal of Women's History, 1/2 (1989), 88-116. A labour study focusing on
the period after the Second World War is Marysa Navarro, 'Hidden,
silent, and anonymous: Women workers in the Argentine trade union
movement', in Norbert C. Soldon (ed.), The World of Women's Trade Union-
ism: Comparative Historical Essays (Westport, Conn., 1985), 165-98. See
also John D. French, 'Women and working class mobilization in postwar
Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1945-1948', LARR, 24/3 (1989), 99-125.
Sociological studies have begun to highlight women's presence in the
informal sector of the economy. See Margo L. Smith, 'Domestic service as
a channel of upward mobility for the lower-class woman: The Lima case',
in Ann Pescatello (ed.), Female and Male, 191-207; Alberto Rutte Garcia,
Simplemente explotadas: El mundo de las empleadas domesticas de Lima (Lima,
1976); Elsa M. Chaney, Sellers and Servants: Working Women in Lima, Peru
(New York, 1985); Elsa M. Chaney and Maria Garcia Castro (eds.),
Muchachas No More: Household Workers in Latin America and the Caribbean
(Philadelphia, 1989); Isabel Laura Cardenas, Ramona y el robot: El servicio
domestico en barrios prestigiosos de Buenos Aires (1895-1985) (Buenos Aires,
1986); Thelma Galvez and Rosalba Todaro, Yo trabajo asi . . . en casa
particular (Santiago, Chile, 1985); and Macarena Mack et al., Los trabajos
de las mujeres entre el campoy la ciudad, 1920-1982 (Santiago, Chile, 1986).
A growing concern with the role of women in economic development in
the second half of the century has spawned a considerable number of works
by social scientists. Few of these studies offer any historical background,
and their main contribution lies in the acute analysis of social, economic,
and cultural aspects of female labor from the 1960s. The methodology of
gathering statistical data on women's contributions to the national econo-
mies and development has been sharply criticized in a noteworthy essay by
Catalina Wainerman, El trabajo femenino en el banquillo de los acusados: La
medicion censal en America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1981) that is a desirable
preamble to any research based on official sources. An excellent study
combining the analysis of labour, status, and social change is Susan

Bourque and Kay B. Warren, Women of the Andes: Patriarchy and Social
Change in Two Peruvian Towns (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1981). Magdalena Leon
de Leal, et al., Mujer y capitalismo agrario: Estudio de cuatro regiones colom-
bianas (Bogota, 1982), and M. Leon de Leal (ed.), Las trabajadoras del agro
(Bogota, 1982) are important regional rural studies that highlight the role
of women in the formal and the informal sectors of the economy. America
Indigena, zfili (1978) has several important studies on rural female labour.
Anthropological studies offer valuable information on rural women. See,
for example, Lynn Stephen, Zapotec Women (Austin, Tex., 1991); Florence
Babb, Between Field and Cooking Pot: The Political Economy of Marketwomen in
Peru (Austin, Tex., 1989), and the 1985 issue of Allpanchis, a publication
of the Bartolome de Las Casas Study Center in Cuzco.
Industrial and urban work is by far the most discussed topic, and
studies on Brazil stand out in numbers and quality. Most analyses have
been published in periodicals, or as working papers issued by research
centers or in essay collections. Among the book-length studies, see Eva
Alterman Blay, Trabalho domesticado: A mulher na industria paulista (Sao
Paulo, 1978); Maria V. J. Pena, Mulheres e trabalhadoras: presencia feminina
na constituigdo do sistema fabril (Rio de Janeiro, 1981); Ana Maria Q. Fausto
Neto, Familia operdria e reproducao da forga do trabalho (Petropolis, 1982);
Esmeralda Blanco Bolsonaro de Moura, Mulheres e menores no trabalho indus-
trial: Os factores sexo e idade na dindmica do capital (Petropolis, 1982), and
Jennifer Cooper, Teresita de Barbieri, Teresa Rendon, Estela Suarez, and
Esperanza Tufion, Fuerza de trabajo femenina urbana en Mexico, 2 vols.
(Mexico, D.F., 1989).
An important early Marxist interpretation of women, labour and social
roles is Heleith Saffioti, A Mulher na sociedade de classes: Mito e realidade (Sao
Paulo, 1969), a 1960s critique of the exploitation of female work in
capitalist societies. Maria Cristina A. Bruschini and Fiilvia Rosemberg,
Trabalhadoras do Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1982) is an useful collection of essays
on both rural and urban workers. Maruja Barrig's Las obreras (Lima, 1986)
surveys the labour issues of female workers employed in the pharmaceuti-
cal and garment industries in Lima. A recent study of women in the urban
labour market in Ecuador offers the opportunity to compare data among
large and small countries: Centro de Planificacion y Estudios Sociales,
Mujer y trabajo (Quito, 1990), formulates theoretical approaches and looks
into health problems, the informal sector, and general employment statis-
tics in the country. The situation of female textile workers in Mexico in
the 1970s was explored by Virve Piho in 'Life and labor of the woman

textile worker in Mexico City', in Ruby Rohrlich-Leavitt (ed.), Women

Cross-Culturally: Change andChallenge (The Hague, 1975), 199246. Two
other historically-grounded essays are included in Rohrlich-Leavitt's collec-
tion: Blanca Silvestrini, 'Women as workers: The experience of the Puerto
Rican woman in the 1930s', 24760, and June Nash, 'Resistance as
protest: Women in the struggle of Bolivian tin-mining communities',
26171. The special case of women working at home for factories in the
1980s is the subject of Lourdes Beneria and Marta Roldan, The Crossroads
of Class and Gender: Industrial Homework, Subcontracting, and Household Dy-
namics in Mexico City (Chicago, 1987).
The examination of the special case of women in transnational indus-
tries on the MexicoUnited States border has produced a significant num-
bers of works. Among the best are Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, For We Are
Sold, I and My People: Women and Industry in Mexico's Frontier (Albany,
N.Y., 1983), and Jorge Carrillo and Alberto Hernandez, Mujeres fronter-
izas en la industria maquiladora (Mexico, D.F., 1985). See also Sandra
Arenal, Sangre joven: Las maquiladoraspor dentro (Mexico, D.F., 1986) and
Norma Iglesias, La flor mas bella de la maquiladora (Mexico, D.F., 1985).
While these works portray a group of women through the testimonies of
many, others focus on the experience of one subject, who is presumed to
speak for the rest. Both methodologies illustrate a trend towards testimo-
nial literature in an effort to add insight into the daily experience and
struggles of non-elite women. The originator of the life-story approach
was Oscar Lewis, whose Four Women (Urbana, 111., 1977) although like
most of his work, a much-edited and polished account, may be used with
profit. For Peru, see Esther Andradi and Ana Maria Portugal, Ser mujer en
el Peru (Lima, 1978). On Cuban women, see Laurette Sejourne, La mujer
cubana en el quehacer de la historia (Mexico, D.F., 1980). For other coun-
tries, see June H. Turner, Latin American Women: The Meek Speak Out (Silver
Spring, Md.., 1980); Let Me Speak! Testimony of Domitila, a Woman of the
Bolivian Mines (New York, 1978); Elizabeth Burgos Debray, /, Rigoberta
Menchu: An Indian Woman in Guatemala (New York, 1984); El via
Alvarado, Don't be Afraid Gringo: A Honduran Woman Speaks from the Heart
(New York, 1987); Brenda Carter et al., A Dream Compels Us: Voices of
Salvadorean Women (Boston, 1989); Daphne Patai, Brazilian Women Speak:
Contemporary Life Stories (New Brunswick, N.J., 1988); Fran Leeper Bliss,
La partera: Story of a Midwife (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1980), the life story of a
Peruvian midwife; Maria Berno, Historias testimoniales del campo (Santiago,
Chile, 1983); Teresa Valdes, Venid, benditas de mi Padre: Laspobladoras, sus

rutinas y sus suenos (Santiago, Chile, 1988); Kristina Bohman, Women of the
Barrio: Class and Gender in a Colombian City (Stockholm, 1984); and Nena
Delpino, Saliendo aflote: La jefa de familia popular (Lima, 1990).
A useful collection of essays focusing on 'popular' urban women with
data from the 1960s to the mid-1980s in serviceable tabular form is
ECLA/CEPAL, La mujer en el sector popular urbano (Santiago, Chile, 1984).
See also CEPAL, Mujeres jovenes en America Latina (Montevideo, 1985) and
La mujer en America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1975). Also helpful are Diagnos-
tico de la situacion econdmica de la mujerperuana (Lima, 1975); Breviario socio-
demografico de la mujer en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1984); Estadistica sobre la
mujer: Inventario (Mexico, D.F., 1980); Five Studies on the Situation of Women
in Latin America (Santiago, Chile, 1983); Violeta Sara Lafosse, 'El status de
la mujer y sus implicaciones demograficas, in Problemas poblacionales
peruanos (Lima, 1980), 293-314; Elsa M. Chaney, 'Latin America and the
Caribbean', in Women of the World (Washington, D.C., 1984); and Teresa
Valdes et al. (eds.), Mujeres latinoamericanas en cifras: Avances de investigacidn
On the impact of female employment on the internal structure of the
family and the strategies for family survival, see Elizabeth Jelin and Maria
del Carmen Feijoo, Trabajo y familia en el ciclo de vida femenino: El caso de los
sectores populares de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires, 1980); Elssy Bonilla de
Ramos, La madre trabajadora (Bogota, 1981); Verena Stolcke, Coffee Plant-
ers, Workers and Wives (London, 1988). More generally on the female
experience in a situation of social and economic change, see Elizabeth Jelin
(ed.), Women and Social Change in Latin America (London, 1990); Yamile
Azize Vargas (ed.), La mujer en Puerto Rico: Ensayos de investigacidn (Rio
Piedras, 1987); and M. Leon de Leal (ed.), Sociedad, subordinacion y femi-
nismo: Debate sobre la mujer en America Latina y el Caribe (Bogota, 1982).
The migration of women from rural to urban areas as part of a larger
dynamic of population shifts and changes in the economic profile of cer-
tain areas is little-researched. Demographers, sociologists and economists
are beginning to develop this topic. For an extensive bibliography, see
Ann V. Millard, 'Demography', in K. Lynn Stoner (ed.), Latinas of the
Americas, 61107. A classic study for female indigenous migration to
Mexico is Lourdes Arizpe, Indigenas en la Ciudad de Mexico: El caso de la
'Marias' (Mexico, D.F., 1975). See also Brigida Garcia and Orlandina de
Oliveira, 'Dinamica poblacional de Mexico', Encuentro, 2/1 (1984), 75
108; and Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales, La mujer migrante: Segundo
seminario latinoamericano (Buenos Aires, 1985). Case studies of poor urban

women engaged in the informal sector of the economy are valuable. See,
for example, Vivian Arteaga and Noemi Larrazabal, La mujer pobre en la
crisis economica: Las vendedoras ambulantes de La Paz (La Paz, 1988), and the
collective work, Centro de Promocion de la Mujer, La necesidad tiene cara de
mujer: Recorridos en una experiencia de generation de ingresos (La Paz, 1991).
EDUCATION
Despite its importance in explaining key aspects of women's changing roles,

the study of women's education is a much neglected field. A general view of
the field is given by Edna Acosta Belen, 'Education', in K. Lynn Stoner
(ed.), Latinas of the Americas. See also 'Education', in Meri Knaster (ed.),
Women in Spanish America. Amanda Labarca's Historia de la ensenanza en Chile
(Santiago, Chile, 1939) remains a classic source for Chile. Other historical
works include Maria Julia Ardao, La creation de la seccidn de ensenanza
secundariaypreparatoriapara mujeres en 1912 (Montevideo, 1962); Cynthia J.
Little, 'Education, philanthropy and feminism: Components of Argentine
womanhood, i8601926', in Asuncion Lavrin (ed.), Latin American
Women: Historical Perspectives, cited above; and Ernesto Meneses's history of
educational trends in Mexico, Tendencias educativas oficiales en Mexico, 1821
1911 (Mexico, D.F., 1983). A recent study of female journalism in Argen-
tina since the mid-nineteenth century is Nestor Tomas Auza, Periodismo y
feminismo en la Argentina, 1830-1930 (Buenos Aires, 1988). Women's jour-
nals and magazines abound in all countries and should become an important
source for the study of women's history.
Histories of female educational institutions in the twentieth century are
scarce. See, Eva Alterman Blay, Mulher, escola e profissdo: Um estudo do
gindsio industrial feminino na cidade de Sao Paulo (Sao Paulo, 1981). For
recent statistical analyses of women's education, see, Eulalia Donoso
Conde, 'Education and high-level employment: The case of the Latin
American women', and 'Women's choice of university careers in six Latin
American countries', Statistical Bulletin of the OAS, 8/1-2 (1986), 131,
and 8/3-4 (1986), 1-25.
WOMEN IN POLITICS
The involvement of women in political and social activities up to the mid-

1960s may be examined in the books and articles written by the protago-
nists themselves. See, as examples, Maria Abella de Ramirez, Ensayos

feministas (Montevideo, 1965), an anthology of the journalistic work she

carried out in the first decade of the century; Josefa T. de Aguerri, Anhelos
y esperanzas (Managua, 1935); Paulina Luisi, Pedagogia y conducta sexual
(Montevideo, 1950), a collection of the author's writings on education and
sexual education, and Otra voz clamando en el desierto, 2 vols. (Montevideo,
1948), a collection of her writings on prostitution; Maria Cano, Escritos
(Medellin, 1985); Armanda Labarca, jA donde va la mujer? (Santiago,
Chile, 1934), and Feminismo contempordneo (Santiago, Chile, 1947); Marga-
rita Robles de Mendoza, La evolution de la mujer en Mexico (Mexico, D.F.,
1931); Maria Rios Cardenas, La mujer mexicana es ciudadana (Mexico,
D.F., 1940); M. Loreto H., Personalidad de la mujer mexicana (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1961); Lucila Rubio de Laverde, Ideales feministas (Bogota,
1944); Ofelia Uribe de Acosta, Una voz insurgente (Bogota, 1963); Angela
Acufia Chacon, La mujer costarricense a traves de cuatro siglos (San Jose, C. R.,
1969); Alicia Moreau de Justo, La mujer en la democratia (Buenos Aires,
1945). Among the men who wrote important works on behalf of women's
rights are Genaro Garcia, Apuntes sobre la condition de la mujer (Mexico,
D.F., 1891); Baltasar Brum, Los derechos de la mujer (Montevideo, 1923);
Enrique Dickmann, Emancipation civil, politica y social de la mujer (Buenos
Aires, 1935); Carlos Vaz Ferreira, Sobre feminismo (1914; Montevideo,
1945)-
The earliest account of a suffrage movement in Latin America is Morton
Ward, Woman Suffrage in Mexico (Gainesville, Fla., 1962). The political
activities of women in Mexico have been analysed from a different angle by
a more recent work, Anna Macias, Against All Odds: The Feminist Movement
in Mexico to 1940 (Westport, Conn., 1982). For a historical overview of
the feminist movements in Brazil and Cuba, see June E. Hahner, Emanci-
pating the Female Sex: The Struggle for Women's Rights in Brazil, 18501940
(Durham, N.C., 1990), and K. Lynn Stoner, From the House to the Streets:
The Cuban Women's Movement for Legal Reform, 1898-1940 (Durham,
N.C., 1991); Maxine Moyneux, 'No God, No Boss, No Husband: Anar-
chist feminism in nineteenth century Argentina', LAP, 13/1 (1986), 119
45; Nora Valle Ferrer, Luisa Capetillo: Historia de una mujer proscrita (San
Juan, P.R., 1990). An able survey of the suffrage movement in Chile and
women's political activities through 1952 is offered by Edda Gaviola A. et
al., Queremos votar en las proximas elecciones (Santiago, Chile, 1986).
An account of the development of Mexican feminism in the 1970s can
be found in Ana Lau Jaiven, La nueva ola del feminismo en Mexico (Mexico,
D.F., 1987). On the political activities of women in Brazil in the 1970s,

see Fanny Tabak et al., A tnulher como objeto de estudo (Rio de Janeiro, 1982),
and Autoritarismo epartkipacdopolitica da mulher (Rio de Janeiro, 1983). On
Chile, see Maria Angelica Meza, La otra mitad de Chile (Santiago, Chile,
1986), and on Bolivia, Coordinadora de la Mujer, Feminismo y politica (La
Paz, 1986). Among the few published theoretical studies of feminism,
Ana Sojo, Mujer y politica: Ensayo sobre el feminismo y el sujeto popular (San
Jose, C.R., 1985) expounds on contemporary feminist currents, including
Latin American reactions. On the work of the Chilean, Julieta Kirkwood,
see Patricia Crispi (ed.), Tejiendo rebeldias: Escritos feministas de Julieta Kirk-
wood(Santiago, Chile, 1987). Finally, see Nancy Saportaet al., 'Feminism
in Latin America: From Bogota to San Bernardo', Signs, 17/2 (1992),
393-434-
On women's resistance under military regimes, see Patricia Marie
Chuchryk, 'Protest, politics and personal life: The emergence of feminism
in a military dictatorship, Chile, 19731983', (unpublished Ph.D. disser-
tation, York University, Toronto, 1984); Olga Caballero Aquino, Por orden
superior (Asuncion, 1989); and Maria Elena Valenzuela, La mujer en el Chile
militar (Santiago, Chile, 1987). The transition to democracy in several
South American countries in the early 1980s has provided a medium for
the organization of women's groups of several ideological affiliations pursu-
ing a variety of political activities. These movements, as they appeared in
Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Peru and Chile, have been analysed by several
authors, notably: Jane S. Jaquette (ed.), The Women's Movement in Latin
America: Feminism and the Transition to Democracy (Boston, 1989); Sonia E.
Alvarez, Engendering Democracy in Brazil: Women's Movements in Transition
Politics (Princeton, N.J., 1990), and Fundacion Friedrich Nauman,
Participacion politica de la mujer en el Cono Sur, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1987).
Interpretive works on the meaning of gender relations as expressed in
social and political activities add an important theoretical framework to
the analysis of women in society. Few such works have been written so far.
Elsa Chaney, Supermadre: Women in Politics in Latin America (Austin, Tex.,
1979), analyses the character of female participation in politics in Peru
and Chile in the twentieth century. The dialectical relationship between
the emphasis on motherhood as a role {marianismo) and patriarchalism has
been discussed by Evelyn Stevens in 'Marianismo: The other face of Ma-
chismo in Latin America', in Ann Pescatello (ed.), Female and Male in Latin
America, 89101.
The Cuban and the Nicaraguan revolutions have inspired many short
essays, articles and chapters in books. Many are propagandistic or shallow,

and few present informative overviews of the topic. The following present
thoughtful syntheses or cogent arguments: Max Azicri, 'Women's develop-
ment through revolutionary mobilization: A study of the Federation of
Cuban Women', International Journal of Women's Studies, 2 (1979), 27-50;
Lourdes Casal, 'Revolucion and Conciencia: Women in Cuba', in Carol R.
Berkin and Clara M. Lovett (eds.), Women, War and Revolution (New York,
1980); and Lois M. Smith, 'Progress, science and myth: The health educa-
tion of Cuban women', Cuban Studies, 19 (1989), 16796. Margaret
Randall's Mujeres en la revolucion (Mexico, D.F., 1972), Women in Cuba:
Twenty Years Later (New York, 1981), and Todas estamos despiertas (Mexico,
D.F., 1980), on Cuban and Nicaraguan women, are impassioned defenses
of the changes experienced by women in those revolutionary regimes. Very
little detachment is found in other works, although they are valuable
sources of information: Helen Collinson, Women and Revolution in Nicara-
gua (London, 1990); Paolo Perez Alamafia, Organizacion, identidad y
cambio: Las campesinas en Nicaragua (Managua, 1990); Elizabeth Maier, Las
Sandinistas (Mexico, D.F., 1985). An incisive analysis of feminism in
Nicaragua during the sandinista period is Ileana Rodriguez, Registradas en
la historia: 10 anos del quehacer feminista en Nicaragua (Managua, 1990). For
information on women in other Central American countries, see Marilyn
Thomson, Women of El Salvador: The Price of Freedom (Philadelphia, 1986);
Ana Isabel Garcia and Enrique Gomariz (eds.), Mujeres centroamericanas:
Efectos del conflicto, 2 vols. (San Jose, C.R., 1989); and Maria Candelaria
Navas, 'Los movimientos femeninos en Centroamerica, 19701983', in
Daniel Camacho and Rafael Menjivar (eds.), Movimientospopulares en Cen-
troamerica (San Jose, C.R., 1985).
The political biography of Eva Per6n has developed a niche for itself in
the historiography. Her powerful figure has been examined in a large
number of studies. Among the most balanced are Marysa Navarro, Evita
(Buenos Aires, 1981) and 'Evita's charismatic leadership', in Michael L.
Conniff(ed.), Latin American Populism in Comparative Perspective (Albuquer-
que, N.Mex., 1982); and Julie M. Taylor, Eva Peron: The Myths of a
Woman (Chicago, 1979). On other important women in politics and the
arts, see Mirta Henault, Alicia Moreau dejusto (Buenos Aires, 1983), a
mixture of narrative and personal reminiscences; Margot Arce de Vaz-
quez, Gabriela Mistral: The Poet and Her Work (New York, 1964); Hayden
Herrera, Frida: A Biography of of Frida Kahlo (New York, 1983); and
Doris Meyer, Victoria Ocampo: Against the Wind and the Tide (Buenos Aires,
1970). Useful introductions to women writers are Jean Franco, Plotting

Women: Gender and Representation in Mexico (New York, 1989); Evelyn

Picon Garfield (ed.). Women's Fiction from Latin America (Detroit, 1988);
Susan Bassnett (ed.), Knives and Angels: Women Writers in Latin America
(London, 1990); and Sara Castro-Klaren, Sylvia Molloy and Beatriz Sarlo,
Women's Writing in Latin America (Boulder, Colo., 1991). Further refer-
ences to literary figures may be found in the section on Literature, Mass
Media and Folklore in Meri Knaster (ed.), Women in Spanish America, and
in the section on 'Biography' in K. Lynn Stoner (ed.), Latinas of the
Americas.
THE FAMILY
Studies on the family are mostly either sociological or anthropological in

nature. Using the concepts of patriarchy and gender relations, two studies
shed light on the historical developments of the family in Andean Peru.
They are Fiona Wilson, 'Marriage, property, and the position of women in
the Peruvian Andes', in Raymond T. Smith (ed.), Kinship, Ideology and
Practice in Latin America (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1984), 297-326, and
Florencia E. Mallon, 'Patriarchy in the transition to capitalism: Central
Peru, 1830-1950', Feminist Studies, 13/2 (1987), 379-407.
Since the 1960s the family has been under scrutiny by international
organizations as well as by scholars. See Comision Inter-Americana de
Mujeres, Seminario inter-americano sobre fortalecimiento de la institucidn famil-
iar (Caracas, i960), which under a bland format gives us a perception of
the family and its problems in that period. A classic study of the typology
of the family in Colombia is Virginia Gutierrez de Pineda, Familia y
cultura en Colombia (Bogota, 1968). Using an interdisciplinary approach,
Larissa Adler Lomnitz and Marisol Perez-Lizaur reconstructed a Mexican
family throughout several generations: A Mexican Elite Family, 1820-
1980 (Princeton, N.J., 1987). For a profile of the family in several coun-
tries, see Mam Singh Das and Clinton J. Jesser (eds.), The Family in Latin
America (Sahibabad, India, 1980). Also useful are Elssy Bonilla (ed.),
Mujer y familia en Colombia (Bogota, 1985), and Mariza Correa et al.,
Colcha de retalhos: Estudos sobre a familia no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1982). An
analytical study of the relationship between family structure and its eco-
nomic contours is given by Thomas W. Merrick and Marianne Schmink,
'Households headed by women and urban poverty in Brazil,' in M.
Buvinic et al., Women and Poverty in the Third World (Baltimore, 1983).
Also of interest to the study of the family and population policies are J. M.

14- The Catholic church 659
Stycos, Ideology, Faith, and Family Planning in Latin America: Studies in

Public and Private Opinion on Fertility Control (New York, 1971); Peter
McDonough and Amaury De Souza, The Politics of Population in Brazil
(Austin, Tex., 1981); Ieda Siqueira Wiarda, 'Women, population policy,
and democracy', in Howard J. Wiarda (ed.), The Coming Struggle for Democ-
racy in Latin America (Boulder, Colo., 1980), 10726.
Donna Guy has opened a new field of inquiry with her studies on
prostitution in twentieth-century Buenos Aires. See 'White slavery, public
health, and the socialist position on legalized prostitution in Argentina,
19131936', LARR, 23/3 (1988), 6080; 'Prostitution and penal crimi-
nality in Buenos Aires, 18751937,' in Lyman Johnson (ed.), The Problem
of Order in Changing Societies: Essays on Crime and Politics in Argentina and
Uruguay, IJ501940 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1990), and Sex and Danger
in Buenos Aires: Prostitution, Family, and Nation in Argentina (Lincoln,
Nebr., 1991). The analysis of teen-age pregnancy, abandoned mothers,
domestic violence and violence against women are recent topics of great
interest to women, and are largely developed by centers for women's
studies and activist groups. See Anahi Viladrich, Madres solteras adolescentes
(Buenos Aires, 1991); Carmen Tocon Armas and Armando Mendiburu
M., Madres solteras: Madres abandonadas (Chimbote, Peru, 1991); Ximena
Bedregal et al., Hilos, nudos y colores: En la lucha contra la violencia hacia las
mujeres (Mexico, D.F., 1991); /Que se acabe el silencio! /Contra el maltrato a
la mujer! (Matagalpa, Nic., 1991); Mujer y violencia: La otra cara del amor
(Quito, 1991); Violencia: E possivel viver sem ela (Petropolis, 1991); and
Incriminacion a la violencia contra la mujer (Santo Domingo, 1991).
The historiography and social science literature on the Catholic church in

Latin America since 1930 is large and unsatisfactory. There are two main
reasons why it is unsatisfactory. First, most ecclesiastical archives, espe-
cially that of the Vatican, remain closed to scholars for this period. Sec-
ondly, most of the publications on the subject since the late 1960s have
been written from the partisan perspectives of the Catholic Left and Catho-
lic Right. From these have emerged two orthodoxies: the one perceiving
the diffusion of a 'theology of liberation' as a radical break with five
gloomy centuries of overidentification of the Roman Catholic church in
Latin America with encrusted and oppressive power structures; the other,

660 VIL Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
with equal rigidity, seeing the changes of the 1960s and 1970s as posing a
grotesque challenge from within to the creative traditions of five centuries
of self-abnegating missionary activity. Both of these orthodoxies are
highly critical in tone; neither is self-critical in spirit. Few attempts have
been made to examine the cumulative significance of the sequence of small
changes in the church between 1930 and the early 1960s. No serious
attempt has been made to challenge the assumption that a major transfor-
mation occurred in the church in the 1960s and 1970s, or, if it occurred,
to identify and quantify in how many parishes and among how many
Catholics it had a profound impact.
A number of general histories of the Catholic church and of Christianity
Latin America deserve mention: Enrique Dussel (ed.), The Church in Latin
America, 14921992 (New York, 1992); Enrique Dussel, Historia de la
iglesia en America Latina, 5th ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1984); English trans.
History of the Church in Latin America (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1981); and
Hans-Jiirgen Prien, Die Geschichte des Christentums in Lateinamerika (Got-
tingen, 1978; Sp. trans. Salamanca, 1985); Jean Meyer, Historia de los
cristianos en America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1989) and, most ambitious of
all, the multi-volume Historia general de la iglesia en America Latina
(HGIAL), edited by Enrique Dussel for the Comision de Estudios de
Historia de la Iglesia en America Latina (CEHILA) in Mexico City: vol-
umes already published include vol. 5 on Mexico (1984), vol. 6 on Central
America (1986), vol. 7 on Colombia and Venezuela (1979) and vol. 8 on
Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador (1987) all of which include chapters on the
period since 1930.
The standard history in English of the Catholic church in Latin America
before the impact of Vatican II is J. Lloyd Mecham, Church and State in
Latin America (Chapel Hill, N.C. 1966). The essays in two volumes edited
by D. H. Levine, Religion and Political Conflict in Latin America (Chapel
Hill, N . C , 1986) and Churches and Politics in Latin America (London,
1990) provide a convenient starting point for the study of the church since
the 1960s from a perspective broadly sympathetic to the reformist ele-
ments in the Catholic church. These can be fruitfully explored further in
Scott Mainwaring and Alexander Wilde (eds.), The Progressive Church in
Latin America (Notre Dame, In., 1989); Thomas Bruneau, M. Mooney
and C. Gabriel (eds.), The Catholic Church and Religion in Latin America
(Montreal, 1984); Dermot Keogh (ed.), Church and Politics in Latin Amer-
ica (New York, 1990); Edward L. Cleary and Hannah Stewart-Gambino
(eds.), Conflict and Competition - The Latin American Church in a Changing

Environment (Boulder, Colo., 1992); Daniel H. Levine, Popular Voices in

Latin American Catholicism (Princeton, N.J., 1992); Edward Cleary (ed.),
Born of the Poor: The Latin American Church since Medellin (Notre Dame,
Ind., 1990); Levine and Mainwaring, 'Religion and popular protest in
Latin America: Contrasting experiences', in Susan Eckstein (ed.), Power
and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, 1989); and
Brian Smith, 'Religion and social change: Classical theories and new
formulations in the context of recent developments in Latin America',
LARR, 10/2 (1975), 3354. The standard text of the Catholic Left is
Enrique Dussel, A History of the Church in Latin America Colonialism to
Liberation, cited above. See also John Eagleson (ed.), Christians and Social-
ism: Documentation of the Christians for Socialism Movement in Latin America
(Maryknoll, N.Y., 1975) and Giulio Girardi, Chretiens pour le socialisme
(Paris, 1976). There is no comparable set of essays on the conservative or
centrist factions within the church. There are, however, useful readings in
Lyle C. Brown and William F. Cooper (eds.), Religion in Latin American
Life andLiterature (Waco, Tex., 1985).
Earlier writings by foreigners that indicate a growing alertness to reli-
gious issues in Latin America include William J. Coleman, Latin American
Catholicism: A Self-Evaluation (Maryknoll, N.Y., 1958); Leslie M. Dewart,
Christianity and Revolution (New York, 1963); Francois Houtart and Emile
Pin (eds.), The Church and the Latin American Revolution (New York, 1965)
and La iglesia latinoamericana en la bora del concilio (Fribourg, 1963); Wil-
liam V. D'Antonio and Fredrick B. Pike (eds.), Religion, Revolution and
Reform (New York, 1964); Emanuel de Kadt, 'The Latin American church
and Pope Paul's visit', The World Today, 24 (September 1968) and 'Pater-
nalism and populism: Catholicism in Latin America', Journal of Contempo-
rary History, 2/4 (1967); Thomas G. Sanders, 'The Church in Latin Amer-
ica', Foreign Affairs, 48 (January 1970); Henry Landsberger (ed.), The
Church and Social Change in Latin America (Notre Dame, Ind., 1970); Karl
M. Schmitt, The Roman Catholic Church in Latin America (New York,
1972); Frederick C. Turner, Catholicism and Political Development in Latin
America (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1971); and Ivan Vallier, Catholicism, Social
Control and Modernization in Latin America (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1970).
On the Second CELAM meeting held in 1968 at Medellin, see the
official documents contained in CELAM, The Church in the Present Day
Transformation of Latin America in the Light of the Council, 2 vols. (Bogota,
1970); and Joseph Comblin, 'Problemes sacerdotaux d'Amerique Latine',
CIDOC Document 68 (Cuernavaca, 1968). Other influential works writ-

ten in the aftermath of the Second Vatican Council and the Second CELAM
Meeting at Medellin range from Roger Vekemans, Agonia 0 resurgimiento?
Reflexiones teologicas acerca de la 'contestacion' en la Iglesia (Barcelona, 1972)
to, from a radically different perspective, Leonardo Boff, 'Jesucristo
libertador: Una vision cristologica desde Latinoamerica oprimida', in Pan-
orama de la teologia latinoamericana (Salamanca, 1984). On the Catholic
church and national security doctrines, Roberto Calvo, 'The church and
the doctrine of national security', JIAS, 21/1 (1979), 66988; and on the
churches and human rights, Brian Smith, 'Churches and human rights in
Latin America: Recent trends in the Subcontinent', JIAS, 21/1 (1979),
89128. Perspectives from the Catholic right are contained usefully in
Alfonso Lopez Trujillo, Secretariado General del CELAM, Medellin: Re-
flexiones en el CELAM (Madrid, 1977) and Opciones y interpretaciones en la luz
de Puebla (n.p., n.d.) For the Third CELAM meeting held at Puebla, see
CELAM, La evangelizacion en el presente y en el futuro de America Latina,
Puebla, Mexico, 1978: Preparation documento de consulta a las conferencias
episcopates (Bogota, 1979); III Conferencia General del Episcopado Latino Ameri-
cano, Puebla: Documento de trabajo (Bogota, 1978); /// Conferencia General del
Episcopado Latino Americano, Puebla: La evangelizacion en el presente y en el
futuro de America Latina (Bogota, 1979); and CELAM, Iglesia y educacion en
el futuro de America Latina (Bogota, 1987). See also Enrique Dussel, De
Medellin a Puebla (Mexico, D.F., 1979), and Renato Poblete, 'From
Medellin to Puebla: Notes for Reflexion', JIAS, 21/1 (1979), 31-44. On
the aftermath of Puebla, see Alexander Wilde, 'The years of change in the
church: Puebla and the future', JIAS, 21 (August 1979), 299-312, and
Edward L. Cleary (ed.), Path from Puebla: Significant Documents of the Latin
American Bishops since 1979 (Washington, D.C., 1988).
A standard introduction to liberation theology is found in Gustavo
Gutierrez, A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics and Salvation (Mary-
knoll, N.Y., 1973) and, more briefly, 'Liberation, theology and proclama-
tion' in Claude Geffre and Gutierrez (eds.), The Mythical and Political
Dimensions of the Christian Faith (New York, 1974), 5377. See also two
works by Hugo Assmann, Opresion-liberacion: desafio a los cristianos (Monte-
video, 1971) and Theology for a Nomad Church (Maryknoll, N.Y., 1976);
Enrique Dussel, History of Theology of Liberation (New York, 1976) and
Hipotesis para una historia de la teologia latinoamericana (Bogota, 1986);
Samuel Silva Gotay, El pensamiento cristiano revolucionario en America Latina
y el Caribe (Salamanca, 1981); Pablo Richard, Materiales para una historia de
la teologia latinoamericana (San Jose, C.R., 1984); Leonardo and Clodovis

14- The Catholic church 66$
Boff, Introducing Liberation Theology (New York, 1987); Phillip Berryman,

Liberation Theology (New York, 1987) and 'Latin American liberation theol-
ogy', Theological Studies, 34/3 (1973), 357-95; Paul Sigmund, Liberation
Theology at the Crossroads: Democracy or Revolution? (New York, 1990),
Alfred Hennelly (ed.), Liberation Theology: A Documentary History (New
York, 1990); Michael Novak (ed.), Liberation Theology (Washington,
D.C., 1987); Michael Dodson, 'Liberation theology and Christian radical-
ism in contemporary Latin America', JLAS, 11 (May 1979), 20322; W.
E. Hewitt, 'Myths and realities of liberation theology: The case of the
basic Christian communities in Brazil' in Richard Rubinstein and John
Roth (eds.), The Political Significance of Liberation Theology (Washington,
D.C, 1988).
BRAZIL
On Brazil, Ralph Delia Cava, 'Catholicism and society in twentieth-

century Brazil', LARR, 11/2 (1976), 7 - 5 0 , remains a convenient guide to
the literature of the 1960s and early 1970s. Consult especially two books
by Thomas C. Bruneau, The Political Transformation of the Brazilian Church
(Cambridge, Eng., 1974) and The Church in Brazil: The Politics of Religion
(Austin, Tex., 1982). These should be read in conjunction with Bruneau's
'Power and influence: Analysis of the church in Latin America and the case
of Brazil', LARR, 8/2 (1973), 2 5 - 5 1 , and 'Brazil: The Catholic church
and Christian base communities', in Levine (ed.), Religion and Political
Conflict. Margaret Patricia Todaro (Williams), 'Pastors, prophets and poli-
ticians: A study of the Brazilian Catholic Church, 1916-1945 (unpub-
lished Ph.D. thesis, Colombia University, 1971), Jose Oscar Beozzo, 'A
Igreja, 1930-1945', in Boris Fausto (ed.), Histdria geral da civilizagdo
brasileira, Tomo III, vol. 4 (Sao Paulo, 1984) and Scott Mainwaring, The
Catholic Church and Politics in Brazil, 1916-1982 (Stanford, Calif, 1986)
provide broad overviews. On recent trends see also Mainwaring's articles,
'The Catholic church, popular education and political change in Brazil',
JIAS, 26/1 (1984), 'Grassroots popular movements, identity and democra-
tization in Brazil', Comparative Political Studies (July 1987) and 'Brazil:
The Catholic church and the popular movement in Nova Igacii, 1974-
1985', in Levine (ed.), Religion and Political Conflict. On the 1960s, Eman-
uel de Kadt, Catholic Radicals in Brazil (London, 1970) provides a lively
account. See also de Kadt, 'Religion, the church and social change in
Brazil', in Claudio Veliz (ed.), The Politics of Conformity in Latin America

(London, 1967), Rowan Ireland, 'The Catholic church and social change
in Brazil', in Riordan Roett (ed.), Brazil in the 1960s (Nashville, Tenn.,
1972) and Thomas G. Sanders, 'Catholicism and development: The Catho-
lic Left in Brazil' in Kalman Silvert (ed.), Churches and States: The Religious
Institution and Modernization (New York, 1967).
On the church and opposition to military regimes between 1964 and
1985, see Bruneau, 'Church and Politics in Brazil: The Genesis of
Change', JLAS, 17/2 (1985), 27193; Ralph della Cava, A Igreja em
flagrante: Catolicismo e sociedade na imprensa brasileira, 19641980 (Rio de
Janeiro, 1985); Paulo Jose Krischke, A Igreja e as crises politicas no Brasil
(Petropolis, 1979); and Maria Helena Moreira Alves, Estado e oposicdo no
Brasil (19641984) (Petropolis, 1984) and 'Grassroots organizations,
trade unions and the church A challenge to controlled abertura in Bra-
zil', LAP, 11/1 (1984). The views of Dom Helder Camara are contained in
The Church and Colonialism: The Betrayed of the Third World (Danville, N. J.,
1969) and Revolution through Peace (New York, 1972). Base communities
are explored in W. E. Hewitt, 'The influence of social class on activity
preferences of comunidades de base (CEBs) in the Archdiocese of Sao
Paulo', JLAS, 19/1 (1987), 14156 and Base Christian Communities and
Social Change in Brazil (Lincoln, Nebr., 1991). A perspective of the
counter-revolutionary right is obtained in Sociedade para a Defesa da
Tradigao, Familia e Propriedade, Meio seculo da epopeia anticomunista (Sao
Paulo, 1980).
On the church during the "transition to democracy', see T. C. Bruneau
and W. E. Hewitt, 'Patterns of church influence in Brazil's political
transition', Comparative Politics, 22/1 (1989); Paulo Krishke and Scott
Mainwaring (eds.), A Igreja nas bases em tempo de transigdo (Porto Alegre,
1986); Ralph Della Cava, 'The "People's Church", the Vatican, and
Abertura' in Alfred Stepan (ed.), Democratizing Brazil (New York, 1989);
with a specific focus on base communities, Paulo Jose Krischke, 'Church
base communities and democratic change in Brazilian society', Comparative
Political Studies, 24/2 (1991); and two articles by Manfredo Araujo de
Oliveira, 'CEBs e constitutiente: Urn desafio a modernidade', Revista
Eclesidstica Brasileira, 46/183 (1986), 60110 and 'As CEBs e os dilemas
do processo de democratizagao', Revista Eclesidstica Brasileira, 49/195
(1990). For continuing radical criticism, see two reports by Comissao
Pastoral de Terra, Conflitos no campo do Brasil (Goiania, 1990) and 0
Genoctdio do nordeste (Sao Paulo, 1985).

ARGENTINA
On Argentina, John J. Kennedy, Catholicism, Nationalism and Democracy in

Argentina (Notre Dame, Ind., 1958) remains useful; and Richard Pattee
(ed.), El catolicismo contempordneo en HispanoAmerica (Buenos Aires, 1951)
can be used selectively. See also Pablo Marsal S., Peron y la iglesia (Buenos
Aires, 1955); Michael Dodson, 'The Catholic church in contemporary
Argentina', in A. Ciria (ed.), New Perspectives on Modern Argentina (Bloo-
mington, Ind., 1972), 57-67; 'Religious innovation and the politics of
Argentina: A study of the movement for priests for the Third World'
(unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1973), and 'Priests
and Peronism: Radical clergy in Argentine polities', LAP, 1 (Fall 1974),
5872; Gerardo Farell, Iglesia y pueblo en Argentina (19601974) (Buenos
Aires, 1976); Emilio Mignone, Witness to the Church the Complicity of the
Church and Dictatorship in Argentina (Maryknoll, N. Y., 1988).
CHILE
On Chile, Brian Smith, The Church and Politics in Chile (Princeton, N.J.,
1982) is fundamental. See also Smith, 'The impact of foreign church aid:
The case of Chile' in Gregory Baum and Andrew Greeley (eds.), Communi-
cation in the Church (New York, 1978); Humberto Munoz Ramirez, So-
ciologia religiosa de Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1957); and Oscar Dominguez, El
campesino chileno y la Accion Catolica Rural (Fribourg, 1961).
On Colombia, Christopher Abel, Politica, iglesia y partidos en Colombia

(Bogota, 1987), contains materials on clashes between liberal Catholics
and the Catholic Right in the 1930s and 1940s. For right-wing clerical
perspectives, including an onslaught against masonry, Protestantism and
Communism influenced by both the Francoist victory in Spain and the
Cold War, see German Cadavid, Los fueros de la iglesia ante el liberalismo y el
conservatismo en Colombia (Medellin, 1955). See also, on the period 1930
62, an essay by Rodolfo de Roux in HGIAL, vol. 7. On the church
between the 1960s and the 1990s, see Daniel H. Levine, Religion and
Politics in Latin America: The Catholic Church in Colombia and Venezuela
(1981); Kenneth Medhurst, The Church and Labour in Colombia (Manches-

666 VII. Economy, society, politics, 193,0 to c. 1990
ter, Eng., 1984); and, for institutional factors, David Mutchler, The
Church as a Political Factor in Latin America, with Particular Reference to
Colombia and Chile (New York, 1971). The literature on Carlos Torres is
extensive but poor. See Camilo Torres, Cristianismo y revolution (Mexico,
D.F., 1970) and La revolucion: Imperativo cristiano (n.p., n.d.), along with
German Campos Guzman, Camilo, el cura guerrillero (Bogota, 1967). On
Venezuela, see Isidoro Alonso et al., La iglesia en Venezuela y Ecuador
(Bogota, 1962) and Levine, Religion and Politics, cited above.
MEXICO
On Mexico the literature is sparse and disappointing. But see essays by

Carlos Alvear Acevedo (on 190062) and Jesus Garcia (on the period since
1962) in HGIAL 5; Claude Pomerlau, 'The changing church in Mexico and
its challenge to the state', Review of Politics, 43 (1981), 4509; R. Ramos,
Isidoro Alonso and D. Garre, La iglesia en Mexico: Estructuras eclesidsticas
(Fribourg, 1963); and Kaja Finkler, 'Dissident sectarian movements: The
Catholic church and social class in Mexico', CSSH, 25/2 (1983), 277-305.
PERU
On Peru, see Jeffrey Klaiber, Religion y revolucion en el Peru, 1824-1976 (Lima,

1977), an essay on the period 193062 in HGIAL, vol. 8, and La iglesia en el
Peru: Su historia social desde la independencia (Lima, 1988); Eng. trans., The
Catholic Church in Peru, 1821-1985: A Social History (Lanham, Md., 1992).
CUBA AND THE CARIBBEAN
On Cuba, see Margaret Crahan, The Church and Revolution in Cuba and
Nicaragua (Bandoora, Aus., 1988) and 'Salvation through Christ or Marx:
Religion in revolutionary Cuba', JIAS, 21 (February 1979), 15684;
Mateo Jover, 'The Church', in Carmelo Mesa-Lago (ed.), Revolutionary
Change in Cuba (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1974), 399426; Alice L. Hageman and
Philip E. Wheaton (eds.), Religion in Cuba Today (New York, 1971); Celso
Montero-Rodrfguez, Cristianos en la revolucion cubana (Estella, Spain,
1978); Raul G6mez Trero, The Church and Socialism in Cuba (New York,
1986); and John M. Kirk, Between God and the Party: Religion and Politics in
Revolutionary Cuba (Gainesville, Fla., 1989). See especially Frei Betto,
Fidel y la religion (Havana, 1985). For the Dominican Republic, see Wil-

15. The Protestant churches 667
liam Louis Wipfler, Poder, influencia e impotencia: La iglesia como factor socio-
politico en Repiiblica Dominicana (Santo Domingo, 1980). And for Haiti, see
Marian McClure, 'The Catholic church and rural social change: Priests,
peasant organization and politics in Haiti' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
Harvard University, 1985).
CENTRAL AMERICA
For Central America, see, from the perspective of the Catholic Left, Penny
Lernoux, People of God: The Struggle for World Catholicism (New York, 1989);
Philip Berryman, The Religious Roots of Rebellion: Christianity in the Central
American Revolution (New York, 1984); Margaret Randall, Christians in the
Nicaraguan Revolution (Vancouver, 1983); Laura Nuzzi O'Shaughnessy and
LuisH. Serra, The Church and Revolution in Nicaragua (Athens, Ohio, 1986);
Philip J. Williams, The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa
Rica (London, 1989); Robert A. White, 'Structural factors in rural develop-
ment: The church and the peasant in Honduras' (unpublished Ph.D. disser-
tation, Cornell University, 1977); Umberto Belli, Breaking Faith: TheSandi-
nista Revolution and Its Impact on Freedom and Christian Faith in Nicaragua
(Westchester, 111., 1985); Guillermo Melendez, La iglesia de los pobres en
America Central (196082) (San Jose, C.R., 1982); and especially Ernesto
Cardenal, The Gospel in Solentiname, 3 vols. (Maryknoll, N.Y., 19769). On
Guatemala, Mary Holleran, Church and State in Guatemala (New York,
1949) remains useful. Finally, chapters by Jorge Edwardo Arellano on
Nicaragua, Rodolfo Cardenal on El Salvador and Ricardo Bendafia Peromo
on Guatemala in HGIAL 6 deserve mention.
15. THE PROTESTANT CHURCHES
Until fifty years ago publications on Protestantism in Latin America con-

sisted mainly of the writings and memoirs of missionaries, reporting and
interpreting their work, frequently with a promotional or apologetic pur-
pose. The reports of the early Pan American Missionary Conferences (Pan-
ama, 1916; Montevideo, 1925; and Havana, 1929) and surveys and statis-
tics provided by World Dominion Press, the Committee on Cooperation
in Latin America (CCLA) and the International Missionary Council pro-
vide some data on the beginnings of Protestant missions. Finally, the
denominational journals in different countries should also be mentioned.

There are practically no significant collections of sources for the history

of Latin American Protestantism. The sections on Protestantism in
Comision de Estudios de Historia de la Iglesia en America Latina
(CEHILA), Para una historia de la evangelization en America Latina (Barce-
lona, 1977), 165-269, Materiales para una historia de la teologia en America
Latina (San Jose, C.R., 1981), 343-88, and Rakes de la teologia la-
tinoamericana (San Jose, C.R. 1985), 241-60, offer some information on
sources. See also H. Mackenzie Goodpasture, Cross and Sword: An Eyewit-
ness History of Christianity in Latin America (Maryknoll, N Y , 1989). The
most recent and reliable statistical survey is David Barrett (ed.), World
Christian Encyclopedia (New York, 1982).
General bibliographies on Protestantism in Latin America, although not
specializing in historiographical material, can be profitably consulted. The
most complete (up to 1975) is John Sinclair, Protestantism in Latin America:
A Bibliographical Guide, 2nd ed. (Pasadena, Calif, 1976). The general
histories of Damboriena, H.-J. Prien and J.-P. Bastian (see below) include
valuable bibliographies, as do the books by David Stoll and David Martin
(also see below). The annual bibliographical guide published since 1973 by
the Instituto Superior Evangelico de Estudios Teologicos (ISEDET) in Bue-
nos Aires, Bibliografia teologica comentada, report most of the books and
journals publishing in the area of theology and related fields in Spanish and
Portuguese.
General histories of Protestantism in Latin America are a recent phe-
nomenon. The Presbyterian missionary Thomas S. Goslin published in
1956 a small handbook, Los evangelicos en America Latina: Siglo XIX (Bue-
nos Aires, 1956) with some basic information. The Catholic historian
Prudencio Damboriena, S.J. gathered a large amount of historical, descrip-
tive and statistical material which, although used with a clearly polemical
purpose, yields valuable information: El Protestantisms en America Latina, 2
vols. (Fribourg, 1962.) Undoubtedly the two best general histories are by
Protestant European historians (both with long residence in Latin Amer-
ica): Hans-Jiirgen Prien, Die Geschichte des Christentums in Lateinamerika
(Gottingen, 1978; Spanish translation, La historia del cristianismo en Amer-
ica Latina, Salamanca, 1985), which includes the history of Protestantism
within a general history of Christianity in the continent, and Jean-Pierre
Bastian, Breve historia del protestantismo en America Latina (Mexico, D.F.,
1986) and the later, expanded edition: Historia del protestantismo en America
Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1990). See also Pablo A. Deiros, Historia del
cristianismo en America Latina (Buenos Aires, 1992).

15. The Protestant churches 669
National histories of Protestantism include, for Brazil, Emile Leonard,

0 Protestantismo brasileiro: Estudo de eclesiologia e historia social (Sao Paulo,
1963) and the multi-volume Historia da igreja no Brasil (CEHILA,
Petropolis, 1985), with the Protestant sections the responsibility of Prof,
van der Grijp; for Cuba, Marcos Antonio Ramos, Panorama del protestant-
ismo en Cuba (San Jose, C.R., 1985); for Ecuador, Washington Padilla, La
iglesia y los dioses modernos: Historia del protestantismo en el Ecuador (Quito,
1989). All of them present the Protestant churches in the context of the
social, political and cultural history of the country - a new fact in Protes-
tant Latin American historiography. The contrast can be established with
the factually accurate but rather decontextualized work of Jean-Baptiste
Kessler, 'A Study of the Older Protestant Missions and Churches in Peru
and Chile' (unpublished dissertation, University of Utrecht, 1967). Specifi-
cally dealing with the relation between Protestantism and society is Jean-
Pierre Bastian, Protestantismo y sociedaden Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1984) and
his doctoral dissertation on the role of Protestantism in the Mexican revolu-
tion: Los disidentes: Sociedades protestantes y la revolucion en Mexico, i8j2
1911 (Mexico, D.F., 1989). See also Deborah J. Baldwin, Protestantism and
the Mexican Revolution: Missionaries, Thinkers and Social Change (Urbana,
111., 1990). The significance of the religious factor in the general crisis in
Central America has elicited a number of studies, some of them related to
Protestantism. See in particular the work of the missionary Wilton Nelson,
El protestantismo en Centro America (San Jose, C.R., 1982). For more recent
works, see Guillermo Melendez, Iglesia, cristianismo y religion en America
Central: Resumen bibliogrdfico, 1960-1988 (San Jose, C.R., 1988).
Monographs on specific projects that deserve mention include: on
World Vision, Haydee Canelos Salazar, 'Factores externos, ideologia y
descomposicion campesina' (unpublished dissertation, Universidad Cen-
tral de Ecuador, 1985) and, on the new tele-evangelism, Hugo Assmann,
La iglesia electronica: Su impacto en America Latina (San Jose, C.R., 1987)
and Ana Maria Ezcurra, La ofensiva neoconservadora: La iglesia de USA y la
lucha ideologica hacia America Latina (Madrid, 1982) - all analysing the
ideological functions of recent fundamentalist missions in Latin America.
Finally, there have been several attempts by Latin American Protestant
theologians to evaluate the meaning of Protestantism in the continent.
Rubem Alves, Protestantismo e repressdo (Sao Paulo, 1979), Eng. trans.,
Protestantism and Repression: A Brazilian Case Study (New York, 1979); and
Julio de Santa Ana, Protestantismo, cultura y sociedad: Problemas y perspectivas
de la fe evangelica en America Latina (Buenos Aires, 1970) contrast the

Protestant principle of freedom and transformation with the history of

repression (Alves) or cultural isolation (de Santa Ana) which Protestant
churches have frequently followed in Latin America. This is also the tone
of Jose Miguez Bonino, Carmelo Alvarez and Robert Craig (eds.), Protes-
tantismo y liberalismo en America Latina (San Jose, C.R., 1983). Also criti-
cal, but from a more evangelical perspective, are Orlando Costas, El
protestantismo en America Latina hoy (San Jose, C.R., 1975); Rene Padilla
(ed.), Hacia una teologia evangelica latinoamericana (Mexico, D.F., 1984);
and Carmelo Alvarez, El protestantismo latinoamericano entre la crisis y el
desafio (Mexico, D.F., 1981).
Research on Pentecostalism in Latin America occupies a place by itself in
published literature. The classic work on the history and typology of Pente-
costalism is Walter J. Hollenweger's dissertation in 8 vols., Handbuch der
Pfingstbewegung (1969); Eng. trans, (abridged), The Pentecostals: The Charis-
matic Movement in the Churches (Minneapolis, Minn., 1972). In Latin Amer-
ica the first sociological interpretations, in a Weberian direction, come from
the Brazilian Emilio Willems, Followers oftheNew Faith: Culture, Change and
the Rise ofProtestantism in Brazil and Chile (Nashville, Tenn., I967)and the
Swiss Christian Lalive d'Epinay, El refugio de las masas: Estudio sociologico del
protestantismo chileno (Santiago, Chile, 1968); Eng. trans., Haven to the Masses
(London, 1969). Juan Tennekes has criticized the concept of the 'social
strike' of the Pentecostals, coined by Lalive, which presupposes a radical
dualism and has insisted on their vision of a material and spiritual salvation
(salvation and healing) and the more pragmatic reasons for their separation
from the world: 'La nueva vida: El movimiento pentecostal en la sociedad
chilena' (unpublished dissertation, the Free University of Amsterdam,
1973). Stephen D. Glazier, Perspectives on Pentecostalism: Case Studies from the
Caribbean and Latin America (Washington, D.C., 1980) is a useful collec-
tion. The Brazilian historian AntonioG. Mendonca understands Pentecosta-
lism as a contemporary Latin American Protestant manifestation of 'the
church of the poor' which has been a constant throughout the history of
Christianity: 0 Celeste porvir: A Insergdo do protestantismo no Brasil (Sao Paulo,
1984). Francisco C. Rolim, Pentecostais no Brasil, uma interpretacdo socio-
religiosa (Petropolis, 1985) insists on the need to interpret Pentecostalism
from within. Two more recent works by the sociologists David Stoll, Is
Latin America Turning Protestant? The Politics ofEvangelical Growth (Berkeley,
1990) and David Martin, Tongues of Fire: The Explosion of Protestantism in
Latin America (Oxford, 1990), although not limited to Pentecostalism, give
the larger attention to Pentecostal growth.

i6. Mexico, .19301946 671
Several seminaries, study centers and institutes publish valuable histori-
cal and interpretive materials in their journals, books or occasional bulle-
tins. The following deserve special mention: Departamento Ecumenico de
Investigaciones (DEI, San Jose, C.R.); Centro Ecumenico de Investigates
(CEDI, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil), which publishes the monthly Tempo e
Presenga and occasional papers and monographs; the Instituto de Estudos
Sociais e Religiosos (ISER, Sao Paulo, Brazil), which publishes Cadernos de
ISER; the Centro Intereclesial de Estudios Teologicos y Sociales (CIETS,
Managua, Nicaragua) with the theological journal Xilotl and occasional
papers; the Fraternidad Teologica Evangelica (FTE, Buenos Aires, Argen-
tina) with the Boletin Teoldgico and the publishing house Nueva Creacion;
the Centro Evangelico Latinoamericano de Estudios Pastorales (CELEP,
San Jose, Costa Rica), with its journal Pastoralia and occasional papers;
Instituto Superior Evangelico de Estudios Teologicos (ISEDET, Buenos
Aires, Argentina), which publishes Cuadernos de Teologia as well as the
annual Bibliografia Teologica Comentada.
16. M E X I C O , c. 1 9 3 0 - 1 9 4 6
The best guide to Mexican history in the period is provided by the multi-
volume, multi-authored Historia de la Revolution Mexicana, published by
the Colegio de Mexico, ten volumes of which cover the period 1928
1952. The first two, Lorenzo Meyer, Rafael Segovia and Alejandra Lajous,
Los inicios de la institutionalization (Mexico, D.F., 1978) and El conflicto
social y los gobiernos del maximato (Mexico, D.F., 1978) deal respectively
with the political and social history of the Calles Maximato. Four succes-
sive volumes cover the Cardenas presidency: Luis Gonzalez, Los artifices del
cardenismo (Mexico, D.F., 1979), sets the scene; the same author's Los dias
delpresidente Cardenas (Mexico, D.F., 1979) deftly captures both the key
events and the president's character; Alicia Hernandez Chavez, La mecdnica
cardenista (Mexico, D.F., 1979) offers acute analysis and original research;
and Victoria Lerner, La education socialista (Mexico, D.F., 1979) deals with
education policy in the 1930s. Historical research on the 1940s a crucial
but relatively little-studied decade has been pioneered by Luis Medina,
Del cardenismo al avilacamachismo (Mexico, D.F., 1978); Bianca Torres
Ramirez, Mexico en la segunda guerra mundial (Mexico, D.F., 1979); Luis
Medina, Civilismo y modernization del autoritarismo (Mexico, D.F., 1979);
and Bianca Torres Ramirez, Hacia la Utopia industrial (Mexico, D.F.,

1984). Rafael Loyola (coord.), Entre la guerra y la estabilidadpolitica: El

Mexico de los 40 (Mexico, D.F., 1986) is a valuable collection of articles
dealing with domestic politics, international relations, the economy and
culture during the war. Stephen R. Niblo, The Impact of War: Mexico and
World War Two (LaTrobe University, Institute of Latin American Studies,
Occasional Paper, Melbourne, 1988) is a succinct, original study, espe-
cially of the socio-economic impact of the war.
The Colegio series, however, offers no broad interpretations of Carden-
ismo. These can be found in: Fernando Benitez, Ldzaro Cardenas y la
revolucion mexicana, vol. Ill, El cardenismo (Mexico, D.F., 1978), which is
persuasively sympathetic; Tzvi Medin, Ideologia y praxis politica de Ldzaro
Cardenas (Mexico, D.F., 1972), a sound, balanced analysis; Anatoli
Shulgovski, Mexico en la encrucijada de su historia (Mexico, D.F., 1968), an
unusually good piece of Soviet historiography; and Nora Hamilton, The
Limits of State Autonomy: Post-Revolutionary Mexico (Princeton, N.J., 1982),
which places Cardenismo within a (non-Procrustean) theoretical context.
Some sense of contrasting interpretations of Cardenismo is provided by:
Octavio Ianni, El estado capitalista en la epoca de Cardenas (Mexico, D.F.,
1977); Arnaldo Cordova, La politica de masas del cardenismo (Mexico, D.F.,
1974); Romana Falcon, 'El surgimiento del agrarismo cardenista Una
revision de las tesis populistas', HM, 27/3 (1978), 33386; Wayne A.
Cornelius, 'Nation building, participation, and distribution: The politics
of social reform under Cardenas', in Gabriel A. Almond et al., eds.,
Crisis, Choice and Change: Historical Studies of Political Development (Boston,
1973); Hector Aguilar Camin and Lorenzo Meyer, A la sombra de la
Revolucion Mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1989), ch. 4; and Liisa North and
David Raby, 'The dynamics of revolution and counter-revolution: Mexico
under Cardenas, 193440', Latin American Research Unit Studies (Toronto),
2/1 (1977), some of whose arguments are developed in Alan Knight,
'Cardenismo: Juggernaut or Jalopy?'JLAS, 26/1 (1994), 73-107.
The place of Cardenismo within the broad revolutionary process is
discussed by: Donald Hodges and Ross Gandy, Mexico 19101982: Reform
or Revolution (London, 1983); Juan Felipe Leal, 'The Mexican State, 1915-
1973: A historical interpretation', LAP, 2/2 (1975), 4863; Alan Knight,
'The Mexican Revolution: Bourgeois, Nationalist, or Just a "Great Rebel-
lion"?' BLAR, 4/2 (1985), 1-37; and Stuart F. Voss, 'Nationalizing the
Revolution: Culmination and circumstance', in Thomas Benjamin and
Mark Wasserman (eds.), Provinces of the Revolution: Essays on Regional Mexi-
can History, 1910-1929 (Albuquerque, N. Mex., 1990).

r6. Mexico, c.1930-1946 673
More personalist in approach are: Nathaniel and Sylvia Weyl, The Recon-
quest of Mexico: The Years of Ldzaro Cardenas (London, 1939) and William
Cameron Townsend, Ldzaro Cardenas, Mexican Democrat (Ann Arbor,
Mich., 1952), both somewhat hagiographic; they can be contrasted with
Victoriano Anguiano Equihua's critical Ldzaro Cardenas, su feudo y la
politica nacional (Mexico, D.F., 1951), which has in turn influenced En-
rique Krauze, General misionero, Ldzaro Cardenas (Mexico, D.F., 1987). In
contrast to these analytical and judgmental sources, John W. F. Dulles,
Yesterday in Mexico: A Chronicle of the Revolution, 19191936 (Austin,
1961), offers a detailed narrative of the early 1930s. Luis Suarez, Cardenas:
Retrato inedito (Mexico, D.F., 1987) combines letters and family recollec-
tions; Cardenas's own words and writings are also collected in Epistolario de
Ldzaro Cardenas, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1975) and Ldzaro Cardenas, Obras,
I: Apuntes, 1913-1940 (Mexico, D.F., 1986). Among the numerous rele-
vant political memoirs/anthologies are: Emilio Portes Gil, Quince anos de
politica mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1954) and Luis L. Leon, Cronica delpoder
(Mexico, D.F., 1987), both of which cover the decline and fall of Calles;
Narciso Bassols, Obras (Mexico, D.F., 1964) and Victor Manuel Vil-
lasefior, Memorias de tin hombre de izquierda, vol. 1, Del Porfiriato al
Cardenismo (Mexico, D.F., 1976) give leftist viewpoints.
On the crucial agrarian question, Eyler N. Simpson, The Ejido, Mexico's
Way Out (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1937) is a compendious classic, but its
analysis stops c. 1934; Nathan L. Whetten, Rural Mexico (Chicago, 1948),
covers the whole period. Armando Bartra, Los herederos de Zapata:
Movimientos campesinosposrevolucionarios en Mexico, 1920-80 (Mexico, D.F.,
1985) offers a useful, brief overview of peasant movements since the
revolution, while Lyle C. Brown, 'Cardenas: Creating a campesino power
base for presidential policy', in George Wolfskill and Douglas W. Rich-
mond (eds.), Essays on the Mexican Revolution: Revisionist Views of the Leaders
(Austin, Tex., 1979), stresses the political instrumentality of agrarismo.
There are many excellent local studies which shed light on the agrarian
reform (as well as on local politics, caciquismo, and state-federal relations):
Dudley Ankerson, Agrarian Warlord, Saturnino Cedillo and the Mexican
Revolution in San Luis Postosi (DeKalb, 111., 1984); Raymond Buve, 'State
governors and peasant mobilisation in Tlaxcala', in D. A. Brading (ed.),
Caudillo and Peasant in the Mexican Revolution (Cambridge, Eng., 1980);
Ann L. Craig, The First Agraristas: An Oral History of a Mexican Agrarian
Reform Movement (Berkeley, 1983), which deals with Los Altos de Jalisco;
Romana Falcon, Revolucidn y caciquismo: San Luis Potosi, 19101938 (Mex-

ico, D.F., 1984); Romana Falcon and Soledad Garcia Morales, La semi/la
en elsurco, Adalberto Tejeday el radicalismo en Veracruz, 18831960 (Mexico,
D.F., 1986), whose subject has also been tackled by Heather Fowler
Salamini, Agrarian Radicalism in Veracruz, 19201938 (Lincoln, Nebr.,
1971); Thomas Benjamin, A Rich Land, A Poor People: Politics and Society in
Modern Chiapas (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1989), chaps. 7 and 8, and Anto-
nio Garcia de Leon, Resistencia y Utopia, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1985), vol.
2, chap. 7 (good though contrasting studies of Chiapas); Paul Friedrich,
The Princes of Naranja: An Essay in Anthrohistorical Method (Austin, Tex.,
1986), which deepens and extends the author's earlier study of the radical
Michoacan community of Naranja, Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican Village
(Chicago, 1970). Geographically close but politically distant stands San
Jose de Gracia, the subject of Luis Gonzalez, Pueblo en vilo: Microhistoria de
San Jose de Gracia (Mexico, D.F., 1968), Eng. trans., San Jose de Gracia:
Mexican Village in Transition (Austin, Tex., 1974), a classic study of a
Michoacan community through the longue duree from the Conquest down
to the 1960s. Less evocative, but more analytical, is Tomas Martinez
Saldana and Leticia Gandara Mendoza, Politica y sociedad en Mexico: El caso
de los Altos de Jalisco (Mexico, D.F., 1976), which ranges from the revolu-
tion to the 1970s. David Ronfeldt, Atencingo: The Politics of Agrarian
Struggle in a Mexican Ejido (Stanford, Calif, 1973) describes agrarian
activism and politicking in Puebla during the same period; Frans J.
Schryer, The Rancheros of Pisaflores: The History of a Peasant Bourgeoisie in
Twentieth-Century Mexico (Toronto, 1980), is a perceptive study of highland
Hidalgo; Arturo Warman, . . . Y venimos a contradecir: Los campesinos de
Morelos y el estado nacional (Mexico, D.F., 1976), Eng. trans., We Come to
Object: The Peasants of Morelos and the National State (Baltimore, 1980) and
Guillermo de la Pefia, A Legacy of Promises: Agriculture, Politics and Ritual
in the Morelos Highlands of Mexico (Austin, Tex., 1981), analyse the post-
revolutionary experience of Zapata's fellow Morelenses.
The important Laguna conflict and expropriation have been analysed by:
Clarence Senior, Land Reform andDemocracy (Gainesville, Fla., i958);JoeC.
Ashby, Organized Labor and the Mexican Revolution under Ldzaro Cardenas
(Chapel Hill, N . C . , 1963); Ivan Restrepo and Salomon Eckstein, La
agricultura colectiva en Mexico: La experiencia de La Laguna (Mexico, D.F.,
197 5); and Barry Carr, 'The Mexican Communist Party and agrarian mobili-
zation in the Laguna, 1920-40: A worker-peasant alliance', HAHR, 62/3
(1987),371 - 4 0 4 . The rise and fall of collective ejidos outside the Laguna are
recounted by Fernando Benitez, Ki: El drama de un pueblo y de una planta

i6. Mexico, c.1930-1946 675
(Mexico, D.F., 1962), which deals with Yucatan; Susana Glantz, El ejido
colectivo de Nueva Italia (Mexico, D.F., 1974), on Michoacan; and Ronfeldt,
Atencingo. Moises Gonzalez Navarro, La Confederation National Campesina en
la reforma agraria mexicana (Mexico, D. F., 1985) provides a good overview of
the official campesino movement from the 1920s through to the present (see
chaps. 5-8).
Studies on the labour movement include Ashby, Organized Labor; Ar-
turo Anguiano, El estado y la politica obrera del cardenismo (Mexico, D.F.,
1975), a leftist critique of Cardenismo; Victor Manuel Durand, La ruptura
de la nation: Historia del movimiento obrero mexicano desde 1938 hasta 1932
(Mexico, D.F., 1986); and the valuable series edited by Pablo Gonzalez
Casanova, La clase obrera en la historia de Mexico, the relevant volumes of
which are: Arnaldo Cordova, En una epoca de crisis (19281934) (Mexico,
D.F., 1980); Samuel Le6n and Ignacio Marvan, En el cardenismo (1934
1940) (Mexico, D.F., 1985); and Jorge Basurto, Del avilacamachismo al
alemanismo (1940-1952) (Mexico, D.F., 1984). Federico Besserer, Victo-
ria Novelo and Juan Luis Sariego, El sindicalismo minero en Mexico, 1900
1952 (Mexico, D.F., 1983), is brief. For the railroad workers see Ashby,
Organized Labor, and Los ferrocarrileros hablan (Puebla, 1983), part 3. Unor-
ganized labor especially the urban poor have been scarcely studied.
Moises Gonzalez Navarro, Lapobreza en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1985), is an
original study, ranging from the colony to the present; chap. 4 has data on
the 1930s and 1940s.
The petroleum workers' movement and the expropriation of 1938 are
best covered by Lorenzo Meyer, Mexico y los Estados Unidos en el conflicto
petrolero (191742) (Mexico, D.F., 1968), Eng. trans., Mexico and the
UnitedStates in the Oil Controversy, 19171942 (Austin, Tex. 1977); Lorenzo
Meyer and Isidro Morales, Petroleo y nation (1900198'7 ): La politica petrolera
en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1990); and Jonathan Brown and Alan Knight,
eds., The Mexican Petroleum Industry in the Twentieth Century (Austin, Tex.,
1992), which contains articles on the oil workers, the political and interna-
tional significance of the expropriation, and the history of PEMEX after
1938. E. David Qtonon, Josephus Daniels in Mexico (Madison, Wis., i960),
analyses the important role of the U.S. ambassador, whose own memoirs
appeared as Shirt-Sleeve Diplomat (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1947). General over-
views of U.S.Mexican relations are provided by Howard Cline, The United
States and Mexico (New York, 1963); KarlM. Schmitt, Mexicoandthe United
States, 18211973: Conflict and Co-existence (New York, 1974); Josefina
Zoraida Vazquez and Lorenzo Meyer, The UnitedStates and Mexico (Chicago,

1985); and Alan Knight, V'.S.Mexican Relations, 1910-1940: An Interpre-

tation (San Diego, 1987). Economic nationalism the nub of several U.S.
Mexican disputes in the interwar period is discussed by Alan Knight,
'The political economy of revolutionary Mexico, 19001940', in Christo-
pher Abel and Colin M. Lewis (eds.), Latin America: Economic Imperialism and
the State (London, 1985).
On the politics of the Left during the period, see Manuel Marquez
Fuentes and Octavio Rodriguez Araujo, Elpartido comunista mexicano (en el
periodo de la Internacional Comunista, 19191943) (Mexico, D.F., 1973);
Karl M. Schmitt, Communism in Mexico, a Study in Political Frustration
(Austin, Tex., 1965); Arnoldo Martinez Verdugo (ed.), Historia del
comunismo en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1985), chaps. 4 and 5; and Arturo
Anguiano, Guadalupe Pacheco and Rogelio Vizcaino, Cardenas y la
izquierda mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1975). The key figure of Vicente Lom-
bardo Toledano is described by Robert Paul Millon, Mexican Marxist -
Vincente Lombardo Toledano (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1966) and Francie R.
Chassen de L6pez, Lombardo Toledano y el movimiento obrero mexicano (1917-
1940) (Mexico, D.F., 1977), chaps. 4 - 8 . A major synthetic study of the
Mexican Left since the Revolution is Barry Carr, Marxism and Communism in
Twentieth Century Mexico (Lincoln, Nebr., 1992).
For the development of the official party, first the PNR, then the PRM
(finally the PRI), see the meticulous study of Luis Javier Garrido, El
Partido de la Revolucion Institucionalizada: La formation del nuevo estado en
Mexico (19281945) (Mexico, D.F., 1986) and Carmen Nava Nava,
Ideologia del Partido de la Revolucion Mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1984). Data
on the political elite are analysed by Peter H. Smith, Labyrinths of Power:
Political Recruitment in Twentieth-Century Mexico (Princeton, N.J., 1979);
for which, see also Roderic A. Camp's compendious Mexican Political
Biographies, 193575 (Tucson, Ariz., 1975).
Education has been well researched by Lerner, La educacion socialista; John
A. Britton, Educacion y radicalismo en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1976); Josefina
Vazquez de Knauth, 'La educaci6n socialista de los anos treinta', HM, 18/3
(1969), 40823; and David L. Raby, Educacion y revolucion social en Mexico,
19211940 (Mexico, D.F., 1974). An important new wave of educational
and cultural studies includes: Marjorie Becker, 'Black and white and color:
Cardenismo and the search for a campesino ideology', CSSH, 29, (1987), 453
68, an innovative revisionist critique of Cardenismo; and, from a different
standpoint, Mary Kay Vaughan, 'La politica comparada del magisterio en

i6. Mexico, c.1930-1946 677
Puebla y Sonora en la epoca cardenista', Memoria, X Simposio de Historia de

Sonora, Hermosillo, 1987, and the same author's 'Women school teachers
in the Mexican Revolution: The story of Reyna's braids', Journal of Women's
History, 2/1 (1990), 143-68. Note also the valuable oral history series,
Museo Nacional de Culturas Populares, Los maestros y la cultura nacional, 5
vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1987).
On anti-clericalism, see the final section of Jean Meyer, La Cristiada,
vol. 1, La guerra de los cristeros (Mexico, D.F., 1973); and, for an important
case study, Carlos Martinez Assad, El laboratorio de la revolution: El Tabasco
garridista (Mexico, D.F., 1979). The resurgent Catholic radical right of
the 1930s has been researched by Jean Meyer, El sinarquismo, un fascismo
mexicano? (Mexico, D.F., 1979); for older, more hostile analyses see
Whetten, Rural Mexico, chap. 20, and Mario Gill, El sinarquismo: Su
origen, su esencia, su mision (Mexico, D.F., 1944). Hugh G. Campbell, La
derecha radical en Mexico, 192949 (Mexico, D.F., 1976) analyses both the
Catholic and the secular radical Right. B. von Mentz, V. Radkau, D.
Spenser and R. Perez Montfort, Los empresarios alemanes, el Tercer Reich y la
oposicidn derecha a Cardenas, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1988) is a valuable
collection, the first volume of which analyses the German economic pres-
ence in twentieth-century Mexico, the second, the impact of Nazism; for
the war, see also Friedrich Schuler, 'Alemania, Mexico y los Estados
Unidos durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial', Secuencia, 7 (1987), 17386.
T. G. Powell, Mexico and the Spanish Civil War (Albuquerque, N.Mex.,
1981) discusses the foreign policy issue which most agitated domestic
politics; on which, see also Patricia W. Fagen, Exiles and Citizens: Spanish
Republicans in Mexico (Austin, Tex., 1973). The best study of the Cedillo
revolt of 1938 is Carlos Martinez Assad, Los rebeldes vencidos (Mexico, D.F.,
!99o); while Alex M. Saragoza, The Monterrey Elite and the Mexican State,
18801940 (Austin, Tex., 1988), chap. 8, analyses the Monterrey bour-
geoisie's successful resistance to Cardenismo. These several currents fed
into the contentious 1940 presidential election, which is discussed by
Ariel Jose Contreras, Mexico 1940: Industrialization y crisis politica (Mexico,
D.F., 1977) and Albert L. Michaels, 'The crisis of Cardenismo', JLAS, 2/1
(1970), 51-79-
The broad patterns of government policy and budgeting during the
1930s and 1940s are charted by James W. Wilkie, The Mexican Revolution:
Federal Expenditure and Social Change since 1910 (Berkeley, 1970); on
which, see also Dan A. Cothran, 'Budgetary secrecy and policy strategy:

Mexico under Cardenas', Mexican Studies!Estudios Mexicanos, 2/1 (1986),

3558. Economic trends can be followed in Clark W. Reynolds, The
Mexican Economy: Twentieth-Century Structure and Growth (New Haven,
Conn., 1970) and Leopoldo Soils, La realidad ecdnomica mexicana: Retro-
vision y perspectivas (Mexico, D.F., 1970). The best analyses of 1930s
import-substitution industrialization are those of Enrique Cardenas: 'The
Great Depression and industrialization: The case of Mexico', in Rosemary
Thorp (ed.), Latin America in the 1930s: The Role of the Periphery in World
Crisis (London, 1984), 22241 and La industrialization de Mexico durante la
gran depresion (Mexico, D.F., 1987). Stephen H. Haber, Industry and Under-
development: The Industrialization of Mexico, 18901940 (Stanford, Calif.,
1989), concludes an innovative study with the 1930s (chap. 10), while
Sanford A. Mosk, Industrial Revolution in Mexico (Berkeley, 1954) focusses
on wartime industrialization. Trade is discussed by Timothy King, Mex-
ico: Industrialization and Trade Policies since 1940 (London, 1970); mining,
by Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 18901950 (New
York, 1964); agriculture, by Cynthia Hewitt de Alcantara, The Moderniza-
tion of Mexican Agriculture: Socio-economic Implications of Technological Change,
19401970 (Geneva, 1976) and Steven E. Sanderson, Agrarian Populism
and the Mexican State: The Struggle for Land in Sonora (Berkeley, 1981), both
of which combine general analysis with case studies of the state of Sonora.
A good overview of cultural trends in the period is given by Carlos
Monsivais, 'Notas sobre la cultura mexicana en el siglo XX', in Daniel
Cosfo Villegas (ed.), Historia general de Mexico, tomo IV (Mexico, D.F.,
1976) (see also Monsivais' contribution to Loyola (ed.), Entre la guerra y la
estabilidad politico). Film is covered by Carl J. Mora, Mexican Cinema:
Reflections of a Society, 18961980 (Berkeley, 1982), chaps. 2 and 3. Mexi-
can women's history is making progress, especially in specific fields (such
as education); Dawn Keremetsis, 'Del metate al molino, la mujer mexicana
de 1910 a 1940', HM, 32/2 (1983), 285302, and Anna Macias, Against
All Odds (Westport, Conn., 1982), chap. 6, offer broad syntheses.
Finally, foreign eyewitness accounts of the 1930s and early 1940s in-
clude: Graham Greene, The Lawless Roads (London, 1939), an anti-
anticlerical tract; Evelyn Waugh, Robbery Under Law: The Mexican Object
Lesson (London, 1939), a diatribe against the oil expropriation; Frank L.
Kluckhohn, The Mexican Challenge (New York, 1939), by a journalistic
critic of Cardenista policy; R. H. K. Marett, An Eye-witness of Mexico
(London, 1939) and Virginia Prewett, Reportage on Mexico (New York,
1941), which are rather more neutral; and Betty Kirk, Covering the Mexican

IJ. Mexico since 1946 679
Front (Norman, Okla., 1942), which emphasises the Axis threat. Partisan
and often unreliable as these are, they at least engage with current political
and social issues. In contrast, the eyewitness accounts of the later 1940s
and 1950s tend towards bland travelogues: proof that Mexico was seen no
longer as a troublesome nest of banditry and Bolshevism, but rather as a
safe haven of tourism and tequila.
17. MEXICO SINCE 1946
There is not yet an extensive historiographical literature on Mexico in the

period after 1946 because of both its proximity to the present day and the
absence of epic events. Nor is there a longstanding tradition of political or
public memoirs, though that may be in an incipient phase. For a general
overview, see Michael C. Meyer and William L. Sherman, The Course of
Mexican History, now in its fourth edition (New York, 1991). Interpretive
studies of Mexican politics include Daniel Levy and Gabriel Szekely,
Mexico: Paradoxes of Stability and Change (Boulder, Colo., 1983; revised
ed., 1987); Roberto Newell and Luis Rubio, Mexico's Dilemma: The Politi-
cal Origins of Economic Crisis (Boulder, Colo., 1984); and Roderic A. Camp
(ed.), Mexico's Political Stability: The Next Five Years (Boulder, Colo.,
1986). Alan Riding's journalistic account, Distant Neighbors: A Portrait of
the Mexicans (New York, 1985), is informative but highly controversial.
Earlier analyses include Jose Luis Reyna and Richard S. Weinert (eds.),
Authoritarianism in Mexico (Philadelphia, 1977), and Miguel Basaiiez, La
lucha por la hegemonia en Mexico, 19681980 (Mexico, D.F., 1981).
Standard works on the political system by North Americans include
Robert E. Scott, Mexican Government in Transition (Urbana, 111., 1958; 2nd
ed., 1964); Frank R. Brandenburg, The Making of Modern Mexico (Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J., 1964); L. Vincent Padgett, The Mexican Political System
(Boston, 1966; rev. ed., 1976); Kenneth F. Johnson, Mexican Democracy: A
Critical View (Boston, 1971; 3rd rev. ed., 1984); Nora Hamilton, The
Limits of State Autonomy: Post-Revolutionary Mexico (Princeton, N.J., 1982);
Judith Hellman, Mexico in Crisis (New York, 1983); and John J. Bailey,
Governing Mexico: The Statecraft of Crisis Management (New York, 1988).
Mexican perspectives appear in Rolando Cordera and Carlos Tello, La
disputa por la nacidn (Mexico, D.F., 1981), Enrique Krauze, Por una
democracia sin adjetivos (Mexico, D.F., 1986), Jorge Castafieda, Mexico: El

68o VII. Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
futuro en juego (Mexico, D.F., 1987), Soledad Loaeza and Rafael Segovia
(eds.), La vida politica mexicana en crisis (Mexico, D.F., 1987), Hector
Aguilar Camin, Despues del milagro (Mexico, D.F., 1988), Pablo Gonzalez
Casanova and Jorge Cadena Roa (eds.), Primer inform sobre la democracia:
Mexico 1988 (Mexico, D.F., 1988), Hector Aguilar Camin and Lorenzo
Meyer, A la sombra de la Revolucion Mexicana (Mexico, D . F , 1990), and
Miguel Basanez, El pulso de los sexenios: 20 aiios de crisis (Mexico, D.F.,
1990). Studies of political economy include Raymond Vernon, The Di-
lemma of Mexico's Development: The Role of the Private and Public Sectors
(Cambridge, Mass., 1963) and Roger D. Hansen, The Politics of Mexican
Development (Baltimore, 1971). A classic interpretation in the regime also
appears in Pablo Gonzalez Casanova, Democracy in Mexico, trans. Danielle
Salti (New York, 1970). On the formation of political elites, see Peter H.
Smith, Labyrinths of Power: Political Recruitment in Twentieth-Century Mexico
(Princeton, N.J., 1979) and Roderic Ai Camp, Mexico's Leaders: Their
Education and Recruitment (Tucson, Ariz., 1980). On business elites, see
Alex Zaragoza, The Monterrey Elite and the Mexican State (Austin, Tex.,
1988); Roderic Ai Camp, Entrepreneurs and Politics in Twentieth-Century
Mexico (New York, 1989); and Sylvia Maxfield, Governing Capital: Interna-
tional Finance and Mexican Politics (Ithaca, N.Y., 1990). What little we
know about the contemporary army is contained in David Ronfeldt (ed.),
The Modern Mexican Military: A Reassessment (La Jolla, Calif., 1984), and
Roderic Ai Camp, Generals in the Palacio (New York, 1992). Essential
research tools are provided in Roderic Camp, Mexican Political Biographies,
19351973 (Tucson, Ariz., 1976) and Presidencia de la Republica,
Diccionario biogrdfico del gobierno mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1984 and 1989).
For speculation and analysis on the presidential succession, see Roderic
A. Camp, 'Mexican presidential candidates: Changes and portents for the
future', Polity, 16/4 (1984), Daniel Cosio Villegas, La sucesion presidencial
(Mexico, D.F., 1975), and Francisco Jose Paoli, El cambio de presidente
(Mexico, D . F , 1981). The cabinet of President Carlos Salinas de Gortari
(198894) receives close attention in Luis del Villar, Los quernandan:lo
desconocido del gabinete de Salinas (Mexico, D.F., 1990). On elections, see
Arturo Alvarado (ed.), Electoral Patterns and Perspectives in Mexico (La Jolla,
Calif., 1987); essays by Kevin J. Middlebrook, Juan Molinar Horcasitas
and Wayne A. Cornelius in Paul W. Drake and Eduardo Silva (eds.),
Elections and Democratization in Latin America, 19801983 (La Jolla, Ca-
lif., 1986); and Jaime Gonzalez Graf, Las elecciones de 1988 y la crisis del
sistema politico (Mexico, D.F., 1989). A broad analysis of political forces

IJ. Mexico since 1946 681
and prospects appears in Wayne A. Cornelius, Judith Gentleman and

Peter H. Smith (eds.), Mexico's Alternative Political Futures (La Jolla, Ca-
lif., 1989).
Path-breaking work on the period from the Second World War to i960
has emerged through a series of studies on the Historia de la Revolution
Mexicana carried out by a research team at El Colegio de Mexico. These
include, on 194052, Luis Medina, Civilismo y modernization del autori-
tarismo (Mexico, D.F., 1979), and on 195260, Olga Pellicer and Jose
Luis Reyna, El afianzamiento de la estabilidadpolitica (Mexico, D.F., 1978),
and Olga Pellicer de Brody and Esteban L. Mancilla, El entendimiento con los
Estados Unidos y la gestation del desarrollo estabilizador (Mexico, D.F., 1978).
Other treatments of this period include James W. Wilkie, The Mexican
Revolution: Federal Expenditure and Social Change since 1910 (Berkeley and
Los Angeles, 1967). An illustrative case study from the L6pez Mateos era
(195864) can be found in Susan Kaufman Purcell, The Mexican Profit-
Sharing Decision: Politics in an Authoritarian Regime (Berkeley and Los An-
geles, 1975). On the Lopez Portillo sexenio (19761982), see Gabriel
Szekely, La economia politica del petroleo en Mexico, 19761982 (Mexico,
D.F., 1983) and Carlos Tello, La nationalization de la banca (Mexico, D.F.,
1984). A unique source on the De la Madrid presidency (198288) is the
annual publication of the Unidad de la Cronica Presidencial, Presidencia
de la Repiiblica, Cronica del sexenio: Las razones y las obras: Gobierno de
Miguel de la Madrid. A compelling description of the 1982 crisis appears
in Joseph Kraft, The Mexican Rescue (New York, 1984); for broad perspec-
tive, see William R. Cline (ed.), International Debt and the Stability of the
World Economy (Washington, D.C., 1983). Also notable is Rosario Green,
La deuda externa de Mexico de 1973 a 1988: De la abundancia a la escasez de
creditos (Mexico, D.F., 1989).
Important studies of economic policy include Clark W. Reynolds, The
Mexican Economy: Twentieth-Century Structure and Growth (New Haven,
Conn., 1970) and his well-known interpretive article 'Why Mexico's "sta-
bilizing development" was actually destabilizing (with some implications
for the future)', World Development, 6/78 (1978); Leopoldo Soils, Economic
Policy Reform in Mexico: A Case Study for Developing Countries (New York,
1981); David Barkin, Distorted Development: Mexico in the World Economy
(Boulder, Colo., 1990); and Dwight L. Brothers and Adele E. Wick (eds.),
Mexico's Search for a New Development Strategy (Boulder, Colo., 1990). On
foreign investment, see Bernardo Sepulveda and Antonio Chumacero, La
inversion extranjera en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1973); Gary Gereffi, The Phar-

maceutical Industry and Dependency in the Third World (Princeton, N.J.,

1983); Douglas C. Bennett and Kenneth E. Sharpe, Transnational Corpora-
tion versus the State: The Political Economy of the Mexican Automobile Industry
(Princeton, N.J., 1985); and Harley Shaiken and Stephen Herzenberg,
Automobiles and Global Production: Automobile Engine Production in Mexico, the
United States, and Canada (La Jolla, Calif., 1987). Evolution of the oil
industry is covered in Lorenzo Meyer and Isidro Morales, Petroleo y nacion
(1900-198J): La politica petrolera en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1990). For
broad treatments of Mexican agriculture, see Cynthia Hewitt de Alcantara,
The Modernization of Mexican Agriculture: Socio-economic Implications of Techno-
logical Change, 1940-1970 (Geneva, 1976); Armando Bartra, La explotacidn
del trabajo campesino por el capital (Mexico, D.F., 1979); Gustavo Esteva, La
batalia en el Mexico rural (Mexico, D.F., 1980); Paul Lamartine-Yates,
Mexico's Agricultural Dilemma (Tucson, Ariz., 1981); David Barkin and
Blanca Suarez, Elfin de la autosubsistencia alimentaria (Mexico, D.F., 1982);
and Susan Sanderson, Land Reform in Mexico: 19101980 (Orlando, Fla.,
1984). Merilee S. Grindle provides an insightful analysis of Echeverria's
'integrated' development plan in Bureaucrats, Politicians, and Peasants in
Mexico: A Case Study in Public Policy (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1977). On
the policies of the Lopez Portillo administration, see Cassio Luiselli Fernan-
dez, The Route to Food Self-Sufficiency in Mexico: Interactions with the U.S. Food
System (La Jolla, Calif., 1985) and Jonathan Fox, 'The political dynamics of
reform: The case of the Mexican food system, 19801982' (unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1986).
On the campesino movement, see Moises Gonzalez Navarro, La Con-
federacion Nacional Campesina: Un grupo de presion en la reforma agraria mexi-
cana (Mexico, D.F., 1968), and on political attitudes in the countryside,
see Carlos Salinas de Gortari, Political Participation, Public Investment, and
Support for the System: A Comparative Study of Rural Communities in Mexico (La
Jolla, Calif., 1982). On social responses and movements, see Arturo
Warman, 'We Come to Object': The Peasants of Morelos and the National State
(Baltimore, 1980); Lourdes Arizpe, La migracion por relevos y la reproduccion
social del campesinado (Mexico, D.F., 1980); Guillermo de la Pefia, A Legacy
of Promises: Agriculture, Politics and Ritual in the Morelos Highlands of Mexico
(Austin, Tex., 1981); Stefano Varese, Proyectos etnicos y proyectos nacionales
(Mexico, D.F., 1983); Luisa Pare, Elproletariado agricola de Mexico (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1985); and Adriana L6pez Monjardin, La lucha por los ayunta-
mientos (Mexico, D.F., 1986). For analytical and comparative overviews,
see Joe Foweraker and Ann L. Craig (eds.), Popular Movements and Social

17. Mexico since 1946 683
Change in Mexico (Boulder, Colo., 1990) and Mercedes Gonzalez de la

Rocha and Agustin Escobar Latapi (eds.), Social Responses to Mexico's Eco-
nomic Crisis of the 1980s (La Jolla, Calif, 1991).
The political outlooks and resources of migrant slum dwellers form the
subject of Wayne A. Cornelius, Politics and the Migrant Poor in Mexico City
(Stanford, Calif, 1975), and Susan Eckstein, The Poverty of Revolution: The
State and the Urban Poor in Mexico (Princeton, N.J., 1977). Among the
remarkably scarce studies of organized labour are Kevin Jay Middlebrook,
'The political economy of Mexican organized labor, 1940-1978' (unpub.
Ph.D. thesis, Harvard University, 1982), and Cesar Zarzueta and Ricardo
de la Pena, La estructura del Congreso del Trabajo: Estado, trabajo y capital en
Mexico: Un acercamiento al tema (Mexico, D.F., 1984). Welcome additions
to this field are Ian Roxborough, Unions and Politics in Mexico: The Case of
the Automobile Industry (Cambridge, Eng., 1984); Pablo Gonzalez Casanova
(ed.), La clase obrera en la historia de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1980), vols. 1 1 -
15; Raul Trejo Delarbre, Cronica del sindicalismo en Mexico (1976-1988)
(Mexico, D.F., 1990); and Kevin J. Middlebrook (ed.), Unions, Workers,
and the State in Mexico (La Jolla, Calif., 1991).
Donald J. Mabry offers a sweeping historical interpretation of campus
politics in The Mexican University and the State: Student Conflicts, 1910
1971 (College Station, Tex., 1982), and Daniel C. Levy analyses the
postwar scene in University and Government in Mexico: Autonomy in an Au-
thoritarian System (New York, 1980). For compelling material on the
student movement of 1968 and the Tlatelolco massacre, see Ramon
Ramirez, El movimiento estudiantil de Mexico: Juliodiciembre de 1968, 2 vols.
(Mexico, D.F., 1969); Elena Poniatowska, La noche de Tlatelolco (Mexico,
D.F., 1971); and Sergio Zermeno, Mexico, una democracia utopica: El
movimiento estudiantil del 68 (Mexico, D.F., 1978).
Standard sources on Mexican foreign policy are the masterful studies by
Mario Ojeda, Alcances y limites de la politica exterior de Mexico (Mexico,
D.F., 1976) and Mexico: El surgimiento de una politica exterior activa (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1986). On more recent developments see Sergio Aguayo and
Bruce M. Bagley (eds.), En busca de la seguridadperdida: Aproximaciones a la
seguridad nacional mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1990). On relations with the
United States, see Josefina Zoraida Vazquez and Lorenzo Meyer, The
United States and Mexico (Chicago, 1986); Carlos Vasquez and Manuel
Garcia y Griego (eds.), MexicanU.S. Relations: Conflict and Convergence
(Los Angeles, 1983); Clark Reynolds and Carlos Tello (eds.), U.S.-
Mexican Relations: Social and Economic Aspects (Stanford, Calif., 1983);

George W. Grayson, The United States and Mexico: Patterns of Influence (New
York, 1984), as well as Grayson's subsequent Oil and Mexican Foreign
Policy (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1988). A flurry of books around the time of the
presidential succession of 1988 included Robert A. Pastor and Jorge
Castafieda, Limits to Friendship: The United States and Mexico (New York,
1988); Susan Kaufman Purcell (ed.), Mexico in Transition: Implications for
U.S. Policy (New York, 1988); and the report of the Bilateral Commission
on the Future of United States-Mexican Relations, The Challenge of Interde-
pendence: Mexico and the United States (Lanham, Md., 1988), an effort that
led to the publication of Rosario Green and Peter H. Smith (eds.),
Dimensions of United StatesMexican Relations, 5 vols. (La Jolla, Calif,
198990). For a thoughtful perspective on the problem of drug traffick-
ing, see Sergio Garcia Ramirez, Narcotrdfico: Un punto de vista mexicano
(Mexico, D.F., 1989), and on the emerging free-trade issue of the 1990s,
see Gustavo Vega Canovas (ed.), Mexico ante el libre comercio con America del
Norte (Mexico, D.F., 1991).
18. C E N T R A L AMERICA
There is abundant literature on Central America since 1930. See Edelberto

Torres Rivas and Maria Eugenia Gallardo, Para entender Centroamerica:
Resumen bibliografico (San Jose, C.R., 1985), and Kenneth Grieb, Central
America in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: An Annotated Bibliography
(Boston, 1988). An analysis of what has been written in the last twenty-
five years, however, reveals that 80 percent of all Spanish texts about
Central America in general or any of the countries in particular have been
written since 1979. Similarly, what has been written in English consists,
in essence, of a literature of'the crisis'. Nevertheless, both before and after
1979, important works were published which are fundamental to an
understanding of Central American history.
There are few works which treat the Central American region as a whole
and which at the same time respect national features and local peculiari-
ties. Franklin Parker, The Central American Republics (London, 1964), con-
tains an analysis of and useful information about the economy, society and
institutions of each country, covering the period up to i960. More compre-
hensive and underlining regional homogeneity is Ralph Lee Woodward,
Jr., Central America: A Nation Divided, 2nd ed. (New York, 1985), which
also contains an exhaustive 'Selective Guide to the Literature on Central

i8. Central America 685
America.' The two-volume text by Mario Monteforte Toledo, Centra Amer-

ica: Subdesarrollo y dependencia (Mexico, D.F., 1972) is important for the
quantitative information it contains. Also important because they contain
interpretive propositions for the entire region are Edelberto Torres-Rivas,
Interpretacion del desarrollo social centroamericano (San Jose, C.R., 1971), one
of the first works to treat the region as a whole; and Hector Perez Brignoli,
Breve historia de Centroamerica (Madrid, 1986). The most detailed and
comprehensive political history of Central America in the twentieth cen-
tury is James Dunkerley, Power in the Isthmus: A Political History of Modern
Central America (London, 1988).
Several other works also address themselves to Central America as a whole
but concentrate on specific aspects or specific periods. Rodolfo Cerdas Cruz,
Lahozeelmachete(SanJose, C.R., 1986; Eng. trans., 1993), examines the
role of the Third International in Central America, 19201936. For the
period of the Second World War and its immediate aftermath, see Thomas
M. Leonard, The United States and Central America, 19441949 (Tuscaloosa,
Ala., 1984); Andres Opazo, Estructura agraria, dindmico de poblacion y
desarrollo capitalista en Centroamerica (San Jose, C.R., 1978), is a detailed
analysis of changes in agriculture and population movements. In The Reli-
gious Roots of Rebellion: Christians in Central American Revolution (New York,
1984), Phillip Berryman explains the changes experienced by the Central
American church and the role of the clergy in political struggle.
Of the many works written on the political crisis that developed at the
end of the 1970s, three contain particularly well-articulated analytical
propositions: Donald E. Schulz and Douglas H. Graham (eds.), Revolution
and Counterrevolution in Central America and the Caribbean (Boulder, Colo.,
1984), a collection of historical and theoretical essays; Walter LaFeber,
Inevitable Revolution: The United States in Central America (New York, 1984;
2nd rev. ed. 1993), an examination of U.S. policy in the region; and
Morris Blachman, William LeoGrande and Kenneth Sharpe, Confronting
Revolution: Security Through Diplomacy in Central America (New York, 1986),
a collection of essays on international relations in the Central American cri-
sis and without doubt the most complete work on the search for peace and
security in the region. See also Peter Calvert, The Central American Security
System: North-South or East-West? (Cambridge, Eng. 1988). Roy Gutman,
Banana Diplomacy: The Making of American Policy in Nicaragua (198187)
(New York, 1988), is an excellent, well-documented, analytical case study
of U. S. opposition to the Sandinista experiment in Nicaragua.
On the Central American economy several books are indispensable.

First is the result of an ambitious research project carried out by SIECA

(Secretaria de Integraci6n Economica Centroamericana), also called the
Rosenthal report, after the economist who headed the project: El desarrollo
integrado de Centroamerka en la presente decada: Bases y propuestas para el
perfeccionamiento y la reestructuracion del Mercado Comun (Buenos Aires, 1973)
comprises thirteen volumes of the most complete review of the regional
economy ever undertaken. Two studies with a regional perspective by
North American economists are John Weeks, The Economies of Central Amer-
ica (New York, 1985), a general analysis concentrating on the period since
1950; and Robert C. Williams, Export Agriculture and the Crisis in Central
America (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1986), an extraordinary and well-documented
look at the effects of the regional economic 'boom' of the sixties and
seventies and, in particular, the social and ecological impact of the
introduction into Central America of the export production of cotton and
cattle. W. A. Durham, Scarcity and Survival in Central America: Ecological
Origins of the Soccer War (Stanford, Calif., 1979), contains a rigorous quanti-
tative analysis of population problems in El Salvador and an interpretation
of the so-called 'useless war' of 1969. Also important is Richard Fagen
(ed.), Transition and Development: Problems of Third World Socialism (New
York, 1986), which brings together various analyses of economic policy in
revolutionary Nicaragua and offers a theoretical discussion on the viability
of socialist change in the Central American 'periphery'. Juan Alberto Fuen-
tes, Desafios de la integracion centroamericana (San Jose, C.R., 1989) is the
best analysis of the current problems facing the regional common market
and of the experience of twenty years of economic integration. Programa
Regional del Empleo para America Latina y el Caribe (PREALC), Cambioy
polarizacion ocupacional en Centroamerka (San Jose, C.R., 1986) is the best
study of employment, the labour market and the informal sector. Finally,
the study by Rafael Menjivar and Juan Diego Trejos, La pobreza en Cen-
troamerka (San Jose, C.R., 1990) summarizes the social effects of economic
stagnation and the rise in poverty.
Victor Bulmer-Thomas, The Political Economy of Central America Since
1920 (Cambridge, 1987) is without doubt the best work published to date
on Central America. It contains not only an economic history of the last
sixty years but also an outstanding analysis of the region's political and
social life. Ana Isabel Garcia and Enrique Gomariz (eds.), Mujeres cen-
troamericanas: Efectos del conflkto 2 vols. (San Jose, C.R., 1989) is also
important for an understanding of the region. The first volume analyses

ig. Guatemala 687
the structural tendencies, supported by detailed statistics, in the condition

of women and the second volume analyses the 'crisis' and its effect on
women.
19. GUATEMALA
Despite its age and limited attention to historical developments, Richard

N. Adams, Crucifixion by Power: Essays on Guatemalan Social Structure,
19441966 (Austin, Tex., 1970) continues to occupy a central place in
the literature on Guatemala in the twentieth century. A more recent
narrative account of republican history is Jim Handy, Gift of the Devil: A
History of Guatemala (Toronto, 1984), popular in style but with a full
scholarly apparatus. The period up to the mid-1930s is covered in the
engaging study by Chester Lloyd Jones, Guatemala Past and Present (Minne-
apolis, Minn., 1940). Providing full statistical material supported by a
rather uneven text on the following two decades is Mario Monteforte
Toledo, Guatemala: Monografia sociologica (Mexico, D.F., 1959), while Car-
los Guzman-Bockler and Jean-Loup Herbert, Guatemala: Una interpretacion
historico-social (Mexico, D.F., 1970) is overwhelmingly analytical in per-
spective. Alfonso Bauer Paiz, Como opera el capital yanqui en Centroamerica:
El caso de Guatemala (Mexico, D.F., 1956), and Thomas and Marjorie
Melville, Guatemala: The Politics of Land Ownership (New York, 1971), are
both polemical in style and secondary studies but do give cogent overviews
of two important factors in twentieth-century society and economy.
General economic developments in the postwar period are treated in
more technical fashion in World Bank, The Economic Development of Guate-
mala (Baltimore, 1951), and Lehman B. Fletcher et al., Guatemala's Eco-
nomic Development: The Role ofAgriculture (hmts, Iowa, 1970). The complex-
ities of peasant agriculture are treated in many studies, among the most sug-
gestive of which are Lester Schmid, The Role ofMigratory Labor in the Economic
Development ofGuatemala, Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin, Re-
search Paper (Madison, Wis., 1967); Manuel Gollas, 'Surplus labor and eco-
nomic efficiency in the traditional sector of a dual economy: The Guatema-
lan case', Journal of Development Studies, 8/4 (1972); Ivon Lebot, 'Tenencia de
la tierra en el Altiplano Occidental de Guatemala', ESC, 13 (1976); Thomas
J. Maloney, 'El impacto social del esquema de desarrollo de la Franja Trans-
versal del Norte sobre los Maya-Kekchi en Guatemala', ESC, 29 (1981),

and Carol A. Smith, 'Local history in global context: Social and economic
transition in Western Guatemala', CSSH, 26/2 (1984). Smith's long article
on the urban sector, 'El desarrollo de la primacia urbana', Mesoamerica, 8
(1984), is one of the very few studies to follow the pioneering work in this
field by Bryan Roberts, Organizing Strangers (Austin, Tex., 1973), although
it takes a more structural and historical perspective.
Much of the extensive work undertaken in the field of anthropology
subordinates historical approaches, but some studies in this discipline have
greatly advanced historical knowledge and thrown light on contemporary
socio-political developments: Eric Wolf, Sons of the Shaking Earth (Chicago,
1959); Ruth Bunzel, Chichicastenango: A Guatemalan Village (Seattle,
1952); Ricardo Falla, Quiche rebelde (Guatemala City, 1979); John D. Early,
'The changing proportion of Maya Indian and Ladino in the population of
Guatemala, 19541969', American Ethnologist, ill (1975); Paul Diener,
'The Tears of St. Anthony: Ritual and revolution in Eastern Guatemala',
LAP, 5/3 (1978); Robert M. Carmack, 'SpanishIndian Relations in High-
land Guatemala, 1800-1944', m Murdo J. MacLeod and Robert Wasser-
strom (eds.), Spaniards and Indians in South Eastern Mesoamerica: Essays in the
History of Ethnic Relations (Lincoln, Nebr., 1983); 'Death and disorder in
Guatemala', Cultural Survival Quarterly, 7/1, special issue (1983); and
Panzos: Testimonio (Guatemala City, 1979). A magisterial but highly contro-
versial survey of the history of the 'Indian question' is given in Severo
Martinez Pelaez, La patria del criollo (Guatemala City, 1973), to which a
vivid and powerful autobiographical counterpoint may be found in Eliza-
beth Burgos Debray (ed.), I . . . Rigoberta Menchu (London, 1983). Both
works are placed in a general contemporary context in Carol A. Smith,
'Indian class and class consciousness in pre-revolutionary Guatemala',
Working Paper no. 162, Latin American Program, Woodrow Wilson Cen-
ter (Washington, D.C., 1984). The impact of political violence on the
indigenous population in the 1970s and 1980s is the central preoccupation
of three quite different but equally impressive texts: Beatriz Manz, Refugees
of a Hidden War: The Aftermath of Insurgency in Guatemala (Albany, N.Y.,
1988); Robert Carmack (ed.), Harvest of Violence: The Mayan Indians and the
Guatemalan Crisis (Norman, Okla., 1988); and Carol A. Smith, Guate-
malan Indians and the State, 1540 to 1988 (Austin, Tex., 1990), which con-
tains a particularly useful bibliography as well as examples of some of the
best historical and anthropological writing on the country in recent years.
Consolidated studies of developments in the formal and national circles
of power and politics are much thinner on the ground. Other than the

19- Guatemala 689
contemporary hagiographies, Kenneth J. Grieb, Guatemalan Caudillo: The

Regime of Jorge Ubico (Athens, Ohio, 1979), is a solitary study and remains
the principal consolidated source on politics during the 1930s. The final
section of David McCreery, 'Debt servitude in rural Guatemala, 1876-
1936', HAHR, 63/4 (1983), provides a somewhat more sober view of the
impact of Ubico's policies in one important area. Thirty-five years after the
overthrow of the 'Revolution' there was still no monographic treatment of
the governments of Arevalo and Arbenz based on primary sources, al-
though many of these had been transferred to the U.S. Library of Congress
in the wake of the 1954 'Liberation'. The most important scholarly analysis
of relations with the United States is Piero Gleijeses, Shattered Hope: The
Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 19441954 (Princeton, N.J.,
1991). See also two articles by Gleijeses: 'The Agrarian Reform of Jacobo
Arbenz', JLAS, 21/3 (1989), and 'The death of Francisco Arana: A turning
point in the Guatemalan Revolution', JLAS, 22/3 (1990). Certain aspects
of this period are also covered in Ronald M. Schneider, Communism in
Guatemala, 1944-1954 (New York, 1958); Leo A. Suslow, Aspects of Social
Reform in Guatemala, 1944-1949 (New York, 1950); Neale J. Pearson,
'Guatemala: The peasant union movement, 19441954', in Henry A.
Landsberger (ed.), Latin American Peasant Movements (Ithaca, N.Y., 1969);
and Robert Wasserstrom, 'Revolution in Guatemala: Peasants and politics
under the Arbenz government', CSSH 17/4 (1975); Luis Cardoza y Ara-
gon, La revolucionguatemalteca (Guatemala City, 1955); Manuel Galich, Par
que lucha Guatemala: Arevalo y Arbenz: Dos hombres contra un imperio (Buenos
Aires, 1956). Far greater attention has been paid to the intervention and
counter-revolution of 1954, but the leading studies of that crisis do con-
sider its local background to varying degree: Stephen Schlesinger and
Stephen Kinzer, Bitter Fruit: The Untold Story of the American Coup in
Guatemala (New York, 1982); Richard H. Immerman, The CIA in Guate-
mala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention (Austin, Tex., 1982); Jose M. Aybar
de Soto, Dependency and Intervention: The Case of Guatemala in 1954 (Boul-
der, Colo., 1978). A wide range of Guatemalan and U.S. literature on the
intervention and its background is noted in Julio Adolfo Rey, 'Revolution
and liberation: A review of recent literature on the Guatemalan Situation',
HAHR, 38/2 (1958).
From 1954 the government of Guatemala rested largely with the military
and proved resistant to detailed monographic treatment. Differing views on
the electoral process can be found in Kenneth F. Johnson, The Guatemalan
Presidential Election of March 16, 1966: An Analysis, Institute for the Com-

parative Study of Politics (Washington, D.C., 1967), and John W. Sloan,

'Electoral frauds and social change: The Guatemalan example', Science and
Society, 34/3 (1970). A polemical, pro-guerrilla perspective is taken in
Eduardo Galeano, Guatemala: Occupied Country (New York, 1969), and in
views from within the guerrilla provided in Ricardo Ramirez, Lettres du front
guatemalteque (Paris, 1970), and Orlando Fernandez, Turcios Lima (Havana,
1968), themselves subjected to unsympathetic analysis in David A. Crain,
'Guatemalan revolutionaries and Havana's ideological offensive of 1966
1968', JIAS, 17/2 (1975). Mario Payeras, Days of theJungle: The Testimony of
a Guatemalan Guerrillero, 197276 (New York, 1983), is an insider's ac-
count of the emergence of the second generation of rebels against a military
order described in great detail and with minimal sympathy in Michael
McClintock, The American Connection: State Terror and Popular Resistance in
Guatemala (London, 1985). Both sides are depicted in the polemical study
by George Black, Garrison Guatemala (London, 1984), which is more up-to-
date but less sober and interested in socio-economic developments than
Roger Plant, Guatemala: Unnatural Disaster (London, 1978), while a wider
variety of sources is provided in Jonathan Fried et al. (eds.), Guatemala in
Rebellion: Unfinished History (New York, 1983), which shares the radical
tone of the other two texts. At the end of the 1980s the only consolidated
text to consider the transfer to constitutional government and the initial
experience of the Cerezo administration was James Painter, Guatemala: False
Hope, False Freedom (London, 1987), which paints an exceptionally sombre
picture. See also Robert H. Trudeau, 'The Guatemalan election of 1985', in
John A. Booth and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Elections and Democracy in
Central America (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989).
20. EL S A L V A D O R
Despite a significant increase in the number of studies largely of a

secondary character - since 1980, the scholarly literature on El Salvador
in the twentieth century remains thin. Although they were written before
the political developments that prompted the 'new wave' of books, two
English-language texts remain indispensable as general surveys: David
Browning, El Salvador: Landscape and Society (Oxford, 1971), which adopts
a predominantly geographical approach to socio-economic development,
and Alastair White, El Salvador (London, 1973), which devotes more
space to history and politics. Mario Flores Macal, Origen, desarrollo y crisis

2O. El Salvador 691
delasformas de domination en El Salvador (San Jose, C.R., 1983), and Rafael

Guidos Vejar, Ascenso del militarismo en El Salvador (San Jose, C.R., 1982)
provide general overviews of political history, while the work of Rafael
Menjivar links politics more closely to developments in political economy:
see Crisis del desarrollismo: Caso El Salvador (San Jose, C.R., 1977); El
Salvador: El eslabon mas pequeno (San Jose, C.R., 1981); and Formation y
lucha del proletariado (San Jose, C.R., 1982). Menjivar also contributes a
chapter to Centroamerica hoy (Mexico, D.F., 1976), an important collection
of comparative essays that situates the country within a regional frame-
work. W. H. Durham, Scarcity and Survival in Central America: Ecological
Origins of the Soccer Wars (Stanford, Calif, 1979) also takes a comparative
approach, contrasting the rural subsistence economy of the country with
that in Honduras, a counterpoint being given by Eduardo Colindres,
Fundamentos economicos de la burguesia salvadorena (San Jose, C.R., 1977),
which was the basis for the author's many articles on the landlord class and
direction of the modern coffee and cotton sectors. Other useful economic
surveys include T. J. Downing, 'Agricultural modernization in El Salva-
dor' (Occasional Paper, Centre for Latin American Studies, University of
Cambridge, 1978), and Hector Dada, La economia de El Salvador y la
integration social, 1954-1960 (San Jose, C.R., 1983).
Segundo Montes, El compadrazgo: Una estructura de poder en El Salvador
(San Salvador, 1979), and Carlos Cabarriis, Genesis de una revolution (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1983), are rare studies of social structure, the first concentrat-
ing on aspects of Indian society and the second focussed on the north of the
country and the origins of the contemporary peasant rebellion. There is
still no adequate study of the 1932 revolt from the perspective of the
peasantry, but the general origins and political course of the uprising are
covered in some detail by Thomas P. Anderson, Matanza: El Salvador's
Communist Revolt 0/1932 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1971). Roque Dalton, Miguel
Marmol (New York, 1987) is an outstanding biographical account of a
radical activist that covers the first four decades of the twentieth century.
A modest biography of the Communist leader of the 1932 rising is pro-
vided by Jorge Arias Gomez, Farabundo Marti (San Jose, C.R., 1972), but
none yet exists for General Martinez. Aspects of Martinez's government
are, however, covered in Kenneth J. Grieb, 'The United States and the rise
of General Maximiliano Hernandez Martinez', JLAS, 3/2 (1971); Everett
Wilson, 'The crisis of national integration in El Salvador, 19191935'
(unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, 1970), and Robert E.
Elam, 'Appeal to arms: The Army and politics in El Salvador, 1931

1964', (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of New Mexico, 1968),

which remains the best resource on modern military history. The dictator's
overthrow is studied with precision in Patricia Parkman, Nonviolent Insur-
rection in El Salvador: The Fall of Maximiliano Hernandez Martinez (Tucson,
Ariz., 1988). The 1969 war with Honduras is treated in general terms by
Thomas P. Anderson, The War of the Dispossessed; Honduras and El Salvador,
1969 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1981), and within a socio-economic framework in
Marco Carias and Daniel Slutsky (eds.), La guerra inutil (San Jose, C.R.,
1971), and Vincent Cable, 'The "Football War" and the Central American
Common Market', International Affairs, 45 (1969). Material on modern
political parties is scarce, the only monograph being Stephen Webre, Jose
Napoleon Duarte and the Christian Democratic Party in Salvadorean Politics,
19601978 (Baton Rouge, La., 1979), written before Duarte became
president but valuable for its treatment of political life in the 1960s. The
later period is presented in unqualified partisan and populist style in Jose
Napoleon Duarte with Diana Page, Duarte: My Story (New York, 1986),
which possesses a degree of interest beyond its natural incorporation of
anecdotal and propagandistic material but still lacks the scholarly counter-
part needed to provide a judicious assessment of this complex individual
in the final years of his life. A good example of orthodox political science
that reflects the expectations of some democratic progress during the
1960s is Ronald H. McDonald, 'Electoral behaviour and political develop-
ment in Salvador', Journal of Politics, 31/2 (1969).
Material on the 1970s and 1980s is much more extensive and frequently
contains useful and original treatment of the previous period even though
many contemporary books adopt a generally polemical tone. Latin Amer-
ica Bureau, El Salvador Under General Romero (London, 1979), contains a
detailed analysis of the military regime of 1977 to 1979, and James
Brockman, The Word Remains: A Life of Oscar Romero (New York, 1982),
provides an interesting survey of local ecclesiastical life as well as a biogra-
phy of the archbishop who opposed his namesake in the presidential pal-
ace. Jenny Pearce, Promised Land: Peasant Rebellion in Chalatenango, El Sal-
vador (London, 1985) develops some of the themes of Cabarnis's text and is
one of a growing caucus of books containing oral testimonies. Michael
McClintock, The American Connection: State Terror and Popular Resistance in
El Salvador (London, 1985) is no less unsympathetic to U.S. policies but
provides considerable detailed information on the military and paramili-
tary forces, while Morton Halperin (ed.), Report on Human Rights in El
Salvador (Washington, D.C., 1982) is one of the most lucid examples of

2i. Honduras 693
the burgeoning oeuvre that itemizes the results of their activity. General
studies of political developments since the early 1970s include: Enrique
Baloyra, El Salvador in Transition (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1982); Robert
Armstrong and Janet Shenk, El Salvador: The Face of Revolution (London,
1982); James Dunkerley, The Long War: Dictatorship and Revolution in El Sal-
vador, 2nd ed. (London, 1985); and Tommie Sue Montgomery, Revolution
in El Salvador: Origins and Evolution (Boulder, Colo., 1982). Tomas Guerra
(ed.), Octubre Sangriento (San Jose, C.R., 1980), and Dermot Keogh, 'The
Myth of the Liberal Coup: The U. S. and the 15th October 1979 Coup in
El Salvador', Millennium, 13/2 (1984) concentrate on the important final
months of 1979. Mario Menendez, El Salvador: Una autentica guerra civil
(San Jose, C.R., 1980) is a highly partisan but vivid account of the
guerrilla war. Adolfo Gilly, Guerra y politica en El Salvador (Mexico, D.F.,
1981), contains suggestive political essays from the Left on the first phase
on the conflict. And Raymond Bonner, Weakness and Deceit: U.S. Policy and
El Salvador (New York, 1985), is a detailed account of the following years
from a journalist's perspective as well as a strong attack on U.S. policy.
The conditions of civil war throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s
naturally impeded significant academic research in and on El Salvador.
The war also determined that much of the literature concerned with
contemporary issues took the form of journalism. Two texts that condense
some of the best of this material and analysis are: Edgar Jimenez et al.
(eds.), El Salvador: Guerra, politica y paz (19791988) (San Salvador,
1988); and Mario Lungo Ucles, El Salvador en los 80: Contrainsurgencia y
revolucion (San Jose, C.R., 1990). Some useful discussion is also provided
in Jose Z. Garcia, 'Recent elections in El Salvador', in John A. Booth and
Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Elections and Democracy in Central America
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989), but the latter years of the 1980s are still better
understood through reference to newsletters, such as Inforpress or Central
American Report, than on the basis of articles or chapters in books that were
very frequently rendered wholly or partially irrelevant by the rapid passage
of military engagements, elections, and diplomatic encounters between
different governments in San Salvador and the rebels.
21. HONDURAS
The social and economic backwardness of Honduras in the period since

1930 is reflected in the shortage of good general works and specialized

monographs. Only in the 1980s, as Honduras became a focus of interna-

tional attention, did the situation begin to change, although few works on
Honduras in this recent period can be regarded as scholarly.
One of the more satisfactory general studies of Honduras is Mario Posas
and Rafael Del Cid, La construction del sector publico y del estado national en
Honduras 18701979 (Tegucigalpa, 1981), which is broader in coverage
than its title implies and particularly strong in its interpretation of the
period up to 1972. The standard text on Honduras in English is William
S. Stokes, Honduras: An Area Study of Government (Madison, Wis., 1950), a
remarkably detailed picture of Honduras up to the close of the Cariato,
but weak on economics. James Morris, Honduras: Caudillo Politics and
Military Rulers (Boulder, Colo., 1984), tries to pick up the story where
Stokes left it, but lacks Stokes's insights and is rather descriptive. As a
solid introduction to Honduras, although very heavy on factual informa-
tion, Howard Blutstein et al., Area Handbook for Honduras (Washington,
D.C., 1970) still has value. A good general study, with a useful collection
of appendices containing key documents in Honduran history, is Antonio
Murga Frassinetti, Enclave y sociedad en Honduras, 2nd ed. (Tegucigalpa,
1985). There is also an excellent study of northern Honduras by Dario
Euraque, 'Merchants and industrialists in Northern Honduras: The mak-
ing of national bourgeoisie in peripheral capitalism, 1870s1972' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1990).
No history of Honduras in the twentieth century can ignore the fruit
companies. On the earlier period, there is a wealth of information in
Charles Kepner and Jay Soothill, The Banana Empire: A Case Study in
Economic Imperialism (New York, 1935). The Standard Fruit and Steamship
Company has found a competent biographer in Thomas Karnes, Tropical
Enterprise (Baton Rouge, La., 1978), but the United Fruit Company has
still not spawned a satisfactory monograph; Stacy May and Galo Plaza, The
United Fruit Company in Latin America (New York, 1958) is a eulogistic
account. There is, however, a good study of the Honduran banana indus-
try from its origins in V. Lainez and V. Meza, 'El enclave bananero en la
historia de Honduras', ESC, 2/5 (1973), 115-56. A similar, slightly more
detailed study is Daniel Slutzky and Esther Alonso, Empresas trans-
nacionales y agricultura: El caso del enclave bananero en Honduras (Tegucigalpa,
1982). A more recent study, covering the whole of Central America, is
FLACSO/CEDAL, Cambio y continuidad en la economia bananera (Heredia,
1988). The dispute between rival banana companies, which nearly pro-
voked a war between Honduras and Guatemala, is described in Virgilio

2i. Honduras 695
Rodriguez Beteta, No es guerra de hermanos sino de bananos (Guatemala City,
1980).
The Cariato (1933-48) remains one of the most barren periods in
Honduran historiography. There is a most unflattering portrait of the
dictator in Filander Diaz Chavez, Carias el ultimo caudillo frutero (Teguci-
galpa, 1982), and an interesting study of the problems facing the Liberal
Party at this time in Carlos A. Contreras, Entre el marasmo: Andlisis de la
crisis del Partido Liberal de Honduras 19331970 (Tegucigalpa, 1970). A
more recent work, descriptive but informative, is M. R. Argueta, Tiburcio
Carias: Anatomia de una epoca, 192348 (Tegucigalpa, 1989). There is also
an account of Honduras in this and later periods in Guillermo Molina
Chocano, 'Honduras: De la Guerra Civil al Reformismo Militar', in Pablo
Gonzalez Casanova (ed.), America Latina: Historia de medio sigh, vol. 2
(Mexico, D.F., 1978). The last years of the Cariato and the relationship
between Honduras and the United States during that period are covered in
Thomas Leonard, The United States and Central America, 1944-49 (Bir-
mingham, Ala., 1984). For the economic history of Honduras in these
years there is much of interest in the Comision Economica para America
Latina (CEPAL), El desarrollo economico de Honduras (Santiago, Chile,
i960).
The banana strike of 1954 deserves a monograph in its own right, but
has not yet received one. One of the best discussions of the strike is to be
found in Mario Posas, El movimiento campesino hondureno (Tegucigalpa,
1981). There is also Robert MacCameron, Bananas, Labor, and Politics in
Honduras, 1954-1963 (Syracuse, N.Y., 1983). A study that compares the
strike with the peasant uprising in El Salvador in 1932 is Vinicio Gonza-
lez, 'La insurreccion salvadoreiia de 1932 y la gran huelga hondurena de
1954', RMS, 40/2 (1978), 563-606. Other competent works on the
Honduran labour movement are Victor Meza, Historia del movimiento obrero
hondureno (Tegucigalpa, 1980), and Mario Posas, Lucha ideoldgica y or-
ganization sindical en Honduras (Tegucigalpa, 1980). There is also an inter-
esting anthology for the 1970s by Victor Meza, Antologia del movimiento
obrero hondureno (Tegucigalpa, 1980).
The social reforms begun under President Ramon Villeda Morales are
studied in several works. There is a good biography of Villeda Morales,
which discusses his social programme in detail, by Stefania Natalini de
Castro, Maria de los Angeles Mendoza Saborio and Joaquin Pagan
Solorzano, Significado historico del gobierno del Dr. Ramon Villeda Morales
(Tegucigalpa, 1985). The agrarian reform is usefully discussed in R.

Robleda, 'Latifundio, reforma agraria y modernizacion', Economia Politica

(January 1982). This journal, published by the Instituto de Investi-
gaciones Economicas y Sociales at the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de
Honduras, has done much to stimulate research and writing on twentieth-
century Honduran social science. A good study of agrarian reform, bring-
ing the story up to the mid-1980s, is Charles Brockett, 'Public policy,
peasants and rural development in Honduras', JLAS, 19/1 (1987). The
peasantry and its survival strategies are competently researched in Jeffer-
son Boyer, 'Agrarian capitalism and peasant praxis in Southern Honduras'
(unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of North Carolina, 1982), and in
Susan Stonich, 'Rural families and income from migration: Honduran
households in the world economy', JLAS, 23/1 (1991).
The war with El Salvador in 1969 is discussed thoroughly in Thomas
Anderson, The War of the Dispossessed (Lincoln, Nebr., 1981). Another
study, which concentrates much more on the international law aspects of
the dispute, is James Rowles, El conflicto HondurasEl Salvador (San Jose,
C.R., 1980). However, William Durham's study of the ecological origins
of the war remains by far the most satisfactory: Scarcity and Survival in
Central America (Stanford, Calif., 1979). This was the first work to draw
proper attention to the land shortage created by Honduran geography on
the one hand and demographic pressure on the other. It finally dispelled
the notion that Honduras was a land-surplus country. There is also an
interesting series of essays in Marco Carias and Daniel Slutzky (eds.), La
guerra inutil: Andlisis socioeconomico del conflicto entre Honduras y El Salvador
(San Jose, C.R., 1971).
Several works cover Honduran economic development in recent decades.
In INFORPRESS, El futuro del mercado comun centroamericano (Guatemala
City, 1983), there is an illuminating discussion of the reasons for Hondu-
ras's departure from the Central American Common Market. A fine, de-
tailed study of the emergence of the beef industry is Daniel Slutzky, 'La
agroindustria de la carne en Honduras', Economia Politica, 14 (1977), 30
45. On Honduran industrialization, see Rafael Del Cid, 'Honduras: Indus-
trializaci6n, empleo y explotacion de la fuerza de trabajo', Economia Po-
litica, 13 (1977), 51 129. An overview of Honduran economic develop-
ment can be found in Benjamin Villanueva, 'Institutional innovation and
economic development, Honduras: A case study' (unpublished Ph.D. the-
sis, University of Wisconsin, 1968). Surprisingly, there is still no major
work on the Honduran coffee sector. The economic crisis at the beginning
of the 1980s is well described in Centro de Documentacion de Honduras

22. Nicaragua 697
(CEDOH), ha crisis economica en Honduras: 1981 1984 (Tegucigalpa,

1985) and the shift in government policy in favour of less intervention is
analysed in Alcides Hernandez, El Neoliberalismo en Honduras (Tegucigalpa,
1987). CEDOH, attached to the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Hon-
duras, began to produce a series of high quality working papers at the end
of the 1980s analysing the state of the Honduran economy.
There have been remarkably few studies on the military as an institu-
tion in Honduras. An early effort is Steve Ropp, 'The Honduran army in
the sociopolitical evolution of the Honduran state', TA, 30 (April 1974).
Ropp, with James Morris, has attempted to build a corporate model to
explain Honduran development, but the result is not wholly convincing:
'Corporatism and dependent development: A Honduran case study',
LARR, 12/2 (1977), 27-68. There are also few works on the Catholic
church as an institution in Honduras, although several books describe the
growing political involvement of individuals within the church. See, for
example, Father James Guadalupe Carney, To Be a Revolutionary (San Fran-
cisco, 1987), the posthumously published autobiography of a Catholic
priest killed in eastern Honduras.
The growing U.S. involvement in Honduras to the 1980s and the reper-
cussions of the regional crisis on Honduras have produced a huge literature
of uneven quality. One of the better efforts is Mark Rosenberg and Philip
Shepherd (eds.), Honduras Confronts Its Future (Boulder, Colo., 1986),
which presents a series of essays by leading Hondurans on the political
economy of the 1980s. A perceptive account of the recent period can be
found in Guillermo Molina Chocano, 'Honduras: La situacion politica y
economica reciente', in Donaldo Castillo Rivas (ed.), Centroamerica mas
alia de la crisis (Mexico, D.F., 1983). Two studies, highly critical of U.S.
policy in Honduras, are Richard Lapper and James Painter, Honduras: State
for Sale (London, 1985) and A. Acker, Honduras: The Making of a Banana
Republic (Boston, 1988). Finally, mention should be made of a book by
Gautamo Fonseca, a Honduran journalist who has written a number of
reflective essays on the Honduran political system: Cuatro ensayos sobre la
realidadpolitica de Honduras (Tegucigalpa, 1982).
22. NICARAGUA
Nicaraguan historiography is extremely uneven in both quality and quan-

tity. While much of the country's history remains poorly researched,

certain events have attracted enormous attention, notably the proposed

inter-oceanic canal in the nineteenth century; the U.S. occupation in the
first third of the twentieth century; the Sandino episode; and, more re-
cently, the Sandinista revolution.
The international attention devoted to Nicaragua since the collapse of
the Somoza dynasty in 1979 has created a demand for comprehensive
bibliographies, previously a neglected area. The most impressive is the
three-volume Nicaraguan National Bibliography, 18001978, produced by
the Latin American Bibliographic Foundation (Redlands, Calif, 1986
7), with more than 20,000 entries. A more modest, but useful, bibliogra-
phy is Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., Nicaragua (Oxford 1983), in the World
Bibliographical Series. For the post-1979 period, there is such a rapid
increase in publications every year that any bibliography runs the risk of
being out-of-date as soon as it is published. Hans Aalborg, however, has
compiled a helpful work for the first five years of the revolution: The
Nicaraguan Development Process (Copenhagen, 1984), while a comprehen-
sive bibliography on political economy covering most of the period of
Sandinista rule (197990) is contained in CRIES, La politica economica en
Nicaragua 197988 (Managua, 1989).
The Nicaraguan revolution inspired a number of authors to attempt
general works on the country's history. Among the best are Alberto
Lanuza, Juan Luis Vazquez, Amaru Barahona and Amalia Chamorro,
Economia y sociedad en la construccidn del estado en Nicaragua (San Jose, C. R.,
1983); David Close, Nicaragua: Politics, Economics and Society (London,
1988) and F. Lainez, Nicaragua: Colonialismo espanol, yanki y ruso (Guate-
mala City, 1987).
Of several good works on the U.S. occupation of Nicaragua, which
ended in 1933, the best is William Kamman, A Search for Stability: United
States Diplomacy Towards Nicaragua, 19251933 (Notre Dame, Ind.,
1968), although this focusses almost exclusively on the period after the
Marines returned to Nicaragua in 1926. Roscoe Hill, Fiscal Intervention in
Nicaragua (New York, 1933), is an excellent study dealing with the non-
military side of U.S. intervention. For a dry, but very thorough, account
of the intervention years, see Department of State, The United States and
Nicaragua: A Survey of the Relations from 1909 to 1932 (Washington, D.C.,
1932). A more interesting account, written by a U.S. journalist, is Harold
Denny, Dollars for Bullets: The Story of American Rule in Nicaragua (New
York, 1929; repr., Westport Conn., 1980). A book providing much
source material on U.S. intervention throughout the twentieth century is

22. Nicaragua 699
Maximo Navas-Zepeda, El rapto de Nicaragua: Historia documentada de la
intervention americana (Managua, 1986).
The Sandino episode has generated two waves of publications. The first,
written by contemporaries, ended with the publication of Anastasio So-
moza, El verdadero Sandino, 0 el Calvario de las Segovias (Managua, 1936).
The second wave began with the Nicaraguan revolution and has been
spearheaded by the Instituto de Estudio del Sandinismo in Managua.
During both these periods, writings on Sandino and Sandinismo have
suffered from a lack of scholarly detachment. Fortunately, a small number
of works were produced on Sandino between the two waves, which are
exemplary in their attention to detail; these include Neill Macaulay, The
Sandino Affair (Chicago, 1967), and Gregorio Selser, Sandino: General de
hombres libres, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1959), although the latter is at times
somewhat uncritical. Mention should also be made of Donald Hodges,
Intellectual Foundations of the Nicaraguan Revolution (Austin, Tex., 1986);
although Hodges does not succeed in his ambition to establish Sandino as
a consistent and original political thinker, he does provide a wealth of new
material and gives due attention to the intellectual climate in which the
Sandino episode evolved.
Another excellent book, drawing attention to the international and
regional situation at the start of the 1930s, is Rodolfo Cerdas Cruz, La hoz
y el machete (San Jose, C.R., 1986; Eng. trans., 1993), which, while
focussing on the role of the Communist International throughout Central
America, devotes a great deal of research to Nicaragua during the Sandino
episode. Also of good quality is Richard Salisbury, Anti-Imperialism and
International Competition in Central America, 192029 (Wilmington, Del.,
1989). Finally, a small number of studies have begun to explore Sandino's
incursions into the Atlantic coast communities. These include David
Brooks, 'U.S. Marines, Miskitos and the hunt for Sandino: The Rio Coco
Patrol in 1928', JLAS, 21/2 (1989) and Volker Wiinderlich, Sandino en la
costa (Managua, 1989).
A number of general works on the history of Nicaragua during the years
of the Somoza dynasty include Richard Millett, Guardians of the Dynasty
(New York, 1977), concerned mainly with the National Guard from its
formation at the end of the 1920s, but with much of interest on other
aspects of Nicaraguan society. Both Bernard Diederich, Somoza (London,
1982), and Eduardo Crawley,' Dictators Never Die (London, 1979), are
primarily concerned with the Somoza family, but also furnish useful ac-
counts of the general political background. Claribel Alegria and D. J.

Flakoll, Nicaragua: La revolution sandinista: Una cronica politica 18551979

(Mexico, D.F., 1982), is a good account of the rebirth of the Sandinista
movement after the assassination of Sandino in 1934; despite the title,
however, it has little to say on the period before Sandino's death. Another
useful book focussing on the revival of Sandinismo is Hugo Cancino
Troncoso, Las rakes histdricas e ideologicas del movimiento sandinista: Anteced-
entes de la revolution nacional y popular nicaragiiense, 1927-1979 (Odense,
Denmark, 1984). A careful study on the continuity of Sandinismo can be
found in Lucrecia Lozano, De Sandino al triunfo de la revolution (Mexico,
D.F., j.985), while Emiliano Chamorro, El ultimo caudillo (Managua,
1983) is an autobiographical account by one of the key figures in the
history of Nicaragua in the fifty years after the U.S. occupation. Finally,
mention should be made of Humberto Ortega's 50 anos de lucba sandinista,
which, published in 1976 in 'algiin lugar de Nicaragua', provides the
Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional account of how the Sandinista
struggles of the 1960s and 1970s were linked to the much earlier Sandino
episode.
The economic history of Nicaragua has attracted growing interest since
the publication of Jaime Wheelock's influential Imperialismo y dictadura:
Crisis de una formation social (Mexico, D.F., 1975). Jaime Biderman, 'Class
structure, the state and capitalist development in Nicaraguan agriculture'
(unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley,
1982), is an excellent study highlighting the rise of the cotton industry
after the 1940s. Earlier works that still have much to offer include Interna-
tional Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The Economic Develop-
ment of Nicaragua (Washington, D.C., 1953); CEPAL, El desarrollo eco-
nomico de Nicaragua (New York, 1966), and Luis Cantarero, "The economic
development of Nicaragua, 1920-47' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Iowa, 1948).
The labour movement under the Somoza dynasty, neglected for years,
has recently received some attention. A good study of the 1940s is Jeffrey
Gould, ' "For an organised Nicaragua": Somoza and the labour move-
ment, 19441948', JLAS, 19/2 (1987). A more general work is Carlos
Perez Bermudez and Onofre Guevara, El movimiento obrero en Nicaragua
(Managua, 1985). This controversial work seeks to justify the role played
by the Partido Socialista Nicaragiiense under Somoza, but nevertheless is
an unrivalled source of information on many aspects of the labour move-
ment's history. A regional study of the labour movement over a long
period is Jeffrey Gould, To Lead as Equals: Rural Protest and Political

2 2. Nicaragua 701
Consciousness in Chinandega, Nicaragua, 19121979 (Chapel Hill, N.C.,
1990).
The Nicaraguan revolution leading to the overthrow of Somoza has
produced many books and articles, of which the best are John Booth, The
End and the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution (Boulder, Colo., 1982),
and George Black, Triumph of the People: The Sandinista Revolution in Nicara-
gua (London, 1981). Anastasio Somoza's own version of the events leading
to his overthrow, Nicaragua Betrayed (Boston, 1980), gives a very partial,
but fascinating, description of his relationship with the Carter administra-
tion. This same question is taken up by Robert Pastor in Condemned to
Repetition: The United States and Nicaragua (Princeton, N.J., 1987), where
the author makes a courageous effort to explore what went wrong in a
relationship in which he himself played a minor part as President Carter's
Latin American specialist on the National Security Council. Another book
of interest, although it covers events after the revolution as well, is Shirley
Christian, Nicaragua: Revolution in the Family (New York, 1985).
The period since the revolution has seen an explosion in writings on
Nicaragua. The best of these tend to be sympathetic to the revolution, but
fall short of the highest standards of scholarship; examples are Thomas
Walker (ed.), Nicaragua: The First Five Years (New York, 1985); Carlos
Vilas, The Sandinista Revolution (New York, 1986); and Richard Harris and
Carlos Vilas (eds.), Nicaragua: A Revolution Under Siege (London, 1985).
Works critical of the revolutionary period tend to be written by exiles or
foreigners without access to primary sources; among the better examples is
Xavier Zavala et al., 1984 Nicaragua (San Jose, C.R., 1985). A balanced
view of the Sandinistas, tracing their relationship with the other social
forces in Nicaragua, is Dennis Gilbert, Sandinistas (Oxford, 1988), while
an inside view by a leading figure in the agrarian debates is Orlando
Nunez Soto, Transicion y lucha de clases en Nicaragua, 19.79-86 (Mexico,
D.F., 1987).
U.S. policy towards the Sandinista revolution has been the subject of
numerous articles and books. These include Roy Gutman, Banana Diplo-
macy: The Making of American Policy in Nicaragua, 19S11987 (New York,
1988) and William Robinson and Kent Norsworthy, David and Goliath:
Washington's War against Nicaragua (London, 1987). A sober assessment of
U.S. policy in the region, taking into account U.S. reaction to the Sandi-
nista defeat in the elections in February 1990, is William LeoGrande,
'From Reagan to Bush: The transition in U.S. policy towards Central
America', JLAS, 22/3 (1990).

Economic development, including agrarian reform, under the Sandi-

nista regime has received considerable attention. A good example, bring-
ing together many of the best scholars in the field, is Rose Spalding (ed.),
The Political Economy of Revolutionary Nicaragua (Boston, 1987). Specialist
works on agriculture include Forrest Colburn, Post-Revolutionary Nicara-
gua: State, Class, and the Dilemmas of Agrarian Policy (Berkeley, 1986),
although this study was subsequently overtaken by changes in Nicaraguan
agrarian reform. The latter is studied in a large number of articles, includ-
ing I. Luciak, 'National unity and popular hegemony: The dialectics of
Sandinista agrarian reform policies, 1979-86', JLAS, 19/1 (1987), and
Carmen Diana Deere, Peter Marchetti and Nola Reinhardt, 'The peasantry
and the development of Sandinista agrarian policy, 197984', LARR, 20/
3 (1985). State enterprises in agriculture are the main focus also of Forrest
Colburn, Managing the Commanding Heights: Nicaragua's State Enterprises
(Berkeley, 1990).
The deterioration in economic conditions under the Sandinistas is ana-
lysed by a number of authors. The best works are Richard Stahler-Sholk,
'Stabilization, destabilization, and the popular classes in Nicaragua,
1979-88', LARR, 25/3 (1990); David Ruccio, 'The costs of austerity in
Nicaragua: The worker-peasant alliance (1979-87),' in Howard Han-
delman and Werner Baer (eds.), Paying the Costs of Austerity in Latin
America (Boulder, Colo., 1989); Jose Luis Medal, Nicaragua: Crisis, cambio
socialy politica econdmica (Managua, 1988) and Valpy Fitzgerald, 'Stabiliza-
tion and economic justice: The case of Nicaragua', in Kwan Kim and
David Ruccio (eds.), Debt and Development in Latin America (Notre Dame,
Ind., 1985). The problem of hyperinflation at the end of 1980s is thor-
oughly examined in Lance Taylor et al., Nicaragua: The Transition from
Economic Chaos toward Sustainable Growth (Stockholm, 1989) and Bill Gib-
son, 'The inflation-devaluation-inflation hypothesis in Nicaragua', Journal
of Development Studies, 27/2(1991).
Sandinista foreign policy, a major source of friction in U.S.Nicaraguan
relations, is discussed in Mary Vanderlaan, Revolution and Foreign Policy in
Nicaragua (Boulder, Colo., 1986). The Catholic church in Nicaragua has
received a great deal of attention, both because of the friction between the
hierarchy and the Sandinista government and because of the growth of a
'popular' church. A thoughtful study which reflects both sides of the
question is Laura O'Shaugnessy and Luis Serra, The Church and Revolution
in Nicaragua (Athens, Ohio, 1986). Another work along similar lines is
Rosa Maria Pochet and Abelino Martinez, Iglesia: Manipulation 0 profecia?

2$. Costa Rica 703
(San Jose, C.R., 1987). A good comparative study is Philip Williams, The
Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica (London, 1989),
while the changing character of the church before the revolution is compe-
tently treated in Manzar Foroohar, The Catholic Church and Social Change in
Nicaragua (Albany, N.Y., 1989).
The Atlantic coast region and its ethnic minorities has begun to receive
proper attention. Craig Dozier, Nicaragua's Mosquito Shore: The Years of
British and American Experience (Birmingham, Ala., 1986), gives an excel-
lent account of the coast in the nineteenth century, but offers only a
sketchy treatment of the more recent period. A good overview, embracing
more recent events, is Peter Sollis, 'The Atlantic Coast of Nicaragua:
Development and autonomy', JLAS, 21/3 (1989), while Centra de In-
vestigation y Documentation de la Costa Atlantica (CIDCA), Ethnic
Groups and the Nation State (Stockholm, 1987) is an excellent survey of the
ethnic complexities in the region. Finally, there is a fine sociological study
of the Atlantic coast in Carlos Vilas, State, Class and Ethnicity in Nicaragua:
Capitalist Modernization and Revolutionary Change on the Atlantic Coast (Boul-
der, Colo., 1989).
23. COSTA RICA
A pioneering general interpretation of Costa Rica that considers the coun-

try's development from a variety of perspectives is Samuel Stone, La
dinastia de los conquistadores (San Jose, C.R., 1975); Eng. trans., The
Heritage of the Conquistadores: Ruling Classes in Central America from the
Conquest to the Sandinistas (Lincoln, Nebr., 1990). The same broad ap-
proach is also adopted in the excellent studies written by Carolyn Hall: El
cafey el desarrollo historico-geogrdfico de Costa Rica (San Jose, C. R., 1976) and
Costa Rica: Una interpretacion geogrdfica con perspectiva histdrica (San Jose,
C.R., 1984). Other general interpretative surveys include Jose L. Vega,
Orden y progreso: La formacion del estado national en Costa Rica (San Jose,
C.R., 1975), Poderpolitico y democracia en Costa Rica (San Jose, 1982), and
Hacia una interpretacion del desarrollo costarricense: Ensayo sociologico (San Jose,
C.R., 1983); Carlos Melendez's more dated Costa Rica: Evolucion de sus
problemas mds destacados (San Jose, C.R., 1953); Wilburg Jimenez, Genesis
del gobierno de Costa Rica, 1821-1981 (San Jose, C.R., 1986), which
concentrates upon administrative issues; and Chester Zelaya (ed.), Costa
Rica contemporanea (San Jose, C.R., 1979), a collection of provocative

essays by, among others, Carlos Melendez, Oscar Arias, Gonzalo Facio and
Eduardo Lizano. The perspective of the Partido Liberacion Nacional (PLN)
is reflected in Carlos Monge, Historia de Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1962);
Eugenio Rodriguez, Apuntespara una sociologia costarricense (San Jose, C.R.,
1953); and Hugo Navarro, La generation del 48: Juicio historico sobre la
democracia costarricense (Mexico, D.F., 1957). For a rigorously Marxist inter-
pretation, see Reinaldo Carcanholo, Desarrollo del capitalismo en Costa Rica
(San Jose, C.R., 1981). Two quite different interpretations of develop-
ments in the modern era may be found in Rodolfo Cerdas, Crisis de la
democracia liberal en Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1972), and Sergio Reuben,
Capitalismo y crisis economica en Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1982). Also of
Marxist inspiration is Victor Hugo Acuna Ortega and Ivan Molina Jime-
nez, Historia economica y social de Costa Rica (1J501950) (San Jose, C.R.,
1991). Uneven but valuable is Vladimir de la Cruz (ed.), Historia general de
Costa Rica (San Jose, 1987- ). Vols. 4 and 5, published in 1990, cover the
period of the Liberal Republic and its crisis and the period after 1940. On
relations between the coffee economy and the political struggles of the
twentieth century, see Anthony Winson, Coffee and Democracy in Modern
Costa Rica (Basingstoke, Eng., 1989). A number of efforts have been made
in recent years to revise the dominant interpretation of Costa Rican democ-
racy. See, in particular, Morris J. Blackman and Ronald G. Hellman,
'Costa Rica', in Morris J. Blackman, William M. LeoGrande and Kenneth
E. Sharpe (eds.), Confronting Revolution (New York, 1986); John A. Booth,
'Costa Rican democracy', in Larry Diamond, Juan Linz and Seymour
Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries, vol. 4, Latin Amer-
ica (Boulder, Colo., 1989); John A Peeler, Latin American Democracy:
Colombia, Costa Rica and Venezuela (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1985); Mitchell A.
Seligson, 'Costa Rica and Jamaica', in Myron Weiner and Ergun Ozbudun
(eds.), Competitive Elections in Developing Countries (Durham, N.C., 1987);
Andrew Reding, 'Costa Rica: Democratic model in jeopardy', World Policy
Journal, ilS (1986); Olivier Dabene, 'La formule politique du Costa
Rica' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Grenoble, 1987); Fabrice
Edouard Lehoucq, 'Explaining the origins of democratic regimes: Costa
Rica in comparative perspective' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Duke Univer-
sity, 1987); and Chester Zelaya (ed.), Democracia costarricense: Pasado, pres-
ente y futuro (San Jose, C.R., 1989).
Studies of social groups and the development of the labour force in-
clude: Lowell Gudmundson, Hacendados politicos y precaristas: La ganaderia
y el latifundismo guanacasteco, 18001950 (San Jose, C.R., 1983); Mitchell

23. Costa Rica 705
Seligson, Peasants of Costa Rica and the Development of Agrarian Capitalism

(Madison, Wis., 1980; Sp. trans. 1984); Roger Churnside, Formacidn de la
fuerza laboral costarrkense (San Jose, C.R., 1985). Raimundo Santos and
Liliana Herrera, Del artesano al obrero fabril (San Jose, C.R., 1979) is
strongly syndicalist in its approach but contains useful information. Impor-
tant studies of other sectors include three articles by Victor Hugo Acuna:
'Clases sociales y conflicto social en la economia cafetalera costarricense:
Productores contra beneficiadores (19321936)', Revista de Historia, Uni-
versidad Nacional, Heredia, special issue, 1985; 'Patrones de conflicto
social en la economia cafetalera costarricense (19001984)', Revista de
Ciencia Social, 31 (1986); and 'La ideologia de los pequenos y medianos
productores cafetaleros costarricenses', Revista de Historia, 16 (1987); Al-
fonso Gonzalez, 'El discurso oficial de los pequenos y medianos cafetaleros
(19201940; 19501960)', Revista de Historia, 16 (1987); and Manuel
Rojas, 'El movimiento obrero en Costa Rica', in P. Gonzalez Casanova
(ed.), Historia del movimiento obrero en America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1984).
On the labour movement, see also Elisa Donato and Manuel Rojas,
Sindicatos, politica y economia, 19721986 (San Jose, C.R., 1987) and
Marielos Aguilar H., Clase trabajadora y organizacion sindical en Costa Rica
(San Jose, C.R., 1990). The debate over the nature of social and political
power in the country is engaged from an entirely different perspective in
the two volumes written by Oscar Arias: Grupos depresion en Costa Rica (San
Jose, C.R., 1971), and Quien gobierna en Costa Rica? (San Jose, C.R.,
1977). A number of studies analyse the role of elites from different sectors
of the economy. For the cattle ranchers, see Irene Aguilar and Manuel
Solfs, La elite ganadera en Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1988). For sugar, see
Mayra Achio and Ana C. Escalante, Azucar y politica en Costa Rica (San
Jose, C.R., 1985). For the banana industry, Charles D. Kepner and Jay
Henry Soothill, The Banana Empire: A Case Study in Economic Imperialism
(New York, 1935) and Stacy May and Galo Plaza, The United Fruit Com-
pany in Latin America (New York, 1958) are classics; Chester Lloyd Jones,
Costa Rica and Civilization in the Caribbean (Madison, Wis., 1935) remains
useful for the background; Frank Ellis, Las transnacionales del banano en
Centroamerica (San Jose, C.R., 1983), covers the more modern period from
an economist's perspective; and Jeffrey Casey Gaspar, Limon: 1880-1940:
Un estudio de la industria bananera en Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1979),
provides an excellent case study.
The question of land tenure, which acquired particular importance in

the postwar era, is treated in CEPAL and other international organiza-

tions, Costa Rica: Caracteristkas de uso y distribution de la tierra (San Jose,

C.R., 1972), and critically analysed in two suggestive essays: Mario Fer-
nandez, 'Dinamica de capital, evolucion de la estructura de la tenencia de
la tierra y paisaje rural en Costa Rica', Revista de Estudios Centroamericanos,
36 (1983), and Edelberto Torres Rivas, 'Elementos para la caracterizacion
de la estructura agraria de Costa Rica', Avarices de Investigation, Instituto de
Investigaciones Sociales, Universidad de Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R.,
1978).
The role of the state in economic development became the subject of
increasing debate with the onset of economic crisis at the end of the
1970s. Rodolfo Cerdas provided an early contribution in 'Del estado
intervencionista al estado empresario: Notas para el estudio del estado en
Costa Rica', Anuario de Estudios Centroamericanos, 5 (1979), and 'La crisis
politica nacional: Origen y perspectivas', in Armando Vargas (ed.), La
crisis de democratia en Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1981). Other works that
consider this subject in the light of modern developments in the country's
political economy include: Ana Sojo, Estado empresario y lucha politica en
Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1984); Mylena Vega, El estado costarricense de
1974 a 1978: CODESA y la fraction industrial (San Jose, C.R., 1982) and
'La recomposicion del bloque de poder en Costa Rica, la politica norte-
americana y el Fondo Monetario Internacional (1982-1984): Coyuntura y
perspectivas', Anuario de Estudios Centroamericanos (1984); Carmen R.
Romero, 'Las transformaciones recientes del estado costarricense y las
politicas reformistas', Jorge Mora y Angela Arias, 'Estado, planificacion y
acumulaci6n de capital en Costa Rica, 1974-1982' and Ana Sojo,
'Morfologia de la politica estatal en Costa Rica y crisis economica', all in
ESC, 38 (1984); Helio Fallas, Crisis economica en Costa Rica (San Jose,
C.R., 1980); and Juan M. Villasuso (ed.), El sector productivo: Crisis y
perspectivas (San Jose, C.R., 1984). The Liberal approach to this issue is
represented in Victor H. Cespedes, Alberto Dimare and Ronulfo Jimenez,
Costa Rica: Recuperation sin reactivation (San Jose, C.R., 1985), and in the
publications of the Academia de Centroamerica, such as Problemas eco-
nomicos de la decada de los 80 (San Jose, C.R., 1982) and Costa Rica:
Estabilidad sin crecimiento (San Jose, C.R., 1984).
The general survey of the postwar economy provided in Carlos Araya's
Historia economica de Costa Rica, 1950-1970 (San Jose, C.R., 1975) is
complemented for the more recent period by Jorge Rovira, Costa Rica en los
anos 80 (San Jose, C.R., 1987). The nature of industrialization in the post-
war epoch is considered in Leonardo Gamier and Fernando Herrero, El

2$. Costa Rica 707
desarrollo de la industria en Costa Rica (Heredia, C.R., 1982), and Garnier's

'Industria, estado y desarrollo en Costa Rica: Perspectivas y propuestas',
ESC, 37 (1984). The Escuela de Ciencias Economicas y Sociales of the
Universidad de Costa Rica produced a number of publications concerning
important economic developments from the late 1950s under the general
title of El desarrollo economico de Costa Rica: Estudio del sector externo de la
economia costarricense (San Jose, C . R . , 1958); Estudio del sector industrial (San
Jose, C.R., 1959); and Estudio del sector publico (San Jose, C.R., 1962). For
an analysis of the country's economy in the immediate postwar period
from a North American perspective, see Stacy May (ed.), Costa Rica: A
Study in Economic Development (New York, 1952).
Among general surveys of the evolution of political thought, the follow-
ing deserve mention: Constantino Lascaris, Desarrollo de las ideas filosoficas
en Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1983), Enrique Benavides, Nuestro pensa-
miento politico en sus fuentes (San Jose, C.R., 1975) and Luis Barahona, Las
ideas politicas en Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1977). Readers interested in
the philosophical influences on the 'Generation of '48' who dominated the
country's politics after the Civil War should also consult Roberto Brenes,
El politico (San Jose, C.R., 1942).
The literature on modern Costa Rican history is notably uneven in
terms of its concentration on certain periods, particular attention being
paid to the late 1940s. However, a number of valuable studies consider
the social and political background to the crisis of the 1930s that deci-
sively influenced subsequent developments. For an excellent appraisal of a
leading liberal political figure of the 'Olympian' epoch, see Eugenio Rodri-
guez, Ricardo Jimenez Oreamuno: Su pensamiento (San Jose, C.R., 1980) and
Los dias de don Ricardo (San Jose, C.R., 1971), which are usefully comple-
mented by Joaquin Vargas Coto, Crdnicas de la epoca y vida de Don Ricardo
(San Jose, C.R., 1986). Marina Volio, Jorge Volioy el Partido Reformista (San
Jose, C.R., 1972), and Miguel Acufia, Jorge Volio, el tribuno de laplebe (San
Jose, C.R., 1972) give good accounts of the career and ideas of the leading
oppositionist of the 1920s, whose influence is discernable in later decades.
On the period before the 1929 Depression, see also Armando Rodri-
guez, La administracion Gonzalez Flores (San Jose, C.R., 1968); Eduardo
Oconitrillo, Los Tinoco (191J-1919) (San Jose, C.R., 1980); and Hugo
Murillo, Tinoco y los Estados Unidos: Genesis y caida de un regimen (San Jose,
C.R., 1981). More general surveys of this period include Cleto Gonzalez,
El sufragio en Costa Rica ante la historia y la legislacion (San Jose, C . R . ,
1978), and Tomas Soley, Historia econdmica y hacendaria de Costa Rica (San

Jose, C.R., 1949). International relations are treated in Richard Salisbury,

Costa Rica y el Istmo, 1900-1934 (San Jose, C.R., 1984). The early
development of the labour movement, which exercised growing influence
from the early 1930s, is presented in Vladimir de la Cruz, Las luchas
sociales en Costa Rica (1870-1930) (San Jose, C.R., 1983).
The birth of the Communist Party is set in its socio-economic context in
Ana Maria Botey and Rodolfo Cisneros, La crisis de 1929 y la fundacion del
Partido Comunista de Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1984), and analysed in
terms of external influences in Rodolfo Cerdas, La hoz y el machete: La
Internacional Comunista en America Latina y la revolution en Centro America
(San Jose, C.R., 1986; Eng. trans., 1993). The speeches and activities of
its principal leaders provide a vital source for understanding the party's
subsequent development: Gilberto Calvo and Francisco Ziiniga (eds.),
Manuel Mora: Discursos {1934-1979) (San Jose, C.R., 1980); Arnoldo
Ferreto, Vida militante (San Jose, C.R., 1984); and Marielos Aguilar,
Carlos Luis Fallas: Su epoca y sus luchas (San Jose, C.R., 1983). See also
Alejandro Gomez, Romulo Betancourt y el Partido Comunista de Costa Rica:
19311933 (Caracas, 1985) and Vladimir de la Cruz, 'El Primer Congreso
del Partido Comunista de Costa Rica', ESC, 27 (1980).
One of the very few studies of the administration of Leon Cortes (1936
40) is Theodore A. Creedman, 'Leon Cortes y su tiempo', Anales de la
Academia de Geografia e Historia de Costa Rica (19679). Carlos Calvo, Costa
Rica en la Segunda Guerra Mundial (.193945) (San Jose, C.R., 1985),
provides an extensive analysis of the war years, and relations with the
United States up to the Cold War are treated in some detail in Jacobo
Schifter, Las alianzas conflktivas: Las relaciones de Estados Unidos y Costa Rica
desde la segunda guerra mundial a la guerra fria (San Jose, C.R., 1986).
Another work by this author, La fase oculta de la guerra civil en Costa Rica
(San Jose, C.R., 1981), provides a complementary analysis of develop-
ments within the country during the civil conflict of 1948.
The civil war and its origins are the subjects of an extensive literature.
Oscar Aguilar, Costa Rica y sus hechos politicos de 1948: Problemdtica de una
decada (San Jose, C.R., 1969), contains a very useful selection of docu-
ments and interviews, as does Guillermo Villegas, Testimonios del 48 (San
Jose, C.R., 1977). The same author's El otro Calderon Guardia (San Jose,
C.R., 1985) provides important insights on the leader of the defeated
forces, and another text, El Cardonazo (San Jose, C.R., 1986), considers
an important event in the immediate aftermath of the fighting. From the
point of view of the victorious rebels, Alberto Cafias, Los ocho anos (San

2$. Costa Rica 709
Jose, C.R., 1955), continues to be a classic text, as is El espiritu del 48

(San Jose, C.R., 1987), by their leader, Jose Figueres. Roberto Fernan-
dez, La huelga de Brazos Caidos (San Jose, C.R., 1953), gives a good
depiction of the political atmosphere on the eve of the conflict. The
perspective of the Communist Party is presented in Partido Vanguardia
Popular, Como y por que cayo la democracia en Costa Rica (Guatemala City,
1948), and Manuel Mora, Dos discursos en defensa de Vanguardia Popular
(San Jose, C.R., 1959). More recently, the memoirs of Fernando Soto
Harrison, Quepaso en los anos 40 (San Jose, C.R., 1991), are an interesting
contribution above all to our understanding of Teodoro Picado. Shortly to
appear are the memoirs of Jaime Cerdas Mora, La Otra Vanguardia, which
constitute an interesting account of the development of the Communist
Party up to the 1970s. Later, and more sophisticated, interpretations
made from the same political perspective include Manuel Rojas, Lucha
social y guerra civil en Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1980), and Gerardo
Contreras and Jose Manuel Cerdas, Los anos 40: Historia de una politica de
alianzas (San Jose, C.R., 1988). The record of the defeated Picado regime
is defended in Enrique Guier, Defensa de los Senores Licenciados Teodoro
Picado y Vicente Urcuyo (San Jose, C.R., 1950), and by Picado himself in El
pacto de la embajada de Mexico; Su incumplimiento (Managua, n.d.). Another
attack on Figueres, this time for his failure to honour pledges to the
Caribbean Legion, is made in Rosendo Argiiello, Quienes y como nos
traicionaron (Mexico, D.F., 1954). John Patrick Bell, Crisis in Costa Rica:
The 1948 Revolution (Austin, Tex., 1971) remains one of the best sources
on the civil war and its immediate background. More recently Fabrice
Edouard Lehoucq has attempted a general, revisionist reinterpretation of
the origins of the Civil War of 1948: 'Class conflict, political crisis and
the breakdown of democratic practices in Costa Rica: Reassessing the
origins of the 1948 Civil War', JLAS, 23/1 (1991). See also Rodolfo
Cerdas, 'Costa Rica', in Leslie Bethell and Ian Roxborough (eds.), Latin
America between the Second World War and the Cold War, 19441948 (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1992).
For studies of Archbishop Victor Sanabria, who played a major role in
the political events of the 1940s, see Ricardo Blanco, Monsenor Sanabria
(San Jose, C.R., 1962) and Obispos y arzobispos de Costa Rica (San Jose,
C.R., 1966); Santiago Arrieta, El pensamiento politico-social de Monsenor
Sanabria (San Jose, C. R., 1977); James Baker, La iglesia y el sindicalismo en
Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1978); Javier Solis, La herencia de Sanabria:
Analisispolitico de la iglesia costarricense (San Jose, C.R., 1983). And on the

Catholic church more generally, see Philip J. Williams, The Catholic

Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica (Basingstoke, Eng., 1989).
Rafael Calderon Guardia is the subject of a number of studies in addition
to that by Villegas just noted. Among the most useful are: Carlos Fernan-
dez, Calderon Guardia: Lidery caudillo (San Jose, C.R., 1939); the compila-
tion edited by Mario Hidalgo, Dr. Calderon Guardia: Reformador social de
Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1983); and Jorge M. Salazar, Calderon Guardia
(San Jose, C.R., 1980). The literature on Figueres is more extensive and
includes a number of eulogistic or uncritical works, such as Hugo
Navarro, Josi Figueres en la evolucion de Costa Rica (Mexico, D.F., 1953);
Arturo Castro, Jose Figueres: El hombre y su obra: Ensayo de una biografia (San
Jose, C.R., 1955); and Charles Ameringer, Don Pepe: A Political Biography
of Jose Figueres of Costa Rica (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1978). A useful bibli-
ography is Harry Kantor, Bibliography of Jose Figueres (Tempe, Ariz.,
1972); the same author's The Costa Rican Election of 1933: A Case Study
(Gainesville, Fla., 1958) is also valuable to students of Figueres's role in
national politics. See also Alberto L. Salom, Los origenes del Partido
Liberacion Nacional (San Jose, C.R., 1990). The Constitutent Assembly of
1949 is described from a journalistic perspective in Ruben Hernandez,
Desde la barra: Como se discutio la Constitucion de 1949 (San Jose, C.R.,
1953), while the charter itself is analysed in the excellent work by Oscar
Aguilar, La constitucion politica de 1949: Antecedentes y proyecciones (San Jose,
C.R., 1975). For broader consideration of constitutional issues, see
Hernan G. Peralta, Las constituciones de Costa Rica (Madrid, 1962), and
Jorge Saenz, El despertar constitucional de Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1985).
The fullest survey of the nationalization of the banks undertaken during
this period is Rufino Gil, La nacionalizacion bancaria (San Jose, C.R.,
1962), which complements the same author's Ciento cinco anos de vida
bancaria en Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1974). For the post-civil war
administration of Otilio Ulate, Jose Luis Torres, Otilio Ulate: Su partido y
sus luchas (San Jose, C.R., 1986), stands alone in its field. It is usefully
supplemented by Ulate's own writings, collected in A la luz de la moral
politica (San Jose, C.R., 1976). Further information on this period may be
gleaned from the relevant chapters of two general studies: Joaquin Garro,
Veinte anos de historia chica: Notas para una historia costarricense (San Jose,
C.R., 1967), and Jorge Rovira, Estado y politica economica en Costa Rica,
1948-1970 (San Jose, C.R., 1983).
The presidency of Mario Echandi (1958-62) still awaits a detailed
historical assessment. However, some interesting material is available in

23. Costa Rica 711
Maria Gam boa (ed.), Los vetos del Presidente Echandi: Sus razones y justifi-
cation: 19581962 (San Jose, C.R., 1962), and Mark Rosenberg, Las
luchaspor el seguro social en Costa Rica (San Jose, C.R., 1980). The literature
on the Trejos Fernandez administration (196670) is similarly thin, but
important documentation is given in Jose J. Trejos Fernandez, Ocho anos en
la politica costarricense (San Jose, C.R., 1973), and a number of useful
insights may be derived from Oscar Aguilar, Democracia y partidos politicos
en Costa Rica (195060) (San Jose, C.R., 1977), and Jorge E. Romero,
Partidos, poder y derecho (San Jose, C.R., 1979).
By contrast, the history of PLN administrations is covered by numerous
works. For the party's background, see Carlos Araya, Historia de lospartidos
politicos de Costa Rica: Liberation National (San Jose, C.R., 1968), which
provides a most useful analysis despite the partisan position of the author.
A key programmatic statement from the early years is Ideario costarricense:
Resultado de una encuesta national (San Jose, C.R., 1943). Important docu-
mentation of subsequent developments is contained in two anthologies:
Alfonso Carro (ed.), El pensamiento sotialdemocrata: Antologia (San Jose,
C.R., 1986), and Carlos Jose Gutierrez (ed.), El pensamiento politico
costarricense: La socialdemocratia (San Jose, C.R., 1986), which is more
extensive and systematic in its coverage. The leaders of the PLN have
themselves produced a number of important works. Daniel Oduber, Rakes
del Partido Liberation National: Notas para una evaluation historica (San Jose,
C.R., 1985), is extremely useful on the origins of the party, and Figueres's
writings provide abundant material on the development of the PLN's
ideology and outlook. Cartas a un ciudadano (San Jose, C.R., 1956), Los
deberes de mi destino (San Jose, C.R., 1957), Estos diez anos (San Jose, C.R.,
1958) and La pobreza de las naciones (San Jose, C.R., 1973), are broadly
representative of the ex-president's output, although it should be noted
that his views did not always enjoy a consensus within the party. More-
over, an understanding of the early approach adopted by currents which
were later to form the PLN cannot be gained without reference to the work
of Rodrigo Facio, particularly Estudio sobre economia costarricense (San Jose,
C.R., 1942); El centro ante las garantias sociales (San Jose, C.R., 1943); and
La moneda y la Banca Central en Costa Rica (Mexico, D.F., 1947). For
independent treatments of the party by outsiders, see Burt H. English,
Liberation National in Costa Rica: The Development of a Political Party in a
Transitional Society (Gainesville, Fla., 1971), and James L. Busey, Notes on
Costa Rican Democracy (Boulder, Colo., 1962). A critical analysis is given
in Susanne Jonas Bodenheimer, La ideologia sotialdemocrata en Costa Rica

(San Jose, C.R., 1984). Analysis of elections constitutes an important

feature of the literature on Costa Rican politics. Among the best work
containing both data and interpretation, see Eduardo Oconitrillo, Un siglo
de politico, costarricense (San Jose, C.R., 1981), and Wilburg Jimenez,
Andlisis electoral de una democracia (San Jose, C.R., 1977). Other studies in
this area include Olda M. Acuna and Carlos F. Denton, La election de un
presidente: Costa Rica 1982 (San Jose, C.R., 1984); Mario Sanchez, Las bases
sociales del voto en Costa Rica (1974-78) (San Jose, C.R., 1985); C.
Granados and A. Ohlsson, 'Organization del territorio y resultados elec-
torales en Costa Rica, 19531982', ESC, 36 (1983); Jorge Rovira, 'Costa
Rica: Elecciones, partidos politicos y regimen democratico,' FLACSO,
Revista Polemica, 11 (1990); Mitchell A. Seligson and Miguel Gomez,
'Ordinary elections in extraordinary times: The political economy of vot-
ing in Costa Rica', in John A. Booth and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.),
Elections and Democracy in Central America (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); and
Mario Samper, 'Fuerzas socio-politicos y procesos electorales en Costa
Rica', Revista de Historia, special issue, 1988.
On international relations, two works published outside Costa Rica are
important: Adolfo Aguilar and H. Rodrigo Jauberth (eds.), Costa Rica-
Mexico, 19781986; De la concertation a la confrontation (Mexico, D.F.,
1987) and Francisco Rojas Aravena (ed.), Costa Rica y el sistema in-
ternational (Caracas, 1990).
24. PANAMA
The most complete annotated bibliography of Panama appears in Carlos

Manuel Gasteazoro, Celestino Andres Araiiz, and Armando Munoz Pinz6n
(eds.), La historia de Panama en sus textos (Panama City, 1980), vol. 2, 3 3 1 -
448, the last third of which deals with the twentieth century. Briefer but
useful are Eleanor Langstaff, Panama (Santa Barbara, Calif, 1982) and
Basil C. and Anne K. Hedrick (eds.), Historical Dictionary of Panama
(Metuchen, N.J., 1970). A recent reliable survey is Sandra W. Meditz and
Dennis M. Hanratty (eds.), Panama: A Country Study (Washington, D.C.,
1989), especially Jan Knippers Black's historical chapter.
Several journals carry articles and documents dealing with Panama's
history since independence. The Boletin de la Academia Panamena de la
Historia ( 1 9 3 3 - ) concentrates on the colonial period and the nineteenth
century but sometimes dedicates an issue to a national period figure or

24 Panama 713
event. Reuista Loteria (1941 ), published by the government, devotes

much attention to recent history, culture and documentation. Tareas
(i960 ), founded by Panama's leading socialist writer, Ricaurte Soler,
carries articles by leftist writers and publishes occasional papers as well.
Cultural and social themes, often treated historically, predominate in the
Revista National de Cultura.
The birth of the republic in 1903 is covered in most of the histories of
the Panama Canal (see essay VII:25). Among the most authoritative are
Eduardo Lemaitre, Panama y su separation de Colombia (Bogota, 1972),
David McCullough, The Path Between the Seas (New York, 1977), and
James M. Skinner, France and Panama: The Unknown Years, 18941908
(New York, 1988). Lawrence Ealy, The Republic of Panama in World Affairs,
19031950 (Philadelphia, 1951) concentrates on Panama's participation
in the League of Nations, the inter-American system, and the UN.
A number of good studies of U.S. relations with Panama cover domestic
affairs well. John Major, Prize Possession: The United States and the Panama
Canal, 19031979 (Cambridge, Eng., 1994) is indispensable. Gustavo A.
Mellander, The United States in Panamanian Politics (Danville, 111., 1971)
deals with the years immediately after independence (190310). William
McCain, The United States and the Republic of Panama (Durham, N.C., 1937)
depicts Panamanian affairs from independence to the 1930s from a State
Department perspective. Larry LaRae Pippin, The Remdn Era: An Analysis of
a Decade of Events in Panama, 1947-1957 (Stanford, Calif., 1964) covers the
period after the Second World War. William Jorden, Panama Odyssey (Austin,
Tex., 1984), chronicles his tour as U.S. ambassador to Panama in the 1970s.
Biographies provide essential material for the political chronology. J.
Conte Porras's Diccionario biografico de Panama (Panama City, 1975) may be
supplemented with his excellent Arnulfo Arias Madrid (Panama City,
1980) and its valuable appendices. In addition, see Manuel Octavio
Sisnet, Belisario Porras 6 la vocation de la nacionalidad (Panama City, 1959);
Carlos Manuel Gasteazoro, El pensamiento de Ricardo J. Alfaro (Panama
City, 1981); Baltasar Isaza Calderon, Carlos A. Mendoza y su generation
(Panama City, 1981); Gil Bias Tejeira, Biografia de Ricardo Adolfo de la
Guardia (Panama City, 1971); and Melida Ruth Sepiilveda, Harmodio
Arias Madrid; El hombre, el estadista y el periodista (Panama City, 1983).
Studies that cast light on Panama's social history are John and Mavis
Biesanz's excellent The People of Panama (New York, 1955); Daniel
Goldrich, Sons of the Establishment (Chicago, 1966); Omar Jaen Suarez, La
poblacion del istmo de Panama del siglo xvi al siglo xx (Panama City, 1978);

and Michael L. Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904

1981 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1985), which details the experience of the West
Indian immigrant community and its descendents. A thoughtful assess-
ment of social integration appears in Alfredo Castillero Calvo, La sociedad
panamena: Historia de su formacion y integracion (Panama City, 1970). Don-
ald Lee DeWitt, 'Social and educational thought in the development of
the Republic of Panama, 190346' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Uni-
versity of Arizona, 1972) provides a good intellectual history of Panama
from independence to the Second World War.
Economic relations until the mid-1970s are covered in Robert E. Loo-
ney, The Economic Development of Panama (New York, 1976), while John
Weeks and Andrew Zimbalist, Panama at the Crossroads: Economic Develop-
ment and Political Change in the 20th Century (Berkeley and Los Angeles,
1991), bring the story up to 1990, including an analysis of the U.S.
invasion. The World Bank's Panama: Structural Change and Growth Prospects
(Washington, D.C., 1985) concentrates on domestic issues. A good deal
of economic information is also contained in Omar Jaen Suarez, Geografia
de Panama (Panama City, 1985). A candid look at the banana industry
appears in Philippe I. Bourgeois's Ethnicity at Work: Divided Labor on a
Central American Banana Plantation (Baltimore, 1989). James Howe's,
'Native rebellion and U.S. intervention in Central America', Cultural
Survival Quarterly, 10/1 (1986), recounts the 1925 revolt of the Kuna
Indians, and his The Kuna Gathering (Austin, Tex., 1986) describes village
politics in the San Bias Islands.
An excellent account of the Torrijos era is Steve C. Ropp, Panamanian Pol-
itics: From Guarded Nation to National Guard (New York, 1982). See also
German Mufioz, 'Panamanian political reality: The Torrijos years' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Miami, 1981) and R6mulo Escobar
Bethancourt, Torrijos: Colonia americana no! (Bogota, 1981). The armed
forces of Panama receive close attention from Renato Pereira, Panama:
Fuerzasarmadasypolitica (Panama City, 1970), while Carlos Bolivar Pedres-
chi's De la proteccion del canal a la militarizacion del pats (Panama City, 1987)
argues that U.S. insistence on protecting the canal encouraged the military
to become involved in politics. George Priestly, Military Government and
Popular Participation in Panama: The Torrijos Regime, 19681975 (Boulder,
Colo., 1986) attempts to build a theory of military populism. Brittmarie
Janson Perez, Panama protesta: 19681989 (Panama City, 1993), contains
authoritative accounts of militarycivil conflict during the dictatorship.
The turmoil of the late 1980s culminating in the U.S. invasion pro-

2^. The Panama Canal Zone 715
duced several books and documents, including Weeks and Zimbalist,

Panama at the Crossroads; Richard M. Koster and Guillermo Sanchez
Borbon, In the Time of the Tyrants: Panama, 19681990 (New York, 1990);
John Dinges, Our Man in Panama (New York, 1990); Bruce W. Watson
and Peter G. Tsouras (eds.), Operation Just Cause: The U.S. Intervention in
Panama (Boulder, Colo., 1991); and Frederick Kempe, Divorcing the Dicta-
tor: America's Bungled Affair with Noriega (New York, 1990). Bob Wood-
ward, The Commanders (New York, 1990), devotes attention to the Bush
administration's decision to overthrow Noriega. The report of an Indepen-
dent Commission of Inquiry, The U.S. Invasion of Panama: The Truth
Behind Operation'JustCause' (Boston, 1991), an apologia for Noriega, is
highly critical of the United States. Margaret Scranton, The Noriega Years:
U.S.Panamanian Relations, 19811990 (Boulder, Colo., 1991), and Mi-
chael L. Conniff, Panama and the United States: The Forced Alliance (Athens,
Ga., 1991), attempt to provide historical perspective.
2 5 . T H E PANAMA CANAL Z O N E , 1904-1979
Among the available works of reference, one of the most useful is Wayne
Bray, The Controversy Over a New Canal Treaty between the United States and
Panama: A Selective Annotated Bibliography of United States, Panamanian,
Colombian, French, and International Organization Sources (Washington,
D.C., 1976). From the Panamanian side, see Nydia Cardozo and Consuelo
Tempone, Guia para investigadores de Panama (Panama City, 1978); and
from the Canal Zone, see Subject Catalog of the Special Panama Collection of
the Canal Zone Library-Museum (Boston, 1964). The most comprehensive
collection of documentary material is Library of Congress, Congressional
Research Service, Background Documents Relating to the Panama Canal (Wash-
ington, D.C., 1977). An indispensable primary source is the printed State
Department material, successively entitled Papers Relating to the Foreign
Relations of the United States, Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic
Papers and Foreign Relations of the United States. For a Zone perspective, see
the annual reports of the chairman of the Isthmian Canal Commission for
the years 1904 to 1914, of the governor of the Panama Canal for the years
1914 to 1951, and of the president of the Panama Canal Company for the
years 1951 to 1979 (Washington, D . C , 1904-79). Bringing the Zone
graphically to life in the period 190439 is the Panama Canal Photograph
Collection, held in Record Group 185 in the U.S. National Archives,

Ji6 VII. Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
Washington, D.C., while note should also be taken of two excellent
documentary films: Frederick Wiseman's 'Canal Zone' (1977) and Carl
Charlson's 'A man, a plan, a canal: Panama' (1987).
On the general subject of relations between Washington and Panama,
William McCain, The United States and the Republic of Panama (Durham,
N.C., 1937) is valuable but dated. Ronald Landa, 'U.S. policy toward
Panama, 1903 present: Questions of recognition and diplomatic rela-
tions and instances of U.S. intervention: A tabular summary', Department of
State Bulletin, 70 (22 April 1974), 143344, offers a succinct resume.
More recently we have had Walter LaFeber, The Panama Canal: The Crisis in
Historical Perspective (New York, 1978; rev. ed., 1990), David Farnsworth
and James McKenny, U.S.Panama Relations, 19031978: A Study in
Linkage Politics (Boulder, Colo., 1983) and John Major, Prize Possession: The
United States and the Panama Canal, 1903-1979 (Cambridge, Eng., 1994).
See also the work by the veteran writer on U.S. isthmian diplomacy,
Almon Wright, Panama: Tension's Child, 15021989 (New York, 1990).
For Panamanian views of the relationship, see Ernesto Castillero
Pimentel, Panama y los Estados Unidos (Panama City, 1953) and Ricardo
Alfaro, Medio siglo de relaciones entre Panama y los Estados Unidos (Panama
City, 1959). Also useful are Boris Blanco (ed.), Relaciones entre Panama y los
Estados Unidos (Panama City, 1974) and Thelma King, El problema de la
soberania en las relaciones entre Panama y los Estados Unidos (Panama City,
1961), while the Panamanian Revista Loteria from time to time publishes
special issues on salient features of the U.S.Panama nexus.
On the canal itself, see the standard work by Norman Padelford, The
Panama Canal in Peace and War (New York, 1942), and Richard Baxter,
The Law of International Waterways, with Particular Regard to Interoceanic
Canals (Cambridge, Mass., 1964). The engineering problems of the canal
are dealt with in Miles DuVal, 'Isthmian canal policy an evaluation',
U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, 81 (1955), 263-75.
For the legal and administrative status of the Zone, see Marshall
Dimock, Government-operated Enterprises in the Panama Canal Zone (Chi-
cago, 1934); Bernard Burdick, 'The Panama Canal and the Canal Zone:
Their character, functions, government and laws', Federal Bar Association
Journal, 3 (1937), 89-92; and David Hanrahan, 'Legal aspects of the
Panama Canal Zone - in perspective', Boston University Law Review, 45
(1965), 64-87. Also useful are Edwin Hoyt, National Policy and Interna-
tional Law: Case Studies from American Canal Policy (Denver, 1967), and
Martha Shay, 'The Panama Canal Zone: In search of a juridical identity',

25. The Panama Canal Zone 717
New York University Journal of International Law and Politics, 9 (1976),

15-60.
The sociology of the Zone is treated in John and Mavis Biesanz, The
People of Panama (New York, 1955) and in John Biesanz, 'Race relations in
the Canal Zone', Phylon, 11 (1950), 2330. Social relations between Zone
and Republic are also dealt with by Ramon Carillo and Richard Boyd,
'Some aspects of social relations between Latin and Anglo Americans on
the isthmus of Panama', Boletin de la Universidad Interamericana de Panama,
2 (1945), 70384, and by two Zonians, Herbert and Mary Knapp, in
their Red, White and Blue Paradise: The American Canal Zone in Panama (San
Diego, Calif., 1985). Two recent studies of the Zone school system are
Alda Harper, Tracing the Course of Growth and Development in Educational
Policy for the Canal Zone Colored Schools, 19051955 (Ann Arbor, Mich.,
1979) and Lowell Wilson et al., Schooling in the Panama Canal Zone, 1904
J
979 (Panama Canal Area, 1980). The West Indian community in the
Zone and Panama is the theme of three valuable surveys: Velma Newton,
The Silver Men (Kingston, Jam., 1984); George Westerman, Los inmi-
grantes antillanos en Panama (Panama City, 1980); and Michael Conniff,
Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904-1981 (Pittsburgh, Pa.,
1985). See also Roman Foster's television documentary, 'Canal Diggers'
(1984). Zonian preoccupations are reflected in three house journals pro-
moted by the Zone authorities: The Panama Canal Record (1907-41), The
Panama Canal Review (1950-81) and Spillway (1962- ).
The nineteenth-century background to the Zone is covered in a number
of works. John Kemble, The Panama Route, 1848-1869 (Berkeley, 1943,
reprinted Columbia, S.C., 1990) deals with the early years, and where
Kemble leaves off, another important account begins: David McCullough,
The Path between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 18JO1914
(New York, 1977). The prelude to the canal is also the subject of two
classics: Gerstle Mack, The Land Divided: A History of the Panama Canal
and Other Isthmian Canal Projects (New York, 1944), and Miles DuVal,
Cadiz to Cathay: The Story of the Long Diplomatic Struggle for the Panama
Canal (Stanford, Calif., 1947). On U.S. interventions in the isthmus
during the second half of the century, see Colby Chester, 'Diplomacy of
the quarterdeck', American Journal of International Law, 8 (1914), 44376,
and Daniel Wicks, 'Dress rehearsal: United States intervention on the
isthmus of Panama, 1885', Pacific Historical Review, 49(1980), 581-605.
The run-up to the U.S. acquisition of canal rights in 1903 is dealt with
in James Skinner, France and Panama: The Unknown Years, 1894-1908

(New York, 1989) and in Dwight Miner, The Fight for the Panama Route:
The Story of the Spooner Act and the HayHerrdn Treaty (1940; reprinted New
York, 1966). See also Charles Ameringer, 'The Panama Canal lobby of
Philippe Bunau-Varilla and William Nelson Cromwell', AHR, 68 (1962-
3), 34663, but beware of the hagiographical Gustave Anguizola, Philippe
Bunau-Varilla: The Man behind the Panama Canal (Chicago, T980).
The Panamanian secession from Colombia in 1903 and the consequent
canal treaty with Washington have produced an extensive literature. The
Colombian view is given in Eduardo Lemaitre, Panama y su separacion de
Colombia (Bogota, 1971), while the U.S. despoliation of the Colombians is
treated in Richard Lael, Arrogant Diplomacy: U.S. Policy toward Colombia,
19031922 (Wilmington, Del., 1987). The U.S. role in the 1903 revolu-
tion is considered in Bernard Weisberger, 'The strange affair of the taking
of the Panama Canal Zone', American Heritage, 27 (October 1976), 611,
6877, a good popular account, and in Richard Turk, 'The United States
Navy and the "taking" of Panama, 1901 1903', Military Affairs, 38
(1974), 928, and John Nikol and Francis Xavier Holbrook, 'Naval
operations in the Panamanian revolution of 1903', American Neptune, 37
(1977), 25361. On the making of the treaty, Philippe Bunau-Varilla,
Panama: The Creation, the Destruction, and Resurrection (London, 1913) is to
be taken with maximum scepticism, and the contemporary quest for
explanations may be traced in U.S. Congress, House of Representatives,
Committee on Foreign Affairs, The Story of Panama: Hearings on the Rainey
Resolution (Washington, D.C., 1913). On the treaty itself, two studies dig
below the surface: Charles Ameringer, 'Philippe Bunau-Varilla: New light
on the Panama canal treaty', HAHR, 46 (1966), 2852, and John Major,
'Who wrote the HayBunau-Varilla convention?', Diplomatic History, 8
(1984), 11523. The response of U.S. public opinion to the events of
1903 is the subject of Terence Graham, The 'interests of civilization' ? Reac-
tion in the United States against the 'Seizure' of the Panama Canal Zone, 1903
1904 (Lund, Sweden, 1983), and a vigorous justification of the U.S.
government's policy may be found in Elihu Root, 'The ethics of the
Panama question' in his Addresses on International Subjects (Cambridge,
Mass., 1916).
Central to an understanding of U.S. policy is the figure of President
Theodore Roosevelt. One of the best insights into his thinking is given in
the first seven volumes of Elting Morison (ed.), The Letters of Theodore
Roosevelt (Cambridge, Mass., 19514), and see also the article of Frederick
Marks, 'Morality as a drive wheel in the diplomacy of Theodore Roose-

25. The Panama Canal Zone 719
velt', Diplomatic History, 2 (1978), 4 3 - 6 2 . Roosevelt's role in the Panama

affair is exhaustively covered in Richard Collin, Theodore Roosevelt's Carib-
bean: The Panama Canal, the Monroe Doctrine, and the Latin American Context
(Baton Rouge, La., 1990), while Robert Friedlander, 'A reassessment of
Roosevelt's role in the Panamanian revolution of 1903', Western Political
Quarterly, 14 (1961), 535-43, takes a sympathetic view. TR's own self-
justification is 'How the United States acquired the right to dig the
Panama Canal', Outlook, 99 (SeptemberDecember 1911), 31418, and
opposing sides in the subsequent debate can be sampled in Leander Cham-
berlain, 'A chapter of national dishonor', North American Review, 195
(JanuaryJune 1912), 14574, and Alfred Thayer Mahan, 'Was Panama
"a chapter of national dishonor"?', in the same journal, 196 (July-
December 1912), 54968.
The first generation of U.S. tenure is unevenly covered. The most
intensive treatment has been given to the construction decade between
1904 and 1914, for which see the works previously cited by Mack, The
Land Divided and McCullough, The Path Between the Seas. Also important
as a history of the canal construction is Miles DuVal, And the Mountains
Will Move: The Story of the Building of the Panama Canal (Stanford, Calif.,
1947; reprinted, Westport, Conn., 1969). And see Jerome Laval, Panama
and the Building of the Canal: Photographs from the Keystone-Mast Stereograph
Collection (Fresno, Calif, 1978) and Ulrich Keller, The Building of the
Panama Canal in Historic Photographs (New York, 1983).
Roosevelt's role in streamlining the administration of the Zone is dealt
with by Alfred Chandler, 'Theodore Roosevelt and the Panama Canal: A
Study in administration' in Elting Morison (ed.), The Letters of Theodore
Roosevelt, vol. 6 (Cambridge, Mass., 1952), 1547-57, and see also J.
Michael Hogan, 'Theodore Roosevelt and the heroes of Panama', Presiden-
tial Studies Quarterly, 19 (1989), 79-94. The director of canal construc-
tion, General George Washington Goethals, has left us a useful guide to
Zone management up to 1914 in his Government of the Canal Zone (Prince-
ton, N J . , 1915), as well as the collection of studies he edited, The Panama
Canal: An Engineering Treatise (New York, 1916), a multi-faceted view of
all the major problems presented in the construction era. An equally
valuable compendium is Ira Bennett's History of the Panama Canal: Its
Construction and Builders (Washington, D.C., 1915).
The involvement of the United States in Panamanian politics in the
construction era is treated in Robert Barrow, 'The first Panama Canal
crisis, 1904', Caribbean Studies, 5 (1965-6), 12-27, Ralph Minger, Wil-

Ham Howard Taft and United States Foreign Policy: The Apprenticeship Years,
1900-1908 (Urbana, 111., 1975) and Gustavo Mellander, The United States
in Panamanian Politics: The Intriguing Formative Years (Danville, 111., 1971).
On the potential role of the canal in U.S. strategy, see William
Adams, 'Strategy, diplomacy and isthmian canal security, 1890-1917'
(unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1974); Richard
Challener, Admirals, Generals and American Foreign Policy, 1898-1914
(Princeton, N.J., 1973); John Grenville and George Young, Politics, Strat-
egy and American Diplomacy: Studies in Foreign Policy, 18J3191J (New
Haven, Conn., 1966); Robert Seager, Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Man and
His Letters (Annapolis, Md., 1977); and David Healy, Drive to Hegemony:
The United States in the Caribbean, 1898-191J (Madison, Wis., 1988).
There is so far little of substance on the years 1914 to 1929, but the
following are useful: George Baker, 'The Wilson administration and Pan-
ama, 1913-1921', JIAS, 8 (1966), 279-93; Carlos Ivan Zuniga, El
desarme de la Policia Nacionalen 1916 (Panama City, 1973); Ricardo Alfaro,
'Historia documentada de las negociaciones para la celebracion del tratado
de 1926', Revista Loteria, 248-9 (October-November 1976), 51-64;
Thomas Leonard, 'The United States and Panama: Negotiating the
aborted 1926 treaty', Mid-America, 61 (1979), 189203; and Hugh Gor-
don Miller, The Isthmian Highway: A Review of the Problems of the Caribbean
(1929; reprinted, New York, 1970), an uncompromising defence of the
Big Stick on the eve of its formal renunciation.
On the period 1930 to 1955, one of the best studies is unpublished:
Almon Wright, 'The United States and Panama, 19331949', Depart-
ment of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, Research Project No. 499 (Au-
gust 1952). An important matter coming to a head in the 1930s is covered
in Thomas Leonard, 'The Commissary issue in United StatesPanamaian
relations, 1900-1936', TA, 30 (1973), 83-109, while the 1936 treaty
and its aftermath is treated in Lester Langley, 'Negotiating new treaties
with Panama: 1936', HAHR, 48 (1968), 22033, a n d The world crisis
and the Good Neighbor policy in Panama, 1936-1941', TA, 24 (1967),
13752. See also John Major, 'F.D.R. and Panama', Historical Journal, 28
(1985), 357-77-
For the Second World War, see Stetson Conn and Byron Fairchild,
Guarding the United States and its Outposts [The U.S. Army in World War II:
The Western Hemisphere] (Washington, D.C., 1964). Two unpublished
works are also useful: U.S. Army, Caribbean Defense Command, Histori-
cal Section, History of the Panama Canal Department, 4 vols. (Quarry

2 j>. The Panama Canal Zone 721
Heights, C.Z., 1947) and Kathleen Williams, Air Defense of the Panama
Canal, 1 January 19397 December 1941 {Army Air Forces Historical
Studies No. 42] (Washington, D.C., 1946). On the acquisition of new
bases for air defence, see Almon Wright, 'Defense site negotiations be-
tween the United States and Panama, 19361948', Department of State
Bulletin, 27 (11 August 1952), 212-19.
For the postwar decade, the following are valuable: John Major, 'Wast-
ing asset: The U.S. re-assessment of the Panama Canal, 1945-1949',
Journal of Strategic Studies, 3 (1980), 123-46 and ' "Pro mundi beneficio"?
The Panama Canal as an international issue, 19438', Review of Interna-
tional Studies, 9 (1983), 1734. See also David Acosta, La influencia
decisiva de la opinion publica en el rechazo del Convenio FilosHines de 1941
(Panama City, 1981). On postwar politics, see Thomas Leonard, 'The
United States perception of Panamanian politics, 19441949', Journal of
Third World Studies, 5 (1988), 11238. And for the Panamanian version of
negotiations for the treaty of 1955, see Octavio Fabrega, Carlos Sucre and
Roberto Huertematte, 'Informe completo de la mision especial negocia-
dora de Panama', Anuario de Derecho, 1 (1956).
For the period 19561979, interesting glimpses into otherwise inacces-
sible primary source material can be obtained through the Declassified
Documents Reference System (Arlington, Va., 197681 and Woodbridge,
Conn., 1982 to date). There is so far nothing substantial on the impact of
the 1956 Suez crisis on Panama, but the following item gives a Panaman-
ian view: Domingo Turner, 'Foster Dulles y el Canal de Panama', Human-
ismo, 5 (1957), 2135. See also Norman Padelford, 'The Panama Canal
and the Suez crisis', Proceedings of the American Society of International Law,
51st annual meeting, 2527 April 1957, 1019, and the prophetic
Martin Travis and James Watkins, 'Control of the Panama Canal: An
obsolete shibboleth?', Foreign Affairs, 37 (19589), 40718.
The 1964 crisis produced a special issue of Revista Loteria, No. 191
(October 1971), and the report of the International Commission of Jurists
may be found in the previously cited Background Documents Relating to the
Panama Canal, 1099142. In the wake of the crisis two valuable symposia
were published: Lyman Tondel (ed.), The Panama Canal: Background Papers
and Proceedings of the Sixth Hammarskjold Forum (Dobbs Ferry, N. Y., 1965),
and Georgetown University, Center for Strategic Studies, Panama Canal:
Issues and Treaty Talks (Washington, D.C., 1967). Thereafter, the treaty-
making process is well covered by Margaret Scranton, 'Changing United
States foreign policy: Negotiating new Panama Canal treaties, 1958-

1978' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1980).

A first-hand account of negotiations in the 1970s is provided by the then
U.S. ambassador to Panama, William Jorden, in his Panama Odyssey (Aus-
tin, Tex., 1984), and his full manuscript, complete with the references
missing from the book, is available in the Lyndon Baines Johnson Presiden-
tial Library in Austin. See also the view of the principal U.S. negotiator in
1977 in Sol Linowitz, The Making of a Public Man: A Memoir (Boston,
1985), and the revelations from several members of the U.S. negotiating
team in Diana Bendahmane and John McDonald (eds.), Perspectives on
Negotiation: Four Case Studies and Interpretations (Washington, D.C., 1986).
For a Panamanian angle there is Aristides Royo, Las negociaciones con los
Estados Unidos sobre el canal de Panama (Panama City, 1979).
The complete text of the 1977 treaties and agreements is to be found in
U.S. Department of State, United States Treaties and Other International
Agreements, vol. 33, part 1, T.I.A.S. 10029-32 (Washington, D . C ,
1981). In the public debate, perhaps the most reasoned case against the
treaties was put by Paul Ryan, The Panama Canal Controversy: United States
Diplomatic and Defense Interests (Stanford, Calif, 1977) and for the Carter
administration a persuasive vindication came from his secretary of state,
Cyrus Vance, in Hard Choices: Four Critical Years in Managing America's
Foreign Policy (New York, 1983).
The transcript of the treaty debate in the U.S. Senate and the text of the
various amendments to the treaties are available in the three volumes of
U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on the
Separation of Powers, Panama Canal Treaties [United States Senate Debate]
19778 (Washington, D . C , 1978). See also the same subcommittee's
Hearing on the Panama Canal Treaty Constitutional and Legal Aspects of the
Ratification Process (Washington, D . C , 1984).
Historical analyses of the ratification process include William Furlong
and Margaret Scran ton, The Dynamics of Foreign Policymaking: The President,
the Congress and the 1977 Panama Canal Treaties (Boulder, Colo., 1984);
George Moffett, The Limits of Victory: The Ratification of the Panama Canal
Treaties, 19771978 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1985)^. Michael Hogan, The Panama
Canal in American Politics: Domestic Advocacy and the Evolution of Policy
(Carbondale, 111., 1986); G. Harvey Summ and Tom Kelly (eds.), The
Good Neighbors: America, Panama and the 1977 Panama Canal Treaties (Ath-
ens, Ohio, 1988); T. J. Smith III and J. Michael Hogan, 'Public opinion
and the Panama Canal treaties of 1977', Public Opinion Quarterly, 51
(1987), 5-30; Steve Ropp, 'Negotiating the 1978 Panama Canal treaties:

26. Cuba, c.1930-1959 723
Contending theoretical perspectives' in John Martz (ed.). United States

Policy in Latin America: A Quarter Century of Crisis and Challenge, 1961
1986 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1988), 175201; and Thomas Leonard, 'The 1977
Panama Canal treaties in historical perspective', Journal of Caribbean Stud-
ies, 2 (1981), 190-209.
The full text of the enabling legislation for the treaties can be found in
U.S. Statutes at Large, Public Law 96-70 of 27 September 1979: The
Panama Canal Act of 1979 [93 Stat. 452] (Washington, D.C., 1979). The
legislative history of the act is in vol. 2 of U.S. Code, Congressional and
Administrative News: 96th Cong., 1st Sess., 1979 (Washington, D.C.,
1980). For a lawyer's commentaries on questions raised by the act, see
Wilbur Hamlin, 'Panama Canal: Issues involved in the transfer of the
Canal to Panama', Harvard International Law Journal, 19 (19789), 279
328. Three further articles touching on aspects of treaty implementation
are: H. M. Foy, 'The President, the Congress, and the Panama Canal: An
essay on the powers of the executive and legislative branches in the field of
foreign affairs', Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, 16
(1986), 607-54; H. G. Maier, 'United States' defense rights in the
Panama Canal treaties: The need for clarification of a studied ambiguity',
Virginia Journal of International Law, 24 (1984), 287-322, and ' "United
States" defense rights in the Panama Canal', Brooklyn Journal of Interna-
tional Law, 16 (1990), 647-74.
Finally, on the Canal Zone's adaptation to its new status, see the follow-
ing studies by John Augelli: The Panama Canal Area in Transition: Part I: The
Treaties and the Zonians, American Universities Field Staff Reports, No. 3,
North America, 1981; The Panama Canal Area in Transition: Part II: The
Challenge of Integration and Development, American Universities Field Staff
Reports, No. 4, North America, 1981; and 'The Panama Canal Area: The
"made-in-America" era comes to a close', Focus (Spring 1986), 20-9.
26. C U B A , c. 1 9 3 0 - 1 9 5 9
Valuable chapters on Cuba treating the period from the machadato to the
Revolution can be found in the following general studies: Hugh Thomas,
Cuba or The Pursuit of Freedom (London, 1971); Jaime Suchlicki, Cuba: From
Columbus to Castro, 3rd ed. (Washington, D.C., 1990); Jorge Dominguez,
Cuba: Order and Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Louis A. Perez, Jr.,
Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution (New York, 1988); and Ram6n E. Ruiz,

Cuba: The Making ofa Revolution (Amherst, Mass., 1968). Among the better
general historical surveys published in Cuba are Oscar Pino Santos, Historia
de Cuba: Aspectos fundamentals (Havana, 1964); Julio E. Le Riverend, Histo-
ria de Cuba (Havana, 1973), and Ministerio de Fuerzas Armadas Revo-
lucionarias, Historia militar de Cuba (Havana, n.d.). A complete history of
Cuba is contained in the ten-volume collaborative work supervised by
Ramiro Guerra y Sanchez, Historia de la nacidn cubana (Havana, 1952). Also
of some use is the three-volume work by Emeterio S. Santovenia and Raul
M. Shelton, Cuba y su historia, 3rd ed. (Miami, 1966) and the five-volume
study by Jose Duarte Oropesa, Historiologia cubana (n.p., 1969-70), as well
as Calixto C. Maso, Historia de Cuba (Miami, 1976) and Carlos Marquez
Sterling, Historia de Cuba, desde Colon hasta Castro (New York, 1963). The
two-volume anthology published under the auspices of the Grupo de
Estudios Cubanos of the University of Havana, La republica neocolonial (Ha-
vana, 197579), deals expertly with a variety of topics including labour,
economic history, the armed forces, and the ABC revolutionary society.
Another useful anthology dealing with the pre-revolutionary period is the
reprinted edition of Robert Freeman Smith (ed.), Background to Revolution
(Huntington, N.Y., 1979). Wyatt MacGaffey and Clifford R. Barnett,
Twentieth Century Cuba (New York, 1965), an invaluable reference work,
contains much data on social, economic, political, and cultural develop-
ments on the island. A similar format was used in the volume published by
the Foreign Area Studies of American University, Cuba, A Country Study,
2nd ed. (Washington, D.C., 1985). Of some general value is Jaime
Suchlicki, Historical Dictionary of Cuba (Metuchen, N J . , 1988). Another
useful reference work, particularly for its wealth of statistical data, is Jose
Alvarez Diaz et al., A Study on Cuba (Coral Gables, Fla., 1965). The most
useful statistical compilation available is Susan Schroeder, Cuba: A Hand-
book of Historical Statistics (Boston, 1982).
Luis E. Aguilar, Cuba 1933: Prologue to Revolution (Ithaca, N.Y., 1972)
remains one of the most balanced and judicious accounts of the machadato
and the revolutionary tumult of the 1930s. For these years, see also Louis
A. Perez, Jr., Cuba Under the Plan Amendment, 1902-1934 (Pittsburgh,
Pa., 1986). The most complete study of the events of 1933, including an
extensive treatment of the 1920s, in the three-volume work of Lionel
Soto, La revolucion del 33 (Havana, 1977). An excellent study of the eclipse
of the revolutionary movement of the 1930s is found in Jose A. Tabares
del Real, La revolucion del 30: Sus dos ultimos ahos, 3rd ed. (Havana, 1975).

26. Cuba, C.1930-195C) 725
Also useful is Enrique de la Osa, Cronica del ano 33 (Havana, 1989). Of

particular use are the first-person accounts of participants in the events of
the 1930s. The second edition of Ricardo Adam y Silva, La gran mentira: 4
de septiembre de 1933 (Miami, 1986) is a detailed account of the 'sergeants'
revolt' by a former army officer. An anti-government officer account is
found in Emilio Laurent, De oficial a revolucionario (Havana, 1941). Justo
Carrillo, Cuba 1933: estudiantes, yanquis y soldados (Miami, 1985) is an
important memoir of the government of one hundred days as recounted by
one of the leading student participants. Used with care, Gerardo Ma-
chado, Memorias: Ocho anos de lucha (Miami, 1982) provides important
insight into the late 1920s and early 1930s. Older memoirs are still of
value. An advisor to Machado, Alberto Lamar Schweyer recounts the final
days of the regime in Como cayo elpresidente Machado (Madrid, 1941). The
secretary of war in the Cespedes government, Horacio Ferrer, treats the
events of 1933 in key chapters of his memoir, Con el rifle al hombro
(Havana, 1950). A useful first-person journalist account of 1933 is found
in M. Franco Varona, La revolution del 4 de septiembre (Havana, 1934). A
particularly useful first-person account of U.S. policy toward the Machado
government during the early 1930s is provided in Ambassador Harry
Guggenheim's book, The United States and Cuba (New York, 1934).
Treatment of the 1930s through the 1950s is uneven. Raymond Leslie
Buell et al., Problems of the New Cuba (New York, 1935) remains as a
landmark study of Cuba during the 1930s, dealing with virtually every
aspect of Cuban national, provincial, and municipal life. The Interna-
tional Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Report on Cuba (Balti-
more, 1951) is similar in approach and scope for the 1940s and early
1950s. Similar in character if not in detail is Carlos M. Raggi Ageo,
Condiciones econdmicas y sociales de la Republica de Cuba (Havana, 1944).
Together these three studies are indispensable reference works for the
period. Samuel Farber, Revolution and Reaction in Cuba, 19331960 (Mid-
dletown, Conn., 1976), is an excellent study dealing with the period
between the 1930s and the 1950s. A useful journalistic account of the
period between the 1930s and 1950s is Ruby Hart Phillips, Cuba: Island of
Paradox (New York, 1959). National politics for these years are well
treated in Ramon de Armas et al., Los partidos burgueses en Cuba neocolonial,
18991952 (Havana, 1985). Enrique Vignier and Guillermo Alonso, La
corruptionpolitica y administrativa en Cuba, 19441952 (Havana, 1952) is a
documentary history of the Autentico years. Also of some use for this

726 VII- Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
period is the biography by Luis Conte Agiiero, Eduardo Chibds, el adalidde

Cuba (Mexico, D.F., 1955). By and large, however, the decade of the
1940s has been largely neglected.
This is not the case with the 1950s. The literature dealing with the
revolutionary struggle against Batista is voluminous. Most of the mono-
graphic literature deals specifically with the politico-military aspects of
the anti-Batista struggle. Some of the better English-language accounts
include Ramon Bonachea and Marta San Martin, The Cuban Insurrection
(New Brunswick, N.J., 1974); Herbert L. Matthews, Revolution in Cuba
(New York, 1975); Robert Taber, M26, Biography of a Revolution (New
York, 1961); C. Fred Judson, The Political Education of the Cuban Rebel
Army, 19531963 (Boulder, Colo., 1984); and Mario Llerena, The Unsus-
pected Revolution (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986). One of the most detailed and mov-
ing accounts of the revolutionary struggle, concentrating on the last
month of the war, is John Dorschner and Roberto Fabricio, The Winds of
December (New York, 1980). Rolando E. Bonachea and Nelson P. Valdes,
Revolutionary Struggle, 19471938 (Cambridge, Mass., 1972) provides the
texts of the major speeches and articles of Fidel Castro. One of the more
comprehensive works dealing with the 1950s is Jose Barbeito, Realidady
masificacidn: Reflexiones sobre la revolucidn cubana (Caracas, 1964). Jose
Suarez Nunez, El gran culpable (Caracas, 1963) and Jose A. Tabares del
Real, Ensayo de interpretacidn de la revolucidn cubana (La Paz, i960) are also
useful for the 1950s. Among the better accounts of these years published
in Cuba are Luis Emiro Valencia, Realidad y perspectivas de la revolucidn
cubana (Havana, 1961); Mario Mencia, La prision fecunda (Havana, 1980),
and Tomas Toledo Batard, La toma del poder (Havana, 1989). For first-
person government versions of these years see Fulgencio Batista, Cuba
Betrayed (New York, 1962); Florentino Rosell Leyva, La Verdad (Miami,
i960); and Esteben Ventura Novo, Memorias (Mexico, D.F., 1961).
Numerous biographies of Fidel Castro also provide valuable accounts of
these years. Among the most useful are Herbert Matthews, Fidel Castro
(New York, 1969); Lionel Martin, The Early Fidel: Roots of Castro's Commu-
nism (Secaucus, N.J., 1978); Peter G. Bourne, Fidel, a Biography of Fidel
Castro (New York, 1986); and Tad Szulc, Fidel: A Critical Portrait (New
York, 1986). Of limited value is Georgie Anne Geyer, Guerrilla Prince:
The Untold Story of Fidel Castro (Boston, 1991).
Much scholarship concentrates on specific aspects of Cuban history
during these critical decades. Perhaps nowhere is the literature richer than
in the area of relations between Cuba and the United States. An older but

26. Cuba, c.1930-1959 727
still useful study is Russell H. Fitzgibbon, Cuba and the United States,
1900-1935 (1935; repr. New York, 1964). An excellent monograph
which concludes with a treatment of the 1920s and 1930s is Jules R.
Benjamin, The United States and Cuba: Hegemony and Dependent Development,
1880-1934 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1977). Irwin Gellman, Batista and Roosevelt:
Good Neighbor Diplomacy in Cuba, 1933-1945 (Albuquerque, N.Mex.,
1973) examines the subsequent decade, with emphasis on diplomatic
relations between both countries, recounted largely from the North Ameri-
can perspective and based principally on U.S. archival sources. The eco-
nomic aspects of CubaU.S. relations are the principal focus of the bal-
anced and thoughtful study of Robert F. Smith, The United States and
Cuba: Business and Diplomacy, 19171960 (New Haven, Conn., i960). A
more recent study dealing with the late 1950s is Morris H. Morley,
Imperial State and Revolution: The U.S. and Cuba, 1952-1986 (Cambridge,
Eng., 1986). General accounts of CubaU.S. relations for these years can
be found in Lester D. Langley, The Cuban Policy of the United States (New
York, 1968); Michael J. Mazarr, Semper Fidel: American and Cuba, 1776-
1988 (Baltimore, 1988); Jules R. Benjamin, The United States and the
Origins of the Cuban Revolution (Princeton, N.J., 1990); and Louis A. Perez,
Jr., Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy (Athens, Ga.,
1990). Three first-person accounts of U.S. diplomatic officials are also
important sources for these years: Earl E. T. Smith, The Fourth Floor (New
York, 1962); Philip W. Bonsai, Cuba, Castro, and the United States (Pitts-
burgh, Pa., 1971); and Wayne E. Smith, The Closest of Enemies (New York,
1987)-
Other specialized monographs include Lowry Nelson, Rural Cuba (Min-
neapolis, Minn., 1950), an invaluable study that has been the point of
departure for all subsequent research on life in the Cuban countryside. A
useful study of the peasantry is found in Antero Regalado Falc6n, Las
luchas campesinas en Cuba (Havana, 1973). Louis A. Perez, Jr., Army Politics
in Cuba, 1898-1958 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1975), treats the emergence of the
armed forces in Cuban politics, as do the latter chapters of Federico
Chang, ElEjercito Nacional en la republica neocolonial, 1899-1933 (Havana,
1981) and Rafael Fermoselle, The Evolution of the Cuban Military, 1492
1986 (Miami, 1987).
Among the most useful works on Cuban economic history are the two
studies by Julio E. Le Riverend, La Republica: Dependencia y revolucion
(Havana, 1966), and Historia economica de Cuba (Havana, 1971). Also
useful are Francisco Lopez Segrera, Cuba: Capitalismo dependiente y sub-

desarrollo (1510-1939) (Havana, 1972), and the two works by Oscar Pino
Santos, El asalto a Cuba por la oligarquiafinancierayanqui (Havana, 1973)
and El imperialismo norteamerkano en la economia de Cuba (Havana, 1973).
Useful studies of labour include Jean Stubbs, Tobacco on the Periphery: A
Case Study in Cuban Labour History, 1860-1958 (London, 1985); Carlos
del Toro Gonzalez, Algunos aspectos economicos, sociales y politkos del mnvimi-
ento obrero cubano {1933-1958) (Havana, 1974); Evelio Jesus Telleria Toca,
Congresos obreros en Cuba (Havana, 1973); Mario Riera Hernandez, Historial
obrero cubano, 1574-1965 (Miami, 1965).
Jaime Suchlicki, University Students and Revolution in Cuba, 19201968
(Coral Gables, Fla., 1969) studies the role of students in national politics,
as does Niurka Perez Rojas, El movimiento estudiantil universitario de 1934 a
1940 (Havana, 1975). A more specialized work dealing with student
radicalism in the 1930s is Ladislao Gonzalez Carbajal, El Ala Izquierda
Estudiantil y su epoca (Havana, 1974). Olga Cabrera and Carmen Almodo-
var compiled an important collection of documents related to student
activism entitled Las luchas estudiantiles universitarios, 1923-1934 (Ha-
vana, 1975).
27. CUBA SINCE 1959
Research on post-1959 Cuba has been handicapped because scholars in the

country have concentrated on the years before 1959 and because field
research in Cuba by outsiders on the post-1959 period has been rare and
difficult. The secondary literature relies heavily on three types of sources:
research on publications issued by the Cuban government, impressions of
scholarly and other visitors to Cuba based on varying levels of systematic
observation and research, and research on Cuban exiles. The last of these,
however, focusses mostly on the exiles' integration into the United States
rather than on generating systematic information about Cuba itself. The
main scholarly journal for the study of contemporary Cuba is Cuban Stud-
ies, edited from 1970 to 1990 by Carmelo Mesa-Lago at the Center for
Latin American Studies, University of Pittsburgh. Published twice a year
until 1985, and once a year thereafter, it features scholarly articles princi-
pally, though not exclusively, by social scientists on post-1959 Cuba. Each
issue also carries the best and most complete bibliography of research on
Cuba, conducted in or outside Cuba, in all fields. See also Ronald H.
Chilcote and Cheryl Lutjens (eds.), Cuba: 1953-1978: A Bibliographic

2f. Cuba since 1939 729
Guide to the Literature, 2 vols. (White Plains, N.Y., 1986), and Louis A.
Perez, Jr., Cuba: An Annotated Bibliography (Westport, Conn., 1988). For
bibliography on the years before 1970, see Nelson P. Valdes and Edwin
Lieuwen, The Cuban Revolution: A Research-Study Guide (19591969) (Albu-
querque, N.Mex., 1971)- The best cartographic work is the joint publica-
tion by the Academia de Ciencias de Cuba and the Academia de Ciencias
de la URSS, Atlas nacional de Cuba (Havana, 1970).
Many journals have been sponsored by the government, the party, the
universities and the research institutes. Cuba Socialista covered political
topics in depth and was the theoretical organ of the Cuban Communist
Party until its discontinuation in the late 1960s, to reappear again in
December 1981. Economia y Desarrollo, published since the early 1970s by
the economics faculty of the University of Havana, has covered economic
topics within Cuba and abroad, including theoretical and empirical arti-
cles. Pensamiento Critico, published in the 1960s until discontinued in
1970, covered philosophical and political topics. Etnologiay Folklore, pub-
lished briefly in the mid-1960s, covered topics in sociology and social
anthropology.
The best contemporary social science research has been carried out by
the government's Instituto Cubano de Investigaciones y Orientacion de la
Demanda Interna, under the leadership of Eugenio Rodriguez Balari. Its
occasional publications, based on extensive systematic and random sam-
pling, provide fascinating insights into Cuban life.
The research institutions linked to the party's Central Committee staff
have been producing increasingly interesting work on international affairs,
two of them working on matters pertaining to Cuba. The Centro de
Estudios sobre America (CEA) began to issue occasional publications in
the early 1980s; one of the best is the two-volume El imperialismo
norteamericano contempordneo (Havana, 19814). In 1983 it began to pub-
lish Cuadernos de Nuestra America twice a year, especially helpful for Cuban
views of U.S.Cuban relations and of the U.S. Cuban-American commu-
nity. In 1981 the Centro de Investigaciones sobre la Economia Mundial
(CIEM) began publishing Temas de Economia Mundial, a good source on
Cuban foreign economic policy, especially on its economic relations with
the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. There have been some excellent
public health journals, all entitled Revista Cubana de . . . , in various
fields, including Cirugia, Medicina, Medicina Tropical, Pediatria, Higiene y
Epidemiologia and Administracion de Salud.
Cuba's daily national-circulation newspapers have been Granma (morn-

ing) and Juventud Rebdde (afternoon). Granma was founded in late 1965
from the merger of the organs of the 26 of July Movement {Revolution) and
of the PSP (Noticias de Hoy). Granma and its predecessors have been basic
sources for primary research concerning contemporary Cuba. The speeches
of Fidel Castro have often been published in full, as have important
speeches by other major figures. Cuba also publishes English and French
weekly digest editions of the daily Granma, at times drawing articles from
other mass publications. The weekly digest helps the study of Cuba's
international relations, but it is not sufficient for research on internal
Cuban affairs. Translations tend to be good, but there are occasional
serious errors. The best other mass-circulation source is the long-standing
news magazine Bohemia, which covers a wide array of issues in some depth.
Other general-circulation publications for specialized research are Verde
olivo (military), ANAP (peasants), Mujeres (women), Los Trabajadores (work-
ers), Opina (mass marketing), and Con la Guardia en Alto (Committees for
the Defence of the Revolution), among others.
In late 1990 the Cuban government announced a 'special period in time
of peace'. Among many other economic austerity measures, there was a
severe curtailing in the availability of newsprint. Many of these publica-
tions have been suspended, discontinued, or merged. It remains unclear
which will continue to be published and which will reappear after having
been temporarily suspended.
The most important statistical publication of the Cuban government
has been the Anuario estadistico de Cuba, usually published with a two-year
lag. Its inferior predecessor, the Boletin, was issued less regularly in the
1960s. The most common error in the use of the Anuario is to forget that
its economic statistics are in current pesos and to forget as well that there
has been inflation in Cuba, especially since the 1970s. It should be borne
in mind that the educational statistics for the early 1960s refer only to
public schools and that a substantial portion of the early increases in
public school enrollment statistics result simply from the socialization of
private schools. It should equally be noted that conceptual definitions in
public health statistics have changed over time, and that malperforming
sectors tend to be deleted from production statistics in subsequent years so
that the Anuario gives a somewhat exaggerated impression of growth. The
Anuario is rarely incorrect, but it is often insufficient. For a thorough
discussion of Cuban statistics during the 1960s, see Carmelo Mesa-Lago,
'Availability and reliability of statistics in Socialist Cuba', LARR, 4/2
(1969). Mesa-Lago regularly reviews and evaluates the Anuarios in Cuban

2j. Cuba since 1959 731
Studies. A valuable reference is Susan Schroeder's Cuba: A Handbook of

Historical Statistics (Boston, 1982).
Three secondary works seek to be comprehensive in coverage. Hugh
Thomas, Cuba or The Pursuit of Freedom (London, 1971) takes its coverage
of historical developments up to the 1962 missile crisis, this being fol-
lowed by a shorter discussion of events during the rest of that decade.
Carmelo Mesa-Lago, The Economy of Socialist Cuba: A Two-Decade Appraisal
(Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1981) discusses economic policy and perfor-
mance, distribution, employment, social welfare and international eco-
nomic factors. Jorge Dominguez, Cuba: Order and Revolution (Cambridge,
Mass., 1978), focusses on politics and government. Some update is pro-
vided in Dominguez (ed.), Cuba: Internal and International Affairs (Beverly
Hills, Calif., 1982). Good, short, general summaries on many topics can
be found in Sandor Halebsky and John M. Kirk (eds.), Cuba: Twenty-Five
Years of Revolution: 1959 to 1984 (New York, 1985); in Halebsky and Kirk
(eds.), Transformation and Struggle: Cuba Faces the 1990s (New York, 1990);
and in Sergio Roca (ed.), Socialist Cuba: Past Interpretations and Future
Challenges (Boulder, Colo., 1988).
Other useful books on the economy are: Archibald Ritter, The Economic
Development of Revolutionary Cuba: Strategy and Performance (New York,
1974), which gives a good coverage of the 1960s; Claes Brundenius,
Revolutionary Cuba: The Challenge of Economic Growth with Equity (Boulder,
Colo., 1984), and Alberto Recarte's Cuba: Economia y poder (19591980)
(Madrid, 1980), which cover the 1970s as well. An interesting discussion
of the Cuban economy cast in a wider social and political context from a
Marxist perspective is to be found in James O'Connor, The Origins of
Socialism in Cuba (Ithaca, N.Y., 1970), for the earlier years, and Arthur
MacEwan, Revolution and Economic Development in Cuba (New York, 1981),
for a later period. Cuba's leading academic economist, Jose Luis Rodri-
guez, publishes mostly through the CIEM. See Jose Luis Rodriguez,
Estrategia del desarrollo economico en Cuba (Havana, 1990). A bibliographical
and technical overview of the problems of estimating Cuba's economic
growth rates is available from Carmelo Mesa-Lago and Jorge Perez-Lopez,
'A study of Cuba's material product system, its conversion to the system of
national accounts, and estimation of Gross Domestic Product per capita
and growth rates', World Bank Staff Working Papers, no. 770 (Washington,
D.C., 1985). A somewhat bitter but occasionally enlightening debate on
this topic, between Mesa-Lago and Perez-Lopez on the one hand and Claes
Brundenius and Andrew Zimbalist on the other, appeared in Comparative

732 V//. Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
Economic Studies in 1985 and 1986. See also Andrew Zimbalist, Cuban
Political Economy: Controversies in Cubanology (Boulder, Colo., 1988). On
economic measurement, see Jorge F. Perez-Lopez, Measuring Cuban Eco-
nomic Performance (Austin, Tex., 1987) and Andrew Zimbalist and Claes
Brundenius, The Cuban Economy: Measurement and Analysis of Socialist Perfor-
mance (Baltimore, 1989).
Four books have been published from the research project led by Oscar
Lewis in Cuba in 1969-70, the only major field research conducted by
outside scholars in revolutionary Cuba. The project ended when the Cuban
government confiscated many of its tapes and notes and forced the Lewis
group to leave. Their books provide much information on the lives of
ordinary Cubans. Oscar Lewis, Ruth M. Lewis and Susan M. Rigdon are
responsible for Four Men (Urbana, 111., 1977); Four Women (Urbana, 111.,
1977); and Neighbors (Urbana, 111., 1978), while Douglas Butterworth is
responsible for The People of Buena Ventura: Relocation of Slum Dwellers in
Postrevolutionary Cuba (Urbana, 111., 1980).
Several books have captured important facets of Cuban politics and
government policy in the 1960s. A superb discussion of the personal role
and style of Fidel Castro is Edward Gonzalez, Cuba Under Castro: The
Limits of Charisma (Boston, 1974). The best extended interview with Fidel
Castro was published (along with excellent photographs) by Lee Lockwood
in Castro's Cuba, Cuba's Fidel (New York, 1969). A thorough discussion of
the factional politics of early revolutionary rule is provided by Andres
Suarez in Cuba: Castroism and Communism (Cambridge, Mass., 1967). A
discussion of the radical politics of the 1960s appears in K. S. Karol,
Guerrillas in Power (New York, 1970), and in Rene Dumont, Cuba: Est-il
socialiste? (Paris, 1970), both rather critical; more sympathetic approaches
to the regime's goals are given in Richard Fagen, The Transformation of
Political Culture in Cuba (Stanford, Calif, 1969) and in Max Azicri, Cuba:
Politics, Economics and Society (London, 1988). For an accessible overview,
see Juan del Aguila, Cuba: Dilemmas of a Revolution (Boulder, Colo.,
1984). Valuable collections, covering several topics mostly dealing with
Cuba in the 1960s, are Rolando Bonachea and Nelson P. Valdes (eds.),
Cuba in Revolution (Garden City, N.Y., 1972); Jaime Suchlicki (ed.),
Castro, Cuba and Revolution (Coral Gables, Fla., 1972); and Carmelo Mesa-
Lago (ed.), Revolutionary Change in Cuba (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1971).
Other work on internal Cuban politics and political economy since the
1970s is, surprisingly, not very extensive. Special attention should be paid
to the studies of Susan Eckstein, William LeoGrande and Nelson P.

2j. Cuba since 1959 733
Valdes, some of which have appeared in Cuban Studies. A good, general

collection on the 1980s is the seventh edition of Irving L. Horowitz's
Cuban Communism (New Brunswick, N.J., 1989). On human rights and
internal security, see the seven reports on Cuba issued by the Inter-
American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American
States (Washington, D.C.), various years, most recently 1983, as well as
the occasional reports from Amnesty International and Americas Watch.
Important testimony is found in El presidio politico en Cuba comunista (Cara-
cas, 1982) and in Jorge Vails, Twenty Years and Forty Days: Life in a Cuban
Prison (Washington, D.C., 1986). See also Luis Salas, Social Control and
Deviance in Cuba (New York, 1979). There is little work on the Cuban
armed forces. A useful manual is the U.S. Department of Defense, Direc-
torate for Intelligence Research, Defense Intelligence Agency, Handbook on
the Cuban Armed Forces (Washington, D.C., 1979), which is not classified.
See also Rafael Fermoselle, The Evolution of the Cuban Military: 1492-1986
(Miami, 1987), as well as his Cuban Leadership after Castro: Biographies of
Cuba's Top Generals (Miami, 1987); see also Jaime Suchlicki (ed.), The
Cuban Military under Castro (Miami, 1989).
There has been an increase in publications concerning the international
relations of the Cuban revolution. Eight collections gather much good
work. They are Carmelo Mesa-Lago and Cole Blasier (eds.), Cuba in the
World (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1979); Martin Weinstein (ed.), Revolutionary Cuba
in the World Arena (Philadelphia, 1979); Carmelo Mesa-Lago and June Bel-
kins (eds.), Cuba in Africa (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1982); Barry Levine (ed.), The
New Cuban Presence in the Caribbean (Boulder, Colo., 1983); Sergio Diaz-
Briquets (ed.), Cuban Internationalism in Sub-Saharan Africa (Pittsburgh,
Pa., 1989); Instituto Superior de Relaciones Internacionales 'Raul Roa', De
Eisenhower a Reagan (Havana, 1987); Wayne E. Smith and Esteban Morales
Dominguez (eds.), Subject to Solution: Problems in CubanU.S. Relations
(Boulder, Colo., 1988); and Jorge I. Dominguez and Rafael Hernandez
(eds.), U.S.-Cuban Relations in the 1990s (Boulder, Colo., 1989). See also
Carla A. Robbins, The Cuban Threat (New York, 1983); Lynn D. Bender,
Cuba vs. United States: The Politics of Hostility, 2nd rev. ed. (San Juan, 1981);
W Raymond Duncan, The Soviet Union and Cuba (New York, 1985);
Pamela Falk, Cuban Foreign Policy: Caribbean Tempest (Lexington, Mass.,
1985); H. Michael Erisman, Cuba's International Relations: The Anatomy of a
Nationalistic Foreign Policy (Boulder, Colo., 1985); Wayne E. Smith, The
Closest of Enemies (New York, 1987); Peter Shearman, The Soviet Union and
Cuba (London, 1987); Morris H. Morley, Imperial State and Revolution: The

United States and Cuba, 1952-1986 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988); Damian J.

Fernandez, Cuba's Foreign Policy in the Middle East (Boulder, Colo., 1988);
Francisco L6pez Segrera, Cuba: Politica exterior y revolucion (1959-88) (Ha-
vana, 1988); Richard J. Payne, Opportunities and Dangers of Soviet-Cuban
Expansion (Albany, N.Y., 1988); and Jorge I. Dominguez, To Make a World
Safe for Revolution: Cuba's Foreign Policy (Cambridge, Mass., 1989).
An important source, monitoring U.S.Cuban relations over time, and
generating a great deal of information for primary research on this topic,
has been the U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Foreign Af-
fairs, Subcommittee on Inter-American Affairs, through its published
hearings records. The series of documents occasionally published by the
Central Intelligence Agency, National Foreign Assessment Center, enti-
tled Communist Aid to Less Developed Countries of the Free World, provides a
useful, though at times controversial and incomplete, listing of the Cuban
overseas presence. This organization also published two valuable reference
aids in the late 1970s and early 1980s, namely, the Directory of Officials of
the Republic of Cuba, and the Chronology, various years. All are unclassified.
There are some excellent sources on certain specialized topics. Seymour
Menton's Prose Fiction of the Cuban Revolution (Austin, Tex., 1975) dis-
cusses literature and its social and political setting. On labour, see Mau-
rice Zeitlin's Revolutionary Politics and the Cuban Working Class (New York,
1970) and Carmelo Mesa-Lago, The Labor Sector and Socialist Distribution in
Cuba (New York, 1968). Juan and Verena Martinez Alier, in their Cuba:
Economia y sociedad (Paris, 1972), are especially helpful on the early social,
political and economic background of agrarian questions, and on gender
and colour. For more recent years, see Carlos Moore, Castro, the Blacks, and
Africa (Los Angeles, 1988). On religion, see John M. Kirk, Between God
and the Party: Religion and Politics in Revolutionary Cuba (Gainesville, Fla.,
1989). On government corruption, see Case 1/1989: End of the Cuban
Connection (Havana, 1989).
28. THE D O M I N I C A N REPUBLIC
There are few academic studies of the changes which have taken place in
the Dominican Republic during the last sixty years, and these generally
devote more attention to the political process than to the evolution of
economy and society.
On the antecedents and origins of the Trujillo era there are two impor-

28. The Dominican Republic 735
tant political histories: Luis Felipe Mejia, De Lilts a Trujillo: Historia

contemporanea de la Republica Dominicana (Caracas, 1944), and Victor Me-
dina Benet, Los responsables (Santo Domingo, 1976). Both excellent mono-
graphs are based partially on the documented memoirs of the authors, who
were witnesses to the fall of President Horacio Vasquez and were present
when Trujillo conspired to seize power and establish his dictatorship. The
outstanding book on the Trujillo regime is Jesus de Galindez, La era de
Trujillo: Un estudio casuistico de una dictadura hispanoamerkana (Santiago,
Chile, 1956), which began as a doctoral dissertation at Columbia Univer-
sity and is full of accurate documentation, mostly official publications and
newspapers. More revealing of the intimate life of the regime is Gregorio
Bustamante, Una satrapia en el Caribe (Mexico, D.F., 1950). Bustamante is
the pseudonym of Jose Almoina, who had earlier been Trujillo's secretary.
Both Galindez and Almoina were Spanish exiles from the Civil War, and
both were assassinated on Trujillo's orders for having written these books.
A useful text on the mechanisms used by the dictator to build his
economic empire is German E. Ornes, Trujillo: Little Caesar of the Caribbean
(New York, 1958). Also interesting for its psychological interpretation of
the dictator is Juan Bosch, Trujillo: Causas de una tirania sin ejemplo (Cara-
cas, 1959). Both authors partially rely on Albert Hicks, Blood in the Streets:
The Life and Rule of Trujillo (New York, 1946), an important but sensation-
alist journalistic version that seems to have been based on an article by C.
A. Thompson, 'Dictatorship in the Dominican Republic', Foreign Policy
Reports, 12 (15 April 1936), the first study of Trujillo's commercial and
financial manipulations and the establishment of his monopolies. For a
critical biography and history of his regime, the best book published to
date is Robert D. Crassweller, Trujillo: The Life and Times of a Caribbean
Dictator (New York, 1966). It is exciting reading and its documentation is
impeccable. Howard Wiarda, Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of
Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic (Gainesville, Fla., 1968), is based on
interviews and newspaper sources; its content is principally political. Two
Marxist interpretations of the Trujillo era are Roberto Cassa, Capitalismoy
dictadura (Santo Domingo, 1982), and Luis G6mez, Las relaciones de
produccion predominantes en la Republica Dominicana, 1875-1975 (Santo Do-
mingo, 1977), which share grandiloquent theorizing and a commitment
to ideological speculation. Both try to interpret the figures of the statistical
series annually published by the Dominican government in the Anuario
estadistico de la Republica Dominicana (Ciudad Trujillo, 1936-56), a task in
which Gomez fails lamentably and Cassa struggles with better luck while

arriving at some farfetched conclusions. A collection of interesting docu-

ments has been edited by Bernardo Vega, La vida cotidiana dominicana: A
traves del archivo particular del generalisimo (Santo Domingo, 1986).
The pro-Trujillo bibliography is extraordinarily abundant, as can be
verified from Emilio Rodriguez Demorizi, Bibliografia de Trujillo (Ciudad
Trujillo, 1955), which contains more than 5,000 citations of articles,
books and pamphlets published in praise of the dictator and his work
during the first twenty-five years of his regime. In this mountain of
publications very few, if any, academic works stand out. That most resem-
bling an academic study is Joaquin Balaguer, La realidad dominicana:
Semblanza de un pats y de su regimen (Buenos Aires, 1947), although it is in
reality a tendentious apology for Trujillo in the context of a pessimistic
and extreme racist interpretation of Dominican history. This book was
written as part of the propaganda campaign launched to justify the murder
of the Haitians in 1937 and to explain the Dominicanization of the
frontier. It reviews a large part of the ideology of Trujillo's regime and
condenses the official vision of the economic and social problems of the
1940s. It would have remained almost forgotten had not Balaguer re-
edited and published it again under the new title La isla al reves (Santo
Domingo, 1985). Another book by Balaguer on Trujillo is La palabra
encadenada (Santo Domingo, 1975), which is important as a psychological
portrait of Trujillo despite its tendentious, falsifying and self-justificatory
contents. The third volume of Ramon Marrero Aristy, La Republica Domini-
cana: Origen y destino del pueblo cristiano mas antiguo de America (Ciudad
Trujillo, 1958), the conclusion to an official history of the country, out-
lines the dictatorship's ideology and explains the providential presence of
Trujillo as the 'saviour' of Dominican nationality. Trujillo himself tried to
provide a systematic ideological justification for his regime in Fundamentos
y politica de un regimen (Ciudad Trujillo, 1959).
Relations between Trujillo and the United States are described in Pope
Atkins and Larman Wilson, The United States and the Trujillo Regime (New
Brunswick, N.J., 1972), although the authors could have taken more
advantage of the voluminous documentation they handled in the National
Archives of the United States in Washington, D.C. The Fundacion Cul-
tural Dominicana is publishing a series of volumes by Bernardo Vega
which attempts to gather the DominicanU.S. diplomatic documentation
between 1930 and 1961. See, for example, Los Estados Unidos y Trujillo,
1930, 2 vols. (Santo Domingo, 1986), Los Estados Unidos y Trujillo, 1943
(Santo Domingo, 1982); Los Estados Unidos y Trujillo, 1946 (Santo Do-

mingo, 1982); Los Estados Unidosy Trujillo, 1947 (Santo Domingo, 1984);
Eisenhower y Trujillo (Santo Domingo, 1991); Trujillo y el control financiero
norteamericano (Santo Domingo, 1990); and Kennedy y los Trujillo (Santo
Domingo, 1991). A Trujilloist and anti-North American interpretation of
relations at the end of dictatorship is given in Arturo Espaillat, Trujillo:
The Last Caesar (Chicago, 1964). Martin D. Clausner, The Dominican
Republic: Settled, Unsettled, Resettled (Philadelphia, 1973), also mentions
aspects of DominicanU.S. relations before and after Trujillo, with special
emphasis on the development of education and agriculture. Jose Israel
Cuello (ed.), Documentos del conflicto dominicanohaitiano de 1937 (Santo
Domingo, 1985), has published the diplomatic and confidential correspon-
dence of the Dominican government produced by the Ministry of Foreign
Relations as a result of the genocide of the Haitians in 1937, on which see
also Juan Manuel Garcia, La matanza de los haitianos: Genocidio de Trujillo,
1937 (Santo Domingo, 1983) and Bernardo Vega (ed.), Trujillo y Haiti,
I
9 3 - 3 7 (Santo Domingo, 1986).
The transition of dictatorship to a new, more democratic political order
has been studied in exacting detail by Howard Wiarda, Dictatorship, Devel-
opment and Disintegration: Politics and Social Changes in the Dominican Repub-
lic, 3 vols. (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1975). Another of Wiarda's works, which
records the efforts at building a democratic order after Trujillo's death in
1961, is The Dominican Republic: A Nation in Transition (New York, 1969).
On U.S. attempts to promote democracy in the Dominican Republic in
the twentieth century, see Jonathan Hartlyn, 'The Dominican Republic:
The legacy of intermittent engagement', in Abraham F. Lowenthal (ed.),
Exporting Democracy: The United States and Latin America (Baltimore, 1991).
A suggestive comparative essay is Catherine M. Conaghan and Rosario
Espinal, 'Unlikely transitions to uncertain regimes? Democracy without
compromise in the Dominican Republic and Ecuador', JLAS, 22/3
(I99O), 553-74-
Most books on the thirty years or so since the end of the dictatorship
deal mainly with political changes and the struggles between parties or
civil-military relations. Some have as their principal setting the civil war
of 1965. Important among these are John Bartlow Martin, Overtaken by
Events: The Dominican Crisis from the Fall of Trujillo to the Civil War (Garden
City, N.Y., 1966), the memoirs of a special ambassador of the United
States to the Dominican Republic; Juan Bosch, The Unfinished Experiment:
Democracy in the Dominican Republic (New York, 1964); Abraham F. Lowen-
thal, The Dominican Intervention (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), which pres-

ents a detailed account of decision-making in the United States; Jerome

Slater, Intervention and Negotiation: The United States and the Dominican
Revolution (New York, 1970); Piero Gleijeses, The Dominican Crisis: The
1965 Constitutionalist Revolt and the American Intervention (Baltimore,
1978), which offers an excellent interpretation and an extraordinary mass
of new details on the civil war not covered by other authors. Gleijeses's
view of the military intervention is radical and close to the Dominican
nationalist position. See also G. Lane Van Tasell, 'AmericanDominican
economic linkages: External financing and domestic policies surrounding
the 1965 U.S. intervention', Journal of Third World Studies (Fall 1987);
Major Lawrence M. Greenberg, United States Army Unilateral Coalition
Operations in the 1965 Dominican Republic Intervention (Washington, D.C.,
1987), and Bruce Palmer, Intervention in the Caribbean: The Domini-
can Crisis of 1965 (Lexington, Ky., 1991). A nationalist interpretation
is Eduardo Latorre, Politica dominicana contempordnea (Santo Domingo,
1975), which tends to see the Dominican political process as the result of
tension between the traditional forces embodied in caudillismo and modern-
izing forces represented by liberal and democratic populism. Another
useful work which presents the view of the anti-Trujilloist exiles is Nico-
las Silfa, Guerra, traicion y exilio, (Barcelona, 1980-81). The inner con-
flicts and the social organization of the constitutionalist forces during the
civil war are described in Jose A. Moreno, Barrios in Arms (Pittsburgh,
Pa., 1970).
On the events following the civil war of 1965, several works deserve to
be mentioned: Jose Israel Cuello, Siete anos de reformismo (Santo Domingo,
1973), written to oppose the regime of Joaqufn Balaguer; G. Pope Atkins,
Arms and Politics in the Dominican Republic (Boulder, Colo., 1981), a reveal-
ing study of the relations between President Balaguer and the military
between 1966 and 1978, based on primary and private sources; Roberto
Oassa, Los doce anos (Santo Domingo, 1986), a Marxist study of Balaguer
much inclined to interpretive theorizing; Ian Bell, The Dominican Republic
(Boulder, Colo., 1981), a general history written by a former British
ambassador; and Howard Wiarda and Michael Kryzanek, The Dominican
Republic: A Caribbean Crucible (Boulder, Colo., 1982), which introduces
the reader to contemporary party politics. Kryzanek and Wiarda are also
the authors of The Politics of External Influence in the Dominican Republic
(Westport, Conn., 1988). Other studies of contemporary political develop-
ments include: Miriam Diaz Santana and Martin F. Murphy, The 1982
National Elections in the Dominican Republic: A Sociological and Historical

Interpretation (Rio Piedras, P.R., 1983). Jan Knippers Black, The Domini-
can Republic: Politics and Development in an Unsovereign State (Boston, 1986);
Rosario Espinal, 'The defeat of the Dominican Revolutionary Party in the
1986 elections: Causes and implications', BLAR, 9/1 (1990), 10316,
and 'Between authoritarianism and crisis-prone democracy: The Domini-
can Republic after Trujillo', in Colin Clarke (ed.), Society and Politics in the
Caribbean (Oxford, 1991).
On industrial development up to 1961, see Frank Moya Pons, 'Import
substitution industrialization policies in the Dominican Republic, 1925-
1961', HAHR, 70/4 (1990), 539-78. See also Rafael Francisco de [Frank]
Moya Pons, 'Industrial incentives in the Dominican Republic, 1880
1983' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, 1987).
On the Dominican economy after 1961, Julio Cesar Estrella, La
moneda, la banca y las finanzas de la Republica Dominicana (Santo Domingo,
1971), still stands out as a general but rather unbalanced monetary his-
tory. For a study of one financial group, see Frank Moya Pons, Pioneros de
la banca dominicana: Una historia institutional del Banco Popular Dominicano y
del Grupo Financiero Popular (Santo Domingo, 1989). A useful although
apologetic study on the earlier part of the Balaguer regime is the little
book by Eduardo Tejera, Una dkada de desarrollo econdmico dominicano
1963-19J3 (Santo Domingo, 1975). An equally useful interpretation of
the impact of recent economic policy-making is Miguel Ceara Hatton,
Tendencias estructurales y coyunturales de la economia dominicana 1968-1983
(Santo Domingo, 1985), which has a structuralist slant. A Marxist study
from the dependentista school is provided in Wilfredo Lozano, El reformismo
dependiente (Santo Domingo, 1985), which contains a rich mixture of
speculation with some statistical data. Also important are the serial publi-
cations produced by the Oficina Nacional de Planificaci6n, the Banco
Central de la Republica Dominicana, and the Oficina Nacional de
Estadistica. Complementing those sources are the three volumes pub-
lished in the mid-1970s by the Comisi6n de Economia de la Academia de
Ciencias de la Republica Dominicana, Economia dominicana (Santo Do-
mingo, 1975, 1976 and 1977). As part of a series of thirty volumes
containing studies on contemporary socio-economic and political issues
published between 1982 and 1988, Frank Moya Pons (ed.), Los problemas
del sector externo en la Republica Dominicana (Santo Domingo, 1982), El regi-
men de incentivos en la economia dominicana (Santo Domingo, 1983), La
situation cambiaria en la Republica Dominicana (Santo Domingo, 1984)
and Causas y manejo de la crisis econdmica dominicana (Santo Domingo,

1986), brings together up-to-date studies and discussions about the ori-
gins and management of the Dominican economic crisis, external debt
and the economic policies of the governments of Balaguer, Guzman and
Jorge Blanco. For a more recent essay on contemporary issues of political
economy, see John T. Cuddington and Carlos Asilis, 'Fiscal policy, the
current account and the external debt problem in the Dominican Repub-
lic', JLAS, 22/2 (1990), 331-52.
For the origins of the labour movement from a socialist perspective, see
Roberto Cassa, Movimiento obrero y lucha socialista en la Republica Domini-
cana: Desde los origenes hasta i960 (Santo Domingo, 1990).
Studies of the structural socio-economic and political changes after
Trujillo include: Isis Duarte, Capitalismo y superpoblacion en Santo Domingo
(Santo Domingo, 1980), which treats the demographic implications of
underdevelopment, urbanization and migration from a Marxist perspec-
tive; Jose Luis Aleman, 27 ensayos sobre economia y sociedaddominicana (Santi-
ago de los Caballeros, Dom. Rep., 1982); Frank Moya Pons, Elpasado
dominkano (Santo Domingo, 1986), which contains several historical stud-
ies on the problems of modernization in the Dominican Republic in the
twentieth century; and Rosario Espinal, Autoritarismo y democracia en la
politica dominicana (San Jose, C.R., 1987), which deals with the evolution
of the Dominican political system between 1930 and 1986 from the
perspective of the dynamics of the political parties.
Migration studies have received some attention in recent years. See, for
example, Bernardo Vega, La migracion espanola de 1939 y los inicios del
marxismo-leninismo en la Republica Dominicana (Santo Domingo, 1984);
Consuelo Naranjo Ovorio, Transterrados espanoles en las Antillas: Un
acercamiento a su vida cotidiana', Anuario de Estudios Americanos, 44
(1987), 52148; Jorge Duany, Los dominicanos en Puerto Rico: Migracion en
la semi-periferia (Rio Piedras, P.R., 1990); and a brief article by Kai
Schoenhals, 'An extraordinary migration: Jews in the Dominican Repub-
lic', Caribbean Review, 14/4 (1985).
Bibliographical works include: Howard Wiarda, Materiales para el
estudio de la politica y el gobierno de la Republica Dominicana, 19301966
(Santiago de los Caballeros, Dom. Rep., 1966); Deborah Hitt and Larman
Wilson, A Selected Bibliography of the Dominican Republic: A Century after the
Restoration of Independence (Washington, D.C., 1968); and Wolf Graben-
dorf, Bibliographie zu Politik und Gesellschaft der Dominikanischen Republik:
Neuere Studien 19611911 (Munich, 1973). A more recent and very useful

2(). Haiti 741
economic bibliography is Banco Central de la Republica Dominicana,

Biblografia economica de la Republica Dominicana (Santo Domingo, 1984).
29. HAITI
General works dealing with Haiti in the period from 1930 to the present
include Patrick Bellegarde Smith, Haiti: The Breached Citadel (Boulder,
Colo., 1990); see also his intellectual biography of the Haitian politician
Dantes Bellegarde, In the Shadow of Powers (Atlantic Heights, N.J., 1985).
These works, however, present a rather superficial view of the country's
history. The last four chapters of David Nicholls, From Dessalines to
Duvalier: Race, Colour and National Independence in Haiti (Cambridge, 1979;
2nd ed., London 1989), are concerned with recent social and political
thought. Most of Lyonel Paquin, The Haitians: Class and Color in Politics
(New York, 1983) concerns the period from 1930 onwards. Popular,
somewhat journalistic, accounts of the Haitian past include Robert Rot-
berg, Haiti: The Politics of Squalor (Boston, 1971). Robert Debs Heinl,
who was in charge of the U.S. Marine mission to Haiti in the early years of
the Duvalier regime, has produced, with Nancy Heinl, a highly ethno-
centric and anecdotal history of Haiti entitled Written in Blood: The Story of
the Haitian People (Boston, 1978). The second volume of Claude Moise,
Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haiti (1804ig8j) (Montreal, 1990)
deals with developments in this period. For bibliographical works on
Haiti, see essay VI: 16.
Ray ford Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (London, 1968) is a
useful volume and best on relations of Haiti with the United States. Other
works concentrating on Haiti's foreign relations include L. F. Manigat,
Haiti of the Sixties: Object of International Concern (Washington D.C., 1964)
and Robert Tomasek, 'The Haitian-Dominican Republic controversy of
1963 and the Organisation of American States', Orbis, 12 (1968).
Dealing particularly with literary and cultural developments in the
period are J. Michael Dash, Literature and Ideology in Haiti, 19131961
(London, 1981) and Haiti and the United States: National Stereotypes and the
Literary Imagination (New York, 1988). Ulrich Fleischmann's Ideologie und
Wirklichkeit in der Literatur Haitis (Berlin, 1969) deals with the post-1930
years. There is a Kreyol translation of this work, under the title Ideyoloji ak
reyalite nan literati ayisyen (Geneva, 1981). Rene Depestre's Bonjour et adieu

a la nigritude (Paris, 1980) and Laennec Hurbon's Culture et dictature en

Haiti (Paris, 1979) consider Haitian culture from a historical standpoint,
relating movements in Haitian literature to the Duvalier phenomenon.
More recently Hurbon has written Comprendre Haiti: Essai sur I'itat, la
nation, la culture (Port-au-Prince and Paris, 1987). Raphael Berrou and
Pradel Pompilus have produced a revised and enlarged edition of their
Histoire de la litterature haitienne (Port-au-Prince, 1975). It is somewhat
uncritical and didactic but is nevertheless a useful manual. Leon-Francois
Hoffmann in Le negre romantique (Paris, 1973), Le roman haitien (Princeton,
N.J., 1982), Essays on Haitian Literature (Washington D.C., 1984) and in
a number of articles in Caribbean Review and elsewhere has greatly added to
our knowledge and appreciation of the Haitian literature of this period.
Two short monographs on J. S. Alexis have appeared in recent years, one
by Michael Dash, Jacques Stephen Alexis (Toronto, 1975) and the other
entitled Le romancero aux etoiles by Maximilien Laroche (Paris, 1978).
Claude Souffrant deals with Jacques Roumain and J. S. Alexis, together
with the U.S. poet Langston Hughes, in Une nigritude socialiste (Paris,
1978).
The best book on the U.S. occupation remains Hans Schmidt, The
United States Occupation of Haiti, 19151934 (New Brunswick, N.J.,
1971), which is a superb critical study of U.S. policies in Haiti. Schmidt,
however, deals only incidentally and somewhat inadequately with Haitian
reactions to the occupation. Robert Spector, W. Cameron Forbes and the
Hoover Commissions to Haiti (1930) (Lanham, Md., 1985) contains much
useful information, but the book lacks a sophisticated analysis of the
situation.
Works specifically on the Duvalier period include the lurid account of
Bernard Diederich and Al Burt, Papa Doc: Haiti and Its Dictator (London,
1970) and Elizabeth Abbott, Haiti: The Duvaliers and Their Legacy (New
York, 1988), which is a kind of sequel, though rather better written.
Another decidedly journalistic account of recent years is Amy Wilenz, The
Rainy Season: Haiti since Duvalier (London, 1989). More serious attempts at
looking beneath the surface are to be found in Latin America Bureau,
Haiti: Family Business (London, 1985) and James Ferguson's Papa Doc,
Baby Doc (London, 1987); these are brief but good critical accounts of the
Duvalier dictatorship. There is also a rather dull collection of papers
edited by Charles Foster and Albert Valdman, Haiti - Today and Tomorrow
(Lanham, Md., 1984). More analytical is Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Les
racines historiques de I'itat duvalierien (Port-au-Prince, 1986); there is an

29. Haiti 743
English version of this book published under the title Haiti: State against
Nation (New York, 1990). Some chapters in David Nicholls, Haiti in
Caribbean Context (London, 1985) also deal with the modern period.
Roger Dorsinville's Marche arriere (Outremont, Que., 1986) is in the
form of extended interviews with the veteran intellectual, containing
memories of and comments on the post-1930 years. Other biographical
studies include two books by Carlo A. Desinor: L'affaire Jumelle (Port-au-
Prince, 1987) and Daniel (Port-au-Prince, 1986), on populist leader Dan-
iel Fignole.
Although a good economic history of Haiti is not to be found, a number
of works on the Haitian economy approach issues from an historical per-
spective. These include Mats Lundahl's two books, Peasants and Poverty: A
Study of Haiti (London, 1979) and The Haitian Economy: Man, Land and
Markets (London and Canberra, 1983); also Christian Girault, Le commerce
du cafe en Haiti: Habitants, speculateurs et exportateurs (Paris, 1981).
On more specialised topics there is Kern Delince, Armk et politique en
Haiti (Paris, 1979), which contains useful historical information on the
modern period. The growth of the small trade union movement is out-
lined in Jean-Jacques Doubout and Ulrich Joly, Notes sur le developpement du
mouvement syndical en Haiti (n.p., n.d.) More recently there is Michel
Hector, Syndicalisme et socialisme en Haiti: 19321970 (Port-au-Prince,
1989), and an article by Mats Lundahl 'The rise and fall of the Haitian
labour movement', in Malcolm Cross and Gad Heuman (eds.), Labour in
the Caribbean (London, 1988). Charles Tardieu's L'education en Haiti: De la
periode coloniale a nos jours (Port-au-Prince, 1990) also deserves mention.
The excellent Atlas d'Haiti (Bordeaux, 1985) published by a group co-
ordinated by Christian Girault contains a wealth of historical information.
Several works have recently appeared on Haitian migration. Maurice
Lemoine deals with the migration of Haitian cane cutters to the Dominican
Republic in Sucreamer: Esclaves aujourd'hui dans les Caraibes (Paris, 1981), as
does Ramon Antonio Veras in Inmigracidn, haitianos, Esclavitud (Santo Do-
mingo, 1983). The massacre of Haitians by Trujillo is the subject of Juan
Manuel Garcia, La matanza de los haitianos: Genocidio de Trujillo, 1937
(Santo Domingo, 1983); Jose I. Cuello (ed.), Documentos del conflicto
dominicanohaitiano de 1937 (Santo Domingo, 1984); and Bernardo Vega
(ed.) Trujillo y Haiti, 1930-37 (Santo Domingo, 1988). Another impor-
tant migration is considered by Dawn Marshall, in 'The Haitian Problem':
Illegal Migration to the Bahamas (Kingston, Jam., 1979). There are numer-
ous articles on Haitian migration to North America; these are reviewed by

744 Vll. Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
Robert Lawless, 'Haitian migrants and Haitian Americans: From invisibil-

ity into the spotlight', Journal ofEthnic Studies, 14/2 (1986).
30. PUERTO RICO
Much of the raw material for the history of Puerto Rico since 1940 is
buried in the statistics gathered by various agencies of the commonwealth
government. Puerto Rico is probably one of the most 'measured' societies
in Latin America. The statistics are generally reliable, if copious and not
always easily available. The yearly Economic Reports to the Governor,
published by the Planning Board, are a useful source of basic information
on the economy, as are the monthly reports on employment and unemploy-
ment put out by the Department of Labor and Human Resources. The
Division of Social Planning of the Planning Board has published a number
of special reports and studies; an example is its 1974 study, 'Informe
recursos humanos: Puerto Rican migrants, a socio-economic study'. The
annual reports of the important government agencies, such as the Depart-
ments of Public Education, Commerce, Agriculture, Labor and Human
Resources, and Fomento, and the Electoral Commission, are sources of
useful, though undigested, data.
The Report of the United StatesPuerto Rico Commission on the Status of
Puerto Rico (Washington, D.C., 1966), with its supplementary back-
ground papers, is a major source of information on Puerto Rico as well as a
crucial document in itself. Another source of important data on the Puerto
Rican economy, as of the late 1970s, is the two-volume Economic Study of
Puerto Rico: Report to the President Prepared by the Interagency Task Force
Coordinated by the U.S. Department of Commerce (Washington, D.C., 1979)-
Gordon K. Lewis, Puerto Rico: Freedom and Power in the Caribbean (New
York, 1963), is a standard work on modern Puerto Rico. A supplement
and update to that book is the author's Notes on the Puerto Rican Revolution
(New York, 1975). An important more recent general work on Puerto
Rico, from a 'neutral', European point of view, is Raymond Carr, Puerto
Rico: A Colonial Experiment (New York, 1984).
The story of the New Deal in Puerto Rico and the political events of the
1930s are chronicled in Thomas Mathews, Puerto Rican Politics and the New
Deal (Gainesville, Fla., i960). For the origins of the PPD, its ideological
orientations, and its early history, see Robert W. Anderson, Party Politics in
Puerto Rico (Stanford, Calif, 1965). For the war years, R. G. Tugwell, The

30. Puerto Rico 745
Stricken Land (New York, 1947) is essential reading. A good description of

Governor TugweH's administration is to be found in Charles Goodsell, The
Administration of a Revolution: Executive Reform in Puerto Rico under Governor
Tugwell, 1941-1946 (Cambridge, Mass., 1965). The history of the policy
of industrial incentives under the Tugwell governorship during the Second
World War is described in detail in David Ross, The Long Uphill Path (San
Juan, P.R., 1976). On the process leading up to the passage of the law
authorizing direct elections for governor of Puerto Rico in 1948, see
Surendra Bhana, The United States and the Development of the Puerto Rican
Status Question, 19361948 (Lawrence, Kans., 1975). On constitutional
and economic developments generally in the postwar period, see Henry
Wells, The Modernization of Puerto Rico (Cambridge, Mass., 1969).
On economic and development policy in the contemporary period,
interesting and critical views are to be found in Richard Weisskoff, Facto-
ries and Food Stamps: The Puerto Rican Model of Development (Baltimore,
1985) and in Emilio Pantojas-Garcia, Development Strategies as Ideology:
Puerto Rico's Export-Led Industrialization Experience (London, 1990). See also
James Dietz, Economic History of Puerto Rico: Institutional Changes and Capi-
talist Development (Princeton, N.J., 1986).
On party politics, Kenneth Farr, Personalism and Party Politics: Institution-
alization of the Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico (Hato Rey, P R . ,
1973) contains mainly descriptive material. Vol. 2 of Bolivar Pagan's
Historia de los partidos politicos puertorriquenos (San Juan, P.R., 1972) has
some information on the post-1940 period, but it is largely anecdotal and
quite unsystematic. A view of local party structure is given in Angel
Quintero Rivera, El liderato local de los partidos politicos en el estudio de la
politica puertorriquena (Rio Piedras, P R . , 1970) and Rafael Ramirez, El
arrabal y la politica (Rio Piedras, P R . , 1977). See also Angel Quintero
Rivera, "La clase obrera y el proceso politico en Puerto Rico', Revista de
Ciencias Sociales, 20 (1976), 3 - 4 8 , and Rafael Ramirez and Eduardo
Rivera Medina, Del Canaveral a la fdbrica (San Juan, P R . , 1984). The
statehood movement in Puerto Rico is dealt with extensively in two recent
books: Aaron Ramos, Las ideas anexionistas en Puerto Rico bajo la domination
norteamericana (San Juan, 1987) and Edgardo Melendez, Puerto Rico's State-
hood Movement (New York, 1988).
The most authoritative source on constitutional law and development is
the four-volume study by a former Chief Justice of the Puerto Rico Su-
preme Court, Jose Trias Monge: Historia constitutional de Puerto Rico (Rio
Piedras, P.R., 19803). The third and fourth volumes deal with the

period since 1940. A prime source for the history and development of the
commonwealth status is the book written by its principal protagonist in
Congress, former Resident Commissioner Antonio Fernos Isern, Estado
Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico: Antecedentes, creation y desarrollo hasta la epoca
presente (Rio Piedras, P.R., 1974). A legalistic critical view of common-
wealth is presented in Rafael Garzaro, Puerto Rico: Una nation en busca de
estado (Salamanca, 1974).
A very useful collection of articles on the island's contemporary prob-
lems is Jorge Heine (ed.), Time for Decision: The United States and Puerto Rico
(Lanham, Md., 1983). The pamphlet The Puerto Rican Question, by Jorge
Heine and Juan M. Garcia Passalacqua, is a good, informative brief intro-
duction to Puerto Rico's political dilemmas; it was published as No. 266
in the Foreign Policy Association Headline Series (NovemberDecember
1983). There is an excellent series of articles on contemporary Puerto
Rican society, based for the most part on solid research and from a critical
perspective, in the special issue of the journal Radical America, 23/1
(1990). See also, for an earlier but similar collection, a special issue of
LAP, 2/3 (1976), dedicated entirely to Puerto Rico. See also the chapter
by Robert W. Anderson, 'The United States and Puerto Rico: A critique',
in R. G. Hellman and H. J. Rosenbaum (eds.), Latin America: The Search
for a New International Role (New York, 1975), 167-90.
The Consejo Latinoamericano de Ciencias Sociales (CLACSO) has in-
cluded Puerto Rico in its attentions in recent years. In its multi-volumed,
committee-edited series titled ^Hacia un nuevo orden estatal en America
Latina? (Buenos Aires, 1988-90) there are three useful, though brief,
chapters on current aspects of the Puerto Rican polity and economy. Vol. 1
(Democratization!modernizacidn y actores politicos) has a chapter by Marcia
Rivera, 'Democracia en la colonia: Las transformaciones del estado en la
encrucijada puertorriquena', 387410. M. Rivera and Juan Castaner deal
with economic policy in vol. 3, Los actores socio-economicos del ajuste
estructural: 'Reajuste en la dependencia: Nuevas propuestas de politica
economica en Puerto Rico', 52771. And there is a chapter on 'Cultura y
grupos populares en la historia viva de Puerto Rico hoy' by Lydia M.
Gonzalez in vol. 8, Innovation culturaly actores socio-culturales, 32342.
Jose Hernandez Alvarez, Return Migration to Puerto Rico (Berkeley,
1967), one of the few serious studies of an important aspect of Puerto
Rican migration, is in urgent need of expansion and updating. Manuel
Maldonado Denis, Puerto Rico y Estados Unidos: Emigration y colonialismo
(Mexico, D.F., 1978), is a rather polemical overview of the migration

3i. Argentina, 19301946 747
phenomenon. Jose L. Vazquez Calzada, La poblacidn de Puerto Rico y su

trayectoria histdrica (San Juan, P.R., 1978), is a useful work of demographic
history.
The publications of the Centra de Estudios Puertorriquenos of the City
University of New York are especially noteworthy, particularly in the areas
of class analysis and migration problems. An example, useful for anyone
interested in the cultural dimensions of contemporary Puerto Rico, is
Taller de cultura, los puertorriquenos y la cultura; critica y debate: Conferencia de
historiografia (New York, April 1974). Jose Luis Gonzalez's Puerto Rico: El
pats de cuatro pisos (San Juan, P R . , 1980; Eng. trans., Princeton, N.J.,
1993) with its sequel, Nueva visita al cuarto piso (Madrid, 1986) is an
excellent example of the controversial literature on the problem of Puerto
Rican cultural 'identity'.
Puerto Rico's position in international affairs has received not a little
attention during the past two decades. W. Michael Reisman's Puerto Rico
and the International Process: New Roles in Association (Washington, D . C . ,
1975) deals with the (largely unrealized) potentials for Puerto Rico's
participation in international organizations under its present common-
wealth status. The debate in the United Nations over Puerto Rico and
'decolonization' is chronicled, as of the mid-seventies, in Carmen Gautier
Mayoral and Maria del Pilar Argiielles, Puerto Rico y la ONU (Rio Piedras,
P.R., 1978). Good collections of critical essays on the limitations and
possibilities of Puerto Rico's international and regional roles, written by
Puerto Rican scholars, are Carmen Gautier Mayoral, Angel Rivera Ortiz,
and lisa Alegria Ortega (eds.), Puerto Rico en las relaciones internacionales del
Caribe (Rio Piedras, P.R., 1990) and Puerto Rico en la economia politica del
Caribe (Rio Piedras, P.R., 1990). A one-volume edition of these essays was
published by CLACSO (Buenos Aires) in 1987 under the title Puerto Rico
en el Caribe hoy. The military aspects of Puerto Rico's importance for the
United States in the region are documented and discussed in Jorge Rodri-
guez Beruff, Politica militar y dominacidn: Puerto Rico en el contexto la-
tinoamericano (San Juan, 1988).
31. ARGENTINA, 1930-1946
Still among the best and liveliest introductions to Argentina in the period
between the revolution of 1930 and the rise of Peron (1943-6) are three
English-language books published in the early 1940s: John W. White,

Argentina, the Life Story of a Nation (New York, 1942), which aptly cap-
tures the puzzled response among North Americans to the apparently
hostile attitudes of Argentines during the late 1930s until 1942; Ysabel
Rennie, The Argentine Republic (New York, 1945), which remains one of
the best general introductions to Argentine history and offers an excellent
analysis of the years 19435; and Felix Weil, Argentine Riddle (New York,
1944). Weil, a member of one of the 'Big Four' grain-exporting families,
argued for the type of future association between Argentina and the
United States that Pinedo and the Liberals had aspired to in 1940s, in
which the United States would take charge of industrializing Argentina. If
the book contains this thread of wishful thinking, it also shows an ex-
tremely well-informed knowledge of Argentine society and the issues
facing the country at this critical juncture. Other highly informative
accounts by American and British observers are: Robert J. Alexander, The
Peron Era (New York, 1951); COI (Congress of Industrial Organizations),
Committee on Latin American Affairs, The Argentine Regime: Facts and
Recommendations to the United Nations (New York, 1946); CTAL (Confedera-
cion de Trabajadores de America Latina), White and Blue Book: In Defense of
the Argentine People and Against the Fascist Regime Oppressing It (Mexico D.F.,
February 1946); Ray Josephs, Argentine Diary: The Inside Story of the Coming
of Fascism (New York, 1944); Nicholas John Spykman, America's Strategy in
World Politics: The United States and the Balance of Power (New York, 1942);
Sumner Welles, Where Are We Heading? (New York, 1946).
Mark Falcoff and Ronald H. Dolkart (eds.), Prologue to Peron: Argentina
in Depression and War (Berkeley, 1975) is a general introduction containing
several excellent essays. See also David Rock, Argentina, 1516198J: From
Spanish Colonization to Alfonsin (Berkeley, 1987), chap. 6, and for a reinter-
pretation of the 1940s, Carlos H. Waisman, The Reversal of Development in
Argentina: Post-war Counterrevolutionary Politics and the Structural Conse-
quences (Princeton, N.J., 1987).
No single book deals exclusively or quite fully with economic issues in
this period. The best introductions are Aldo Ferrer, La economia argentina:
Las etapas de su desarrollo y problemas actuates (Buenos Aires, 1964); Guido
Di Telia and Manuel Zymelman, Las etapas del desarrollo economico argentino
(Buenos Aires, 1967); Carlos F. Diaz Alejandro, Essays on the Economic
History of the Argentine Republic (New Haven, Conn., 1970); and Laura
Randall, An Economic History of Argentina in the Twentieth Century (New
York, 1978). For an account of the Argentine economy by an informed
contemporary, see Alejandro E. Bunge, Una nueva Argentina (Buenos

3i. Argentina, 19301946 749
Aires, 1940). For statistical data, see CEPAL, El desarrollo economico de la

Argentina, 4 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1959). On farming, see Carl C. Taylor,
Rural Life in Argentina (Baton Rouge, La., 1948); Darrell F. Fienup,
Russell H. Brannon and Frank A. Fender, The Agricultural Development of
Argentina: A Policy and Development Perspective (New York, 1969); and Jaime
Fuchs, Argentina: Su desarrollo capitalista (Buenos Aires, 1965). On indus-
try, see George Wythe, Industry in Latin America (New York, 1945);
Adolfo Dorfman, Historia de la industria argentina (Buenos Aires, 1970);
Thomas C. Cochran and Ruben Reina, Espiritu de empresa en la Argentina
(Buenos Aires, 1965), which examines the career of Torcuato Di Telia, the
industrialist; and Miguel Murmis and Juan Carlos Portantiero, 'Creci-
miento industrial y alianza de clases en la Argentina (19301940)', in
Miguel Murmis and Juan Carlos Portantierto (eds.), Estudios sobre los
origenes delperonisno, vol. 1 (Buenos Aires, 1971). An important addition
to this literature is Paul H. Lewis, The Crisis of Argentine Capitalism
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990). The best available studies of population and
migration stem from the Centro de Estudios de Poblacion in Buenos
Aires, headed by Alfredo E. Lattes; for an introduction, see Zulma
Recchini de Lattes and Alfredo E. Lattes, La poblacion de Argentina (Buenos
Aires, 1975). Foreign investment, foreign debt and many trade issues are
discussed in Harold J. Peters, The Foreign Debt of the Argentine Republic
(Baltimore, 1934); Vernon L. Phelps, The International Economic Position of
Argentina (Philadelphia, 1938); and Roger Gravil, The AngloArgentine
Connection, 19001939 (Boulder, Colo., 1985).
The two best general introductions to Argentine politics after 1930 are
Robert A. Potash, The Army and Politics in Argentina, 19281945: Yrigoyen
to Peron (Stanford, Calif., 1969), and Alain Rouquie, Poder militar y
sociedad politica en la Argentina, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1982). See also
Alberto Ciria, Parties and Power in Modern Argentina (Albany, N.Y., 1974).
For additional information on the 1930 revolution, see David Rock, Poli-
tics in Argentina, 189019)0: The Rise and Fall of Radicalism (Cambridge,
Eng., 1975), and Peter H. Smith, 'The breakdown of democracy in Argen-
tina, 19161930', in Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan (eds.), The Breakdown
of Democratic Regimes in Latin America (Baltimore, 1978). For economic
policy issues under Justo, see Peter H. Smith, Politics and Beef in Argentina:
Patterns of Conflict and Change (New York, 1969); Daniel Drosdoff, El
gobierno de las vacas, 1933-1956: Tratado Roca-Runciman (Buenos Aires,
1972); Pedro Skupch, 'El deterioro y fin de la hegemonia britanica sobre la
economia argentina, 19141947', in L. Marta Panaia et al., Estudios sobre

los origines del peronismo, vol. 2 (Buenos Aires, 1973); and Gravil, The
AngloArgentine Connection.
Studies of the political parties during this period are almost non-
existent. But see Ciria, Parties and Power, and Peter G. Snow, El radkalismo
argentino (Buenos Aires, 1972). A pioneering study in regional politics is
Richard J. Walter, The Province 0/Buenos Aires and Argentine Politics, 1912-
Z
943 (Cambridge, Eng., 1985). On trade unions, see Hiroschi Matsu-
shita, Movimiento obrero argentino: Sus proyecciones en la historia del peronismo
(Buenos Aires, 1983); Louise Doyon, 'Organized labor and Per6n: A study
in the conflictual dynamics of the Peronist movement' (unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1978); David Tamarin, The Argentine
Labor Movement, 1930-1945 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1985); Joel Horo-
witz, Argentine Unions, the State and the Rise of Peron, 1930-1945 (Berkeley,
!99o); and, above all, Juan Carlos Torre, La vieja guardia sindical y Peron:
Sobre los origenes del peronismo (Buenos Aires, 1990). See also the chapter on
Argentina in Charles W. Bergquist, Labor in Latin America: Comparative
Essays on Chile, Argentina, Venezuela and Colombia (Stanford, Calif., 1986).
The best-known contemporary account is Jose Peter, Crdnicas proletarias
(Buenos Aires, 1968). Tamarin's work not only deals most informatively
with the unions, but also provides an excellent account of the workers' role
in the events of October 1945. A second outstanding piece is Daniel
James, 'October 17th and 18th, 1945: Mass protest, Peronism and the
Argentine working class,' Journal of Social History, 21 (1988), 441-61.
On the Fuerza de Orientaci6n Radical de la Juventud (FORJA), see
Mark Falcoff, 'Argentine nationalism on the eve of Per6n: The Force of
Radical Orientation of Young Argentina and its rivals, 1935-45' (unpub-
lished Ph.D., thesis, Princeton University, 1970); Mark Falcoff, 'Raul
Scalabrini Ortiz: The making of an Argentine nationalist', HAHR, îli
(1972), 74-101; and Arturo Jauretche, FORJA y la decada infame (Buenos
Aires, 1962). For the nacionalistas, see Marysa Navarro Gerassi, Los
nationalistas (Buenos Aires, 1969); Enrique Zuleta Alvarez, El nacionalismo
argentino, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1975); and Maria Ines Barbero and Fer-
nando Devoto, Los nacionalistas, 1910-1932 (Buenos Aires, 1983). Fede-
rico Ibarguren, Los origenes del nacionalismo argentino, 19211931 (Buenos
Aires, 1969), provides a fascinating glimpse into the nacionalista mental-
ity. Other important studies or contemporary accounts of the Nationalist
Right, which commanded so much influence during this period, are
Mario Amadeo, Hoy, ayer, manana (Buenos Aires, 1956); Paul Everett
Brown, 'Ideological origins of modern Argentine nationalism' (unpub-

3i. Argentina, 1930-1946 751
lished Ph.D. dissertation, Claremont Graduate School, 1975); Cristian

Buchrucker, Nacionalismo y peronismo: La Argentina en la crisis ideoldgica
mundial (.1927-1955) (Buenos Aires, 1987); Juan E. Carulla, Al filo de
medio sigh (Parana, 1951); Alicia S. Garcia and Ricardo Rodriguez Molas,
El autoritismo y los argentinos: La hora de la espada {19241946) (Buenos
Aires, 1988); Juan Jose Hernandez Arregui, La formacion de la conciencia
nacional, 2nd ed. (Buenos Aires, 1973); Austin A. Ivereigh, 'Nationalist
Catholic thought in Argentina, 19301946: Monsefior Gustavo Fran-
ceschi and Criterio in the search for a post-liberal order' (unpublished M.
Phil, thesis, University of Oxford, 1990); Leopoldo Lugones, La patria
fuerte (Buenos Aires, 1930) and La grande Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1930);
Sandra McGee Deutsch, Counterrevolution in Argentina, 19001932: The
Argentine Patriotic League (Lincoln, Nebr., 1986); Marcelo Sanchez So-
rondo, La revolucidn que anunciamos (Buenos Aires, 1945); Oscar A.
Troncoso, Los nacionalistas argentinos: Antecedentes y trayectoria (Buenos
Aires, 1957). The most recent history of the Nationalist movement,
which contains extensive data on the period 1930-46, is David Rock,
Authoritarian Argentina: The Nationalist Movement, Its History and Its Impact
(Berkeley, 1993). For nacionalismo in the army, see Robert A. Potash
(comp.), Peron y el GOU: Los documentos de una logia secreta (Buenos Aires,
1984). For an introduction to historical revisionism, see Rodolfo Irazusta
and Julio Irazusta, La Argentina y el imperialismo britdnico: Los eslabones de
una cadena, 1806-1933 (Buenos Aires, 1934).
Recent decades have seen the appearance of several high-quality works
on the British-Argentine-U.S. triangle in both its economic and politi-
cal aspects. The most recent is Guido Di Telia and D. Cameron Watt,
Argentina between the Great Powers, 193946 (London, 1989). But see also
Jorge Fodor and Arturo O'Connell, 'La Argentina y la economia atlantica
en la primera mitad del siglo veinte', DE, 13/49 (1973), 1-67; Michael
J. Francis, The Limits of Hegemony: United States Relations with Argentina
and Chile during World War II (Notre Dame, Ind., 1977); Mario Rapo-
port, Gran Bretana, Estados Unidos y las clases dirigentes argentinas, 1940-
45 (Buenos Aires, 1981); Carlos Escude, Gran Bretana, Estados Unidos y
la declinacion argentina, 19421949 (Buenos Aires, 1983); R. A. Hum-
phreys, Latin America and the Second World War, 2 vols. (London, 1 9 8 1 -
2); and C. A. MacDonald, 'The politics of intervention: The United
States and Argentina, 1941-1946', JLAS, 12/2 (1980), 365-96. For
wartime British attitudes towards Argentina, see Sir David Kelly, The
Ruling Few, or The Human Background to Diplomacy (London, 1953), and

for the official line from the United States, Cordell Hull, Memoirs, 2 vols.
(New York, 1948). David Green, The Containment of Latin America: A
History of the Myths and Realities of the Good Neighbor Policy (Chicago,
1971), sheds much light on the attitudes and behaviour of U.S. policy-
makers. See also Bryce Wood, The Dismantling of the Good Neighbor Policy
(Austin, Tex., 1985). A facsimile of the Pinedo Plan (1940) appears in
DE, 19/75 (1979). 403-26.
On the rise of Peron, the most outstanding works are Potash, Army and
Politics, and Samuel L. Baily, Labor, Nationalism and Politics in Argentina
(New Brunswick, N.J., 1967). See also Felix Luna, El '45 (Buenos Aires,
1971); Paul W. Lewis, 'Was Peron a Fascist? An inquiry into the nature of
Fascism', The Journal of Politics, 42 (1980), 242-56; Rodolfo Puiggros, El
peronismo: Sus causas (Buenos Aires, 1971); Horowitz, Argentine Unions;
Torre, La vieja guardia sindical; Doyon, 'Organized labor'; Matsushita,
Movimiento obrero; Tamarin, Argentine Labor Movement; Eldon Kenworthy,
'The formation of the Peronist coalition' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Yale
University, 1970); and Enrique Diaz Araujo, La conspiracion del '43 (Bue-
nos Aires, 1971). For personal details on Peron, see Joseph A. Page, Peron:
A Biography (New York, 1983). The best accounts of Braden's role in
1945-6 are in MacDonald, 'The politics of intervention', and Green,
Containment of Latin America, while the 1946 election has been studied
intensively in Manuel Mora y Araujo and Ignacio Llorente (eds.), El voto
peronista: Ensayos de sociologia electoral argentina (Buenos Aires, 1980). Of
particular note are essays by Peter H. Smith and Gino Germani. For
statistics on the election, see Dario Canton, Materiales para el estudio de la
sociologia politica en la Argentina, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1969). A valuable
primary source on the 19436 period is Juan Peron, El pueblo quiere saber de
que se trata (Buenos Aires, 1944).
32. ARGENTINA SINCE 1946
ECONOMY
G. Di Telia and M. Zymelman, Las etapas del desarrollo economico argentino

(Buenos Aires, 1967), is a general work inspired by W. W. Rostow's stages
of growth theory. Aldo Ferrer, The Argentine Economy (Berkeley, 1967), first
published in Spanish in 1964, is a less factual, much more interpretive
account that reflects views on development and dependency typical of the

3 2 . Argentina since 1946 753
late 1950s and early 1960s. Ferrer's Crisis y alternativas de la politica econo-
mica (Buenos Aires, 1977) brings the analysis up to the late 1970s. Carlos
Diaz Alejandro, Essays on the Economic History of the Argentine Republic (New
Haven, Conn., 1970), is a collection of excellent economic analyses of
different aspects of Argentine history that has been very influential. Laura
Randall, An Economic History of Argentina in the Twentieth Century (New
York, 1978), tries to interpret Argentina's development as a succession of
rather clear-cut economic models; some historians have found it unconvinc-
ing. R. Mallon and J. V. Sourruoille, Economic Policy in a Conflictive Society:
The Argentine Case (Cambridge, Mass., 1975), explores economic prob-
lems, particularly in the mid-1960s, without excluding political variables.
D. Rock, Argentina, 1516-1987: From Spanish Colonization to Alfonsin
(Berkeley, 1987), is a comprehensive history that reveals great economic
insight; it is the best introduction to the history of Argentina in this
period. Gary Wynia, Argentina in the Post-War Era: Politics and Economic
Policy Making in a Divided Society (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1978), concen-
trates on decision making in the period from 1946 to 1976. Two general
essays discuss the main issues in the economic history of the period: G. Di
Telia, 'Controversias economicas en la Argentina, 19301970', in J.
Fogarty, E. Gallo and H. Dieguez (eds.), Argentina y Australia (Buenos
Aires, 1979); and C. Diaz Alejandro, 'No less than one hundred years of
Argentine economic history plus some comparisons', in G. Ranis, R. L.
West, M. W. Leiserson and C. Taft Morris (eds.), Comparative Development
Perspectives: Essays in Honor of Lloyd G. Reynolds (Boulder, Colo., 1984).
One of the best and most comprehensive collections of essays on the
economic history of post-war Argentina is G. Di Telia and R. Dornbusch
(eds.), The Political Economy of Argentina, 1946-1983 (London, 1989),
which analyses the economic policies of every government from Peron's
first presidency to the military administration of the period 197683. J.
C. de Pablo, La economia queyo hice (Buenos Aires, 1980), presents a series
of interviews with officials in charge of economic affairs since the 1940s
and contains much useful historical information.
Beginning in 1949 the influence of the UN Economic Commission for
Latin America (ECLA), under the intellectual leadership of R. Prebisch,
was widely felt in both political and professional fields. The 1949 ECLA
Survey reflected the postwar spirit in its deep scepticism of the role of
foreign trade and its stress on import substitution industrialization and
the internal market. See ECLA, Economic Development of Latin America and
Its Principal Problems (New York, 1949). The questioning of the ECLA

754 V//. Economy, society, politics, 193010 c. 1990
model in the 1960s is reflected in Mario Brodershon (ed.), Estrategias de

industrializacion para America Latina (Buenos Aires, 1967); the contribu-
tion by David Felix, 'Mas alia de la sustitucion de importaciones, un
dilema latinoamericano', is a good example of the new perspective. See
also Felix's 'The dilemma of import substitution: Argentina', in G.
Papanek (ed.), Development Policy: Theory and Practice (Cambridge, Mass.,
1968). M. Diamond, Doctrinas econdmicas, desarrollo e independencia economica
(Buenos Aires, 1973), presents an original analysis of the structural imbal-
ance found in the Argentine productive sectors. In the 1970s and 1980s
the focus of interest shifted to the causes of Argentine stagnation and
decline. A good example of the changing emphasis is the work of J. J.
Llach and P. Gerchunoff on the 196474 growth experience: 'Capitalismo
industrial, desarrollo asociado y distribution del ingreso entre los dos
gobiernos peronistas', DE, i^/^j (1975), 3-54, and the subsequent de-
bate in DE, 15/60 (1976), 612-39. The weak economic performance of
Argentina and the need for institutional reforms are explored in D. Ca-
vallo and Y. Mundlak, 'Agriculture and economic growth: The case of
Argentina', Research Report 36 (Washington, D.C., 1982); D. Cavallo,
Volver a crecer (Buenos Aires, 1984); J. J. Llach, Reconstruccion 0 estancamiento
(Buenos Aires, 1987); Secretarfa de Planificacion, Lineamientos para una
estrategia de crecimiento (Buenos Aires, 1985); and C. A. Rodriguez,
'Estabilizaci6n versus cambio estructural: La experiencia argentina', Cen-
tro de Estudios Macroeconomicos de Argentina, Documento de Trabajo 62
On inflation and stabilization policies in the 1950s and 1960s, see A.
Ferrer (ed.), Los planes de estabilizacion en Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1967),
with contributions from the editor, M. Brodershon, and E. Eshag and R.
Thorp; Eshag and Thorp's article, 'Economic and social consequences of
orthodox policies in Argentina in the post-war years', was originally pub-
lished in Bulletin of the Oxford Institute of Economics and Statistics (February
1965), 3 - 4 4 . See also C. Diaz Alejandro, Exchange Rate Devaluation in a
Semi-industrialized Country: The Experience of Argentina, 1955-1961 (Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1965). Against the conventional wisdom of the time, Diaz
Alejandro demonstrated that exchange devaluations may have recessive
consequences in a country with an export-oriented agriculture and an
inward-oriented industry. This idea had a far-reaching impact. For the
period from 1966 to 1973, J. C. de Pablo, 'Relative prices, income
distribution and stabilization plans, 1967-1970', Journal of Development
Economics, 1 (1974), 50-78, is an important article; an expanded version is

$2. Argentina since 1946 755
Politka anti-inflacionaria en Argentina, 19671970 (Buenos Aires, 1972).

On the same period, see G. Maynard and W. van Ryckeshen, 'Stabiliza-
tion policy in an inflationary economy', in Papanek (ed.), Development
Policy; G. Di Telia, Argentina under Perdn, 1973-1976 (London, 1983),
studies the problems of stabilizing the economy under a labour-based
government; see also A. Canitrot, 'La experiencia populista de redistribu-
cion de ingresos', DE, 15/59 (1975), 331-51, which underlines the
inherent contradictions of the populist model. The stabilization efforts of
the military regime between 1976 and 1982 produced very interesting
analyses from different perspectives: A. Canitrot, 'Teoria y practica del
liberalismo: Politica anti-inflacionaria y apertura economica en la Argen-
tina', DE, 21/82 (1981), 13189; J. L. Machinea, 'The use of exchange
rates as an anti-inflationary instrument in a stabilization-liberalization
attempt' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1983); R.
B. Fernandez and C. A. Rodriguez (eds.), Inflacidn y estabilidad (Buenos
Aires, 1982); and J. Schvarzer, Martinez de Hoz, la Idgica politica de la
politica economica (Buenos Aires, 1983).
For conceptual approaches to the theory of inflation, see J. Olivera,
'On structural inflation and Latin American structuralism', Oxford Eco-
nomic Papers, 16 (November 1964), 321-32, and 'On structural stagfla-
tion', Journal of Development Economics, 6/4 (1979), 54955; and A.
Canavese, 'The structuralist explanation in the theory of inflation', World
Development, 10 (1982), 523-9. The monetarist approach is well argued
in Fernandez and Rodriguez (eds.), Inflacidn y estabilidad. J. J. Llach, 'La
megainflacion argentina', in N. Botana and P. Waldmann (eds.), El
impacto de la inflacidn (Buenos Aires, 1988), presents an institutional
approach. The role of inertial factors in inflation is underlined in R.
Frenkel, 'Salarios e inflacidn: Resultados de investigaciones recientes en
Argentina, Brasil, Colombia, Costa Rica y Chile', DE, 25/100 (1986),
387414, an approach which inspired the Austral Plan launched by the
Alfonsin administration in 1985. For the latter experience, see the essays
in M. Bruno, G. Di Telia and R. Dornbusch (eds.), Inflation Stabilization:
The Experience of Israel, Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia and Mexico (Cambridge,
Mass., 1988); D. Heyman, Tresensayossobreinflacidnypoliticasdeestabiliza-
cidn (Buenos Aires, 1986); P. Gerchunoff and C. Bozzalla, 'Posibilidades
y limites de un programa de estabilizaci6n heterodoxo', in J. Villanueva
(ed.), Empleo, inflacidn y comercio internacional (Buenos Aires, 1988); R.
Dornbusch and M. Simonsen, Inflation Stabilization with Income Policy
Support (Cambridge, Mass., 1986); and R. Frenkel and J. M. Fanelli,

Politicas de estabilizacion y hiperinflacion en Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1990).

The account of J. L. Machinea (president of the Central Bank at the
time), 'Stabilization under Alfonsin's Government', Centro de Estudios
de Estado y Sociedad (CEDES), Documento de Trabajo 42 (Buenos Aires,
1990), must be consulted.
On the evolution of Argentine industry, see A. Dorfman, Cincuenta anos
de industrializacion argentina, 1930-19S0 (Buenos Aires, 1983); J. Katz
and B. Kosacoff, El sector manufacturero argentino: Maduracidn, retroceso y
prospectiva (Buenos Aires, 1989); and B. Kosacoff and D. Aspiazu, La
industria argentina, desarrollo y cambios estructurales (Buenos Aires, 1989).
On the controversial issue of industrial policies, a number of works de-
serve mention: H. H. Schwartz, 'The Argentine experience with indus-
trial credit and protection incentives, 19431958' (unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, Yale University, 1967), is a pioneer work. See also O. Altimir, H.
Santamaria and J. V. Sourrouille, 'Los instrumentos de la promotion indus-
trial en la post-guerra', DE, 6/24 (1967), 70934; J. Berlinski and D.
Schydlowsky, 'Incentives for industrialization in Argentina', in B. Balassa
(ed.), Development Strategies in Semi-industrialized Countries (Baltimore,
1982); J. Berlinski, 'La protecci6n efectiva de actividades seleccionadas de
la industria argentina', Instituto Di Telia, CIE, Documento de Trabajo
119 (Buenos Aires, 1985); D. Artana, 'Incentivos fiscales a la inversi6n
industrial', Instituto Di Telia, CIE, Documento de Trabajo 151 (Buenos
Aires, 1987); J. Schvarzer, 'Promoci6n industrial argentina', Centro de
Investigaciones Sociales sobre Estado y Administration (CISEA), Docu-
mento de Trabajo 90 (Buenos Aires, 1987); S. Teitel and F. Thomi, 'From
import substitution to exports: The recent experience of Argentina and
Brazil', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 34 (1986), 45590; and
J. Nogues, 'Economfa polftica del proteccionismo y la liberalization en
Argentina', DE, 28/100(1988), 159-82.
On agriculture, see C. Diaz Alejandro, 'An interpretation of Argentine
economic growth since 1930'', Journal of Development Studies, part 1 (1966),
1 4 - 4 1 , part 2 (1967), 155-77, a good example of a negative view of
Per6n's agricultural policies; J. Fodor gives a different account in 'Peron's
policies for agricultural exports, 19461948: Dogmatism or Common
Sense?' in D. Rock (ed.), Argentina in the Twentieth Century (London,
1975). For many years, works in this field focussed on the alleged lack of
price elasticity of agricultural production. L. Reca made a substantial
contribution, emphasizing the role of prices, which had previously been
underrated, in 'The price and production duality within Argentine agricul-

32. Argentina since 1946 757
ture' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Chicago, 1967), and fur-

ther works such as 'Determinantes de la oferta agropecuaria en la Argen-
tina', Instituto de Investigaciones Economicas de la CGE; Estudios sobre la
economia argentina, 5 (1969), 5 7 - 6 5 . Later, E. S. de Obschatko and M.
Pineiro, Agricultura pampeana: Cambio tecnoldgico y sector privado (Buenos
Aires, 1986), drew attention to the great technological transformation
which took place in agriculture from the 1970s and led to a great increase
in production and productivity.
On the labour market and wages, the following works are recom-
mended: J. J. Llach and C. Sanchez, 'Los determinantes del salario en
Argentina', Estudios, 7/29 (1984), 147; H. Dieguez and P. Gerchunoff,
'Dinamica del mercado laboral urbano en Argentina, 19761982', DE,
24/93 (1984), 3-40; A. Marshall, El mercado del trabajo en el capitalismo
periferico (Santiago, Chile, 1978); L. Beccaria and G. Yoguel, 'Apuntes
sobre la evolucion del empleo industrial en 1973-1984', DE, 27/1 (1988),
589-606; R. Frenkel, 'Salarios industriales e inflation, 1976-1982', DE,
24/95 (1984), 387-414; and J. L. Llach, Politicas de ingresos en la decada del
noventa: Un retorno a la economia politica (Buenos Aires, 1990). The reports
produced by Proyecto Argentina PNUD and International Labor Organiza-
tion entitled Employment, Human Resources and Wages and published by the
Ministry of Labour between 1984 and 1989 are indispensable.
Little attention was given to the public sector until the mid-1980s.
Secretaria de Hacienda, Politica para el cambio estructural en el sector publico
(Buenos Aires, 1989), brings together the presidential messages to Con-
gress on the occasion of the passage of the 1986-9 budget laws; particu-
larly useful is the 1989 message, which traces the evolution of the role of
the public sector in Argentina since 1930. On the fiscal crisis, three works
deserve mention: P. Gerchunoff and M. Vicens, Gasto publico, recursos
publicos y financiamiento de una economia en crisis: El caso de Argentina (Buenos
Aires, 1989); R. Carciofi, La desarticulacidn del pacto fiscal: Una inter-
pretacion sobre la evolucion del sector publico argentino en las ultimas dos dicadas
(Buenos Aires, 1989); and A. Porto, Federalismofiscal(Buenos Aires,
1990). For a different point of view, see Fundacion de Investigaciones
Economicas Latino-americanas (FIEL), Elfracaso del estatismo: Una propuesta
para la reforma del sector publico argentino (Buenos Aires, 1987).
For the external debt and its repercussions, see E. A. Zalduendo, La
deuda externa (Buenos Aires, 1988); E. Feldman and J. Sommer, Crisis
financiera y endeudamiento externo en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1986); R.
Frenkel, J. M. Fanelli and J. Sommer, 'El proceso del endeudamiento

externo argentine)', CEDES, Documento de Trabajo 2 (Buenos Aires,

1988); R. Bouzas and S. Keifman, 'Las negociaciones financieras externas
de Argentina en el periodo 19821987', in R. Bouzas (ed.), Entre la
heterodoxia y el ajuste (Buenos Aires, 1988); A. Garcia and S. Junco,
'Historia de la renegociacion de la deuda externa argentina', Boletin In-
formativo Techint, 245 (1987), 2958; and J. C. de Pablo and R. Dorn-
busch, Deuda externa e inestabilidad macroecondmica en Argentina (Buenos
Aires, 1988).
POLITICS AND SOCIETY
There are few general works on politics and social development over the
entire period from 1946 to 1989. The best account available in English is
D. Rock, Argentina, 15161987, cited above. See also C. Floria and C.
Garcia Belsunce, Historiapolitica de la Argentina contempordnea, 18801983
(Madrid, 1988); J. E. Corradi, The Fitful Republic: Economy, Society and
Politics in Argentina (Boulder, Colo., 1985); G. Wynia, Argentina: Illusions
and Reality (New York, 1986); and a well-documented chronicle, E.
Crawley, A House Divided: Argentina, 18801980 (London, 1985). Al-
though their main subject is the role of the military in politics, R. Potash,
The Army and Politics in Argentina, 19451962 (Stanford, Calif., 1980),
and A. Rouquie, Pouvoir militaire et societe politique en Republique Argentine
(Paris, 1978), provide general insights for the years up to the 1970s. T.
Halperin Donghi, Argentina, la democracia de masas (Buenos Aires, 1983),
is another valuable contribution. See also M. Peralta Ramos, Acumulacion
de capital y crisis politicas en Argentina, 19301974 (Mexico, D.F., 1978).
In a more interpretive vein, several essays deserve mention: G. O'Donnell,
'State and alliances in Argentina, 19561976', Journal of Development Stud-
ies, 15/1 (1978), 333, and 'El juego imposible: Competicion y coali-
ciones entre partidos politicos en la Argentina, 1955-1966', which is
included in his Modernization and Bureaucratic Authoritarianism: Studies in
South American Politics (Berkeley, 1973), 180213; M. Mora y Araujo, 'El
ciclo politico argentino', DE, 22/86 (1982), 20330, and 'El estatismo y
los problemas politicos del desarrollo argentino', in C. Floria (ed.), Argen-
tina politica (Buenos Aires, 1983), 3164; and J. C. Portantiero, 'La crisis
de un regimen: Una vision retrospectiva', in J. Nun and J. C. Portantiero
(eds.), Ensayos sobre la transicion democrdtica argentina (Buenos Aires, 1987),
57-80.
On Argentina's social structure, the works of G. Germani, Estructura

3 2 . Argentina since 1946 759
social de la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1955) and Politica y sociedad en una

epoca de transicion (Buenos Aires, 1965), are of seminal importance. See also
ECLA, Economic Development and Income Distribution in Argentina (New
York, 1969); J. L. de Imaz, Those Who Rule (Albany, N.Y., 1970); O.
Altimir, 'Estimaciones de la distribucion del ingreso en Argentina, 1 9 5 3 -
1980', DE, 25/100 (1986), 521-66; H. Palomino, 'Cambios ocupa-
cionales y sociales en Argentina, 1947-1985', CISEA, Documento de
Trabajo 88 (1987), 213; J. Nun, 'Cambios en la estructura social de la
Argentina', in Nun and Portantiero (eds.), Ensayos sobre la transicion demo-
crdtica argentina, 11737; S. Torrado, 'La estructura social de la Argen-
tina, 19451983', Centro de Estudios Urbanos, Documento de Trabajo
14 and 15 (1988); Instituto Nacional de Estadisticas y Censos, La pobreza
en Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1984) and La pobreza en el conurbano bonaerense
(Buenos Aires, 1989). A good bibliography can be found in S. Bagu,
Argentina, 18751975: Poblacidn, economia y sociedad Estudio temdtico y
bibliografico (Mexico, D.F., 1978).
On the military, in addition to the books by Potash and Rouquie
already mentioned, see G. O'Donnell, 'Modernization and military coups:
Theory, practice and the Argentine case', in A. Lowenthal (ed.), Armies
and Politics in Latin America (New York, 1976), 197243; A. Rouquie,
'Hegemonia militar, estado y dominaci6n social', in A. Rouquie (ed.),
Argentina hoy (Mexico, D.F., 1982); and D. Cant6n, La politica de los
militares argentinos, 19001971 (Buenos Aires, 1971). On the church, a
very neglected subject, see J. M. Ghio, 'The Argentine church and the
limits of democracy' in A. Stuart-Gambino and E. Cleary (eds.), The Latin
American Church and the Limits of Politics (Boulder, Colo., 1991).
On political parties and the Congress, see D. Canton, Elecciones y
partidos politicos en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1973); P. Snow, Political
Forces in Argentina (Boston, 1971); L. Schoultz, The Populist Challenge:
Argentine Electoral Behaviour in the Post War Era (Chapel Hill; N.C., 1983);
D. James, 'The Peronist Left', JLAS, 8/2 (1976), 27396; M. Acufia, De
Frondizi a Alfonsin: La tradicion politica del radicalism), 2 vols. (Buenos
Aires, 1984); M. Cavarozzi, Peronismoy radicalismo; transicionesyperspectivas
(Buenos Aires, 1988); D. Canton, El Parlamento argentino en epocas de cambio
(Buenos Aires, 1966); M. Goretti and M. Panosyan, 'El personal parla-
mentario frente a un contexto politico cambiante', in Dos ensayos de ciencia
politica (Buenos Aires, 1986); Liliana de Riz et al., El parlamento hoy
(Buenos Aires, 1986); and Liliana de Riz, 'Regimen de gobierno y
gobernabilidad: Parlamentarismo en Argentina', in D. Nohlen and A.

Solari (eds.), Reforma politica y consolidation democrdtica: Europa y America

Latina (Caracas, 1988), 2 7 3 - 8 5 .
On trade unions, see S. Baily, Labor, Nationalism and Politics in Argentina
(New Brunswick, N.J., 1967); R. Carri, Sindicatos y poder en Argentina
(Buenos Aires, 1967); M. Cavarozzi, 'Peronismo, sindicatos y politica en
la Argentina, 1943-1981', in P. Gonzalez Casanova (ed.), Historia del
movimiento obrero en America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1984), 146-99; D.
James, Resistance and Integration: Peronism and the Argentine Working Class,
1946-1976 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988); G. Ducatenzeiler, Syndicats et
politique en Argentine, 1955-1973 (Montreal, 1981); R. Rotondaro,
Realidad y dinamica del sindicalismo (Buenos Aires, 1974); T. Di Telia, El
sistema politico argentino y la clase obrera (Buenos Aires, 1964); R. Zorrilla,
Estructura y dinamica del sindicalismo argentino (Buenos Aires, 1974); S.
Senen Gonzalez, Diez anos de sindicalismo, de Peron alproceso (Buenos Aires,
1984); E. C. Epstein, 'Labor populism and hegemonic crisis in Argen-
tina", in Epstein (ed.), Labor Autonomy and the State in Latin America
(Boston, 1989).
On entrepreneurs, see J. Freels, El sector industrial en la politica nacional
(Buenos Aires, 1970); J. Niosi, Los empresarios y el estado argentino (Buenos
Aires, 1974); D. Cuneo, Crisis y comportamiento de la clase empresaria (Bue-
nos Aires, 1967); M. L. de Palomino, Tradicion y poder: La Sociedad Rural
Argentina, 1955-1983 (Buenos Aires, 1988); D. Azpiazu, E. Basualdo
and M. Khavisse, El nuevo poder economico en la Argentina de los anos 80
(Buenos Aires, 1986); R. Sidicaro, 'Poder y crisis de la gran burguesia
agraria argentina', in A. Rouquie (ed.), Argentina hoy, 51 104; and most
recently, Paul H. Lewis, The Crisis of Argentine Capitalism (Chapel Hill,
N . C . , 1990) and P. Ostiguy, Los capitanes de la industria (Buenos Aires,
1990).
On Argentina's foreign relations, see in particular C. Escude, Gran
Bretana, Estados Unidos y la declination argentina, 19421949 (Buenos
Aires, 1983); J. A. Lanus, De Chapultepec al Beagle (Buenos Aires, 1984);
and J. S. Tulchin, Argentina and the United States: A Conflicted Relationship
(Boston, 1990).
On Per6n's first two terms in office, between 1946 and 1955, see the
perceptive and colorful historical reconstruction by F. Luna, Peron y su
tiempo, 3 vols. (Buenos Aires, 19846). Profiles of the two major charac-
ters of those years can be found in J. Page, Peron: A Biography (New York,
1983), and Nicholas Fraser and Marysa Navarro, Eva Peron (New York,
1980). The sociological approach is represented by J. Kirkpatrick, Leader

$2. Argentina since 1946 761
and Vanguard in Mass Society: A Study of Peronist Argentina (Cambridge,
Mass., 1971), and P. Waldmann, Elperonismo (Buenos Aires, 1981). A
suggestive attempt to assess the impact of Peron's policies on subsequent
Argentine political development is Carlos H. Waisman, The Reversal of
Development in A rgentina: Post-war Counterrevolutionary Policies and Their Struc-
tural Consequences (Princeton, N.J., 1987). A. Ciria, Politica y cultura popu-
lar: La Argentina peronista, 1946-1955 (Buenos Aires, 1983), deals well
with the workings of peronista ideology in practice. A useful introductory
treatment of a neglected topic is offered by W. Little in 'Party and state in
Peronist Argentina', HAHR, 53 (1973), 628-56. L. Doyon, 'Organized
Labor and Peron: A study of the conflictual dynamics of the Peronist
movement' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1978), is
indispensable. Some chapters of Doyon's thesis and other valuable contribu-
tions are collected in J. C. Torre (ed.), La formation del sindicalismo peronista
(Buenos Aires, 1988); see also J. C. Torre, La vieja guardia sindical y Peron:
Sobre los origenes del peronismo (Buenos Aires, 1990). The relations between
Per6n and the military are examined in the books already mentioned by R.
Potash and A. Rouquie. An informative account of Peron's fall in 1955 is
given in J. Godio, La caida de Peron (Buenos Aires, 1973).
On Frondizi's government, see Celia Szusterman, Frondizi and the Poli-
tics of Developmentalism in Argentina, 19551962 (London, 1993); M.
Barrera, Information and Ideology: A Case Study of Arturo Frondizi (Beverly
Hills, Calif., 1973); D. Rodriguez Lamas, Lapresidencia de Frondizi (Bue-
nos Aires, 1984); N. Babini's memoirs, Frondizi: De la oposicion al gobierno
(Buenos Aires, 1984); and E. Kvaternik, Crisis sin salvataje (Buenos
Aires, 1987). On Illia's presidency, see E. Kvaternik, El pendulo civico
militar: La caida de lllia (Buenos Aires, 1990). On both presidencies, C.
Smulovitz, 'Opposition and government in Argentina: The Frondizi and
lllia Years' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Pennsylvania State University,
1990), deserves mention.
The period of military rule between 1966 and 1972 is the subject of a
major work by G. O'Donnell, El estado burocrdtico autoritario (Buenos
Aires, 1981; Eng. trans., Berkeley, 1988). See also William C. Smith,
Authoritarianism and the Crisis of the Argentine Political Economy (Stanford,
Calif., 1989); N. Botana, R. Braun and C. Floria, El regimen militar,
1966-1972 (Buenos Aires, 1973); F. Delich, Crisis y protesta social: Cor-
doba, mayo de 1969 (Buenos Aires, 1970); and R. Perina, Onganta,
Levingston, Lanusse: Los militares en la politica argentina (Buenos Aires,
1983). The memoirs of General Onganfa's secretary, Roberto Roth, Los

anos de Ongania (Buenos Aires, 1980), and those of General Agustfn

Lanusse, Mi testimonio (Buenos Aires, 1977), deserve careful reading.
On Per6n's return to power in 1973, see G. Di Telia, Argentina under
Peron and L. de Riz, Retorno y derrumbe: El ultimo gobiernoperonista (Mexico,
D.F., 1981). The collection of essays compiled by F. Turner and J. E.
Miguenz, Juan Peron and the Reshaping of Argentina (Pittsburgh, Pa.,
1983), contains good analyses of the period. See also M. Mora y Araujo,
'Las bases estructurales del peronismo' and 'Peronismo y desarrollo', in M.
Mora y Araujo and J. Lorente (eds.), El voto peronista (Buenos Aires, 1980),
3 9 7 - 4 4 0 . The role of trade unions is studied in J. C. Torre, Los sindicatos
en el gobierno, 1973-7976 (Buenos Aires, 1983). A very illuminating
study of Peron's political discourse and its relation to the youth movement
is S. Sigal and E. Veron, Peron 0 muerte (Buenos Aires, 1986).
On the military regime of 1976-83, see, for a general view, P. Wald-
mann and E. Garzon Valdez (eds.), Elpoder militar en Argentina, 19761983
(Frankfurt, 1982); M. Peralta Ramos and C. Waisman (eds.), From Military
Rule to Liberal Democracy in Argentina (Boulder, Colo., 1987); and Smith,
Authoritarianism, 224-66. A. Fontana, 'Policy making by a military corpo-
ration: Argentina, 19761983' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of
Texas, Austin, 1987), deserves mention. On the guerrilla movement the
best study available is R. Gillespie, Soldiers of Peron: Argentina's Montoneros
(Oxford, 1982). For documents and reports on the human rights issue, see
Comisi6n Nacional sobre la Desaparicion de Personas, Nunca mas (Buenos
Aires, 1984; Engl. trans., 1986); and Organization of American States,
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Report on the Situation of
Human Rights in Argentina (Washington, D.C., 1980). C. Escude, 'Argen-
tina: The costs of contradiction', in A. F. Lowenthal (ed.), Exporting Democ-
racy: The United States and Latin America (Baltimore, 1991), sheds light on
the contradictions of President Carter's human rights policy. The Malvinas
War has been extensively documented; O. Cardozo, R. Kirshbaum and E.
Van de Kooy, Malvinas: La trama secreta (Buenos Aires, 1983), and M.
Hastings and S. Jenkins, The Battle for the Falklands (New York, 1983), are
contemporary accounts presenting both sides of the conflict.
Although a global assessment of Alfonsin's presidency is still lacking,
several works deserve mention: M. Mora y Araujo, 'The nature of the
Alfonsin coalition', and M. Cavarozzi, 'Peronism and Radicalism: Argen-
tina's transition in perspective', in P. Drake and E. Silva (eds.), Elections
and Democratization in Latin America (San Diego, Calif., 1986), 143-88; E.
Catterberg, Los argentinos frente a la politica (Buenos Aires, 1989); N.

33- Uruguay 763
Botana et al., La Argentina electoral (Buenos Aires, 1985); Nun and

Portantiero (eds.), Ensayos sobre la transition democratica argentina; N. Botana
and A. M. Mustapic, 'La reforma constitucional frente al regimen politico
argentino', Instituto Di Telia, Documento de Trabajo 101 (Buenos Aires,
1988); M. Cavarozzi and M. Grossi, 'De la reinvencion democratica al
reflujo politico y la hiperinflacion', Consejo Latinoamericano de Cien-
cias Sociales, GTPP 12 (1989); J. C. Torre, 'Economia e politica nella
transizione argentina: Da Alfonsin a Menem', in G. Urbani and F. Ricciu
(eds.), Dallearmialleurne, economia, societa epolitica net'I'America Latina degli
anni novanta (Bologna, 1991). Liliana de Riz, M. Cavarozzi and J. Feld-
man, 'El contexto y los dilemas de la concertacion en la Argentina actual',
in M. dos Santos (ed.), Concertacion politico-social y democratization (Buenos
Aires, 1987), 189-224; Carlos H. Acufia and L. Golbert, 'Empresarios y
politica', Boletin Informativo Techint, 263 (1990), 33-52; R. Gaudio and A.
Thompson, Sindicalismo peronista y gobiemo radical (Buenos Aires, 1990);
and A. Fontana, 'La politica militar en un contexto de transicion: Argen-
tina, 19871989', CEDES, Documento de Trabajo 34 (1989); R. Fraga,
ha cuestion militar argentina, 19871989 (Buenos Aires, 1989).
33. URUGUAY
The literature on Uruguay since 1930 is very uneven in its coverage. The
1930s and 1940s in particular have been neglected, and it was not until
the crisis years of the 1960s that a substantial literature developed on
Uruguay's contemporary situation and recent past. During the military
regime (197385), the publication of serious work on recent history and
current problems was inhibited, but the position was eased to some extent
after 1983. Henry Finch, Uruguay, World Bibliographical Series, vol. 102
(Oxford, 1989), is an annotated bibliography of books and articles on all
aspects of Uruguayan affairs, the majority of them in English. Among
basic source materials, newspapers are a significant source for political
developments, but traditionally each newspaper represents a political fac-
tion and none could be regarded as authoritative. The number of daily
newspapers published after 1985 was greatly reduced, and the process of
democratization was marked by a proliferation of political journals. The
weekly Busqueda, published since 1981, comes closer than other papers to
being a journal of record. The radical weekly Marcba, founded in 1939, is
an indispensable source of perceptive analysis and comment on all aspects

of the period until its closure in 1974. For basic social and economic data,
the Anuario Estadistico of the Direccion General de Estadistica y Censos
(DGEC) is central. Population, housing and economic census data are also
published by DGEC, as are household survey data on employment and
income distribution. Since 1967 the monthly Boletin Estadistico of the
Banco Central del Uruguay (BCU) has been a principal source of economic
and financial data; before 1967, the Suplemento Estadistico of the Banco de ia
Republica (BROU) published less complete information. Three compila-
tions of data are Instituto de Economia, Uruguay: Estadisticas bdsicas (Mon-
tevideo, 1969); Aldo Solari, Nestor Campiglia and German Wettstein,
Uruguay en cifras (Montevideo, 1966); and Centro Latinoamericano de
Economia Humana (CLAEH), Uruguay, indicadores bdsicos (Montevideo,
1983)-
General works covering most of the period since 1930 include Roque
Faraone, El Uruguay en que vivimos (19001968), 2nd ed. (Montevideo,
1968), and De la prosperidad a la ruina (Montevideo, 1987); Martin Wein-
stein, Uruguay: The Politics of Failure (Westport, Conn., 1975), and Uru-
guay: Democracy at the Crossroads (Boulder, Colo., 1988); F. E. Panizza
'Accumulation and consensus in post-war Uruguay', in Christian Anglade
and Carlos Fortin (eds.), The State and Capital Accumulation in Latin Amer-
ica, vol. 2 (London, 1990), 149-81; and M. H. J. Finch, A Political
Economy of Uruguay since I8JO (London, 1981). Important accounts of the
early years are Juan A. Oddone, Uruguay entre la depresion y la guerra,
1929-45 (Montevideo, 1990); Gerardo Caetano and Raul Jacob, El
nacimiento del terrismo, 1930-33 (Montevideo, 1989); Raul Jacob, El
Uruguay de Terra, 19311938 (Montevideo, 1984); Ana Frega Monica
Maronna and Yvette Trochon, Baldomiry la restauracidn democrdtica (1938-
1946) (Montevideo, 1987); and German d'Elia, El Uruguay neo-batllista,
1946-1958 (Montevideo, 1983). The period of the Blanco administra-
tions is reviewed in Rosa Alonso Eloy and Carlos Demasi, Uruguay, 1958-
1968 (Montevideo, 1986). The economic development of the period is
analysed in Instituto de Economia, Elproceso economico del Uruguay (Montevi-
deo, 1969), and Luis A. Faroppa, El desarrollo economico del Uruguay (Monte-
video, 1965). Russell H . Fitzgibbon, Uruguay: Portrait of a Democracy
(New Brunswick, N.J., 1954), is well described as an affectionate study of
the country. Marvin Alisky, Uruguay: A Contemporary Survey (New York,
1969), is not reliable. An informative introduction to Uruguay in the
1960s is Instituto de Estudios Politicos para America Latina (IEPAL),
Uruguay: Un pa is sin problemas en crisis, 3rd ed. (Montevideo, 1967). Luis

33- Uruguay 765
Benvenuto et al., Uruguay hoy (Montevideo, 1971), contains five essays on
the contemporary situation.
The most detailed account of the functioning of the political system is
Philip B. Taylor, Government and Politics of Uruguay (New Orleans, La.,
i960). Works by AldoSolari, especially Estudios sobrela sociedadUruguay'a, 2
vols. (Montevideo, 1965), and El desarrollo social del Uruguay en lapostguerra
(Montevideo, 1967), contain material on the political system, as well as
aspects of social structure and development. 'Bibliograffa sobre estratifica-
cion y estructura de clases en el Uruguay', in Instituto de Ciencias Sociales,
Uruguay: Poder, ideologia y clases sociales (Montevideo, 1970), is comprehen-
sive. There are subtle analyses of the nature of Uruguayan democracy in
Francisco E. Panizza, Uruguay: Batllismoy despues (Montevideo, 1990), and
German W. Rama, La democracia en Uruguay (Montevideo 1987). Carlos
Real de Azua, 'Politica, poder y partidos en el Uruguay de hoy', 145321,
and Carlos Martinez Moreno, 'Crepusculo en arcadia: La institucionalidad y
su derrumbe a la uruguaya', 40555, in Uruguay hoy are perceptive ac-
counts of the political situation on the eve of the military coup. See also
Howard Handelman, 'Laborindustrial conflict and the collapse of Uru-
guayan democracy', JIAS, 23/4 (1981), 37194.
Carlos Real Aziia, El impulso y sufreno: Tres decadas de batllismo (Montevi-
deo, 1964), is a classic study of the decline of batllismo, and there are
stimulating reflections in Alberto Methol Ferre, El Uruguay como problema,
2nd ed. (Montevideo, 1971), and Oscar Bruschera, Los partidos tradi-
cionales y la evolucion institucional del Uruguay (Montevideo, 1962). Material
on the emergence of the Frente Amplio is provided in Miguel Aguirre
Bayley, El Frente Amplio: Historia y documentos (Montevideo, 1985). The
guerrilla movement is examined in Antonio Mercader and Jorge de Vera,
Tupamaros: Estrategia y accidn (Montevideo, 1969); Alain Labrousse, The
Tupamaros (London, 1973); and Arturo C. Porzecanski, Uruguay's Tupa-
maros: The Urban Guerrilla (New York, 1973). Documents relating to the
armed forces' political involvement can be found in Amilcar Vasconcellos,
Febrero amargo (Montevideo, 1973), and Cuadernos de Marcha, 6 8 - 9 (Mon-
tevideo, 1973), while the historical background of the military is the
subject of Liliana de Riz, 'Ejercito y politica en Uruguay', in Instituto de
Ciencias Sociales, Uruguay: Poder, ideologia y clases sociales. On the military
during and after the dictatorship, see Juan Rial, Lasfuerzas armadas (Mon-
tevideo, 1986). A remarkable account of the operations of the CIA in
Uruguay during 1964-6 is given by Philip Agee, Inside the Company: CIA
Diary (London, 1975). The structure and development of the trade union

movement are the subject of Alfredo Errandonea and Daniel Costabile,

Sindicato y sociedad en el Uruguay (Montevideo, 1969); Hector Rodriguez,
Nuestros sindicatos (Montevideo, 1965); Lucia Sala de Touron and Jorge E.
Landinelli, '50 anos del movimiento obrero uruguayo' in Pablo Gonzalez
Casanova (ed.), Historia del movimiento obrero en America Latina (Mexico,
D.F., 1984); and German d'Elfa, El movimiento sindical (Montevideo,
1969).
Important contributions to the history of the industrialization process
are Julio Millot, Carlos Silva and Lindor Silva, El desarrollo industrial del
Uruguay: De la crisis de 1929 a la postguerra (Montevideo, 1973), and Luis
Bertola, The Manufacturing Industry of Uruguay, 191361 (Gothenburg
and Stockholm, 1990). The evolution of the public sector is discussed in
Aldo Solari and Rolando Franco, Las empresas publicas en el Uruguay:
Ideologia y politica (Montevideo, 1983). The rural sector is comprehensively
analysed in CLAEH-Cinam, Situacidn economica y social del Uruguay rural
(Montevideo, 1964); Ministerio de Ganaderia y Agricultura (MGA)
Comision de Inversiones y Desarrollo Economico (CIDE), Estudio economico
y social de la agricultura en el Uruguay, 2 vols. (Montevideo, 1967); Aldo
Solari, Sociologia rural nacional, 2nd ed. (Montevideo, 1958); and Russell
H. Brannon, The Agricultural Development of Uruguay (New York, 1967).
Danilo Astori, La evolucion tecnologica de la ganaderia uruguaya, 19301977
(Montevideo, 1979), addresses an issue of critical importance. Raul Jacob,
Uruguay, 19291938: Depresion ganadera y desarrollo fabril (Montevideo,
1981), is an important source. Survey data on internal migration are
presented in Nestor Campiglia, Migracidn interna en el Uruguay (Montevi-
deo, 1968). International emigration is treated in Israel Wonsewer and
Ana Maria Teja, La emigracidn uruguaya, 1963197^ (Montevideo, 1985),
and Cesar Aguiar, Uruguay: Pats de emigracidn (Montevideo, 1982).
Three accounts of the influence of the International Monetary Fund are
Alberto Couriel and Samuel Lichtensztejn, El FMI y la crisis economica
nacional (Montevideo, 1967); Juan Eduardo Azzini, La reforma cambiaria:
Monstruo 0 martir? (Montevideo, 1970); and Danilo Astori, Mario Bucheli,
Walter Cancela and Luis Faroppa, El FMI y nosotros (Montevideo, 1983).
The prenational plan diagnosis by Comision de Inversiones y Desarrollo
Economico (CIDE) is made in Estudio economico del Uruguay: Evolucion y
perspectivas, 2 vols. (Montevideo, 1963). The two national plans were
published as CIDE, Plan nacional de desarrollo economico y social, 1965
1974, 5 vols. (Montevideo, 1965), and Oficina de Planeamiento y
Presupuesto, Plan nacional de desarrollo, 19731977, 2nd ed., 2 vols.

33- Uruguay 767
(Montevideo, 1977). Analysis of the economy in the late 1960s and early
1970s can be found in Instituto de Economia, Estudios y coyuntura, 3 vols.
(Montevideo, 1970-3).
The military's own account and documentation of its campaign against
the Tupamaros and the early years of the post-197 3 regime is given in
Junta de Comandantes en Jefe, Las fuerzas armadas alpueblo oriental, vol.
1: La subversion (Montevideo, 1976), vol. 2: El proceso politico (Montevi-
deo, 1978). Alejandro Vegh Villegas, Economia politica: Teoria y accion
(Montevideo, 1977), is an important source on the economic policy of
the regime. There are extended accounts of recent economic performance
in Luis Macadar, Uruguay, 19741980: Un nuevo ensayo de reajuste eco-
nomico? (Montevideo, 1982); Jorge Notaro, La politica economica en el
Uruguay, 19681984 (Montevideo, 1984); Centra de Investigaciones Eco-
nomicas (CINVE), La crisis uruguaya y el problema nacional (Montevideo,
1984); Luis A. Faroppa, Politicas para una economia disequilibrada: Uru-
guay, 19581981 (Montevideo, 1984); and James Hansen and Jaime de
Melo, 'The Uruguayan experience with liberalization and stabilization,
1974-81', JIAS, 25/4 (1983), 477-508. The impact of the regime's
policy on manufacturing is analysed in Instituto Aleman de Desarrollo,
Monetarismo en Uruguay: Efectos sobre el sector industrial (Berlin, 1983), and
the position of the rural sector is discussed in M. H. J. Finch, 'The
Military regime and dominant class interests in Uruguay, 1973-82', in
P. Cammack and P. O'Brien (eds.), Generals in Retreat (Manchester, Eng.,
1985), 89-114. The social costs of the military regime are clearly estab-
lished in Juan Pablo Terra and Mabel Hopenhaym, La infancia en el
Uruguay, 1913-1984 (Montevideo, 1986), and Rosario Aguirre et al., El
trabajo informal en Montevideo (Montevideo, 1986). There are illuminating
studies of the development of the natural and social sciences in Uruguay
in CINVE, Ciencia y tecnologia en el Uruguay (Montevideo, 1986).
The essential reference on the restoration of democratic government is
Charles Guy Gillespie, Negotiating Democracy: Politicians and Generals in
Uruguay (Cambridge, Eng., 1991). Accounts of the process at earlier
stages are in Luis Eduardo Gonzalez, 'Uruguay 19801981: An unex-
pected opening', LARR, 18/3 (1983), 63-76; Charles Gillespie, Louis W.
Goodman, Juan Rial and Peter Winn (eds.), Uruguay y la democracia
(Montevideo, 1985); Carlos Filgueira, El dilema de la democratizacion (Mon-
tevideo, 1984); Centra de Informaciones y Estudios del Uruguay (CIESU),
Siete enfoques sobre la concertacion (Montevideo, 1984); and Juan Rial,
Partidos politicos, democracia, y autoritarismo (Montevideo, 1984). See also

Charles Guy Gillespie and Luis Eduardo Gonzalez, 'Uruguay: The survival
of old and autonomous institutions', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz and
Seymour Martin Lipset, Democracy in Developing Countries, vol. 4, Latin
America (Boulder, Colo., 1989), 207-45. The quarterly journal Cuadernos
del Centro Latinoamericano de Economia Humana, nos. 31 and 32 (1984),
contains a number of useful articles on the transition to democracy. On the
issue of electoral reform, see Dieter Nohlen and Juan Rial, Reforma electoral
(Montevideo, 1986), and Angel Cocchi, Reforma electoraly voluntadpolitica
(Montevideo, 1988).
Aspects of Uruguay's economic and political situation at the end of the
1980s are considered in Henry Finch (ed.), Contemporary Uruguay: Problems
and Prospects (University of Liverpool, Institute of Latin American Studies
Working Paper 9, 1989). The four independent research institutes estab-
lished in recent years, CINVE, CIESU, CLAEH and Centro Inter-
disciplinario de Estudios sobre el Desarrollo (CIEDUR), have published a
considerable quantity of material, much of it in the form of working
papers.
34. PARAGUAY
Modern Paraguay begins with the Chaco War (19325), which has been
studied by many Paraguayan and Bolivian historians, usually in a polemi-
cal fashion. An objective study, in English, is David Zook, The Conduct of
the Chaco War (New Haven, Conn., i960). Also of interest from the
Paraguayan perspective are the memoirs of the victorious commander-in-
chief Jose Felix Estigarribia, The Epic of the Chaco: Marshal Estigarribia's
Memoirs of the Chaco War, translated and edited by Pablo Max Ynsfran
(Austin, Tex., 1950). On the postwar peace negotiations with Bolivia, see
Leslie B. Rout, Jr., Politics of of the Chaco Peace Conference, 19351939
(Austin, Tex., 1970). See also Gustavo A. Riart, El Dr. Luis A. Riart y la
defensa del Chaco (Asuncion, 1987); Agustin Blujaki, 'Presencia de la iglesia
catolica durante la Guerra del Chaco', Estudios Paraguayos (December
1984); Leandro Aponte Benitez, La aviacion paraguaya en la Guerra del
Chaco (Asuncion, 1985); Ramiro Escobar, Rdfagas de metralletas, sangre en
lospajonales: Guerra del Chaco (Asuncion, 1982); Lorenzo Livieres Guggiari,
Elfinanciamientode la Guerra del Chaco, 19241935: Un desafio al liberal-
ismo economico (Asuncion, 1983).
The February Revolution of 1936 also generated much polemical litera-

34- Paraguay 769
ture. The essential English-language work on the revolution, and the

Febrerista party that grew out of it, is Paul H. Lewis, The Politics of Exile
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1968). The most complete defence of Colonel
Franco's government is by his foreign affairs minister, Juan Stefanich,
whose four-volume Capitulos de la revolucion paraguaya was published while
Stefanich was in exile in Buenos Aires during 1945 and 1946. Ruperto
Resquin, La generacion paraguaya (19281932) (Buenos Aires, 1978), is
also useful for understanding the outlook of the young anti-Liberals who,
after fighting in the Chaco War, helped bring about the February Revolu-
tion. Perhaps the best critique of the Franco government is Policarpo
Artaza, Ayala, Estigarribia, y el Partido Liberal (Buenos Aires, 1936).
For the decade from 1937 to 1947, which covers the Paiva, Estigarribia
and Morinigo years, the indispensable work is Michael Grow, The Good
Neighbor Policy and Authoritarianism in Paraguay (Lawrence, Kans., 1981).
Grow's study not only sheds interesting light on Paraguay's domestic
politics, but also relates them to competition between the United States
and Germany for paramountcy in the region. See also General Amancio
Pampliega, Mision cumplida (Asuncion, 1984). Pampliega was a close aide
of Estigarribia's and served Morinigo as both minister of defence and
minister of interior. Another account by a member of Estigarribia's govern-
ment is Carlos Pastor, Capitulos de la historia politica paraguaya, 1935
1940 (Asuncion, 1986). On Axis penetration of Paraguay, see Alfredo M.
Seiferheld, Nazismo y fascismo en el Paraguay (Asuncion, 1985). Seiferheld,
whose tragic death in 1988 deprived Paraguay of perhaps its most prolific
and promising modern historian, also wrote a biography of Marshal
Estigarribia: Estigarribia: Veinte anos de politica paraguaya (Asuncion,
1982). More polemical, but still worthwhile treatments of this period are
Arturo Bray, Armas y letras, 3 vols. (Asuncion, 1981), which is critical of
Estigarribia from an Old Liberal viewpoint, and Leandro Prieto, Elproceso
de la dictadura liberal de 1940 (version documental) (Asuncion, 1985), which
attacks the Estigarribia government from the Colorado side. Absolutely
essential for the whole panorama of Paraguay's politics from the Chaco
War to the 1947 civil war is Seiferheld's three-volume Conversaciones
politico-militares (Asuncion, 1984-6), which consists of transcribed inter-
views with leading politicians, soldiers and intellectuals of the period; and
Saturnino Ferreira's four-volume Proceso politico del Paraguay: Una vision
desde la prensa (Asuncion, 1986-9), which is composed of excerpts from
the contemporary press of the era 193647. The much-maligned General
Morinigo gets his day in court in Augusto Ocampos Caballero, Testimonios

de un presidente (Asuncion, 1983), which is based on interviews with the

former president.
The 1947 civil war continues to attract the attention of Paraguayan
writers since it is seen as a recent historical watershed. Older works, such
as Major Antonio E. Gonzalez, La rebelion de Conception (Buenos Aires,
1947), and O. Barcena Echeveste, Conception 1947 (Asuncion, 1948), are
frankly pro-Colorado versions. The most recent La revolution de 1947 y otros
recuerdos (Asuncion, 1987) by Colonel Sixto Dure Franco is also by a
loyalist soldier and close associate of Stroessner, but has a more dispassion-
ate view of the subject, thanks to the passage of forty years. See also
Gustavo Prieto Bustos, Apuntes para la historia: Datos para una resena del 9
de junto de 1946 al 20 de agosto de 1947 (Asuncion, 1987), which includes
some military documents. For the rebel version, see Colonel Alfredo Ra-
mos, Conception 1947, la revolution derrotada (Asuncion, 1985). There is
still no scholarly work that focusses exclusively on the turbulent period
from the end of the civil war to Stroessner's seizure of power. Alfredo M.
Sieferheld (ed.), La caida de Federico Chaves: Una vision documental norte-
amerkana (Asuncion, 1987) is a collection of the correspondence between
the U.S. embassy in Asuncion and the State Department in the years 1953
and 1954. Carlos Caballero Ferreira, founder of the 14 May movement,
has described why the 1959 revolution failed in La celda del miedo
(Asuncion, 1986).
On the stronato, the standard work is Paul H. Lewis, Paraguay Under
Stroessner (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980), but it is based on research completed
in the late 1970s. This is partly remedied in a second study by Lewis,
Socialism, Liberalism, and Dictatorship in Paraguay (New York, 1982). More
recent works on the stronato include Carlos R. Miranda, The Stroessner Era:
Authoritarian Rule in Paraguay (Boulder, Colo, and Oxford, 1990), and
Carlos Maria Lezcano, El regimen militar de Alfredo Stroessner (Asuncion,
1989). An interesting comparative essay is Paul C. Sondrol, 'Totalitarian
and authoritarian dictators: A comparison of Fidel Castro and Alfredo
Stroessner', JLAS, 23/3 (1991), 599-620. A new generation of young
Paraguayan economists and sociologists has started to produce excellent
studies of the contemporary scene. See, for example, the two-volume
Economia del Paraguay contempordneo by Carlos Fletschner et al. (Asuncion,
1984); Pablo A. Herken Krauer, Via crutis economico, 198286 (Asunci6n,
1986); and Roberto Luis Cespedes et al., Paraguay, sociedad, economia y
politica (Asunci6n, 1988). For the study of the colonization schemes imple-
mented during the period 1965-85, see E. B. Zoomers, Rural Develop-

35- Chile, C.1930-C.1960 771
merit and Survival Strategies in Central Paraguay (Amsterdam, 1988), and J.
M. G. Kleinpenning, Man and Land in Paraguay (Amsterdam, 1987).
The issue of Brazil's influence during the stronato is thoroughly explored
in two excellent articles by R. Andrew Nickson: 'The Brazilian coloniza-
tion of the eastern border region of Paraguay', JLAS, 13/1 (1981), 111-
31, and 'The Itaipii hydroelectric project: The Paraguayan perspective',
BLAR, 2/2 (1982), 120. The Catholic church's challenge to the regime
is summarized in Kenneth Westhues, 'Curses versus blows: Tactics in
churchstate conflict', Sociological Analysis, 36 (1975), 1 16. See also
Frederick Hicks, 'Politics, power, and the role of the village priest', JIAS,
9/2 (1967), 27382. Hicks also provides a fine analysis of the hold that
traditional party leaders exercised over the peasantry in 'Interpersonal
relationships and caudillismo in Paraguay', JIAS, 13/1 (1971), 89111.
Brief descriptions of political events prior to the fall of Stroessner can be
found in Andrew Nickson, 'Tyranny and longevity: Stroessner's Paraguay',
Third World Quarterly, 10/1, (1988), 237-59; and John H. Williams,
'Paraguay's Stroessner: Losing control?', Current History, 86 (January
1987), 25-8.
The fall of Stroessner has motivated some studies on the issue of transi-
tion and the prospects of democratization in Paraguay. See, for example,
Thomas Sanders, The Fall of Stroessner (Indianapolis, Ind., 1989); Diego
Abente, Stronismo, Post-Stronismo and the Prospects for Democratization in
Paraguay (Notre Dame, Ind., 1989); Andrew Nickson, 'The overthrow of
the Stroessner regime: Re-establishing the status quo', BLAR, 8/2 (1989),
185-210; Marcial Antonio Riquelme, Hacia la transicion a la democracia en
el Paraguay (Asunci6n, 1989); Diego Abente, 'Constraints and opportuni-
ties: Prospects for democratization in Paraguay', JIAS, 30/1, (1989), 7 3 -
104; and Riordan Roett and Richard Scott Sacks, Paraguay: The Personalist
Legacy (Boulder, Colo., 1991).
3 5 . CHILE, c. 1 9 3 0 - c . i 9 6 0
Most important among the primary sources for this period are newspapers,
especially El Mercurio and El Diario llustrado from the Right, La Nacidn
from the government, and La Opinion and El Siglo from the Left. Periodi-
cals, notably Ercilla and Zig-Zag, are also useful; see in particular a series
of candid retrospectives with past political actors arranged by Wilfredo
Mayorga in Ercilla during 19658. The tables compiled by Markos

Mamalakis, Historical Statistics of Chile, 5 vols. (Westport, Conn., 1979,

1980, 1982, 1984, 1985) are an indispensable source of information.
The most valuable memoirs come from President Arturo Alessandri
Palma, Recuerdos degobierno, 3 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1952); U.S. Ambassa-
dor Claude G. Bowers, Chile through Embassy Windows (New York, 1958);
President Gabriel Gonzalez Videla, Memorias, 2 vols. (Santiago, Chile,
1975); Elias Lafertte, Vida de un comunista (Santiago, Chile, 1961); Arturo
Olavarria Bravo, Chile entre dos Alessandri, 4 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1962,
1965), by a professional politician; Eudocio Ravines, La gran estafa (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1954), by a disillusioned Comintern agent; and General Carlos
Saez Morales, Recuerdos de un soldado, 3 vols. (Santiago, 1934).
The best general history of Chile is Brian Loveman, Chile: The Legacy of
Hispanic Capitalism, 2nd ed. (New York, 1988). A comprehensive contri-
bution on the period from the 1930s to the 1950s is Paul W. Drake,
Socialism and Populism in Chile, 1932-52 (Urbana, 111., 1978). Other basic
works include the collection of articles in Universidad de Chile, Desarrollo
de Chile en la primera mitad del siglo XX, 2 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1953),
Julio Cesar Jobet's revisionist Ensayo critico del desarrollo economico-social de
Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1955), and Fredrick B. Pike's landmark Chile and
the United States, 1880-1962 (South Bend, Ind., 1963). Also see Mariana
Aylwin et. al., Chile en el siglo XX (Santiago, Chile, 1983).
For political history of the period, the following works by Chileans are
especially recommended: Ricardo Boizard, Historia de una derrota (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1941); Fernando Casanueva Valencia and Manuel Fernandez
Canque, El Partido Socialista y la lucha de clases en Chile (Santiago, Chile,
1973); Cesar Caviedes, The Politics of Chile: A Sociogeographical Assessment
(Boulder, Colo., 1979); Carlos Charlin O., Del avion rojo a la repiiblica
socialista (Santiago, Chile, 1972); Luis Correa, El presidente Ibdnez (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1962); Ricardo Cruz-Coke, Geografia electoral de Chile (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1952) and Historia electoral de Chile, 1925-1973 (Santiago,
Chile, 1984); Luis Cruz Salas, 'Historia social de Chile, 1931-1945'
(unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, 1969);
Ricardo Donoso, Alessandri, agitador y demoledor, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F.,
1952, 1954); Florencio Duran, El Partido Radical (Santiago, Chile, 1958);
Alberto Edwards Vives and Eduardo Frei Montalva, Historia de los partidos
politicos chilenos (Santiago, Chile, 1949); Julio Faundez, Marxism and Democ-
racy in Chile: From 1932 to the Fall of Allende (New Haven, Conn., 1988);
Juan F. Fernandez C., Pedro Aguire Cerda y el Frente Popular Chileno (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1938); Marta Infante Barros, Testigos del treinta y ocho (Santi-

35- Chile, c.1930c.i960 773
ago, Chile, 1972); Julio Cesar Jobet, El Partido Socialista de Chile, 2 vols.
(Santiago, Chile, 1971); Norbert Lechner, La democracia en Chile (Buenos
Aires, 1970); Tomas Moulian and Isabel Torres Dujisin, Discusiones entre
honorables: Las candidaturas presidenciales de la derecha, 19381946 (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1988); Alfonso Stephens Freire, El irracionalismo politico en
Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1957); German Urziia Valenzuela, Historia politica
electoral de Chile, 1931-19J3 (Santiago, Chile, 1986); Carlos Vicuna Fuen-
tes, La tirania en Chile, 2 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1938); and Ignacio
Walker, Socialismo y democracia: Chile y Europa en perspectiva comparada (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1990). For encyclopedic citations, scholars can refer to Jordi
Fuentes and Lia Cortes, Diccionariopolitico de Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1967).
The most useful political accounts by non-Chileans are Robert J. Alexan-
der's political biography of Arturo Alessandri, 2 vols. (Ann Arbor, Mich.,
1977); Frank Bonilla and Myron Glazer, Student Politics in Chile (New
York, 1970); Donald W. Bray, 'Chilean politics during the second Ibaiiez
government, 195258' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford Univer-
sity, 1961); Michael J. Francis's treatment of a neglected topic, The Limits
of Hegemony: United States Relations with Argentina and Chile during World
War II (Notre Dame, Ind., 1977); Carmelo Furci, The Chilean Communist
Party and the Road to Socialism (London, 1984); Federico G. Gil's standard
The Political System of Chile (Boston, 1966); George Grayson, El Partido
Democrata Cristiano Chileno (Buenos Aires, 1968); Ernst Halperin's ideo-
logical analysis, Rationalism and Communism in Chile (Cambridge, Mass.,
1965); Kalman Silvert's insightful The Conflict Society: Reaction and Revolu-
tion in Latin America (New Orleans, La., 1961; 2nd rev. ed., New York,
1966); Brian Smith, The Church and Politics in Chile: Challenges to Modern
Catholicism (Princeton, N.Y., 1982); and John Reese Stevenson's narra-
tive, The Chilean Popular Front (Philadelphia, 1942).
On the economic history of the period, the place to begin is Markos
Mamalakis, The Growth and Structure of the Chilean Economy (New Haven,
Conn., 1976). Other vital works include Jorge Ahumada, En vez de la
miseria (Santiago, Chile, 1965); Oscar Alvarez Andrews, Historia del
desarrollo industrial de Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1936); P. T. Ellsworth, Chile,
an Economy in Transition (New York, 1945); Ricardo Ffrench-Davis, Po-
liticas economicas en Chile, 19521970 (Santiago, Chile, 1973); Albert O.
Hirschman, 'Inflation in Chile', in Journeys toward Progress (Garden City,
N . Y , 1965); Francisco IIlanes Benitez, La economia chilena y el comercio
exterior (Santiago, Chile, 1944); Ricardo Lagos Escobar, La concentracion del
poder economico (Santiago, Chile, 1961); Rolf Luders, 'A monetary history of

Chile, 1925-1958' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chi-

cago, 1968); Markos Mamalakis and Clark Reynolds, Essays on the Chilean
Economy (New York, 1965); Oscar Mufioz, Crecimiento industrial de Chile,
191465 (Santiago, Chile, 1968); Luis Ortega Martinez et. al., Cor-
poracion de Fomento de la Produccion: 50 anos de realizaciones, 19391989
(Santiago, Chile, 1989); Anibal Pinto Santa Cruz, Antecedents sobre el
desarrollo de la economia chilena, 19251952 (Santiago, Chile, 1954) and
Chile, un caso de desarrollo frustrado (Santiago, Chile, 1962); Enrique Sierra,
Tres ensayos de estabilizacion en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1970); United Na-
tions, Economic Commission for Latin America, Antecedentes sobre el
desarrollo de la economia chilena, 1925-1952 (Santiago, Chile, 1954);
Universidad de Chile, Instituto de Economia, Desarrollo economico de Chile,
19401956 (Santiago, Chile, 1956); and Enrique Zafiartu Prieto, Hambre,
miseria e ignorancia (Santiago, Chile, 1938).
Agricultural and labour issues are considered in a number of mono-
graphs. On the rural sector, George M. McBride, Chile: Land and Society
(New York, 1936); Gene Ellis Martin, La division de la tierra en Chile central
(Santiago, Chile, i960); Brian Loveman, Struggle in the Countryside: Politics
and Rural Labor in Chile, 19191973 (Bloomington, Ind., 1976); Erico
Hott Kinderman, 'Las sociedades agricolas nacionales y su influencia en la
agricultura de Chile' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Universidad de
Chile, Santiago, 1944); Jean Carriere, Landowners and Politics in Chile (Am-
sterdam, 1981); and Thomas C. Wright, Landowners and Reform in Chile:
The Sociedad Nacional de Agricultura, 1919-40 (Urbana, 111., 1982), stand
out. On trade unions, see Jorge Barria, El movimiento obrero en Chile (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1971); Alan Angell, Politics and the Labour Movement in Chile
(London, 1972); J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Labor movement formation and
politics: The Chilean and French cases in comparative perspective, 1850
1950' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1979); and
Cris6stomo Pizarro, La huelga obrera en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1986).
The social and cultural-intellectual history of the middle decades of the
twentieth century have been neglected. One exception is Felicitas Klimpel,
La mujer chilena: El aportefemenino alprogreso de Chile, 19101960 (Santiago,
Chile, 1962). A valuable recent addition is Ivan Jaksic, Academic Rebels in
Chile: The Role of Philosophy in Higher Education and Politics (New York,
1989). Some older works remain valuable, especially Arturo Torres
Rioseco, Breve historia de literatura chilena (Mexico, D.F., 1956); Fernando
Alegria, Literatura chilena del siglo XX, 2nd ed. (Santiago, Chile, 1962);
Julio Duran Cerda, Panorama del teatro chileno, 18421939 (Santiago, Chile,

36. Chile since c. i960 775
1959); and Raul Silva Castro, Historia critica dela novela chilena, 18431956
(Madrid, i960). Also see David Foster, Chilean Literature: A Working Bibliog-
raphy of Secondary Sources (Boston, 1978).
36. C H I L E S I N C E c. i 9 6 0
An important source for this period are reviews and magazines. The
invaluable Mensaje provides a monthly mixture of political, economic and
religious analysis. Panorama Economico is very useful on the economy. Que
Pasa is important for the politics of the right. Ercilla is an essential weekly
news magazine for much of the period. The Ercilla journalists formed Hoy,
after one of the many takeover deals of the Pinochet era brought Ercilla
closer to the politics of the Pinochet government. Hoy is close to the PDC.
Numerous other weekly magazines were intermittently affected by the
capricious censorship of Pinochet's Chile; amongst the best are APSI and
Andlisis.
Amongst the academic publications, Estudios CIEPLAN provides excel-
lent critical analysis of the economy; and Estudios Publicos, a mixture of
economic, political and philosophical analysis from the neo-classical right.
The exile journal ChileAmerica, published in Rome, is indispensable for
the decade following the coup of 1973. Of the many publications that
appeared during the Allende government, the Cuadernos de la Realidad
Nacional, Chile Hoy and Revista EURE are important.
There are several useful bibliographical studies, including Arturo Valen-
zuela and J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Visions of Chile', LARR, 10/3 (1975);
William Sater, 'A survey of recent Chilean historiography, 1965-1976',
LARR, 14/2 (1979); Paul Drake, 'El impacto academico de los terremotos
politicos: Investigaciones de la historia chilena en ingles, 1977-1983',
Alternativas (Santiago) (January-April 1984); Benny Pollack and Jean
Grugel, 'Chile before and after monetarism', BLAR, 3/2, 1984; Lois
Hecht Oppenheim, 'The Chilean road to Socialism revisited', LARR, 24/1
(1989)-
There are few good general accounts of the whole period, but for the
period up to 1970 see Mariana Aylwin et al., Chile en el Siglo XX (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1985). For electoral data, see German Urzua, Historia politica
electoral de Chile, 19311973 (Santiago, Chile, 1986). A useful guide to
parties and movements is Reinhard Friedman, 1964-1988: La politica
chilena de la A a la Z (Santiago, Chile, 1988). An excellent interpretation

of the politics of the Left is Julio Faundez, Marxism and Democracy in Chile:
From 1932 to the Fall ofAllende (New Haven, Conn, and London, 1988).
Social change is examined in Javier Martinez and Eugenio Tironi, Las
clases sociales en Chile: cambio y estratificacidn 19701980 (Santiago, Chile,
1986). An excellent study of the origins of the urban poor is Vicente
Espinoza, Para una historia de lospobres de la ciudad(Santiago, Chile, 1988).
POLITICS
Most writing on the politics of this period tends to concentrate on one

administration. Although it was written in 1966, Federico Gil, The Politi-
cal System of Chile (Boston, 1966) has stood the test of time as an invaluable
reference work. Rather over-rated is James Petras, Politics and Social Forces
in Chilean Development (Berkeley, 1969). Paul Sigmund, The Overthrow of
Allende and the Politics of Chile 1964-1976 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1978) is good
on the Christian Democrats, but tends to be polemical thereafter. Al-
though it focuses on the Allende government, full of insights for the
structure of Chilean politics and an indispensable source, is Arturo Valen-
zuela, The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Chile (Baltimore, 1978). An-
other book by Valenzuela is of more general interest than its title might
suggest: Political Brokers in Chile: Local Government in a Centralized Polity
(Chapel Hill, N . C . , 1977).
Political parties have attracted far less attention than their central politi-
cal role merits. An excellent set of essays, however, is Adolfo Aldunate et
al., Estudios sobre el sistema de partidos en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1985). A
conservative historian gives his account in Bernardino Bravo Lira, Regimen
degobiernoypartidospoliticos en Chile, 1924-1973, (Santiago, Chile, 1978).
A set of comparative essays which includes articles on Chile, notably one
by Tomas Moulian and Isabel Torres on the Chilean Right, is Marcelo
Cavarozzi and Manuel Antonio Garreton, Muerte y resurrecidn; los partidos
politicos en el autoritarismo y las transiciones del Cono Sur (Santiago, Chile,
1989).
On the PDC, see George Grayson, El Partido Democrata Cristiano chileno
(Buenos Aires, 1968), and Michael Fleet, The Rise and Fall of Chilean
Christian Democracy (Princeton, N.J., 1985). On the Socialists, see Fer-
nando Casanueva and Manuel Fernandez, El Partido Socialista y la lucha de
clases en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1973); and Benny Pollack et. al., Mobiliza-
tion and Socialism in Chile (Liverpool, 1981). Ernst Halperin, Nationalism
and Communism in Chile (Cambridge, Mass., 1965) is still useful. More

36. Chile since c.i960 777
recent is Benny Pollack and Hernan Rosenkranz, Revolutionary Social Democ-

racy: The Chilean Socialist Party (London, 1986). See also Ignacio Walker,
Socialismo y democracia: Chile y Europa en perspectiva comparada (Santiago,
Chile, 1990). Three books develop Socialist rethinking: Jorge Arrate, La
fuerza democrdtica de la idea socialista (Santiago, Chile, 1985), and edited by
the same author, La renovacion socialista (Santiago, Chile, 1987); and Ri-
cardo Lagos, Democracia para Chile: Proposiciones de un socialista (Santiago,
Chile, 1986). On the Communists, see Carmelo Furci, The Chilean Commu-
nist Party and the Road to Socialism (London, 1984); Eduardo Godard
Labarca, Corvaldn, 27 horas (Santiago, Chile, 1973), and Augusto Varas
(ed.), El Partido Comunista en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1988).
The eruption of the military into political life took academics as well as
politicians by surprise. There were very few useful accounts of the mili-
tary, apart from Alain Joxe, Las fuerzas armadas en el sistema politico de Chile
(Santiago, Chile, 1970), and Frederick Nunn, The Military in Chilean
History: Essays on Civil-Military Relations 1810-1973 (Albuquerque,
N.Mex., 1976). A more recent study is Hugo Friihling et. al., Estado y
fuerzas armadas (Santiago, Chile, 1982). An early military plotter tells his
story in Florencia Varas, Conversaciones con Viaux (Santiago, Chile, 1972).
Carlos Prats tells his own story in Memorias: Testimonio de un Soldado
(Santiago, Chile, 1985). A prominent military supporter of Pinochet has
written his memoirs: Ismael Huerta Diaz, Volveria a ser marinero, 2 vols.
A pioneering study of foreign policy, partly dealing with this period, is
Fredrick Pike, Chile and the United States, 1880-1962 (Notre Dame, Ind.,
1963). A Chilean study covering a long period is Walter Sanchez and
Teresa Pereira, Ciento cincuenta anos de politica exterior chilena (Santiago,
Chile, 1979). A useful account is Francisco Orrego Vicuna, La par-
ticipacion de Chile en el sistema international (Santiago, Chile, 1974). The
journal Estudios Internacionales (Santiago) carries interesting and well-
documented articles on Chilean foreign policy for example, Manfred
Wilhelmy, 'Hacia un analisis de la politica exterior chilena contem-
poranea', Estudios Internacionales (OctoberDecember 1979). A detailed
and well-argued account of the foreign policy of the Allende government
is Joaquin Fermandois, Chile y el mundo: 1970 1973 (Santiago, Chile,
1985). The most comprehensive treatment of recent foreign policy is
Heraldo Munoz, Las relaciones exteriores delgobierno militar chileno (Santiago,
Chile, 1986). On relations with the United States, see Heraldo Mufloz and
Carlos Portales, Una amistad esquiva: Las relaciones de EE.UU. y Chile

(Santiago, Chile, 1987) and William F. Sater, Chile and the United States,
(Athens, Ga., 1991).
THE ECONOMY AND SOCIETY
A useful summary of the major issues in Chilean economic development is

Robert Zahler et al., Chile, 19401975: Treinta y cinco anos de discon-
tinuidad economica (Santiago, Chile, 1985). The economic policies of the
Alessandri and Frei administrations are dealt with in Enrique Sierra, Tres
ensayos de estabilizacion en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1969). A very use-
ful collection in the area of political economy is Anfbal Pinto et al., Chile,
Hoy (Mexico, D.F., 1970). An excellent technical account is Ricardo
Ffrench-Davis, Political economicas en Chile, 1952-1970 (Santiago, Chile,
1973). A controversial and stimulating work is Markos Mamalakis, The
Growth and Structure of the Chilean Economy from Independence to Allende
(Washington, D.C. 1976). A great deal of useful data is available in the
World Bank Report, Chile: An Economy in Transition (Washington, D . C ,
1980). Markos Mamalakis has published five volumes of the indispensable
Historical Statistics of Chile (London, 1979, 1980, 1982, 1983, 1986). An
interesting comparative study of the three civilian administrations is Bar-
bara Stallings, Class Conflict and Economic Development in Chile (Stanford,
Calif., 1978). Markos Mamalakis and Clark Reynolds, Essays on the Chilean
Economy (New York, 1965) is excellent on copper and public policy. A
useful collection of data appears in Oficina de Planificaci6n Nacional
(ODEPLAN), Antecedentes del desarrollo economico, 19601970 (Santiago,
Chile, 1971). Oscar Landerretche, 'Inflation and socio-political conflicts
in Chile, 19551970' (unpublished D.Phil thesis, University of Oxford,
1983) is extremely perceptive. Industrialization is examined in Oscar
Munoz, Chile y su industrialization: Pasado, crisis y opciones (Santiago, Chile,
1986). Social policy is examined in Jose Pablo Arellano, Politicas sociales y
desarrollo: Chile, 19241984 (Santiago, Chile, 1985).
The copper sector is covered in two excellent studies: Theodore Moran,
Multinational Corporations and the Politics of Dependence: Copper in Chile,
(Princeton, N.J., 1974); and Ricardo Ffrench-Davis and Ernesto Tironi
(eds.), El cobre en el desarrollo nacional (Santiago, Chile, 1974). See also the
earlier but still useful studies by Mario Vera, La politica economica del cobre
(Santiago, Chile, 1961), and Una politica definitiva para nuestras riquezas
bdsicas (Santiago, Chile, 1969).
A scholarly and impressive account of rural labour, which perhaps over

emphasises the extent of conflict, is in Brian Loveman, Struggle in the

Countryside: Politics and Rural Labour in Chile, 19191973 (Bloomington,
Ind., 1976). The basic source of data is the CIDA report, Chile: Tenencia de
la tierra y desarrollo socio-economico del sector agricola (Washington, D.C.,
1966). See also Luz Eugenia Cereceda and Fernando Dahse, Dos decadas de
cambios en el agro chileno (Santiago, Chile, 1980). For the PDC and UP
reforms, see Solon Barraclough and Juan Fernandez, Diagnostico de la re-
forma agraria chilena (Buenos Aires, 1974); Kyle Steenland, Agrarian Re-
form under Allende: Peasant Revolt in the South (Albuquerque, N.Mex.,
1978); and Robert Kaufman, The Politics of Land Reform in Chile, 1950-
1970 (Cambridge, Mass., 1973). For more recent developments, see
Sergio Gomez, Instituciones y procesos agrarios en Chile (Santiago, Chile,
1982). Jacques Chonchol's work is important: see, for example, the chap-
ter in Anibal Pinto (ed.), Chile, Hoy; and 'La reforma agraria en Chile,
19701973' TE, 53 (1976). Post-coup policies are examined in Lovell
Jarvis, Chilean Agriculture under Military Rule (Berkeley, 1985), and in
Patricio Silva, Estado, neoliberalismo y politica agraria en Chile, 19731981
(Amsterdam, 1987), and Jose Garrido (ed.), Historia de la reforma agraria en
Chile (Santiago, Chile 1988). An excellent more recent set of essays is
David Hojman (ed.), Neo-Liberal Agriculture in Rural Chile (London, 1990).
The pioneer of labour studies in Chile, Jorge Barria, wrote extensively
on the subject: see especially Trayectoria y estructura del movimiento sindical
chileno (Santiago, Chile, 1963) and Historia de la CUT (Santiago, Chile,
1971). Urban and mining labour is examined in Alan Angell, Politics and
the Labour Movement in Chile (Oxford, 1972), for the period up to 1970.
Indispensable for the rural union movement up to 1970 is Almino
Affonso, Sergio Gomez and Emilio Klein, Movimiento campesino chileno, 2
vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1970). An excellent study of labour under Pinochet
is Guillermo Campero and Jose Valenzuela, El movimiento sindical chileno en
el capitalismo autoritario (Santiago, Chile, 1981). A fascinating study at the
local level an altogether too rare example is Penelope Pollitt, Religion
and Politics in a Coal Mining Community in Southern Chile (unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1981). Another rare example of
detailed empirical work is Manuel Barrera et al., El cambio social en una
empresa del APS (Santiago, Chile, 1973). An earlier study of worker atti-
tudes is Torcuato di Telia et al., Huachipato et Lota: Etude sur la conscience
ouvriere dans deux entreprises chilennes (Paris, 1966).
The role of workers under the UP government is examined in Juan
Espinosa and Andrew Zimbalist, Economic Democracy: Workers' Participation

in Chilean Industry, 1970-1973 (New York, 1978); and in two short

monographs by Francisco Zapata, Los mineros de Chuquicamata: Productores 0
proletarios, (Mexico, D.F., 1975) and Las relaciones entre el movimiento obrero y
el gobierno de Allende (Mexico, D.F., 1974). A brilliant account of a worker
takeover is Peter Winn, Weavers of Revolution: The Yarur Workers and Chile's
Road to Socialism (New York, 1986). Useful accounts of labour under
Pinochet are Gonzalo Falabella, Labour in Chile under the junta, Institute of
Latin American Studies, University of London, Working Paper no. 4
(1981); a publication of the Chilean research centre Vector, El movimiento
sindical (Santiago, Chile, 1981); J. Roddick and N. Haworth, 'Labour and
Monetarism in Chile', BLAR, 1/1 (1981); and Manuel Barrera et al.,
Sindicatos y estado en el Chile actual (Geneva, 1985).
On the entrepreneurial sector, there is a detailed analysis of the struc-
ture of organizations in Genaro Arriagada, La oligarquia patronal chileno
(Santiago, Chile, 1970). Marcelo Cavarozzi, 'The government and the
industrial bourgeoisie in Chile, 19381964' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
University of California, Berkeley, 1975) contains a great deal of useful
information. An excellent study of recent entrepreneurial behaviour is by
Guillermo Campero, Losgremios empresariales en elperiodo 19701983 (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1984). The ideology of an important voice of the entrepreneu-
rial sector is examined in Guillermo Sunkel, El Mercurio: Diez arios de
educacion politico ideologico, 19691979 (Santiago, Chile, 1983).
Three books begin the task of writing the history of womens' involve-
ment in political life: Julieta Kirkwood, Serpolitica en Chile: Las fministas y
lospartidos (Santiago, Chile, 1985); Maria Angelica Maza, La otra mitadde
Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1986); and Maria Elena Valenzuela, La mujer en el
Chile militar (Santiago, Chile, 1987). See also the chapter on feminist
politics in Chile by Patricia M. Chuchryk in Jane Jaquette (ed.), The
Women's Movement in Latin America (London, 1989).
An impressive study of the church in the last few decades in Chile is
Brian Smith, The Church and Politics in Chile (Princeton, N J . , 1982). On
the role of the church in the Pinochet years, see Enrique Correa and Jose
Antonio Viera Gallo, Iglesia y dictadura (Santiago, Chile, 1986); and Pat-
ricio Dooner (ed.), La iglesia catolica y el futuro politico de Chile (Santiago,
Chile, 1988). On Protestantism, see Humberto Lagos, Los Evangelicos en
Chile: Una lectura sociologica (Santiago, Chile, 1988). See also Maria An-
tonieta Huerta and Luis Pacheco Pastene, La iglesia chilena y los cambios
sociopoliticos (Santiago, Chile, 1988).
Education is examined in Kathleen Fischer, Political Ideology and Educa-

tional Reform in Chile, 1964-1976, (Los Angeles, 1979); and in Guillermo

Labarca, Education y sociedad: Chile, 1969-1984 (Amsterdam, 1985). An
interesting account of the development of philosophy in Chile, including
the Pinochet period, is Ivan Jaksic, Academic Rebels in Chile: The Role of
Philosophy in Higher Education and Politics (New York 1989).
THE FREI GOVERNMENT
An excellent study of policy making during the Frei government is Peter

Cleaves, Bureaucratic Politics and Administration in Chile (Berkeley, 1974).
An insider's account is Sergio Molina, El proceso de cambio en Chile (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1977). Arturo Olavarria Bravo has written several volumes of
opinionated narrative under the title of Chile bajo la Democracia Cristiana
(Santiago, Chile, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969). The best overall account is
Ricardo Yocelevsky, La Democracia Cristiana chilena y el gobierno de Eduardo
Frei (Mexico, D.F., 1987). See also Patricio Dooner, Cambios sociales y
conflicto politico: El conflicto politico national durante el gobierno de Eduardo Frei
THE POPULAR UNITY GOVERNMENT
There is a huge literature on the Popular Unity period. For a fascinating

account of the origins of the UP government, see Eduardo Labarca, Chile
al rojo (Santiago, Chile, 1971). A great deal of sociological data for the
period is contained in Manuel Castells, La lucha de clases en Chile (Buenos
Aires, 1974). Excellent collections of essays are S. Sideri (ed.), Chile,
19701973: Economic Development and Its International Setting (The Hague,
1979); Arturo Valenzuela and Samuel Valenzuela (eds.), Chile: Politics and
Society (New Brunswick, N J . , 1976); and Federico Gil et al. (eds.), Chile
at the Turning Point: Lessons of the Socialist Years, 19 70-19 73 (Philadelphia,
1979). A valuable account, compiled during the UP period, is J. Ann
Zammit(ed.), The Chilean Road to Socialism (Sussex, Eng., 1973); and after
the coup, Philip O'Brien (ed.), Allende's Chile (London, 1976). The collec-
tion edited by Kenneth Medhurst, Allende's Chile (London, 1972), has
some interesting essays. A useful recent account of the period is Edy
Kaufman, Crisis in Chile: New Perspectives (New York, 1988). An intelli-
gent critique from a conservative standpoint is Mark Falcoff, Modern Chile,
1970-198S; A Critical History (New Brunswick, N.J., 1989).
A collection of Allende's speeches gives some idea of his policy and

aims: Salvador Allende, Chile's Road to Socialism (London, 1973). Allende's

aims are more interestingly explored in Regis Debray, Conversations with
Allende (London, 1971). At times rather pretentious, but at other times an
indispensable source, is the account by Allende's aide, Joan Garces, Al-
lende y la experiencia chilena (Barcelona, 1976). Widely used, though writ-
ten rather too close to the event, is Ian Roxborough, Phil O'Brien and
Jackie Roddick, Chile: The State and Revolution (London, 1977). Perceptive
reflections of a journalist-politician are contained in Luis Maira, Dos anos
de Unidad Popular (Santiago, Chile, 1973). Two leading Chilean sociolo-
gists provide an interpretation in Manuel A. Garreton and Tomas
Moulian, Andlisis coyuntural y proceso politico (San Jose, C.R., 1978). See
also Eduardo Novoa, Via legal hacia el socialismo? El caso de Chile, 1970
I
913 (Caracas, 1978). Few leading politicians of the period have written
their memoirs, but in Patricia Politzer, Altamirano (Buenos Aires, 1989) a
leading Socialist radical justifies his role.
On the economic policy of the UP, the best argued and most informa-
tive work is that of a former minister of the government, Sergio Bitar,
Chile: Experiment in Democracy (Philadelphia, 1986). Another leading
economist gives his account in Gonzalo Martner, El gobiemo de Salvador
Allende 1970-1973: Una evaluacion (Santiago, Chile, 1988). An influen-
tial early post mortem is Stefan de Vylder, Allende's Chile: The Political
Economy of the Rise and Fall of the Popular Unity (Cambridge, Eng., 1976).
Not very accessible, but of importance, is Jose Serra and Arturo Leon, La
redistribucion del ingreso en Chile durante el gobiemo de la Unidad Popular,
Documento de Trabajo No. 70, FLACSO (Santiago, 1978). See also
Edward Boorstein, Allende's Chile: An Inside View (New York, 1977). Two
reports of the Instituto de Economia of the University of Chile are worth
consulting: La economia chilena en 1971 and La economia chilena en 1972.
An interesting case study of the state sector of the economy is Samuel
Cogan, 'The nationalization of manufacturing firms in Chile, 19701973;
A case study of the building materials sector" (unpublished D.Phil, thesis,
University of Oxford, 1981). A rather optimistic account of the UP's
economic strategy written before the coup is Sergio Ramos, Chile: Una
economia de transicidn (Havana, 1972). A work that stresses the neglect of
short-term financial management is Stephany Griffith-Jones, The Role of
Finance in the Transition to Socialism (London, 1981).
The frantic politics of the period are not treated so well as the economy.
A detailed article is Atilio Boron, 'La movilizacion politica en Chile', Foro

3 6. Chile since c. 1960 783
International (Mexico), 16/1 (1975), 6 4 - 1 2 1 . See also Alan Angell, Politi-

cal Mobilization and Class Alliances in Chile, 1970-1973 (Rotterdam,
1978), which contains extensive references to discussions on poder popular.
A case study of an important strike is Sergio Bitar and Crisostomo Pizarro,
La caida de Allende y la huelga de El Teniente (Santiago, Chile, 1987). The
left-wing Socialist, Carlos Altamirano, offers his explanation of what went
wrong in Dialectica de una derrota (Mexico, D.F., 1977). Very moving is
the work of the French sociologist Alain Touraine, Vida y muerte del gobierno
popular (Buenos Aires, 1974). Problems of ideology and cultural politics
are discussed in Manuel Antonio Garreton et al., Cultura y comunkaciones de
masas (Barcelona, 1975). Relations with the Soviet Union are the theme of
Isabel Turrent, La Union Sovietica en America Latina: El caso de la Unidad
Popular chilena (Mexico, D.F., 1984). The important episode of the educa-
tional reform proposal is well treated in Joseph Farrell, The National
Unified School in Allende's Chile (Vancouver, 1986); and judicial changes are
discussed in Jack Spence, Search for Justice: Neighborhood Courts in Allende's
Chile (Boulder, Colo., 1979).
The question of U.S. involvement in the coup first surfaced in the
Staff Report of the U.S. Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental
Intelligence Activities, Covert Action in Chile, 1963-1973 (Washington
D.C., 1975), though a Chilean ambassador had already documented
some covert interference in Armando Uribe, La litre noir de I'intervention
americaine au Chile (Paris, 1974). See also James Petras and Morris
Morley, The United States and Chile: Imperialism and the Allende Government
(New York, 1975). A fascinating account is by U.S. Ambassador Nathan-
iel Davis, The Last Two Years of Allende (Ithaca, N.Y., 1985). A savage
attack by a leading journalist on U.S. policy is contained in Seymour
Hersh, The Price of Power: Kissinger in the White House Years (Boston,
1980).
There is relatively little on the opposition to Allende. Some suggestive
ideas are contained in Paul W. Drake, 'Corporatism and functionalism in
modern Chilean polities', JLAS, 10/1 (1978), 83116; and also the last
chapter of the same author's Socialism and Populism in Chile, 19321952
(Urbana, 111., 1978), which is a valuable political commentary on events
leading to the coup. Pablo Baraona et al., Chile: A Critical Survey (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1972), contains some interesting essays from the Right. The
events of the coup itself are brilliantly narrated in Ignacio Gonzalez Ca-
mus, El dia en que murio Allende (Santiago, Chile, 1988).

THE PINOCHET GOVERNMENT
On the Pinochet period there are several excellent studies of the economy.
See particularly Alejandro Foxley, Latin American Experiments in Neo-
Conservative Economics (Berkeley, 1983); the collective work by the econo-
mists at CIEPLAN, Modelo economico chileno: Trayectoria de una critica (Santi-
ago, 1982); Ricardo Ffrench-Davis, 'The monetarist experiment in Chile',
World Development, 11/11 (1983), and Christian Anglade and Carlos
Fortln, The State and Capital Accumulation in Latin America (London,
1985). Plans for escaping from the collapse of the boom of the 'Chicago
boys' are contained in CIEPLAN, Reconstruction economica para la democracia
A perceptive account of the problems of economic stabilisation in this
period is by Laurence Whitehead, in Rosemary Thorp and Laurence White-
head (eds.), Inflation and Stabilisation in Latin America (London, 1979). See
also Whitehead's later account in Rosemary Thorp and Laurence White-
head (eds.), Latin American Debt and the Adjustment Crisis (London, 1987).
A study of the process of economic concentration which caused a minor
political storm is Fernando Dahse, El mapa de la extrema riqueza (Santiago,
Chile, 1979). An excellent criticism of free-market policies, and alterna-
tive recommendations, is Alejandro Foxley, Para una democracia estable
(Santiago, Chile, 1985). A defence of free-market policies is Alvaro
Bardon et al., Una dicada de cambios economicos: La experiencia chilena, 1973
1983 (Santiago, Chile, 1985). See also Sebastian Edwards and A. C.
Edwards, Monetarism and Liberalism: The Chilean Experiment (Cambridge,
Mass., 1986).
An insider account of the role of the 'Chicago boys' is Arturo Fontaine,
Los economistas y el Presidente Pinochet (Santiago, Chile, 1988). The origins of
the free-market school in Chile are thoroughly analysed in Juan Gabriel
Valdes, La Escuela de Chicago: Operation Chile (Buenos Aires, 1989). A
highly-publicized eulogy of the free-market experiment is Joaquin Lavin,
La revolution silenciosa (Santiago, Chile, 1987). A damaging critique stress-
ing the social costs of the experiment is Eugenio Tironi, Los silencios de la
revolution (Santiago, Chile, 1988). The extent of poverty is documented in
Eugenio Ortega and Ernesto Tironi, Pobreza en Chile (Santiago, 1988).
Two journalists provide an up-to-date account of the whole Pinochet
period: M. Delano and H. Traslavina, La herentia de los Chicago Boys
The politics of the Pinochet era is discussed in the brief but useful P.

3 6 . Chile since c.1960 785
O'Brien and J. Roddick, Chile: The Pinochet Decade (London, 1983). A

massively detailed and indispensable book by three journalists which cov-
ers the whole period is Ascanio Cavallo, Manuel Salazar and Oscar
Sepulveda, La historia oculta del regimen militar (Santiago, Chile, 1988). An
overall interpretation of the political economy of the Pinochet period is
Karen Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (London, 1989). The Con-
stitution of 1980 is examined in detail in Luz Bulnes Aldunate, Constitu-
tion politica de la republica de Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1981). A set of essays
covering events up to 1980 is J. Samuel Valenzuela and Arturo Valenzuela
(eds.), Military Rule in Chile: Dictatorship and Oppositions (Baltimore,
1986). Covering the 1980s is the excellent collection of essays in Paul
Drake and Ivan Jaksic (eds.), The Struggle for Democracy in Chile, 1982-
1990 (Lincoln, Nebr., and London, 1992).
The role of the press is explored in Fernando Reyes Matta et al.,
Investigaciones sobre laprensa en Chile (1974-1984) (Santiago, Chile, 1986).
Cultural policy is analysed in Jose Joaquin Brunner, La cultura autoritaria
en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1981). An excellent study of public opinion is
Carlos Huneeus, Los chilenos y la politica: Cambio y continuidad en el
autoritarismo (Santiago, 1987).
Pinochet's own account of his involvement in the coup is contained in
Augusto Pinochet, El dia decisivo (Santiago, Chile, 1977). Rather more
revealing of the man and his ideas is Raquel Correa and Elizabeth
Subercaseaux, Ego Sum Pinochet (Santiago, Chile, 1989). Another military
man - now disillusioned - gives his view in Florencia Varas, Gustavo
Leigh: El general disidente (Santiago, Chile, 1979). The best more recent
accounts are Genaro Arriagada, La politica militar de Pinochet (Santiago,
Chile, 1985), and Augusto Varas, Los militares en elpoder: Regimen y gobierno
militar en Chile, 1973-1986 (Santiago, Chile, 1987).
An impressive attempt to evaluate the politics of Chile since 1970 is
Manuel Antonio Garreton, Elprocesopolitico chileno (Santiago, Chile, 1983),
and there is a welcome English translation of this, The Chilean Political
Process (London, 1989). The numerous FLACSO documents by Garreton
and Tomas Moulian constitute a running commentary on politics and
society since 1973. Moulian's constantly stimulating ideas are brought
together in his Democracia y socialism) en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1983). A
useful collection of writings of FLACSO researchers is contained in Manuel
Antonio Garreton et al., Chile 1973-198? (Santiago, Chile, 1983). A
leading political figure collects his articles together in Genaro Arriagada,
10 anos: Vision critica (Santiago, Chile, 1983). On the first phase of military

rule, see Tomas Moulian and Pilar Vergara, 'Estado, ideologia y politica
economica en Chile, 1973-1978', in Estudios CIEPLAN, 3 (1980). A
comprehensive account of the ideology of the regime is Pilar Vergara, Auge
y caida del neoliberalismo en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1985). Two lucid and
informative articles are Carlos Huneeus, 'La politica de la apertura y sus
implicancias para la inauguracion de la democracia en Chile' and 'Inaugura-
cion de la democracia en Chiie", in Revista de Ciencia Politica, 7/1 (1985)
and 8/1-2 (1986).
A study of the shanty towns in the Pinochet years is Rodrigo Bano, Lo
social y lo politico (Santiago, Chile, 1985), and another is Guillermo
Campero, Entre la sobrevivencia y la accion politica (Santiago, Chile, 1987).
A series of interviews explains the desperation of the youth of the shanty
towns, in Patricia Politzer, La ira de Pedro y los otros (Santiago, Chile,
1988). Programa Regional del Empleo para America Latina y el Caribe
(PREALC) has documented the work and lives of the poor in Chile in a
series of scholarly works: Sobrevivir en la calle: El comercio ambulante en
Santiago (Santiago, Chile, 1988); David Benavente, A medio morir cantando:
13 testimonios de cesantes (Santiago, Chile, 1985); and Jorge Alvarez, Los
hijos de la erradicacion (Santiago, Chile, 1988). There are numerous studies
of the social conditions of the pobladores. Amongst them are Clarisa
Hardy, Organizarse para vivir: Pobreza urbana y organization popular (Santi-
ago, Chile, 1987); and Dagmar Raczynski and Claudia Serrano, Vivir la
pobreza: Testimonios de mujeres (Santiago, Chile, 1985).
The murky world of state terrorism is, by definition, difficult to exam-
ine, but the book by Thomas Hauser, Missing (London, 1982), asks some
awkward questions later given wide publicity in a film of the same name.
On the hideous assassination of Orlando Letelier, see John Dinges and Saul
Landau, Assassination on Embassy Row (New York, 1980), and Taylor Branch
and Eugene Propper, Labyrinth (New York, 1982). An account of domestic
brutality is contained in Maximo Pachecho, Lonquen (Santiago, Chile,
1980). The issue of exile is examined by Alan Angell and Susan Carstairs,
'The exile question in Chilean polities', Third World Quarterly, 9/1 (1987),
14867. Three leading politicians write movingly of their experience of
exile, of imprisonment, and of their beliefs: Erich Shnacke, De improviso la
nada (Santiago, Chile, 1988), Clodomiro Almeyda, Reencuentro con mi vida
(Santiago, Chile, 1988), and Jorge Arrate, Exilio: Textos de denuncia y
esperanza (Santiago, Chile, 1987).
The violation of human rights by the Pinochet government has been
extensively documented. See for example the report of Amnesty Interna-

36. Cbile since c.i960 787
tional, Chile (London, 1974), and those of the Inter-American Commis-
sion on Human Rights of the Organization of American States, Report on
the Status of Human Rights in Chile (Washington, D.C., 1974); and subse-
quent reports of the same organisation issued in 1976, 1977, and 1985. A
three-volume work by members of the Vicaria de la Solidaridad provides a
graphic account of human rights violations: Eugenio Ahumada et al.,
Chile: La memoria prohibida (Santiago, Chile, 1989). See also Hugo
Friihling (ed.). Represion politka y defensa de los derechos humanos (Santiago,
Chile, 1986). A moving account of massacres in the north of Chile follow-
ing the coup is Patricia Verdugo, Caso Arellano: Los Zarpazos del Puma
(Santiago, Chile, 1989). The Truth and Reconciliation Commission set up
by the Aylwin government published its findings in Inform de la Comision
Nacional de Verdad y Reconciliation, 3 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1991). Many
books have recounted the long years of suffering under the Pinochet
dictatorship. Two are quite outstanding. Sergio Bitar describes his fate in
the concentration camps created by the regime for leading members of the
UP government in Isla 10 (Santiago, Chile, 1988). An account of the fate
of various individuals some of whom did very well, some of whom
suffered appallingly - is Patricia Politzer, Miedo en Chile (Santiago, Chile,
1985)-
THE TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY
The theme of the transition to democracy is explored with great insight in

Manuel Antonio Garreton, Reconstruir la politka: Transition y consolidation
democratka en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1987). The plebiscite of October
1988 is examined in the 'Report by the International Commission of the
Latin American Studies Association to observe the Chilean Plebiscite',
BLAR, 8/2 (1989); and in the report of the National Democratic Institute
for International Affairs, Chile's Transition to Democracy: The 1988 Presiden-
tial Plebiscite (Washington, D.C., 1988). An examination of the role of
international support for the opposition to Pinochet both before and dur-
ing the plebiscite is Alan Angell, 'La cooperacion internacional en el apoyo
de la democracia en America Latina: el caso de Chile', Foro Interacional, 30/
118 (1989), 2 1 5 - 4 5 . A graphic account of the whole year is Esteban
Tomic, 1988 y el general bajo al llano (Santiago, Chile, 1989). The elec-
tions of December 1989 are analysed in Alan Angell and Benny Pollack,
'The Chilean elections of December 1989 and the politics of the transition
to democracy', BLAR, 9/1 (1990). See also Cesar Caviedes, Elections in

Chile: The Road toward Redemocratization (Boulder, Colo., and London,

1991).
37. PERU, 1930-C1960
The best general political history of Peru, with an extensive bibliography,

is D. P. Werlich, Peru: A Short History (Carbondale, 111., 1978). The
period from 1930 to.i960 is accorded chapters in other general histories:
F. B. Pike, The Modern History of Peru (London, 1967); R. B. Marette, Peru
(London, 1969); H. Dobyns and P. C. Doughty, Peru: A Cultural History
(New York, 1976); and J. Cotler, Clases, estado y nation en el Peru (Lima,
1978). Jorge Basadre's massive Historia de la Republica del Peru, 10 vols.,
5 th ed. (Lima, 19614) peters out in 1933, and much Peruvian historical
writing on the subsequent three decades is either polemical or takes the
form of personal reminiscences by political figures. The 1970s and 1980s
spawned a new generation of work by both foreign and Peruvian scholars;
for an introductory survey see R. Miller, 'Introduction: Some reflections
on foreign research and Peruvian history', in R. Miller (ed.), Region and
Class in Modern Peruvian History (Liverpool, 1987), 7-20.
D. M. Masterson, 'The Peruvian armed forces in transition, 1939-
1963: The impact of national politics and changing professional perspec-
tives' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1976)
and 'Soldiers, sailors and Apristas: Conspiracy and power politics in Peru,
1932-1948', in J. F. Bratzel and D. M. Masterson (eds.), The Underside of
Latin American History (East Lansing, Mich., 1977), provide an excellent
detailed analysis of political events, focussing on the role of the military.
Foreign policy issues, particularly the Leticia case and the war with Ecua-
dor, are covered in Ronald Bruce St. John, 'The end of innocence: Peru-
vian foreign policy and the U.S., 1919-1942', JLAS, 8/2 (1976), 3 2 5 -
44. On the role of the church, see two books by J. L. Klaiber, Religion and
Revolution in Peru, 1824-1976 (Notre Dame, Ind., 1977) and La iglesia en
el Peru: Su historia social desde la independencia (Lima, 1988; Eng. trans.,
1992); and C. A. Astiz, 'The Catholic church in Latin American politics:
A case study of Peru', in D. H. Pollock and A. R. M. Ritter (eds.), Latin
American Prospects for the 1970s: What Kinds of Revolution? (New York,
1973). Two analyses of Peruvian class structure and political life written
during the 1960s, and typical of conventional thinking in that decade, are
C. A. Astiz, Pressure Groups and Power Elites in Peruvian Politics (Ithaca,

37- Peru, 1930-C.1960 789
N.Y., 1969) and F. Bourricaud, Power and Society in Contemporary Peru
(London, 1970).
A general economic history focussing on the modern sectors of the econ-
omy is R. Thorp and G. Bertram, Peru 18901977; Growth and Policy in an
Open Economy (London, 1978), parts 3 and 4. The pioneering work on
quantitative economic history by Shane Hunt appeared in a number of
discussion papers from the Woodrow Wilson School Research Program in
Economic Development, Princeton University; for citations see Thorp and
Bertram, Peru 1890-1977, 4 3 6 - 7 . Besides his statistical working papers,
Hunt has published 'Distribution, growth and government economic be-
haviour in Peru', in G. Ranis (ed.), Government and Economic Development
(New Haven, Conn., 1972), 375-416; 'Foreign investment in Peru: New
rules for an old game' in A. Lowenthal (ed.) The Peruvian Experiment: Continu-
ity and Change under Military Rule (Princeton, N.J., 1975), 30249; and
Real Wages and Economic Growth in Peru 19001940, Boston Center for Latin
American Development Studies, Discussion Paper No. 25 (1977).
On the evolution of real wages through the 1940s and 1950s, see W.
Warren, Inflation and Real Wages in Underdeveloped Countries; India, Peru and
Turkey (London, 1976). Trends in the 1930s are discussed in W. Derpich,
J. L. Huiza and C. Israel, Lima anos 30: Salarios y costo de la vida de la clase
trabajadora (Lima, 1985); and D. Bruce, 'La Depresion de 1930 y los
ingresos', in H. Bonilla (ed.), Las crisis econdmicas en la historia del Peru
(Lima, 1986), 23162.
R. Hopkins, La produccion agropecuario en el Peru, 19441969: Una
aproximacidn estadistica (Lima, 1979), and A. Figueroa, 'La agricultura y el
desarrollo capitalista en el Peru', in J. Iguiniz (ed.), La cuestion rural en el
Peru (Lima, 1983), 22534, extend earlier historical analyses of agricul-
ture. A long-run GDP series prior to the period covered by official data is
C. Bolona, 'Peru: Estimaciones preliminares del producto nacional,
1900-1942', Apuntes, 13 (1983), 3-14. F. Durand, 'La industrializaci6n
en el Peru: Bibliografia', Estudios Andinos, 1718 (1981), 195246, con-
tains a large number of references on manufacturing. Wage and productiv-
ity trends in the mining industry are assembled by Elizabeth Dore, The
Peruvian Mining Industry: Growth, Stagnation and Crisis (Boulder, Colo.,
1988), a book which, however, falls disappointingly short of its ambitious
aim of uncovering the internal logic of the labour process as an alternative
to dependency models.
Trends in income distribution during the 1950s are documented by R.
C. Webb, The Distribution of Income in Peru, Princeton University, Wood-

row Wilson School Research Program in Economic Development, Discus-

sion Paper No. 26 (Princeton, N.J., 1972) and Trends in Real Income in
Peru, Discussion Paper No. 41 (Princeton, N.J., 1974); and also by R.
Vandendries, 'Income distribution in Peru after World War II'', Journal of
Developing Areas, 8 (1974), 421-36. Similar conclusions on regressive
trends in distribution, based on food-supply data, were reached in R.
Thorp, 'A note on food supplies, the distribution of income and national
income accounting in Peru', Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 31/4
(1969), 2 2 9 - 4 1 .
The role of U.S. capital, and the political aspects of foreign investment
and aid during the period, are discussed in J. C. Carey, Peru and the United
States (Notre Dame, Ind., 1964). A useful history of the Standard Oil
subsidiary which epitomised foreign capital to most Peruvians is A. J.
Pinelo, The Multinational Corporations as a Force in Latin American Politics
A Case Study of the International Petroleum Company in Peru (New York, 1973).
Discussion of the evolution of rural society in the sierra rests heavily
upon the pioneering research of J. Martinez-Alier, 'Los huachilleros en las
haciendas de la Sierra Central del Peru desde 1930' in E. Florescano (ed.),
Haciendas, latifundiosyplantacionesen America Latina (Mexico, D.R, 1975),
433-44, and Haciendas, Plantations and Collective Farms (London, 1977);
and also on C. F. Oman, 'The formation of capitalist society in Peru:
"Dualism" and underdevelopment' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University
of California, Berkeley, 1978). Florencia E. Mallon, The Defense of Commu-
nity in Peru's Central Highlands: Peasant Struggle and Capitalist Transition,
1860-1940 (Princeton, N.J., 1983) has detailed case studies of the
Yanamarca Valley and a useful bibliography on the recent literature for the
central sierra. Events in the northern sierra are described in L. Taylor,
'Main trends in agrarian capitalist development: Cajamarca, Peru, 1880
1976' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Liverpool, 1979). The
work of T. R. Ford, Man and Land in Peru (Gainesville, Fla., 1962) is
useful on the situation in the early 1950s, and social mobility in the south
is studied in F. Bourricaud, Changements a Puno (Paris, i960). F. L. Tullis,
Lord and Peasant in Peru: A Paradigm of Political and Social Change (Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1970) provides some case studies of rural conflicts in the
central sierra during the 1940s. An overview of agrarian conflicts in both
sierra and coast, with emphasis on the latter, is C. Harding, 'Land reform
and social conflict', in A. F. Lowenthal (ed.), The Peruvian Experiment:
Continuity and Change under Military Rule (Princeton, N.J., 1975), 220
53. See also J. Deiistua, 'Sobre movimientos campesinos e historia regional

37- Peru, 1930-C.1960 791
en el Peru moderno: Un comentario bibliografico', Revista Andina 1/1

(1983), 219-40.
Knowledge of modern sierra history expanded rapidly during the 1970s,
due partly to major field-research programmes by anthropologists and soci-
ologists, and partly to the opening up of hacienda archives following the
1969 agrarian reform, a bonanza for scholarship described in H. Rodriguez
Pastro, 'El Archivo del Fuero Agrario, Lima, Peru', LARR, 14/3 (1979),
2026. Examples of the fieldwork programmes are Bryan Roberts, 'The
social history of a provincial town: Huancayo, 1890-1972', in R. Miller,
C. T. Smith and J. Fisher (eds.), Social and Economic Change in Modern Peru
(Liverpool, 1976); Fiona Wilson, 'Conflict between indigenous and immi-
grant commercial systems in the Peruvian central sierra, 1900-1940', in R.
Miller (ed.), Region and Class in Modern Peruvian History (Liverpool, 1987),
125-61; N. Long and B. Roberts, Peasant Cooperation and Capitalist Expan-
sion in Central Peru (Austin, Tex., 1978) and Peasants and Entrepreneurs:
Regional Development in the Central Highlands of Peru (Cambridge, Eng.,
1984); W. F. Whyte and G. Alberti, Power, Politics and Social Change in
Rural Peru (New York, 1976); and B. Orlove, Alpaca, Sheep and Men: The
Wool Export Economy in Southern Peru (New York, 1977).
Archive-based work by Peruvian historians has focussed on the rise of
peasant movements and the crisis of the hacienda; see for example M.
Burga and A. Flores Galindo, 'Feudalismo andino y movimientos so-
ciales', in J. Mejia Baca (ed.), Historia del Peru (Lima, 1980), vol. 11; A.
Flores Galindo, 'Apuntes sobre las ocupaciones de tierras y el sindicalismo
agrario, 19451964', Allpanchis, 11 (1978), 17585; G. Renique,
'Movimientos campesinos en la sociedad ganadero del centro, 1910
1950', Allpanchis, 11 (1978), 12950; W. Kapsoli, Los movimientos
campesinos en Cerro de Pasco, 18001963 (Lima, 1975); M. Burga and W.
Reategui, Lanas y capital mercantil en el sur: La Casa Ricketts, 1893-1935
(Lima, 1981); G. Renique, 'Tendencias y caracteristicas en el desarrollo de
una empresa ganadera en los Andes centrales: El caso de la Sociedad
Ganadera del Centro, 19101960', Tierra y Sociedad: Revista del Archivo del
Fuero Agrario (Lima), 1/1 (1978), 39-59; and J. Iguifiiz (ed.), La cuestion
rural en el Peru (Lima, 1983), especially the chapter by H. Bonilla,
'Estudios sobre la formacion del sistema agrario peruano: Logros y
perspectivas', 23560. A survey of events which includes the period
193062 is P. Kamman, Movimientos campesinos en el Peru, 19001968:
Andlisis cuantitativo y cualitativo preliminar (Lima, 1982).
Also useful on the rise of peasant movements in mid-century is T. M.

Davies, Indian Integration in Peru: A Half-Century of Experience, 19001948

(Lincoln, Nebr., 1974). The exceptional peasant movements in La
Convencion valley is discussed in W. W. Craig, From Hacienda to Commu-
nity: An Analysis of Solidarity and Social Change in Peru, Cornell University
Latin American Studies Program, Dissertation ser. no. 6 (Ithaca, N.Y.,
1976); E. J. Hobsbawm, 'La Convencion, Peru: A case of neo-feudalism',
JLAS, 1/1 (1969), 31-50; and E. Fioravanti, Latifundio y sindicalismo
agrario en el Peru (Lima, 1976).
A good provincial history of Puno is D. Hazen, 'The awakening of
Puno: Government policy and the Indian problem in southern Peru,
1900-1955' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1974);
see also G. Appleby, 'Las transformaciones del sistema de mercados
en Puno, 1890-1960', Andlisis: Cuadernos de Investigacion (Lima), 8 - 9
(Z979) 5 5 - 7 ! A classic study of social change in the northern sierra is
S. Miller, 'Hacienda to plantation in northern Peru: The process of
proletarianisation of a tenant farmer society', in J. Steward (ed.), Contem-
porary Change in Traditional Societies (Urbana, 111., 1967). The political
role of the sierra elite in the early twentieth century is covered in R.
Miller, 'The coastal elite and Peruvian politics, 18951919', JLAS, 14/2
(1982), 9 7 - 1 2 0 .
The Lima barriadas, resulting from the rapid ruralurban migration of
the 1950s, are described in J. Matos Mar, "Migration and urbanization
The barriadas of Lima, an example of integration into urban life', in P. M.
Hauser (ed.), Urbanization in Latin America (New York, 1961), 170-90,
and in D. Collier, Squatters and Oligarchs: Authoritarian Rule and Policy
Change in Peru (Baltimore, 1976). Chapters 4 and 5 of Collier's book are
particularly useful on policy responses during the period 1945-1962. For
discussion of the importance of village-based organisation in the Lima
barriadas, see Bryan Roberts, 'Urban migration and change in provincial
organisation in the central sierras of Peru', University of Manchester
mimeo (1974). An analysis of inter-regional migration flows based on the
censuses of 1940, 1961 and 1971 is A. Ortiz S., Migraciones internas y
desarrollo desigual: Peru, 1940-1972 (Lima, 1982).
Modernization of coastal agriculture is covered in C. Collin-Delavaud,
'Consecuencias de la modernizacion de la agricultura en las haciendas de la
Costa None del Peru', in H. Favre (ed.), La hacienda en el Peru (Lima, 1967).
The history of rural class struggle on the coast is still patchy; for useful
pointers, see Harding's essay in Lowenthal (ed.), The Peruvian Experiment,
cited above. Most intensively studied has been the Chancay Valley north of

37- Peru, 1930-C.1960 793
Lima, where a series of projects sponsored by the Instituto de Estudios

Peruanos has been conducted; see, for example, J. Matos Mar, Yanaconajey
reforma agraria en el Peru (Lima, 1976). SeealsoH. Rodriguez Pastor, Caqui:
Estudio de una hacienda costena (Lima, 1969), and M. Burga, De la encomienda
a la hacienda capitalista: El Valle de Jequetepec del siglo XVI al XX (Lima,
1976). On the emergence of the sugar-plantation proletariat, see, for the
period up to the 1930s, M. J. Gonzales, Plantation Agriculture and Social
Control in Northern Peru, 18751930 (Austin, Tex., 1985) and W. Albert,
'The creation of a proletariat in Peru's coastal plantations, 18801920', in
B. Munslow and H. Finch (eds.), Proletarianisation in the Third World:
Studies in the Creation of a Labour Force Under Dependent Capitalism (London,
1984), 99120. For the period after the 1930s, see C. Scott, 'Peasants,
proletarianisation and articulation of modes of production: The case of sugar
cane cutters in northern Peru'', Journal of Peasant Studies, 3/3 (1976), 321
41. An excellent analysis of the emergence and characte'r of the institution of
yanaconaje is in the Appendix to W. Albert, An Essay on the Peruvian Sugar
Industry, 1880-1920 (Norwich, Eng., 1976).
The Peruvian oligarchy is described, with three detailed family case
studies, in D. Gilbert, 'The Oligarchy and the Old Regime in Peru'
(unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University, 1977). Further case-
study material is in C. Malpica, Los duenos del Peru (Lima, 1968); A. Low,
'Agro-exporters as entrepreneurs: Peruvian sugar and cotton producers,
18901945' (unpublished D.Phil, dissertation, Oxford University, 1979);
and F. Portocarrero Suarez, 'El imperio Prado (18901970): Oligarquia o
burguesia nacional?', Apuntes, 19 (1986), 12146. Reflections on the
problems of characterizing the oligarchy are to be found in F. Bourricaud,
J. Bravo Bresani, and J. Piel, La oligarquia en el Peru (Lima, 1969) and in F.
Bourricaud, Power and Society in Contemporary Peru (London, 1970). Coder,
Clases, estado y nacion, portrays the oligarchy as perennially compromised
by its subservience to foreign capital, locating the roots of its factionalism
and weakness in its comprador status. E. V. K. Fitzgerald, The Political
Economy of Peru, 195678 (Cambridge, Eng., 1979) discusses the relative
autonomy of the Peruvian state (chap. 2) and the class structure and
political scene of i960 (chap. 3).
The rise of a national-bourgeois industrial fraction is discussed by W.
Bollinger, 'The bourgeois revolution in Peru: A conception of Peruvian
history', LAP, 4/3 (1977), 1856, but Bollinger's analysis is concerned
primarily with the 1960s and 1970s. Similar comments apply to A.
Ferner, 'The dominant class and industrial development in Peru , Journal

of Development Studies, 15/4 (1979), 26888 and La burguesia industrial en el

desarrollo peruano (Lima, 1982); and to F. L. M. Wils, 'Agricultural and
industrial development in Peru: Some observations on their interrelation-
ship', Development and Change, 5/21 (19734), 76100. J. Weeks, Limits
to Capitalist Development: The Industrialization of Peru, 19501980 (Boul-
der, Colo., 1985) chap. 4, describes the dominant class in the period
194868 as a grand alliance of precapitalist and bourgeois Peruvian inter-
ests and foreign capital, whose manufacturing interests were subsidiary to
other activities until the 1960s. An (unconvincing) attempt to document
the existence of an industrial fraction of the oligarchy for earlier decades is
to be found in two books by B. Caravedo Molinari, Burguesia e industria en
el Peru, 19331943 (Lima, 1976) and Clases, lucha politica y gobierno en el
Peru, 19191930: El oncenio ante la historia Se puede hablar de un periodo
revolucionario? Agro-exportadores versus industrials, el capital imperialista en el
Peru (Lima, 1977). The 'industrial groups' of Peruvian and foreign capital,
set up during the later 1950s to dominate the emerging manufacturing
sector, are described in H . Espinoza Uriarte and J. Osorio, El poder eco-
nomico en la industria (Lima, 1972).
The characterisation of Leguia's oncenio, although it lies outside the pe-
riod covered here, is important to debates on oligarchic fractions. Portraits
of Leguia as a leader of the rising middle class against the oligarchy are M.
Capuiiay, Leguia: Vidayobra del constructor del Gran Peru (Lima, 1951); H. B.
Karno, 'Augusto B. Leguia: The oligarchy and the modernisation of Peru'
(unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles,
1970); and G. R. Garrett, 'The oncenio of Augusto B. Leguia: Middle sector
government and leadership in Peru' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Uni-
versity of New Mexico, 1973). The depiction of Leguia as the leader of one
faction within a divided oligarchy, and a forerunner of the 'authoritarian
modernising' regime of Benavides, can be found in C. F. Herbold, 'Develop-
ments in the Peruvian administrative system, 19191930: Modern and
traditional qualities of authoritarian regimes' (unpublished Ph.D. disserta-
tion, Yale University, 1973). Similar interpretations are in S. Stein, Popu-
lism in Peru (Madison, Wis., 1980), chap. 3; Gilbert, The Oligarchy and the
Old Regime in Peru; and Werlich, A Short History.
Political factionalism within the oligarchy is discussed in B. Loveday,
Sanchez Cerro and Peruvian Politics, 19301933, University of Glasgow
Institute of Latin American Studies, Occasional Paper No. 6 (1973). The
split over the devaluation issue is presented, disguised as a middle-class-
versus-oligarchy split, in M. J. Frankman, 'Export promotion and develop-

37- Peru, 1930-C.1960 795
ment priorities in Peru, 19461965' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,

University of Texas, Austin, 1968). Discussion of the same issue in
J. Dragisic, 'Peruvian stabilization policies, 19391968' (unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1971) is distorted by a desire
to present the oligarchy as united on the issue.
B. Caravedo Molinari, Desarrollo desigual y lucha politico, en el Peru,
19481956: La burgesia arequipenay el estadoperuano (Lima, 1978) explains
Arequipa's activism in largely negative terms, as a reaction against eco-
nomic and political centralism. Studies emphasizing the special character
of the Arequipa bourgeoisie are A. Flores Galindo, Arequipa y el sur andino:
Ensayo de historia regional, siglos XVIH-XX (Lima, 1977) and A. Flores
Galindo, O. Plaza, and T. Ore, 'Notas sobre oligarquia y capitalismo en
Arequipa, 18701940', Congreso Peruano del Hombre y la Cultura, 3/4
(Lima, 1977). The emergence onto the national scene of the Arequipa
Catholic constitutionalists is described by J. L. Renique, 'Los de-
centralistas arequipefios en la crisis del ano 1930', Allpanchis, 12 (1979),
5178; and the economic roots of southern liberalism are explored by N.
Jacobsen, 'Free trade, regional elites, and the internal market in southern
Peru, 1895-1932', in J. L. Love and N. Jacobsen (eds.), Guiding the
Invisible Hand: Economic Liberalism and the State in Latin American History
(New York, 1988), 145-75.
For a history of the Arequipa labour movement, see V. Colque
Valladares, Dindmica del movimiento sindical en Arequipa: 1900-1968
(Lima, 1976). For self-portraits of three of the leaders of the Arequipa
Catholic professionals, see V. A. Belaunde, Memorias (Lima, 19602) and
La crisis presente, 1914-1939 (Lima, 1940); J. L. Bustamante y Rivero,
Tres anos de lucha por la democracia en el Peru (Buenos Aires, 1949); and F.
Belaunde Terry, La conquista del Peru por los peruanos (Lima, 1964). On
Mostajo, seej. G. Carpio Muiioz, 'Francisco Mostajo: Breve historia de un
caudillo', Tarea, 5 (Lima, 1981).
Any interpretation of the roots of aprismo and sanchezcerrismo must draw
heavily on Stein, Populism in Peru and 'Populism in Peru: APRA, the
formative years', in M. L. Conniff (ed.), Latin American Populism (Albu-
querque, N.Mex., 1981), 113-34. A good history of APRA is L. M.
North, 'The origins and development of the Peruvian Aprista Party' (un-
published Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1973).
Victor Villanueva, prominent in APRA during the 1940s, has written
several books on the party: La sublevacion del 48: Tragedia de un pueblo y un
partido (Lima, 1973); El APRA en busca del poder (Lima, 1975); and El

APRA y el ejercito (194050) (Lima, 1977)- Another work by a prominent

aprista is L. A. Sanchez, Apuntes para una biografia del APRA (Lima, 1978
9). F. B. Pike, The Politics of the Miraculous in Peru: Haya de la Torre and the
Spiritualist Tradition (Lincoln, Nebr., 1986), seeks to categorise APRA as
a millenarian movement and offers an unflattering psychological portrait
of Haya. A useful bibliography of earlier work on APRA will be found in
Weriich, A Short History, 4001.
A debate among left-wing thinkers on the competition between APRA
and the Communist Party for leadership of the labour movement is in M.
Lauer et al., Frente al Peru oligdrquico (192868): Debate socialista 1 (Lima,
1977). The same issue is tackled, with somewhat more historical sub-
stance, in C. R. Balbi, El Partido Comunista y el APRA en la crisis
revolucionaria de los anos treinta (Lima, 1980). On Sanchezcerrismo the main
source, apart from Stein, Populism in Peru, and Loveday, Sanchez Cerro, is
the work of O. Ciccarelli, "Sanchez Cerro and the Depression in Peru',
Southern Quarterly, 9^3 (1971), 231-52, and Militarism, Aprismo and Vio-
lence in Peru: The Presidential Elections 0/1931 (Buffalo, N.Y., 1971).
Apart from the contributions by D. M. Masterson (The Peruvian
armed forces' and 'Soldiers, sailors and Apristas'), the main historical
treatments of the Peruvian military are A. Gerlach, 'Civil-military rela-
tions in Peru: 1914-1945' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of
New Mexico, 1973), and a series of books by V. Villanueva: El militarismo
en el Peru (Lima, 1962), El CAEM y la revolucion de lafuerza armada (Lima,
1972), and 100 anos del ejercito peruano: Frustraciones y cambios (Lima, 1972).
The emerging ideology associated with the Centra de Altos Estudios
Militares (CAEM) in the 1950s is described by L. R. Einaudi and A. C.
Stepan, Latin American Institutional Development: Changing Military Perspec-
tives in Peru and Brazil (Santa Monica, Calif, 1971); by J. Rodriguez
Beruff, Los militares y elpoder: Un ensayo sobre la doctrina militar en el Peru,
1948-1968 (Lima, 1983); and by G. Philip, The Rise and Fall of the
Peruvian Military Radicals, 1968-1916 (London, 1978), who suggests
that the CAEM graduates constituted the conservative wing of the mili-
tary by 1968, having been outflanked to the left by Velasco's group.
A sketchy history of the labour movement, but with a useful chronol-
ogy, is D. Sulmont, Historia del movimiento obrero peruano (1890-igjj)
(Lima, 1977). The political dimensions of the labour movement are cov-
ered in J. Payne, Labor and Politics in Peru (New Haven, Conn., 1965).
The work of various authors on twentieth-century labour relations is criti-
cally reviewed in N. Haworth, 'Reordering disorder: An approach to the

37- Peru, 1930c.i960 797
analysis of Peruvian industrial relations', in R. Miller (ed.), Region and

Class in Modern Peruvian History, 16377. A general survey of the use of
strikes is J. Santistevan and A. Delgado, La huelga en el Peru (Lima, 1981).
An excellent historical treatment, based on the mining unions of the
central sierra, is J. Lake, 'Miners and national politics in Peru, 1900-
I
974' JLAS, 12/2 (1980), 317-40. On miner militancy, see also A.
DeWind, 'From peasants to miners: The background to strikes in the
mines of Peru', Science and Society, 39/1 (1975), 4 4 - 7 2 .
An excellent discussion of the issue of oligarchic hegemony is A. An-
gell, 'The difficulties of policy making and implementation in Peru',
BLAR, 3/1 (1984), 2 5 - 4 3 . An earlier survey of social structure and
politics is M. S. Larson and A. E. Bergman, Social Stratification in Peru,
University of California at Berkeley, Institute of International Studies,
Politics of Modernization Series No. 5 (1969). The persistent three-way
division of the Peruvian electorate is discussed by E. Chirinos Soto, Cuenta
y balance de las elecciones de 1962 (Lima, 1962), and data are available in R.
Roncagliolo, Quien gano? Elecciones, 193181 (Lima, 1980). An analysis of
the social composition of Sanchez Cerro's and Haya's 1931 votes in Lima-
Callao, based on rather shaky evidence, is given in Stein, Populism in Peru,
1967. Comments on changing hegemonic strategies of the elite are
scattered through the literature: for example, Herbold, 'Developments in
the Peruvian administrative system', Bourricaud, Power and Society, and
Cotler, Clases, estado y nacion. The relationship between economic trends
and oligarchic hegemony is discussed in J. Cotler, 'The mechanics of
internal domination and social change in Peru', in I. L. Horowitz (ed.),
Masses in Latin America (New York, 1970) and "The new mode of political
domination in Peru' in A. F. Lowenthal (ed.), The Peruvian Experiment,
although Cotler tends to treat the oligarchy as homogeneous and plays
down its internal tensions.
The fall of Leguia and the Sanchez Cerro era are covered in the last volume
of J. Basadre G., Historia de la republica del Peru (Lima, 19634), and in M.
Burga and A. Flores Galindo, Apogeoy crisis de la republica aristocrdtica (Lima,
1979), chaps. 4 and 5. A personal reminiscence of 1930 is V. Villanueva,
Asi cay6 Leguia (Lima, 1977). Sanchez Cerro's presidency is covered in detail
in the works of Stein, Populism in Peru; Loveday, Sanchez Cerro; Masterson,
'The Peruvian armed forces'; and Ciccarrelli, 'Sanchez Cerro and the Depres-
sion' and Militarism, Aprismo and Violence. B. Caravedo, 'Poder central y
descentralizaci6n: Peru 1931', Apuntes, 9(1979), 11129describes the role
of Arequipa in the elections and junta of 1931.

The economic impact of the Depression is analysed in Thorp and Ber-

tram, Peru 18901977, part 2; and in R. Thorp and C. Londofio, 'The
effect of the Great Depression on the economies of Peru and Colombia', in
R. Thorp (ed.), Latin America in the 1930s: The Role of the Periphery in World
Crisis (London, 1984). Policy responses are analysed from a U.S. perspec-
tive in chapter 6 of P. W. Drake, The Money Doctor in the Andes: The
Kemmerer Missions, 1923-1933 (Durham, N.C., 1989); and from a Peru-
vian viewpoint by R. Cheesman, 'Politicas de reactivacion economica en la
crisis de 1929', in H. Bonilla (ed.), Las crisis economicas en la historia del
Peru (Lima, 1986), 263-98. The 1931 default on the external debt is
placed in long-run context by Barbara Stallings, 'Incumplimiento de
pagos vs. refinanciacion: Crisis de la deuda externa peruana, 18261985',
H1SLA, Revista Latinoamericano de Historia Economica y Social, 6 (1985),
5986. The history of the financial sector and the collapse of the Banco
del Peru y Londres is in A. W. Quiroz, Banqueros en conflicto: Estructura
financiera y economia peruana, 1884-1930 (Lima, 1989).
The 1930 labour upheaval at Cerro de Pasco and the Malpaso massacre
are covered in C. M. McArver, 'Mining and diplomacy: United States
interests at Cerro de Pasco, 1876-1930' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
University of North Carolina, 1977) and in chap. 7 of A. DeWind,
'Peasants become miners: The evolution of industrial mining systems in
Peru' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1977). On
the Leticia dispute of 1932 see chap. 5 of R. B. St. John, 'Peruvian foreign
policy, 1919-1930: The delimitation of frontiers' (unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, University of Denver, 1970). APRA's role in the politics of
1930-32 is covered, from a rather partisan viewpoint, in chap. 7 of P. F.
Klaren, Modernization, Dislocation, and Aprismo: Origins of the Peruvian
Aprista Party, 18701932 (Austin, Tex., 1973).
For the Benavides, Prado and Bustamante periods some useful spe-
cialised sources (as distinct from the general histories) are Masterson, 'The
Peruvian armed forces'; Gilbert, The Oligarchy and the Old Regime; Villa-
nueva, El APRA y el ejercito; Pike, The Politics of the Miraculous, chaps. 8
and 9; T. M. Davies, Jr., 'Peru', i" M. Falcoff and F. B. Pike (eds.), The
Spanish Civil War 1936-39: American Hemispheric Perspectives (Lincoln,
Nebr., 1982), 20343; a n d Caravedo, Burguesia e industria (chap. 3 con-
tains a very useful discussion of the 1936 election campaign). An insider's
account of the 1936 election and its aftermath is L. A. Eguiguren, El
usurpador (para la historia) (Lima, 1939). The role of the Right is consid-
ered in G. Portocarrero, 'La oligarquia frente a la reinvindicacion demo-

38. Peru since c.i960 799
cratica (Las opciones de la derecha en las elecciones de 1936)', Apuntes, 12
(1982), 61-74.
A revival of historical interest in Peruvian fascism followed the appear-
ance of J. I. Lopez Soria, El pensamiento fascista (19301945) (Lima,
1981), and culminated in two articles by O. Ciccarrelli: 'Fascist propa-
ganda and the Italian community in Peru during the Benavides regime,
I
933~39.y^^^ 2 / 2 (1988), 361-88, and 'Fascism and politics in Peru
during the Benavides regime, 193339: The Italian perspective', HAHR,
70/3 (1990), 40532. An annotated bibliography of relevant items in the
Lima press is W. Pinto Gamboa, Sobre fascismo y literatura: La Guerra Civil
espanola en La Prensa, El Comercioy La Cronica (19361939) (Lima, 1983).
The 1941 war with Ecuador is the subject of D. H. Zook, Zarumilla-
Marandn: The Ecuador-Peru Dispute (New York, 1964). The Bustamante
presidency (1945-8) is recalled by the president himself in Jose Luis
Bustamante y Rivero, Tres anos de lucha por la democracia en el Peru, cited
above, and the reasons for its failure are discussed by M. Garcia, 'Coyuntura
y politica economica populista en la postguerra: 1945-1948', Apuntes, 18
(1986), 14052. The roles of APRA and the military are discussed exten-
sively in Villanueva, La sublevacion del 48 and El APRA y el ejercito, and in
Masterson, 'The Peruvian armed forces'. The government's problems with
stabilization policy are covered in R. Hayn, 'Peruvian exchange controls,
1945-1948', Inter-American Economic Affairs, 10 (1957), 47-70; Dragisic,
'Peruvian stabilization policies'; Frankman, 'Export promotion and devel-
opmental priorities'; and D. F. Lomax, 'Monetary control in Peru from
1945 to i960' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University,
1965). The oligarchic Right's conspiracies of 1948 are dealt with by R.
Thorp, 'The Klein Correspondence', mimeo (Oxford, 1974) and in Gil-
bert, The Oligarchy and the Old Regime.
A journalistic but well-informed view of Odn'a's presidency (1948-56)
is in T. Szulc, Twilight of the Tyrants (New York, 1959). The experiment
with floating exchange rates in the 1950s is analysed by S. C. Tsiang, 'An
experiment withflexibleexchange rates: Peru 1950-54', IMF Staff Papers,
5/3 (1957), 449-76.
3 8 . PERU SINCE c. i 9 6 0
Peruvian economic trends since i960 are analysed in R. Thorp and G.

Bertram, Peru, 18901911: Growth and Policy in an Open Economy (London,

8oo VII. Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
1978); E. V. K. Fitzgerald, The Political Economy of Peru, 1965-1978:

Economic Development and the Restructuring of Capital (Cambridge, Eng.,
1979); and Oscar Dancourt, Sobre las politicas macro-economicas en el Peru,
1970-1984 (Lima, 1986). A critical bibliographical review of economic
writings can be found in Teobaldo Pinzas, La economia peruana, 1950
1978: Un ensayo bibliogrdfico (Lima, 1981).
The economic problems of Belaunde's first government (19638) are
analysed in P. P. Kuczynski, Peruvian Democracy under Economic Stress: An
Account of the Belaunde Administration, 19631968 (Princeton, N.J.,
1977). On the distribution of income, see R. Webb, Government Policy and
the Distribution of Income in Peru, 19631973 (Cambridge, Mass., 1977),
and Shane Hunt, 'Distribution, growth and government: Economic behav-
ior in Peru', in Gustave Rainis (ed.), Government and Economic Development
(New Haven, Conn., 1971), 375416. The problems of industrialization
have been treated by M. Beaulne, Industrializacion por susticidn de im-
portaciones, 19581969 (Lima, 1975); M. VegaCenteno, Crecimiento, indus-
trializacion y cambio tecnico en el Peru, 19551980 (Lima, 1983); and J.
Torres, Estructura economica de la industria en el Peru (Lima, 1975). There is
an abundant bibliography on agrarian problems. See J. Matos and J. M.
Mejia, La reforma agraria en el Peru (Lima, 1980); E. Alvarez, Politica
economica y agricultura en el Peru, 1969-1979 (Lima, 1983); J. M. Cabal-
lero, Economia agraria de la sierra peruana: Antes de la reforma agraria de 1969
(Lima, 1981); A. Figueroa, Capitalist Development and the Peasant Economy
in Peru (Cambridge, Eng., 1984); Raul Hopkins, Desarrollo desigualy crisis
de la agricultura peruana, 1944-1969 (Lima, 1981); and E. Gonzalez,
Economia de la comunidad campesina (Lima, 1984).
On the economic crisis that Peru has been undergoing since the mid-
1970s and the different plans for its solution, see J. Gonzalez I., Peru, una
economia en crisis (Lima, 1978); Oscar Ugarteche et al. (eds.), Crisis eco-
nomica y democracia: A proposito de la exposicion del Primer Ministro Manuel
Ulloa, 27VIII80 (Lima, 1980), which discusses the measures adopted
by Belaunde's government in 1980; and D. Carbonetto, M. de Cabellos,
O. Dancourt and C. Fenon, El Peru heterodoxo: Un modelo econdmico (Lima,
1987), which describes the model Garcia's government tried to install in
1985. E. Gonzales O. (ed.), Economia para la democracia (Lima, 1989), is a
compilation of seven lectures from different perspectives. Also by the same
author, see Crisis y democracia (Lima, 1987), which presents the bases of
the crisis and the possibilities for a democratic solution. J. Iguifiiz of the
Izquierda Unida (IU) poses the alternatives available to the working and

38. Peru since c.i<)6o 801
middle classes vis-a-vis the crisis in 'Perspectivas y opciones frente a la

crisis', in Revista Pensamiento Iberoamericano, 4 (1983), 1544, and 'La crisis
peruana actual: Esquema para una interpretation', in H. Bonilla (ed.), Las
crisis economicas en la historia del Peru (Lima, 1986), 299364.
In Libertad: Primer ciclo de conferencias, 2 vols. (Lima, 1988), several
authors belonging to the Movimiento Libertad, headed by Mario Vargas
Llosa, diagnose from a neo-Liberal perspective the Peruvian crisis and the
measures to be taken to achieve a definitive solution. See also R. Thorp,
'The stabilisation crisis in Peru, 1975-78', in R. Thorp and L. White-
head, Inflation and Stabilisation in Latin America (London, 1979); G.
Pennano, C. Amat y Leon, A. Figueroa and J. Iguiniz, Economia peruana:
Hacia donde? (Lima, 1981); O. Ugarteche, El estado deudor: Economia po-
li'tica de la deuda: Peru y Bolivia, 19681984 (Lima, 1986); D. Kisic, De la
corresponsabiliadad a la moratoria: El caso de la deuda externa peruana, 1970
1986 (Lima, 1987); R. Webb, 'Deuda interna y ajuste financiero en el
Peru', Revista de la CEPAL (August 1987), 5574, which examines the
period 1980-5.
Detailed analyses of demographic changes in Peru can be found in
Asociacion Multidisciplinaria de Estudios de Poblacion, Problemas poblacio-
nalesperuanos, 2 vols. (Lima, 1986). Changes in social structure and social
and political mobilization during the period before the military govern-
ment installed in 1968 have been examined by F. Bourricaud, Power and
Society in Contemporary Peru (New York, 1967); F. Bourricaud, J. Bravo, H.
Favre and J. Piel, La oligarquia en el Peru (Lima, 1969); J. Coder, 'The
mechanics of internal domination and social change in Peru', in I. L.
Horowitz (ed.), Masses in Latin America (New York, 1970), 407-44; J.
Cotler, Clases, estado y nacion en el Peru (Lima, 1978); J. Matos, A. Salazar,
A. Escobar and J. Bravo, Peru hoy (Mexico, D.F., 1971); and A. Quijano,
'Tendencies in Peruvian development and class structure", in J. Petras and
M. Zeitlin (eds.), Latin America, Reform or Revolution? (New York, 1968),
289-328.
The roots and patterns of the peasant movement before and after the
agrarian reform decreed by the military in 1969 have been analysed by G.
Alberti and Rodrigo Sanchez, Poder y conflicto social en el valle del Mantaro
(Lima, 1974); H. Blanco, Tierra 0 muerte: Las luchas campesinas en el Peru
(Mexico, D.F., 1974); Alberto Flores-Galindo, 'Movimientos campesinos
en el Peru: Balances y esquema', in R. Ames (ed.), Las investigaciones en
ciencias sociales en el Peru (Lima, 1979); Diego Garcia Sayan, Toma de tierras
en el Peru (Lima, 1982); H. Handelman, Struggle in the Andes: Peasant

Political Mobilization in Peru (Austin, Tex., 1975); W. Kapsoli, Los

movimientos campesinos en el Peru, 1879-1965 (Lima, 1977); H. Neira, Los
Andes: Tierra 0 muerte (Madrid, 1968); A. Quijano, Problema agrario y
movimientos campesinos (Lima, 1979); and R. Montoya, Lucha por la tierra,
reformas agrarias y capitalismo en el Peru del siglo XX (Lima, 1989). On the
emergence of the guerrilla movement in the mid-1960s, see H. Bejar, Peru
1964: Una experiencia guerrillera (Lima, 1969).
The development of and changes undergone by the workers' movement
have been studied by C. R. Balbi, Identidad clasista en el sindicalismo: Su
impacto en las fdbricas (Lima, 1989); J. Parodi, Ser obrero es algo relativo . . .
Obreros, clasismo y politica (Lima, 1986), and 'La desmovilizacion del
sindicalismo industrial peruano en el segundo belaundismo', in E. Ballon
(ed.), Movimientos sociales y crisis: El caso peruano (Lima, 1986); E. H.
Stephens, The Politics of Workers' Participation: The Peruvian Approach in
Comparative Perspective (New York, 1980); D. Sulmont, Historia del
movimiento obrero peruano (18901977) (Lima, 1977); and E. Yepez del
Castillo and J. Bernedo, La sindicalizacion en el Peru (Lima, n.d.).
The military revolution stimulated an intense debate on the country's
problems and the military regime's efforts to deal with them. Many of
those who present the military revolution in a favourable light served as
officials in the regime. Some of their writing can be found in C. Franco
(ed.), El Peru de Velasco, 3 vols. (Lima, 1983). In addition, advisers to this
regime took an active part in explaining and justifying the military revolu-
tion. C. Delgado, General Velasco's closest adviser and speech-writer,
published several books which are collections of polemical articles: El
proceso revolucionario: Testimonio de lucha (Mexico, D.F., 1972), Testimonio de
lucha (Lima, 1973), Revolucidn y participacion (Lima, 1974), and Revolucidn
peruana, autonomia y deslindes (Lima, 1975). See also H. Bejar, La revolucion
en la trampa (Lima, 1974); F. Guerra, El peruano, un proceso abierto (Lima,
1975); and E. J. Kerbusch (ed.), Cambios estructurales en el Peru, 1968
1975 (Lima, 1975). For CEPAL's point of view on the changes effected by
the military government, see A. Pinto and H. Assael, La politica economica
en un proceso de cambio global (Santiago, Chile, 1981).
In M. Lauer (ed.), El reformismo burgues, 196876 (Lima, 1978), repre-
sentatives of the Left from the 1970s discuss Velasco's government. Essays
on the military regime in which different economic and political aspects
are analysed from different perspectives can be found in A. F. Lowenthal
(ed.), The Peruvian Experiment: Continuity and Change Under Military Rule
(Princeton, N.J., 1975), and C. McClintock and A. Lowenthal (eds.), The

Peruvian Experiment Reconsidered (Princeton, N.J., 1983). A. Stepan, The
State and Society: Peru in Comparative Perspective (Princeton, N.J., 1978), is a
theoretical reflection on this type of political regime. H. Pease, El ocaso del
poder oligdrquico: Luchapolitica en la escena oficial, 19681975 (Lima, 1975)
and Los caminos del poder: Tres anos de crisis en la escena politica (Lima, 1979),
examines the various courses of action followed by the military govern-
ment. A. Quijano, Nationalism and Capitalism in Peru: A Study in Neo-
Imperialism (New York, 1971), examines the military government from a
Marxist perspective.
Studies on policies in specific sectors during the military regime can be
found in G. Alberti, L. Pasara and J. Santistevan, Estado y clase: La
comunidad industrial en el Peru (Lima, 1977); D. G. Becker, The New
Bourgeoisie and the Limits of Dependency: Mining, Class and Power in 'Revolu-
tionary' Peru (Princeton, N.J., 1983); D. Collier, Squatters and Oligarchs:
Authoritarian Rule and Policy Change in Peru (Baltimore, 1976); Peter
Cleaves and Martin J. Scurrah, Agriculture, Bureaucracy and Military Govern-
ment in Peru (Ithaca, N.Y., 1980); and C. McClintock, Peasant Cooperatives
and Political Change in Peru (Princeton, N.J., 1981). On the redistribute
impact of the military's policies, see R. Webb and A. Figueroa, Distri-
bution del ingreso en el Peru (Lima, 1975).
The role played by North American business in Peru is examined in C.
A. Godsell, American Corporations and Peruvian Politics (Cambridge, Mass.,
1974). The phenomenon of expropriations has been addressed by J. P.
Einhorn, Expropriation Politics (Lexington, Mass., 1974). On the Interna-
tional Petroleum Company, see A. Pinelo, The Multinational Corporation as
a Force in Latin American Politics: A Case Study of the International Petroleum
Company in Peru (New York, 1973). Relations between the United States
and Peru at the moment of the military coup has been examined in D.
Sharp (ed.), U.S. Foreign Policy and Peru (Austin, Tex., 1972).
Other important sources for the military government are Velasco, la voz
de la revolution: Discursos del presidente de la republica, General de DivisionJuan
Velasco Alvarado, 2 vols. (Lima, 1972); C. Franco, La revolution par-
ticipativa (Lima, 1975); Maria del Pilar Tello (ed.), Golpe 0 revolution?
Hablan los militares del 68 (Lima, 1983); Henry Pease and Olga Verme,
Peru, 19681973: Cronologia politica (Lima, 1974); F. Guerra, Velasco: Del
estado oligdrquico al capitalismo de estado (Lima, 1983).
The political transition from military to civilian government is exam-
ined in J. Cotler, 'Military interventions and transfer of power to civilians
in Peru', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe Schmitter and Laurence

Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritative Rule, vol. 2, Latin America

(Baltimore, 1986), 148-72; Luis A. Abugattas, 'Populism and after: The
Peruvian experience', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.),
Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pitts-
burgh, Pa., 1987); and L. A. Sanchez, Testimonio personal: Ac/ids a las armas
(Lima, 1988). Analyses of the constitution of 1980 can be found in E.
Chirinos, La constiiucion al alcance de todos (Lima, 1980); Marcial Rubio and
E. Bernales, Constitucion y sociedadpolitica (Lima, 1983); and E. Bernales,
F. Eguiguren, C. Fernandez-Maldonado and D. Garcia Belaunde, La consti-
tucion: Diez anos despues (Lima, 1989).
On political problems during the 1980s, see A. Garcia, El futuro difer-
ente, 2nd ed. (Lima, 1987); H. Bonilla and Paul W. Drake (eds.), El Apra
de la ideologia a la praxis (Lima, 1989); J. Cotler (ed.), Para afirmar la demo-
cracia (Lima, 1987), Clases populares, crisis y democracia en America Latina
(Lima, 1989), and Estrategiaspara el desarrollo de la democracia en el Peru y en
America Latina (Lima, 1990). J. Matos, Desborde popular y crisis del atado: El
nuevo rostro del Peru en la decada de 19S0 (Lima, 1984); and L. Pasara and J.
Parodi (eds.), Democracia, sociedady gobierno en el Peru (Lima, 1987).
The 'informal sector' has attracted a great deal of attention. See D.
Carbonetto et al., El sector informal urbano (Lima, 1988); P. Galin, J.
Carrion and O. Castillo, Asalariadosy clases populares en Lima (Lima, 1986);
R. Grompone, Talleristasy vendedores ambulantes en Lima (Lima, 1985); and
H. de Soto, The Other Path: The Invisible Revolution in the Third World, 2nd
ed. (New York, 1989).
On urban social movements, see A. Rodriguez et al., De invasores a
invadidos (Lima, 1973); M. Barrig, 'The difficult equilibrium between
bread and roses: Women's organizations and the transition to democracy in
Peru', in J. Jaquette (ed.), The Women's Movement in Latin America (Boston,
1989), 11448; C. Blondet, Muchas vidas construyendo una identidad:
Mujeres pobladoras de un barrio limeno (Lima, 1986); C. I. Degregori, C.
Blondet and N. Lynch, Conquistadores de un nuevo mundo: De invasores a
ciudadanos en San Martin de Porres (Lima, 1986); and J. Golte and N.
Adams, Los caballos de Troya de los invasores: Estrategias campesinas en la
conquista de la Gran Lima (Lima, 1987).
Analyses of the changes in the armed forces can be found in L. Einaudi,
The Peruvian Military: A Summary Political Analysis (Santa Monica, Calif.,
1969); L. Einaudi and A. Stepan, Latin American Institutional Development:
Changing Military Perspectives in Peru and Brazil (Santa Monica, Calif,
1971); Victor Villanueva, El CAEM y la revolucion de las fuerzas armadas

(Lima, 1972) and Nueva mentalidad militar en el Peru? (Lima, 1969); and P.
Mauceri, Militares: Insurgencia y democratizacion en el Peru, 19801988
(Lima, 1989).
Changes in the church are examined in G. Gutierrez, A Theology of
Liberation (New York, 1971); the 1988 edition has a new and updated
introduction: We Drink from Our Own Wells: The Spiritual Journey of a People
(New York, 1984); On Job: God-Talk and the Suffering of the Innocent (New
York, 1987) and Dios 0 el oro de las Indias (Lima, 1989). See also C. R. de
Inguiniz, 'Church, state and society in contemporary Peru, 19581988:
A Process of Liberation' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, New School for
Social Research, New York, 1989); Jeffrey Klaiber, S.J., Religion and
Revolution in Peru, 18241976 (Notre Dame, Ind., 1977) and La iglesia en
el Peru: Su historia social desde la independencia (Lima, 1988; Eng. trans.,
!992); L. Pasara, Radicalizacidn y conflicto en la iglesia peruana (Lima,
1986); M. G. Mcaullay, 'Ideological change and internal cleavages in the
Peruvian church: Change, status quo and the priest: The case of ONIS'
(unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Notre Dame, 1972); and M.
Marsal, La transformacion religiosaperuana (Lima, 1983).
On the emergence and development of Sendero Luminoso, see A. San
Martin, C. Rodriguez R., F. Castelnuovo and J. Ansion, Siete ensayos sobre
la violencia en el Peru (Lima, 1985); D. Chavez, Juventud y terrorismo:
Caracteristicas sociales de los condenados por terrorismo y otros delitos (Lima,
1989); C. I. Degregori, Sendero Luminoso: I. Los hondos y mortales desen-
cuentros; II. Lucha armada y Utopia autoritaria, 7th ed. (Lima, 1989), Que
dificil es ser Dios: Ideologia y violencia politica en Sendero Luminoso (Lima,
1989) and El nacimiento de Sendero Luminoso: Ayacucho y Huanta en 1969
(Lima, 1990); H. Favre, 'Sentier Lumineux et horizons obscurs', Problemes
d'Amerique Latine, 72 (1984); A. Flores Galindo, 'La guerra silenciosa' in
A. Flores Galindo and N. Manrique (eds.), Violencia y campesinado (Lima,
1986), 1739; C. Harding, 'The rise of Sendero Luminoso', in R. Miller
(ed.), Region and Class in Modern Peru (Liverpool, 1986), 179-207; Billie
Jean Isbell, The Emerging Patterns of Peasants' Responses to Sendero Luminoso
(New York, 1988); N. Manrique, 'Democracia y campesinado indigena en
el Peru contemporaneo', in Flores Galindo and Manrique (eds.), Violencia y
campesinado, 5-15; C. McClintock, 'Why peasants rebel: The case of
Peru's Sendero Luminoso', World Politics (October 1984), 4 8 - 8 4 , and
'Sendero Luminoso: Peru's Maoist Guerrillas', in Problems of Communism
(September-October 1983), 19-34; Lewis Taylor, Maoism in the Andes:
Sendero Luminoso and the Contemporary Guerrilla Movement in Peru (Liverpool,

1983); and D. S. Palmer, 'Rebellion in rural Peru: The origins and

evolution of Sendero Luminoso', Comparative Politics, 18/2 (1986), 127
46. In order to understand the motivations and objectives of this group it
is indispensible to study 'El reportaje del siglo', presumably an interview
with Abimael Guzman, or 'President Gonzalo', in El Diario (Lima), 24
July 1988. More recent works on Sendero Luminoso include: G. Gorriti,
Sendero: Historia de la guerra milenaria en el Peru (Lima, 1990); David Scott
Palmer (ed.), The Shining Path of Peru (New York, 1992).
On problems of violence and human rights, see the reports issued by
Americas Watch and Amnesty International since 1984; Instituto de
Defensa Legal, Peru 1989: En la espiral de la violencia (Lima, 1989);
Comisi6n de Defensa de los Derechos de la Persona y Construction de la
Paz, Violencia y democracia (Lima, 1988); J. Klaiber (ed.), Violenciay crisis de
valores en el Peru (Lima, 1987); R. Ames (ed.), Inform al congreso sobre los
sucesos de los penales (Lima, 1988); DESCO, Violencia politica en el Peru:
1980-1988 (Lima, 1989); Comisi6n Especial del Senado sobre las Causas
de la Violencia y Alternativas de Pacification en el Peru, Violencia y pacifica-
cion (Lima, 1989); and M. P. Tello (ed.), Sobre el volcdn: Didlogo frente a la
subversion (Lima, 1989). On the problem of drug-trafficking, see Diego
Garcia Sayan (ed.), Coca, cocaina y narco-trdfico (Lima, 1989). On the 1990
elections, see A. Vargas Llosa, El diablo en campana (Madrid, 1991) and C.
T. Degregori and R. Grompone, Elecciones 1990: Demonios y redentores en el
nuevo Peru (Lima, 1991).
39. BOLIVIA
In English the best general account of Bolivian politics since the revolution
of 1952 is James Dunkerley, Rebellion in the Veins: Political Struggle in
Bolivia, 1952-82 (London, 1984). James M. Malloy and Eduardo Ga-
marra, Revolution and Reaction: Bolivia, 1964-85 (New Brunswick, N.J.,
1988) is also worth reading. James M. Malloy and Richard S. Thorn (eds.),
Beyond the Revolution: Bolivia since 1952 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1971) contains a
number of essays that are still of value. To a lesser extent it is also worth
consulting Jerry R. Ladman's edited collection, Modem-Day Bolivia: A Leg-
acy of the Revolution and Prospects for the Future (Tempe, Ariz., 1982). A stan-
dard source for the pre-revolutionary period is Herbert S. Klein, Parties and
Political Change in Bolivia, 1880-1952 (Cambridge, Eng., 1969), which is
strong on the 1930s, but peters out thereafter. His more recent survey,

39- Bolivia 807
Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society (Oxford, 1982) pays due
attention to the 194080 period, although without really vindicating its
curious sub-title. J. Valerie Fifer, Bolivia: Land, Location, and Politics since
1825 (Cambridge, Eng., 1972) gives useful background on the Chaco, but
does not develop the implications of Bolivia's location for the postwar
period. Other relevant books in English include Christopher Mitchell, The
Legacy of Populism in Bolivia: From the MNR to Military Rule (New York,
1977); Jerry W. Knudson, Bolivia: Press and Revolution 1932-64 (Lanham,
Md., 1986), which contains many nuggets of information, although the
analysis is not very sophisticated; Charles F. Geddes, Patino: The Tin King
(London, 1972) from a pro-company standpoint; Guillermo Lora, A His-
tory ofthe Bolivian Labour Movement (18481971) (Cambridge, Eng., 1977)
by the Trotskyist veteran; Victor Andrade, My Missions for Revolutionary
Bolivia, 1944-62 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1975); Dwight B. Heath, Charles J.
Erasmus and Hans C. Buechler, Land Reform and Social Revolution in Bolivia
(New York, 1969); William J. McEwen et al., Changing Rural Bolivia
(Oxford, 1975); and Jonathan Kelley and Herbert S. Klein, Revolution and
the Rebirth of Inequality: A Theory Applied to the Bolivian National Revolution
(Berkeley, 1981). Carmenza Gallo, Taxes and State Power: Political Instabil-
ity in Bolivia, 1900-1950 (Philadelphia, 1991) offers a challenging and
moderately persuasive interpretation of pre-1952 politics based on the
fiscal consequences of enclave development. George Jackson Eder, Inflation
and Development in Latin America: A Case History of Inflation and Stabilisation
in Bolivia (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1968) is a very detailed study of the 1956
counter-inflation plan which achieved renewed topicality in the 1980s.
Juan Antonio Morales has described the 1985 counterpart in Michael
Bruno et al. (eds.), Inflation Stabilization: The Experience of Israel, Argentina,
Brazil, Bolivia and Mexico (Cambridge, Mass., 1988).
Among the more relevant articles in English are two by John Hillman:
'Bolivia and the international tin cartel', JLAS, 20/1 (1988), 83-110, and
'Bolivia and British tin policy, 1939-45', JLAS, 22/2 (1990), 289-315.
See also Manuel E. Contreras, 'Debts, taxes and war: The political econ-
omy of Bolivia, c. 1920-1935', JLAS, 22/2 (1990), 265-87, and Mario
de Franco and Ricardo Godoy, 'The economic consequences of cocaine
production in Bolivia: Historical, local and macro-economic perspectives',
JLAS, 24/2 (1992), 375-406. Important earlier articles include Cole
Blasier, 'The U.S., Germany, and the Bolivian revolutionaries', HAHR,
52/1 (1972), 2654; Andrew Pearse, 'Peasants and revolution: The case of
Bolivia', Economy and Society, 1/34 (1972); Laurence Whitehead, 'Miners

as voters: The electoral process in Bolivia's mining camps', JLAS, 13/2

(1981), 31346; James W. Wilkie, 'U.S. foreign policy and economic
assistance in Bolivia, 194876', in SALA 22, (Los Angeles, 1983); and
Laurence Whitehead, 'Bolivia', in Leslie Bethell and Ian Roxborough
(eds.), Latin America between the Second World War and the Cold War, 1944
The literature in Spanish is, of course, much larger although Bolivia
has relatively few trained historians and social scientists. The best-written
books on Bolivian history (in any language) are by the veteran writer and
founder of the MNR, Augusto Cespedes. They are also highly revealing
and reasonably accurate, if inevitably partisan. Cespedes, Salamanca, 0 el
metafisico delfracaso (La Paz, 1973) is a hatchet job which needs to be read
in conjunction with David Alvestegui, Salamanca: Su gravitacion sobre el
destino de Bolivia (La Paz, 1962). His El dictador suicida: 40 anos de historia
de Bolivia (Santiago, Chile, 1956) should be checked against Herbert
Klein, Bolivia and the recent work of Ferran Gallego. Chapters from
Gallego's Barcelona doctoral thesis on the period 1935-46 have been
published in the Boletin Americanista (Barcelona), 36 (January 1987), in I-
AA, 13/2 (1987) and 14/4 (1988) and more fully in Los Ortgenes del
reformismo militar en America Latina: La gestidn de David Toro en Bolivia
(Barcelona, 1991). There is as yet no good antidote to Cespedes's best
historical contribution, his defence of the MNR's role in the Villarroel
government: El presidente colgado (Buenos Aires, 1966). Other prominent
ex-members of the MNR have also taken up the writing of history to fairly
good effect. Jose Fellmann Velarde, who wrote a hagiographic biography
of Victor Paz Estenssoro in the 1950s, subsequently produced a dense
three-volume Historia de Bolivia, of which vol. 3, La bolivianidad semi-
colonial(La Paz, 1970) covers the first half of the twentieth century, paying
particular attention to the Chaco War. Unfortunately, he uses no footnotes
to document his assertions. Luis Antezana's Historia secreta del Movimiento
Nacionalista Revolucionario, 6 vols. (La Paz, 19847) gives abundant detail,
but only limited analysis.
Rene Zavaleta provides considerable analysis, but limited detail, in his
interpretative essay on Bolivia from 1933 to 1971 in Pablo Gonzalez
Casanova (ed.), America Latina: Historia de Medio Siglo (Mexico, D.F.,
1977). See also Rene Zavaleta (ed.), Bolivia hoy (Mexico, D.F., 1983). A
comparable interpretation is offered in Sergio Almaraz, Elpoder y la caida
(La Paz, 1969). A good general history of the Chaco War is Roberto
Querejazu, Masamaclay (La Paz, 1975). For the impact of the 1929 crisis,

39- Bolivia 809
see Laurence Whitehead, 'La Gran Depresi6n en Bolivia', DE, 12/45

(1972), 4 9 - 8 0 .
Worthwhile on the military is Gary Prado Salmon, Poder y fuerzas
armadas, 1949-82 (La Paz, 1984). Traditional political history can be
found in Porfirio Diaz Machicado, Historia de Bolivia: Salamanca (La Paz,
1955), Toro, Busch, Quintanilla (La Paz, 1957) and Peiiaranda (La Paz,
X
958). Jose Luis Roca, Fisionomia del regionalismo boliviano (La Paz, 1980)
has made the most sustained effort to develop an interpretation of Bolivian
history on the basis of regional interactions, as opposed to the economic
determinism, and the class or ethnic identities stressed by most modern
analysts. This approach deserves further development, and not just in
Bolivia. For another contribution to the regional history of the revolution,
see Laurence Whitehead, 'National power and local power: The case of
Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia', in Francine F. Rabinowitz and Felicity
M. Trueblood (eds.), Latin American Urban Research, Vol. Ill (Beverly
Hills, Calif., 1973).
A new generation of Bolivian historians and social scientists have begun
to reassess this period. Their main focus is on agrarian and indigenous
history. The founders were Jorge Dandier, El sindicalismo campesino en
Bolivia (Mexico, D.F., 1969), followed by Xavier Albo, Achacachi: Medio
siglo de lucha campesina (La Paz, 1979); see also Xavier Alb6, 'From
MNRistas to Kataristas to Katari', in Steve J. Stern (ed.), Resistance,
Rebellion and Consciousness in the Andean Peasant World (Madison, Wis.,
1987). The best compilation is Fernando Calderon and Jorge Dandier
(eds.), Bolivia: La fuerza histdrica del campesinado (Geneva, 1986), and the
best single-author contribution is Silvia Rivera, Oprimidos pero no vencidos
(Geneva, 1986), which is useful for the 1940s. For a wide-ranging com-
parative analysis of the 'Indian' component in Bolivian, Peruvian and
Mexican history, see Florencia Mallon, 'Indian communities, political
cultures, and the state in Latin America, 1780-1990', in the special issue
oiJLAS, 24 (Quincentenary Supplement, 1992), 35-53, edited by Tulio
Halperin Donghi. Rene Arze is starting to produce interesting work on
the Chaco War: see his two contributions in J. P. Deler and Y. Saint-
Geours (eds.), Estados y naciones en los Andes, 2 vols. (Lima, 1986). The
works of two 'honorary Bolivians' of British nationality deserve mention
here: James Dunkerley, Origenes del poder militar en Bolivia: Historia del
ejeWcito, 18791935 (La Paz, 1987), especially chaps. 5 and 6, and Tristan
Platt, Estado boliviano y ayllu andino (Lima, 1982), especially chap. 5. For
representative samples of current social science in Bolivia, see Roberto

8to VII. Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
Laserna (ed.), Crisis, democracia y confiicto social (La Paz, 1985); Rene A.
Mayorga (ed.), Democracia a la deriva (La Paz, 1987) and Jorge Lazarte,
Movimiento obrero y procesospoliticos en Bolivia (La Paz, 1988), together with
the FLACSO review Estado y Sociedad.
On the mining industry there is a useful economic history by Walter
Gomez: La mineria en eldesarrollo economico de Bolivia (La Paz, 1978). For re-
cent scholarship on the history of the mineworkers, see Gustavo Rodriquez
Ostria, El socavon y el sindicato: Ensayos historicos sobre los trabajadores mineros,
siglos XIXXX (La Paz, 1991), and on labour militancy in the mines, see
Laurence Whitehead, 'Sobre el radicalismo de los trabajadores mineros de
Bolivia', RMS, 42/4 (1980), 146596. On the United States and the
Garcia Meza dictatorship, see Raul Barrios Moron, Bolivia y Estados Unidos:
Democracia, derechos humanos y narcotrdfico (La Paz, 1989).
40. COLOMBIA
The only one-volume history of Colombia in English is David Bushnell,

The Making of Modern Colombia: A Nation in Spite ofItself(Berkeley, 1993).
One useful volume which embodies recent trends in the historiography is
Dario Jaramillo Agudelo (comp.), La nueva historia de Colombia (Bogota,
1976). This is complemented by Jaime Jaramillo Uribe et al., Manual de
historia de Colombia, vol. 3 (Bogota, 1982), and a contemporary reader,
Mario Arrubla et al., Colombia: Hoy, 2nd ed. (Bogota, 1978).
POLITICS AND SOCIETY
On the politics of the 1930s and 1940s, see Daniel Pecaut, L'Ordre et la
violence: Evolution socio-politique de la Colombie entre 1930 et 1953 (Paris,
1986); Christopher Abel, Politica, iglesia y partidos en Colombia, 1886-
1953 (Bogota, 1987); and Terrence Burns Horgan, 'The Liberals come to
power, por debajo de la ruana: A study of the Enrique Olaya Herrera
administration, 1930-1934' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Vanderbilt Uni-
versity, 1983). Alvaro Tirado Mejia, Aspectos politicos del primer gobierno de
Alfonso Lopez Pumarejo, 1934-1938 (Bogota, 1981), is a valuable introduc-
tion from a committed lopista perspective. On the economy, there are
Rosemary Thorp and Carlos Londono, 'The effect of the Great Depression
on the economies of Peru and Colombia', and Jose Antonio Ocampo, 'The
Colombian economy in the 1930s', in Rosemary Thorp (ed.), Latin Amer-

40. Colombia 811
tea in the 1930s: The Role of the Periphery in World Crisis (London, 1984),
which should be read with Jose Antonio Ocampo and Santiago Montene-
gro, Crisis mundial, protection e industrialization: Ensayos de historia economica
colombiana (Bogota, 1984), Alvaro Tirado Mejia (ed.). Estado y economia
(Bogota, 1986) and Paul W. Drake, The Money Doctor in the Andes: The
Kemmerer Missions, 19231933 (Durham, N.C., 1989).
The most useful book on Colombian politics from the late 1940s to the
mid-1960s remains Robert H. Dix, Colombia: Political Dimensions of
Change (New Haven, Conn., 1967), which should be supplemented for
the more recent period by the essays of uneven quality in R. Albert
Berry, Ronald G. Hellman and Mauricio Solaun (eds.), Politics of Compro-
mise: Coalition Government in Colombia (New Brunswick, N.J., 1980), and
also Francisco Leal Buitrago, Estado y politica en Colombia (Bogota, 1984)
and Robert H. Dix, The Politics of Colombia (New York, 1986). On the
Turbay administration, J. J. Garcia, Cronicas de un emirato (Bogota, 1985)
is also useful. The interpretation of contemporary politics by a maverick
socialist and one-time gaitanista, Antonio Garcia, remains stimulating.
See, in particular, Gaitdn y el camino de la revolution colombiana: Responsa-
bilidad de las clases, las generationes y los partidos (Bogota, 1974). The
somewhat dated accounts of Vernon Lee Fluharty, Dance of the Millions:
Military Rule and the Social Revolution in Colombia, 1930-56 (Pittsburgh,
Pa., 1957), and John D. Martz, Colombia: A Contemporary Political Study
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1962), still contain useful information. Also valuable
is Alexander Wilde, 'Conversations among gentlemen: Oligarchical de-
mocracy in Colombia', in Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan (eds.), The
Breakdown of Democratic Regimes (Baltimore, 1978), 2 8 - 8 1 , which, how-
ever, draws an over-easy equation between democracy and the existence of
liberal institutions. This is available in Spanish in an enlarged edition, La
quiebra de la democratia (Bogota, 1982).
Other works have done much to clarify the character of military rule in
the mid-1950s, especially Silvia Galvis and Alberto Donadio, El Jefe
Supremo: Rojas Pinilla en la violencia y en el poder (Bogota, 1988) and Carlos
H. Uran, Rojas y la manipulation del poder (Bogota, 1983). A convenient
political narrative is found in Daniel Pecaut, Cronica de dos decadas de
politica colombiana, 19681988 (Bogota, 1988). The book by Jonathan
Hartlyn, Politics of Coalition Rule in Colombia (Cambridge, Eng., 1988),
conveniently synthesizes recent political science writings by both Colom-
bian and U.S. authors, while also containing valuable original material on
the propertied interests. Hartlyn summarizes his views in 'Colombia: The

8i2 VII. Economy, society, politics, 1930 toe. 1990
politics of violence and accommodation', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz

and Seymour M. Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries, vol. 4:
Latin America (London, 1989), 291-334. Francisco Leal Buitrago provides
a convenient if pessimistic analysis of the crisis of the late 1980s in 'Struc-
tural crisis and the current situation in Colombia', Canadian Journal of
Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 14/28 (1989), 31-49. The debate on
democratic enhancement and consolidation is usefully addressed in Patricia
Vasquez de Urrutia (ed.), Colombia piensa la democracia (Bogota, 1989).
No adequate study of executive power in Colombia exists. Alfredo
Vasquez Carrizosa, El poder presidencial en Colombia: La crisis permanente del
derecho constitucional (Bogota, 1979), is a stimulating view by a Conserva-
tive opposition lawyer and former foreign minister. For congressional
behaviour, see Francisco Leal Buitrago, Estudio del comportamiento legislativo
en Colombia, 2 vols. (Bogota, 1973-5). The power and composition of the
'oligarchy' and the validity and viability of 'oligarchy' as a concept are
treated in James L. Payne, Patterns of Conflict in Colombia (New Haven,
Conn., 1968), which is trenchantly criticized by Albert O. Hirschman in
'The search for paradigms as a hindrance to understanding', World Politics,
22 (196970), 32943. Quien es quien en Venezuela, Panama, Ecuador,
Colombia con datos recopilados hasta el 30 de junio de 1952 (Bogota, 1952)
remains for historians a most valuable guide not only to 'oligarchic' careers
but also to those of the professional and business classes.
On political parties, Jorge O. Melo (ed.), Origenes de lospartidospoliticos
en Colombia (Bogota, 1978), is useful for background purposes. For contem-
porary analysis, see Gabriel Murillo C. and Israel Rivera Ortiz, Activadades
y estructura de poder en los partidos politicos colombianos (Bogota, 1973), which
moves a long way beyond the subjective and partisan colouration character-
izing accounts by political activists of earlier generations, as do Jorge
Orlando Melo, Sobre historia y politica (Bogota, 1979) and Patricia Pinz6n
de Lewin, Los partidos politicos colombianos (Bogota, 1987). The best exam-
ples of previous genres include, for Conservatives, Abel Carbonell, La
quincena politica, 5 vols. (Bogota, 1952), an opposition view of Liberal
reformism in the mid-i93os, and Rafael Azula Barrera, De la revolucidn al
orden nuevo: Proceso y drama de un pueblo (Bogota, 1956), an example of
articulate godo conservatism of the early 1950s; and for Liberals, a compos-
ite apologia for the 1930-46 administrations, Plinio Mendoza N. (ed.),
El liberalism) en elgobierno, 3 vols. (Bogota, 1946), Carlos Lleras Restrepo,
De la democracia a la dictadura (Bogota, 1955) and Hacia la restauracion
democratica y el cambio social, 2 vols. (Bogota, 1964).

40. Colombia 813
Gaitanismo at the national and capital-city levels is best approached

through Herbert Braun, The Assassination of Gaitan: Public Life and
Urban Violence in Colombia (Madison, Wis., 1985), in conjunction with
Jorge Eliecer Gaitan, Gaitan, antologia de su pensamiento economico y social
(Bogota, 1968), and Los mejores discursos de Gaitan, 2nd ed. (Bogota,
1968), and popular recollections of the bogotazo contained in Arturo
Alape, El bogotazo: Memorias de un olvido (Havana, 1984). Gaitanismo at
the regional level can be pursued in Gonzalo Sanchez G., Los dias de la
revolution: Gaitanismo y 9 de abril en provincia (Bogota, 1983), and Carlos
Eduardo Jaramillo, Ibague: Conflictos politicos de 1930 al 9 de abril (Bo-
gota, 1983).
Few prominent Colombian politicians have written personal memoirs.
Notable exceptions include three Liberal presidents: Alberto Lleras Ca-
margo, Mi gente (Bogota, 1976); Carlos Lleras Restrepo, Borradores para
una historia de la republica liberal, vol. 1 (Bogota, 1975), Historia y politica
(Bogota, 1980) and Crdnica de mi propia vida (Bogota, 1983); and Alfonso
Lopez Michelsen, Parabola del retorno (Bogota, 1985); and one eminent
Conservative, whose account of the early stages of redemocratization in
Colombia in the late 1950s is found in Camilo Vazquez Cobo, Pro patria
El Frente National, su origen y desarrollo: Memorias de Camilo Vazquez Cobo
Carrizosa (Cali, n.d.).
The evolution of political ideas is best approached through Jaime
Jaramillo Uribe, Antologia del pensamiento politico colombiano, 2 vols. (Bo-
gota, 1970), which, for Liberal ideas, can be usefully supplemented by the
writing of a Socialist whose intellectual formation was shaped in the
Popular Front period, Gerardo Molina, Las ideas liberates en Colombia, vol.
2: 1915-1934 (Bogota, 1974), and Las ideas liberates en Colombia de 1935 a
la initiation del Frente National (Bogota, 1977). There is no comparable
work for the study of Conservative ideas, although James D. Henderson,
Conservative Thought in Twentieth Century Latin America: The Ideas of
Laureano Gomez (Athens, Ohio, 1988), read in conjunction with Laureano
Gomez, Obras completas (Bogota, 19849) provides a useful introduction to
one strand of Conservative thinking and Belisario Betancur, Colombia:
Cara a cara (Bogota, 1961) and Betancur et al., Ensayos sobre teoriaypolitica
economicas (Bogota, 1985) to another. See also James D. Henderson,
'Proyecto de reforma constitucional conservadora de 1953 en Colombia',
Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura (Bogota), nos. 234
(1985-6), 261-80. On Socialist ideas, consult Gerardo Molina, Las ideas
socialistas de Colombia (Bogota, 1987), and for the writings of Colombia's

most durable Communist leader, Gilberto Vieira, Escritospoliticos (Bogota,

r
975>-
Opposition parties and movements are studied in Medofilo Medina,
Historia del Partido Comunista de Colombia, vol. 1 (Bogota, 1980); Daniel
Premo, 'Alianza Nacional Popular: Populism and the politics of social
class in Colombia, 196170' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University
of Texas, 1972); and Richard M. Mellman, 'Populist mass mobilization in
Latin America: ANAPO' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia Uni-
versity, 1978). On the debate about the role of the opposition, see Patricia
Pinzon de Lewin, La oposicion en Colombia: Algunas bases para su discusion
(Bogota, 1986). Urban protest is examined further in Jaime Carrillo
Bedoya, Los pans civicos en Colombia (Medellin, 1981), Alvaro Cabrera et
al., Los movimientos civicos (Bogota, 1986), Gustavo Gallon Giraldo
(comp.), Entre movimientos y caudillos 50 anos de bipartidismo, izquierda y
alternativaspopulares en Colombia (Bogota, 1989) and Pedro Santana R., Los
movimientos sociales en Colombia (Bogota, 1989). See also Marco Palacios, El
populismo en Colombia (Medellin, 1971).
Long periods of civilian rule have made possible a growth of electoral
studies. A most valuable compilation of electoral statistics is found in
Colombiapolitica: Estadisticas, 19351970 (Bogota, 1972). An early exam-
ple of quantitative analysis is provided by Anita Weiss, Tendencias de la
participation electoral en Colombia, 19351966 (Bogota, 1970). Subsequent
psephological studies of increasing technical virtuosity include Rodrigo
Losada and Miles Williams, 'El voto presidencial en Bogota', Boletin
Mensual de Estadistica, 229 (August 1970); Judith De Campos and John F.
McCamant, 'Colombia politica, 1971', Boletin Mensual de Estadistica, De-
partamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadistica (DANE), 242 (Septem-
ber 1971), 69-128; Rodrigo Losada and Gabriel Murillo, Analisis de las
elecciones de 1972 en Bogota (Bogota, 1973); Fernando Cepeda Ulloa and
Claudia Gonzalez de Lecaros, Comportamiento del voto urbano en Colombia: Una
aproximacion (Bogota, 1976); Judith De Campos and Jose Martin, El
compartamiento electoral en 1978 (Cali, 1980); Mario Latorre, Politica y
elecciones (Bogota, 1980); and Rodrigo Losada et al., Clientelismo y elecciones
(Bogota, 1984). See also Oscar Delgado (comp.), La campana por la pre-
sidencia, 19781982 (Bogota, 1978); Monica Lanzettietal., Colombia en las
urnas: Que paso en 1986P (Bogota, 1986); and Patricia Pinzon de Lewin,
Pueblos, regiones y partidos: La regionalizacion electoral: Atlas electoral colombiano
(Bogota, 1989). For a more descriptive account of electoral practices, con-
sult Mario Latorre, Elecciones y partidos politicos en Colombia (Bogota, 1974).

40. Colombia 815
Several scholars based in the early 1960s at the newly established De-
partment of Sociology at the Universidad Nacional considered a re-
evaluation and de-mythologization of the political violence of the previous
two decades to be a moral imperative. See German Guzman Campos et al.,
La violencia en Colombia: Estudio de un proceso: Parte descriptiva, 2 vols.
(Bogota, 19624). Also valuable in dispelling influential myths is the
work of a political scientist, Paul Oquist, Violencia, conflicto y politico, en
Colombia (Bogota, 1978; Eng. trans., Violence, Conflict and Politics in Colom-
bia (New York, 1980). Outstanding among works on the Violencia is a
monograph by Carlos Miguel Ortiz Sarmiento, Estado y subversion en Colom-
bia: La violencia en el Quindio anos 50 (Bogota, 1985). Also useful are
Gonzalo Sanchez, 'La violencia in Colombia: New research, new ques-
tions', HAHR, 65/4 (1985), 789807; Sanchez and Donny Meertens,
Bandoleros, gamonalesy campesinos: El caso de la violencia en Colombia, 2nd ed.
(Bogota, 1985); Sanchez and Ricardo Pefiaranda (comps.), Pasado y presente
de la violencia en Colombia (Bogota, 1986); Centro Gaitan, various authors,
Once ensayos sobre la violencia (Bogota, 1985); Jaime Arocha, 'La violencia in
Monteverde, Colombia: Environmental and economic determinants of ho-
micide in a coffee-growing municipio' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Columbia University, 1975); Mary Roldan, 'Guerrillas, contrachusma y
caudillos en Antioquia, 19491953', Estudios Sociales (Medellin), 4
(1989), 5586; and James D. Henderson, When Colombia Bled: A History
of the 'Violencia' in Tolima (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1985). Participant accounts
include J. Casas Aguilar, La violencia en los llanos orientates (Bogota, 1987)
and Eduardo Fonseca G., Los combatientes del llano (Bogota, 1987).
The violence of the late 1970s and 1980s is considered in two valuable
works by journalists, Enrique Santos Calderon, La guerra por la paz (Bo-
gota, 1985); German Hernandez, La justicia en llamas (Bogota, 1985);
Malcolm Deas, 'The troubled course of Colombian peacemaking', Third
World Quarterly, 8 (April 1986), 63957; an<^> especially, in Gonzalo
Sanchez (coord.), Colombia: Violencia y democracia Informe presentado al
Ministerio de Gobierno (Bogota, 1987); and Socorro Ramirez and Luis Al-
berto Restrepo, Actores en conflicto por la paz (Bogota, 1989). Other writ-
ings on the politics of the 1980s include, from committed left-wing
standpoints, Nicolas Buenaventura, Tregua y Union Patriotica (Bogota,
1985); Luis C. Perez, La guerrilla ante los jueces militares (Bogota, 1987);
Arturo Alape, La paz, la violencia: Testigos de excepcion: Documento, 3rd ed.
(Bogota, 1987); and Medofilo Medina, 'Algunos factores de violencia en el
sistema politico colombiano, 19301986', Anuario Colombiano de Historia

8i6 VII. Economy, society, politics, 193010 c. 1990
Social y de la Cultura (Bogota), 13-14 (1985-6), 281-97. Right-wing
perspectives on the politics of the 1980s are best approached from the
writings of General Fernando Landazabal, for example, Pdginas de contro-
versia (Bogota, 1983) and El desafio (Bogota, 1988). On drugs and urban
violence, see especially Alvaro Camacho Guizado, Drogay sociedaden Colom-
bia (Bogota, 1988), and Dario Betancourt and Martha L. Garcia, Matones y
cuadrilleros: Origenes y evolution de la violencia en el occidente coiombiano (Bo-
gota, 1990).
Certain aspects of the military are examined in Francisco Leal Buitrago,
Politica e intervention militar en Colombia (Bogota, n.d.) and Richard
Maullin, Soldiers, Guerrillas and Politics in Colombia (Lexington, Mass.,
J
973)- On the human rights record of the military in the 1970s and
1980s, see Amnesty International, Recomendaciones al gobierno coiombiano de
una mision de Amnesty International a la Republica de Colombia (London,
1980); Comite Permanente por la Defensa de los Derechos Humanos,
Represion y tortura en Colombia: Informes internacionales y testimonios nationales
(Bogota, 1980); Consejo Regional Indigena del Cauca (CRIC), Diezanos de
lucha: Historia y documentos (Medellin, 1981); Documentos del III Foro de los
Derechos Humanos (Bogota, 1983); an Americas Watch Report, Human
Rights in Colombia as President Barco Begins (Washington, D.C., 1986); and
Jaime Torres Sanchez and Fabio Barrera Tellez et al. (eds.), Colombia
represion 19JO-1981, 2 vols. (Bogota, 1982). Official responses can be
found in presidential messages and memorias of the War Ministry in the
same period.
The Catholic church of the 1930s and 1940s is considered in Ana Maria
Bidegain de Uran, Iglesia, pueblo y politica, 193055 (Bogota, 1985).
Daniel H. Levine, Religion and Politics in Latin America: The Catholic Church
in Venezuela and Colombia (Princeton, N.J., 1981), provides an introduc-
tion to the postVatican II church, which fruitfully pursues a particular
line of comparative enquiry but does not fully supersede earlier writings
by sociologists of religion like Gustavo Perez, El problema sacerdotal en
Colombia (Fribourg, 1963), and Benjamin E. Haddox, Sociedady religion en
Colombia (Bogota, 1965). The writings of Camilo Torres are conveniently
assembled in Camilo Torres Restrepo, Cristianismo y revolution (Mexico,
D.F., 1970). His life is explored in Francisco Trujillo, Camilo y el Frente
Unido (Bogota, 1987). For a contrasting example of franquista Catholicism
in Colombia, see Miguel Angel Builes, Cartaspastorales, 3 vols. (Medellin
and Bogota, 1939-57).
The history and sociology of urban labour have been less thoroughly

4O. Colombia 817
diagnosed in Colombia than elsewhere on the continent. The three princi-

pal studies of the 1960s and 1970s are Miguel Urrutia Montoya, Develop-
ment of the Colombian Labor Movement (New Haven, Conn., 1969), which
views National Front politics towards organized labour in a broadly
favourable light, Daniel Pecaut, Politica y sindicalismo en Colombia (Bogota,
1973) and Edgar Caicedo, Historia de las luchas sindicales en Colombia, 2nd
ed. (Bogota, 1974), which embody dissenting interpretations embracing
some Marxist influences. Valuable too, but addressing an earlier period, is
Mauricio Archila Neira, Ni amos ni siervos: Memoria obrera de Bogota y
Medellin (19101945) (Bogota, 1990). See also Charles Bergquist, Labor
in Latin America: Comparative Essays on Chile, Argentina, Venezuela and
Colombia (Stanford, Calif., 1986); Guillermo Perry Rubio, Hernando
Gomez Buendia and Rocio Londono Botero, 'Sindicalismo y politica eco-
nomica', Coyuntura Economica, 12/4 (1982), 174200 and Sindicalismo y
politica economica (Bogota, 1986); and Fernando Lopez-Alves, 'Explaining
Confederation: Colombian unions in the 1980s', LARR, 25/2 (1990),
115-33. These should be complemented by two valuable essays, Jaime
Tenjo, 'Aspectos cuantitativos del movimiento sindical colombiano',
Cuadernos Colombianos, no. 5 (1975), 1-40, and Fernan E. Gonzalez,
'Pasado y presente del sindicalismo colombiano', Controversia (Bogota),
nos. 3 5 - 6 (1975), and on a related topic, R. Albert Berry, Real Wage
Trends in Colombian Manufacturing and Construction during the Twentieth
Century (London, Ont., 1974), and H. Sanin et al., 'El salario real en la
industria manufacturera colombiana, 1970-1980', Boletin Mensual de
Estadistica, 360(1981), 35-73.
The media have received little scholarly attention, but see Reynaldo
Pareja, Historia de la radio en Colombia, 1929-1980 (Bogota, 1984); and
Hernando Martinez Pardo, Historia del cine colombiano (Bogota, 1978). The
history of primary and secondary education is explored by Aline Helg,
Civiliser le peuple et former les elites: L'education en Colombie, 1918-1957
(Paris, 1984) and Humberto Quiceno C., Pedagogia catolica y escuela activa
en Colombia, 1900-35 (Bogota, 1988). Meanwhile, Frank Safford, The
Ideal of the Practical: Colombia's Struggle to Form a Technical Elite (Austin,
Tex., 1976), broaches some questions regarding technical education but
addresses, for the most part, an earlier period.
Numerous regional and local-level studies clarify political (and related)
issues. Perhaps still the most powerful single work by social anthropolo-
gists is Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff and Alicia Reichel-Dolmatoff, The
People of Aritama (London, 1961), which examines a settlement in the

Sierra Nevada in the north of Colombia. Other studies by scholars from
different disciplines and ideological positions include Dario Fajardo,
Luchas societies y transformaciones en tres regiones del Tolima, 19361970
(Medellin, 1977); Michael Taussig, 'The evolution of rural wage labour in
the Cauca Valley of Colombia, 1700-1970', in Kenneth Duncan and Ian
Rutledge (eds.), Land and Labour in Latin America (Cambridge, Eng.,
1977); Rolf Knight, Sugar Plantations and Labour Patterns in the Cauca
Valley (Toronto, 1972); Roberto Pineda Giraldo, El impacto de la violencia en
el Tolima (Bogota, 1966); Norman E. Whitten, Black Frontiersmen: A South
American Case (Cambridge, Mass., 1972); Keith Christie, 'Oligarchy and
politics in Caldas, Colombia' (unpublished D.Phil, thesis, Oxford Univer-
sity, 1974); Shirley Harkness, 'The elite and the regional urban system of
Valle, Colombia as a reflection of dependency' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
Cornell University, 1973); Nola Reinhardt, Our Daily Bread: The Peasant
Question and Family Farming in the Colombian Andes (Berkeley, 1988); and
Margarita Jimenez and Sandro Sideri, Historia del desarrollo regional en
Colombia (Bogota, 1985). To these should be added further works address-
ing the agrarian sector and peasantry (see below). Local-level politics are
cogently diagnosed as well in novels and short stories, most strikingly in
Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Cien anos de soledad (Buenos Aires, 1970); En-
glish trans., One Hundred Years of Solitude (New York, 1970), and his El
coronel no tiene quien le escriba (Buenos Aires, 1976), but also in several
writings of another novelist, well known within Colombia but less so
outside, Eduardo Caballero Calderon, especially El cristo de espaldas (Bo-
gota, 1962).
Relationships between Colombia and the United States are illuminated
by German Cavalier, La politica internacional de Colombia, especially vol.
3 (Bogota, 1959); Stephen Randall, The Diplomacy of Modernization:
ColombianAmerican Relations, 19201940 (Toronto, 1977); and David
Bushnell, Eduardo Santos and the Good Neighbor, 19381942 (Gainesville,
Fla., 1967). The impact of the Spanish Civil War, a rewarding subject of
study, is reviewed by David Bushnell, 'Colombia', in Mark Falcoff and
Fredrick Pike (eds.), TheSpanish Civil War: American Hemispheric Perspectives
(Lincoln, Nebr., 1982), 159202. Aspects of U.S.Colombian relations
are examined in U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Survey of the
Alliance for Progress Colombia: A Case Study (Washington, D.C., 1969),
and U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee, South American
Study Mission, August 923, 1977, Report of the Select Committee on Narcot-
ics Abuse and Control, 95th Congress, 1st Session (Washington, D.C.,

40. Colombia 819
1977). Both domestic and foreign policy aspects of the growth of drug-
trafficking after 1978 are examined in Bruce M. Bagley, 'Colombia and
the war on drugs', Foreign Affairs, 67/1 (1988), 70-92; Jaime Jaramillo,
Leonidas Mora and Fernando Cubides, Colonization, coca y guerrilla (Bo-
gota, 1986); JIAS, 30/2-3 (1988), special issue (ed. Bruce M. Bagley);
Juan Gabriel Tokatlian, 'National security and drugs: Their impact on
ColombianU.S. Relations', JIAS, 20/1 (1988), 13360; and Juan G.
Tokatlian and Bruce M. Bagley (eds.), Economia y politica del narcotrdfico
(Bogota, 1990). On other aspects of recent foreign policy, see Marco
Palacios (comp.), Colombia no alienada (Bogota, 1983); Bruce M. Bagley
and Juan Gabriel Tokatlian, 'Colombian foreign policy in the 1980s: The
search for leverage', JIAS, 27/3 (1985), 27-62; and Malcolm Deas, 'The
Colombian peace process, 1982-5, and its implications for Central Amer-
ica' in Giuseppe Di Palma and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), The Central
American Impasse (London, 1986), 91 no. Colombian relationships with
the multilateral agencies are best approached through Richard Maullin,
The ColombianIMF Disagreement of NovemberDecember 1966: The Interpreta-
tion of Its Place in Colombian Politics (Santa Monica, Calif., 1967), and two
essays of Fernando Cepeda Ulloa, 'Colombia and the World Bank', and
'Colombia and the International Labour Organization', in International
Legal Center, The Impact of International Organizations on Legal and Institu-
tional Change in the Developing Countries (New York, 1977), 81120 and
22154. O n relations with Venezuela, see Alfredo Vasquez Carrizosa,
Colombia y Venezuela, una historia atormentada (Bogota, 1987) and Cristina
Barrera (comp.), Crisis yfronteras: Relaciones fronterizas binacionales de Colom-
bia con Venezuela y Ecuador (Bogota, 1989). On the Andean Pact, see Alicia
Puyana de Palacios, Integration economica entre socios desiguales: El Grupo
Andino (Mexico, D.F., 1983), Carlos Diaz Alejandro, The Andean Group in
the Integration Process of Latin America (Stanford, Calif., 1968), and Roberto
Junguito, Situation y perspectivas de la economia colombiana en relation con el
proceso de integration andina (Bogota, 1974).
ECONOMY AND SOCIETY
The outstanding work of economic history remains the pioneering investiga-

tion by Luis Ospina Vasquez, Industria y protection en Colombia, 1810-1930
(Medellin, 1955), which goes beyond 1930. See also Alvaro Tirado Mejia,
Introduction a la historia economica de Colombia (Bogota, 1971), William P.
McGreevey, An Economic History of Colombia, 1845-1930 (Cambridge,

820 VII- Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
Eng., 1971), which also contains material on the post-1930 period and
which aroused much adverse criticism owing to its heavy reliance on coun-
terfactual statements, and Jose A. Ocampo (ed.), Historia economica de Colom-
bia (Bogota, 1987). Other writing includes the useful synthesis of Salom6n
Kalmanowitz, Economia y nation: Una breve historia de Colombia, 3rd ed.
(Bogota, 1988); Carlos Caballero A., 50 anos de economia colombiana (Bogota,
1987); and Jesus Antonio Bejarano, La economia colombiana en la dkada del 70
(Bogota, 1984). For statistical data, see Miguel Urrutia Montoya and Mario
Arrubla (eds.), Compendio deestadisticas historicasdeColombia (Bogota, 1970).
The most convenient introduction to Colombian development policy
since the late 1950s is Bruce M. Bagley, 'Colombia: National Front and
economic development' in Robert Wesson (ed.), Politics, Policies and Eco-
nomic Development in Latin America (Stanford, Calif, 1984). Major develop-
ment issues are raised in Carlos Diaz Alejandro, Foreign Trade Regimes and
Economic Development: Colombia (New York, 1976); Fedesarrollo, Lecturas
sobre el desarrollo economko (Bogota, 1974) and Lecturas sobre moneda y banca
en Colombia (Bogota, 1976); and R. Nelson, T. Schultz and R. Slighton,
Structural Change in a Developing Economy: Colombia's Problems and Prospects
(Princeton, N.J., 1971). For a socialist view, see Mario Arrubla, Estudios
sobre el subdesarrollo colombiano, 5th ed. (Bogota, 1971).
Since 1949 Colombia has been the subject of a series of reports by
international advisory missions. Amongst the most important are Interna-
tional Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The Basis of a Develop-
ment Program for Colombia (Washington, D.C., 1950); Louis Lebret,
Estudio sobre las condiciones del desarrollo en Colombia (Bogota, 1958); ECLA,
Analyses and Projections of Economic Development, vol. 3: The Economic Develop-
ment of Colombia (1957); International Labour Office, Toward Full Employ-
ment (Geneva, 1970); Las cuatro estrategias (Bogota, 1972); International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Economic Growth of Colombia:
Problems and Prospects (Bogota, 1976); and Jose Antonio Ocampo and
Manuel Ramirez (eds.), El problema laboral colombiano: Informes de la Mision
Chenery, 2 vols. (Bogota, 1987). Valuable light is cast on these reports by
Guillermo Perry, Introduction al estudio de los planes de desarrollo para Colom-
bia (Bogota, 1972) and Lauchlin Currie, Evaluation de la asesoria economica
a los paises en desarrollo - el caso colombiano (Bogota, 1984). Among various
case studies, see, for example, Eduardo Wiesner Duran, Paz de Rio: LJn
estudio sobre sus origenes, sufinanciacidn,su experiencia y sus relationes con el
Banco International para la Reconstruccidn y Fomento (Bogota, 1963); F.
Posada and J. de Antonio, CVC: Un reto al subdesarrollo y al tradicionalismo

40. Colombia 821
(Bogota, 1966), and Harvey F. Kline, The Coal of El Cerrejon: Dependent

Bargaining and Colombian Policy-Making (London, 1987), which should be
read in conjunction with Roberto Forero Baez, Liliana Jaramillo de
Lozano and Cecilia Velez de Sierra (comps.), Documentos sobre El Cerrejon
(Bogota, 1985). See also Hugo Palacios Mejia, La economia en el derecho
constitutional colombiano (Bogota, 1975), and projections for the 1980s
from data of the 1970s by such specialists as Miguel Urrutia and
Guillermo E. Perry R. in Fedesarrollo, La economia colombiana en la decada
de los ochenta (Bogota, 1979). The impact of the debt crisis is best ap-
proached through Jose Antonio Ocampo, 'Colombia', in Rosemary Thorp
and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Latin American Debt and the Adjustment
Crisis (London, 1987), and Jose Antonio Ocampo and Eduardo Lora,
Colombia y la deuda externa: De la moratoria de los treintas a la encrucijada de
los ochentas (Bogota, 1988).
The enlargement of the role of the state in the economy is reflected in
diverse monographs and articles. Banking is examined in Banco de la
Repiiblica, Historia del Banco de la Republica (Bogota, 1990) and Salomon
Kalmanowitz and Fernando Tenjo Galarza, La crisisfinancieraen Colombia:
Anatomia de su evolution (Bogota, 1986); and monetary policy is broached
in Mauricio Avella Gomez, Pensamiento y politica monetaria en Colombia,
18861945 (Bogota, 1987). Taxation is approached in R. Bird, Taxation
and Development: Lessons from Colombia (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), and
more recently, Guillermo Perry, 'Las reformas tributarias de 1974 y 1975
en Colombia', Coyuntura Economica, 7/3 (1977). The analysis and recom-
mendations contained in R. A. Musgrave and M. Gillis, Fiscal Reform for
Colombia (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), merit attention. The role of the state
in invigilating foreign investment is addressed in both Fernando Cepeda
Ulloa and Mauricio Solaun, 'Political and legal challenges to foreign direct
investment in Colombia", JIAS, 15/1 (1973), 7 7 - 1 0 1 , and Frangois J.
Lombard, The Foreign Investment Screening Process in LDCs: The Case of
Colombia, 196J-19J5 (Boulder, Colo., 1979). Exchange-rate policy and
related matters are unravelled in two works by Eduardo Wiesner Duran,
Politica monetaria y cambiaria en Colombia (Bogota, 1978) and Devaluation y
mecanismo de ajuste en Colombia (Bogota, 1980). On government expendi-
ture, M. Selowsky, Who Benefits from Government Expenditures? A Case-Study
of Colombia (Fairlawn, N.J., 1979), should be consulted. See also Carlos
Lleras Restrepo, La estadistica national su organization susproblemas (Bo-
gota, 1938), a pioneering work from an earlier decade that advocated
substantive improvements in parts of the state apparatus.

Income distribution is analysed in R. Albert Berry and Miguel Urrutia,

Income Distribution in Colombia (New Haven, Conn., 1976) and R. Albert
Berry and Ronald Soligo (eds.), Economic Policy and Income Distribution in
Colombia (Boulder, Colo., 1980). Closely linked questions of urban policy
are explored by Harold Lubell and Douglas McCallum, Bogota: Urban
Development and Employment (Geneva, 1968); Edgar Reveiz Roldan et al.,
Poder e informacidn: El proceso decisorio en tres casos de politica regional y urbana
en Colombia (Bogota, 1977); Gabriel Murillo C. and Elizabeth B. Ungar,
Politica, vivienda popular y el proceso de toma de decisiones en Colombia (Bogota,
1978); Bruce M. Bagley, 'Political power, public policy and the state in
Colombia: Case studies of the urban and agrarian reforms during the
National Front, 19581974' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University
of California, Los Angeles, 1979); and William Carrier, Urban Processes and
Economic Recession: Bogota in the 1980s (London, 1988). See also a Marxist
view of urban social structure, J. F. Ocampo, Dominio de clase en la ciudad
colombiana (Medellin, 1972), and Alan Gilbert and Peter M. Ward, Hous-
ing, the State and the Poor: Policy and Practice in Three Latin American Cities
(Cambridge, 1985), a study by two geographers which contains valuable
material on Bogota.
On industrialization, see Albert Berry (ed.), Essays on Industrialization in
Colombia (Tempe, Ariz., 1983); Gabriel Poveda Ramos, ANDI y la in-
dustria en Colombia, 1944-1984:40 anos (Medellin, 1984); Miguel Urrutia
and Clara Elsa Villalba, 'El sector artesanal en el desarrollo economico
colombiano', in Miguel Urrutia, Cincuenta anos de desarrollo colombiano
(Bogota, 1979), 220-330; Albert Berry, 'The limited role of rural small-
scale manufacturing for late-comers: Some hypotheses on the Colombian
experience', JLAS, 19/2 (1987), 295-322; David Chu, The Great Depres-
sion and Industrialization in Colombia (Santa Monica, Calif., 1977); G.
Ranis, Challenges and Opportunities Posed by Asia's Super-exporters: Implications
for Manufactured Exports from Latin America, Yale University Center Papers
303 (New Haven, Conn., 1981); and Rhys O. Jenkins, 'Latin America
and the new international division of labour: A critique of some recent
views', in Christopher Abel and Colin M. Lewis (eds.), Latin America:
Economic Imperialism and the State (London, 1985).
On trade, see Yesid Castro et al., El sector comercio en Colombia: Estudio
actual y perspectivas (Bogota, 1979); and Eduardo Lora and Jose Antonio
Ocampo (coords.), El sector comercial en Colombia: Estructura y comportamiento
(Bogota, 1988). Two 'traditional' areas of foreign investment are reviewed
in Jorge Villegas, Petroleo, oligarquia e imperio (Bogota, 1969), and Judy

4O. Colombia 823
White, Historia de una ignominia: La United Fruit Company en Colombia

(Bogota, 1978). See also Daniel Chudnovsky, Empresas multinacionales y
ganancias monopolicas en una economia latinoamericana, 3rd ed. (Mexico,
D.F., 1978). For tendencies towards merger and consolidation of national
enterprises, Superintendencia de sociedades, Conglomerados de sociedades en
Colombia (Bogota, 1978), is highly recommended; and for the participa-
tion of interest groups in decision-making, see John J. Bailey, 'Pluralist
and corporatist dimensions of interest representation in Colombia', in
James M. Malloy (ed.), Authoritarianism and Corporatism in Latin America
(Pittsburgh, Pa., 1977)-
Agrarian history, politics and sociology can be tackled profitably by
reading Mario Arrubla (comp.), La agricultura colombiana en el siglo XX
(Bogota, 1976), in conjunction with a volume from the 1930s that reflects
a tradition of social criticism, Alejandro Lopez, Problemas colombianos (Bo-
gota, n.d.). More recent trends in the social sciences are manifest in
Santiago Perry, La crisisagraria en Colombia, 19501980, 2nd ed. (Bogota,
1985); Absalon Machado C., Politicas agricolas en Colombia, 19001960
(Bogota, 1986); Jesus Antonio Bejarano A., Economia y poder: La SAC y el
desarrollo agropecuario colombiano, 19711984 (Bogota, 1985); Dario Fa-
jardo M., Haciendas, campesinos y politicas agrarias en Colombia, 19201980
(Bogota, 1983); Dario Mesa et al., Colombia: Estructura politica y agraria
(Medellin, 1971); Pierre Gilhodes, Politique et violence: La question agraire en
Colombie, 195819JI (Paris, 1974); and Gonzalo Cataiio (ed.), Colombia:
Estructura politica y agraria (Medellin, 1975). Catherine LeGrand has made
a substantial contribution in Frontier Expansion and Peasant Protest in Colom-
bia, 18501936 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1986), 'Labour acquisition and
social conflict on the Colombian frontier, 1850-1936', JLAS, 16/1
(1984), 27-49, a n d 'Perspectives for the historical study of rural politics
and the Colombian case: An overview', LARR, 12/1 (1977), 7 - 3 7 .
Marco Palacios, Coffee in Colombia, 18301970; An Economic, Social and
Political History (Cambridge, Eng., 1980; trans, from Spanish, Bogota,
1979), provides a general introduction to coffee history that can be read
profitably in conjunction with ECLA/FAO, Coffee in Latin America: Produc-
tivity Problems and Future Prospects, vol. 1: Colombia and El Salvador (1958);
Maria C. Errazuriz, Cafeteros y cafetales del Libano (Bogota, 1986); Mariano
Arango, Rafael Aubad and Jaime Piedrahita, Bonanza de precios y trans-
formaciones en la industria cafetera: Antioquia, 19751980 (Medellin, 1983);
Michael F. Jimenez, 'Travelling far in grandfather's car: The life-cycle of
coffee estates in Central Colombia: The case of Viota, Cundinamarca,

1900-1930', HAHR, 69/2 (1989), 185-200; Robert Beyer, The coffee

industry in Colombia: Origins and major trends, 17401940' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1947); and B. E. Koffman,
'The National Federation of Coffee-growers of Colombia' (unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, University of Virginia, 1969). See also Roberto Junguito,
Un modelo de respuesta en la oferta de cafe en Colombia (Bogota, 1974), and, for
the stimulating recollections of an active participant in coffee policy-
making, Carlos Lleras Restrepo, Politica cafetera, 19371978 (Bogota,
1980).
An early study in agrarian reform policies is available in Albert O.
Hirschman, Journeys towards Progress: Studies of Economic Policy-Making in
Latin America (New York, 1963). On peasant farming, see Sutti Ortiz,
Uncertainties in Peasant Farming: A Colombian Case (London, 1973). Various
features of peasant organization receive attention in Hermes Tovar, El
movimiento campesino en Colombia durante los siglos XIX y XX (Bogota,
1972); Ronald Lee Hart, 'The Colombian Accion Comunal program: A
political evaluation' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of California,
Los Angeles, 1974); and Orlando Fals Borda, Peasant Society in the Colom-
bian Andes: A Sociological Study of Saucio (Gainesville, Fla., 1957; Spanish
trans., Bogota, 1967). Essential for an understanding of peasant organiza-
tion in the 1970s is Leon Zamosc, The Agrarian Question and the Peasant
Movement in Colombia: Struggles of the National Peasant Association, 1967
1981 (Cambridge, Eng., 1986). On questions of colonization in the
1970s and 1980s, see Catherine Le Grand, 'Colonization and violence in
Colombia: Perspectives and debates', Canadian Journal of Latin American
and Caribbean Studies, 14/28 (1989), 5-29; and Alfredo Molano, Siguendo
el corte (Bogota, 1989) and Sierra adentro: Una historia oral de la colonization
del Guaviare (Bogota, 1987).
The study of Amerindians in Colombia is best approached through
Instituto Colombiano de Antropologia, Introduction a la Colombia Amer-
india (Bogota, 1987); Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia Ama-
zonica (Bogota, 1987), especially the essays by Myriam Jimeno Santoyo,
Elizabeth Reichel Dussan and Pablo Leyva; and Myriam Jimeno and
Adolfo Triana Antorveza, Estado y minorias etnicas en Colombia (Bogota,
1985). An early interest in Colombian Indians among national indigenistas
is observed in Juan Friede, El indio en la luchapor la tierra (Bogota, 1944),
and Antonio Garcia, El problema indigena en Colombia (Bogota, 1944). A
contentious study of the treatment by missionaries of Sibundoy Indians is
Victor Daniel Bonilla, Siervos de Dios y amos de indios (Bogota, 1968; trans.

4O, Colombia 825
into English, London, 1972 from trans, into French, Paris, 1972). One
example of anthropological writing that sees the study of Indian tribal
societies as an urgent necessity before their final disappearance is G.
Reichel-Dolmatoff, Desana: Simbolismo de los indios Tukano del Vaupis (Bo-
gota, 1968). Also valuable is Joanne Rappaport, The Politics of Memory
(Cambridge, Eng., 1990). On Afro-Colombians, see Aquiles Escalante, El
negro en Colombia (Bogota, 1964); Nina S. de Friedemann and Jaime
Arocha, De sol a sol: Genesis, transformation y presencia de los negros en Colom-
bia (Bogota, 1986); and Nina Friedemann, Criele criele (Bogota, 1989).
One work that has received insufficient scholarly attention in spite of
having significance for non-musicologists as well as specialists is George
List, Music and Poetry in a Colombian Village: A Tri-Cultural Heritage (Bloo-
mington, Ind., 1983), which examines the fusion of Hispanic, Amerin-
dian and African influences in music and dance.
Demographic issues were fruitfully explored in Juan Luis de Lannoy and
Gustavo Perez, Estructuras demografkas y sociales de Colombia (Fribourg,
1961) and Thomas Merrick, Recent Fertility Declines in Brazil, Colombia,
Mexico (Baltimore, 1985). On internal migration, see Centro de Estudios
sobre el Desarrollo Economico, Empleo y desempleo en Colombia (Bogota,
1968); and two books by T. P. Shultz, Population Growth and Internal
Migration in Colombia (Santa Monica, Calif, 1969) and RuralUrban Mi-
gration in Colombia (Santa Monica, Calif, 1970). Colombian migrations to
Venezuela receive sensitive journalistic appraisal in Gonzalo Guillen Jime-
nez, Los que nunca volvieron: Colombianos en Venezuela (Bogota, 1980) and
Alcides Gomez Jimenez and Luz Marina Diaz Mesa, La moderna esclavitud:
Los indocumentados en Venezuela (Bogota, 1983), as well as scholarly atten-
tion in Ramiro Cardona G. (ed.), El exodo de colombianos: Un estudio de la
corriente migratoria a los Estados Unidos y un intento para propiciar su retomo
(Bogota, 1980) and Gabriel Murillo Catano, Migrant Workers in the Ameri-
cas: A Comparative Study of Migration between Colombia and Venezuela and
between Mexico and the United States, Monograph Series 13, Center for U.S.
Mexican studies, University of California (San Diego, 1984).
The study of kinship, gender, family and oral culture is no longer in its
infancy in Colombia. Notable contributions to the subject include Vir-
ginia Gutierrez de Pineda, Familia y cultura en Colombia: Tipologias,
funciones y dinamica de la familia (Bogota, 1977); Magdalena Leon de Leal,
Mujery capitalismo agrario (Bogota, 1980); Elssy Bonilla C. (comp.), Mujer
y familia en Colombia (Bogota, 1985); Magdalena Leon, 'Politica agraria en
Colombia y debate sobre politicas para la mujer rural', in Carmen Diana

Deere and Magdalena Leon (eds.), La mujer y la politica agraria en America

Latina (Bogota, 1986), 43-64; Diana Medrano et al., Mujer campesina
(Bogota, 1985); and Cecilia Munoz V. and Martha Palacios V., El nino
trabajador (Bogota, 1980).
4 1 . ECUADOR
Even though in recent years there has been great progress in social and
historical studies in Ecuador, there is still no new general history of the
republic in the twentieth century. Best of the older histories written
between the 1930s and the 1950s are Oscar Efren Reyes, Breve historia
general del Ecuador, 6th ed. (Quito, 1957), and Alfredo Pareja Diezcanseco,
Historia del Ecuador (Quito, 1954). To these must be added an essay of
general historical interpretation by Leopoldo Benitez Vinueza, Ecuador:
Drama y paradoja (Mexico, D.F., 1950). A collective publication prepared
in 1980 which groups short essays on diverse aspects of life in republican
Ecuador is Libro del sesquicentenario, 4 vols. (Quito, 19802). For a general
overview of contemporary Ecuador, see David W. Schodt, Ecuador, an
Andean Enigma (Boulder, Colo., and London, 1987). Among the works by
the new generation of social scientists, special mention should be made of
Augustin Cueva, Elproceso de dominacion politica en el Ecuador (Quito, 1982;
rev. ed., 1988), an essay of interpretation on political and social develop-
ment in the country in the twentieth century. See also A. Cueva, 'Ecuador,
1925 1975', in America Latina, historia de medio siglo, ed. Pablo Gonzalez
Casanova (Mexico, D.F., 1977). Also widely distributed is a reader pub-
lished by the Instituto de Investigaciones Econ6micas of the Universidad
Central, three articles of which are about the twentieth century: Leonardo
Mejia et al., Ecuador: Pasadoy presente (Quito, 1975). Osvaldo Hurtado, El
poder politico en el Ecuador (Quito, 1977); Eng. trans., Political Power in
Ecuador (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1980), emphasizes the socio-political pro-
cess since 1950. The book also contains an exhaustive bibliography on
Ecuador. In English, George Maier, 'Presidential succession in Ecuador,
1830-1970',.//AS, 13/34 (1971), 479-509 is very informative. Finally,
a collective work in fifteen volumes, Nueva historia del Ecuador (Quito,
198890), general editor Enrique Ayala Mora, deserves attention. Vol.
10, El Ecuador entre los veinte y los sesenta, and vol. 1 1 , El Ecuador en el ultimo
periodo, are relevant here. Vols. 12 and 13 contain essays of general inter-

4i. Ecuador 827
pretation, some with emphasis on the republican epoch. The two final
volumes contain a chronology and a documentary appendix.
Electoral studies have recently started to attract the attention of schol-
ars. See, for example, Vjekoslav Darlic Mardesic, Estadistkas electorates del
Ecuador, 19781987 (Quito, 1987); Juan Bernardo Le6n, Elecciones, votos y
partidos: Evolution y geografia de las preferential electorates en el Ecuador, 1978
1986 (Quito, 1987); and Amparo Menendez Carrion, La conquista del voto
en el Ecuador de Velasco a Roldos: El suburbio guayaquileno en las elecciones
presidential del Ecuador, 1952-1978: Andlisis del comportamiento electoral a
nivel local en un contexto de control social (Quito, 1986).
There is very little new literature on politics in the 1930s, but the
origins and nature oi velasquismo in the 1940s have awakened considerable
debate and generated several publications. In addition to the work of
Augustin Cueva already mentioned, Rafael Quintero, El mito delpopulismo
en el Ecuador (Quito, 1980), deserves attention. George I. Blanksten,
Ecuador: Constitutions and Caudillos (Berkeley, 1951), tackles a similar
theme. A valuable contemporary account is El 28 de mayo, balance de una
revolution popular (Quito, 1946). See also El 28 de mayo de 1944: Testimonio
(Guayaquil, 1984) and Silvia Vega Ugalde, 'La Gloriosa (Quito, 1987).
There is little worthy of mention on the politics of the 1950s and 1960s
except an unpublished but frequently cited master's thesis by Gonzalo
Abad, 'El proceso de lucha por el poder en el Ecuador' (UNAM, 1970);
John Fitch, The Military Coup d'Etat as a Political Process: Ecuador, 1948-
1966 (Baltimore, 1977); and a series of articles by Peter Pyne: 'The
politics of instability in Ecuador: The overthrow of the president, 1961',
JLAS, 7/1 (1975), 10933; Presidential caesarism in Latin America:
Myth or reality? A case study of the Ecuadorian executive during the
presidency of Jose Maria Velasco Ibarra, i9601', Comparative Politics, 9
(1977), 281304; and 'Legislatures and development: The case of Ecua-
dor, 196061', Comparative Political Studies 9 (1976), 6972. The lack of
literature on the period confers even more importance on a book that
caused a worldwide commotion when it was published: Inside the Company:
CIA Diary (New York, 1975), in which Philip Agee makes revealing
statements about his period as a CIA agent in Ecuador.
On the 1970s, a publication that achieved wide distribution was a
reader that brought together a number of articles on economics, society,
and politics: Gerhard Drekonja et al. (eds.), Ecuador hoy (Bogota, 1978).
See also another collection of essays, Alberto Acosta et al. (eds.), Ecuador:
El mito del desarrollo (Quito, 1982). A valuable study on the period of the

military dictatorship is Francisco R. Davila Aldas, Las luchas por la

hegemonia y la consolidation politica de la burguesia en el Ecuador (Mexico,
D.F., 1984). Nelson Argones, El juego delpoder: De Rodriguez Lara a Febres
Cordero (Quito, 1985), focusses with great clarity on the changes in the
political scene during a period of more than a decade. Nick D. Mills,
Crisis, conflicto y consenso: Ecuador (1979-1984) (Quito, 1984), is an assess-
ment of the first constitutional governments after the dictatorship. See
also Marcelo Ortiz Villacis, El control del poder: Ecuador 1966-1984
(Quito, 1984) and Anita Isaacs, Military Rule and Transition in Ecuador,
1972- +992 (Oxford, 1993).
The 1980s saw a proliferation of books on the most notable political
events of the decade. The military movement led by General Vargas
Pazzos against the government of Febres Cordero was, in particular, the
topic of a dozen books. Especially worthy of mention are La hora del general
(Quito, 1986), and Operation Taura (Quito, 1987), both by Gonzalo Ortiz
Crespo, and John Maldonado, Taura: Lo que no se ha dicho (Quito, 1988). A
highly publicized polemic between two presidents is Blasco Penaherrera
Padilla, El viernes negro (Quito, 1988), and Le6n Febres Cordero, Autopsia
de una traicion (Quito, 1989). Marco Zalamea, El regimen febrescorderista
(Cuenca, Ecu., 1988), presents a balanced analytical view of the Febres
Cordero administration. Enrique Ayala, Los partidos politicos en el Ecuador:
Sintesis histdrica (Quito, 1986) is a brief overview. Finally, Patricio
Moncayo, Ecuador, grietas en la domination (Quito, 1977), H. Handelman,
Ecuador: A New Political Direction (Hanover, N.H., 1979), D. P. Hanson,
'Political decision making in Ecuador: The influence of business groups'
(unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Michigan, 1971), Adrian
Carrasco et al., Estado, politica y democracia en el Ecuador (Quito, 1988), and
the brief essay by David Corkill, 'Democratic politics in Ecuador, 1979-
1984', BLAR, 4/2 (1985), 63-74 are worthy of note.
There has been no important demographic study of Ecuador apart from
Consejo Nacional de Desarrollo/UNFP, Poblacion y cambios sociales: Diagnos-
tico sociodemogrdfico del Ecuador, 19501982 (Quito, 1987). Jean Paul
Deler, Ecuador del espacio al estado nacional (Quito, 1987), contains impor-
tant work on the spatial and geographical development of the country. See
also Lucas Achig, El proceso urbano de Quito (Quito, n.d.), and R. F.
Bromley, Development and Planning in Ecuador (London, 1977).
There is no general economic history of Ecuador, but a work by Fer-
nando Velasco Abad, Ecuador: Capitalismo y dependentia (Quito, 1981),
originally a thesis, is a notable effort to outline and analyse the different

4i. Ecuador 829
stages in the socio-economic life of the country. It has become a classic.

See also Jose Moncada, Capitalismo y subdesarollo ecuatoriano en el siglo XX
(Quito, 1982), and Capitalismo y neoliberalismo en el Ecuador (Quito, 1985).
Luis A. Carbo, Historia monetaria y cambiaria del Ecuador (Quito, 1941;
reprinted in 1953 and 1978), contains abundant information and docu-
mentation. On the period immediately before the depression of the 1930s,
see Banco Central del Ecuador, Crisis y cambios de la economia ecuatoriana en
los anos veinte (Quito, 1987). On public finance in the 1930s, Linda A.
Rodriguez, The Search for Public Policy: Regional Politics and Public Finance in
Ecuador, 1930-1940 (Berkeley, 1985), is an important work. See also Paul
W. Drake, The Money Doctor in the Andes: The Kemmerer Missions, 1923-
r
933 (Durham, N.C., 1989), chap. 4. Jose Samaniego, Crisis economica del
Ecuador (Quito, 1988) and Rosemary Thorp et al., Los crisis en el Ecuador
(Quito, 1991) treat the periods 192933 and 19804 in comparative
terms. On the economic situation in the late 1980s there has been a great
proliferation of books: for example, Pablo Estrella et al., La crisis de la
economia ecuatoriana (Quito, 1986); Louis Lafeber (ed.), Economiapolitica del
Ecuador: Campo, region, nacidn (Quito, 1985); and Eduardo Santos and
Mariana Mora, Ecuador: La decada de los ochenta (Quito, 1987).
The principal export products of the country have been the topic of
specific studies. Particularly worthy of mention is Carlos Larrea et al., El
banano en el Ecuador (Quito, 1987). In the abundant literature produced on
the petroleum question, special notice should be taken of Jaime Galarza,
El festin del petroleo (Cuenca, 1979), a denunciation; Arnaldo Bocco, Auge
petrolero, modernization y subdesarrollo: El Ecuador de los anos sesenta (Quito,
1987); Alberto Acosta et al., Ecuador: Petroleo y crisis (Quito, 1986); a
study by CEPAL, Ecuador: Desafios y logros de la politica economica en lafase de
expansionpetrolera (Santiago, Chile, 1978); and John D. Martz, Politics and
Petroleum in Ecuador (New Brunswick, N.J., 1987). Leonardo Vicuna,
Economia ecuatoriana: Problemas, tendencias y proyecciones (Guayaquil, 1980),
analyses the economy of Ecuador from various perspectives.
Several works focus on the topic of industrialization: A. Bottomley,
'Imperfect competition in the industrialization of Ecuador', Inter-American
Economic Affairs, 29 (1965); Sabine Fisher, Estado, clase e industria (Quito,
1987); and G. Montafio and E. Wygard, Vision sobre la industria ecuatoriana
(Quito, 1975). For a comparative study of the reformist policies of the
1970s and early 1980s, see Catherine M. Conaghan, Restructuring Domina-
tion: Industrialists and the State in Ecuador (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1988).
The agrarian sector has seen the most extensive bibliographic produc-

tion in the past thirty years. A pioneer study is R. Baraona's CIDA

(Comite Inter-Americano de Desarrollo Agricola) report, Tenencia de la
tierra y desarrollo socio-econdmico del sector agricola, Ecuador (Washington,
D.C., 1965). Osvaldo Barsky published several works on the agrarian
question in the country, which were later synthesized into one book that
soon became a basic reference text: La reforma agraria ecuatoriana (Quito,
1984). Aiso worthy of mention are Gustavo Cosse, Estado y agro en el
Ecuador (Quito, 1984); Andres Guerrero, Haciendas, capitaly lucha de closes
andina (Quito, 1983); Miguel Murmis (ed.), Clase y region en el agro
ecuatoriano (Quito, 1986); Luciano Martinez, La descomposicidn del campesi-
nado en la sierra ecuatoriana (Quito, 1980); and C. Quishpe and V. Piedra,
El proceso de consolidacion de la hacienda en el Ecuador (Cuenca, Ecu., 1977).
FLASCO/CEPLAES, Ecuador: Cambios en el agro Serrano (Quito, 1980) was
the stimulus for a debate on several agrarian topics. Finally, an important
recent study is Fausto Jordan, El minifundio (Quito, 1988).
Some foreign studies worthy of mention are John Brandl (ed.),
Chimborazo: Life on the Haciendas of Highland Ecuador (London, 1976);
Charles S. Blankstein and Clarence Zuvekas, 'Agrarian reform in Ecua-
dor: An evaluation of past efforts and the development of a new ap-
proach', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 22 (1973), 7394;
Howard Handelman, Ecuadorian Agrarian Reform: The Politics of Limited
Change (Hanover, N . H . , 1980); David Lehmann, Share-Cropping and the
Capitalist Transition in Agriculture: Some Evidence from Highland Ecuador
(Cambridge, Eng., 1982); Miguel Mirmis, Size of Units, Control of Land
and Participation in Production: Some Contextual Material for the Study of the
Process of Capitalization of Small Producers in Carchi, Ecuador (Toronto,
1983), and Leon Zamosc, Peasant Struggles and Agrarian Reform: The
Ecuadorian Sierra and the Colombian Atlantic Coast in Comparative Perspective
(San Diego, Calif., 1990).
Alongside the agrarian studies, there is a body of work on the indige-
nous peasant movement and its organization. Fernando Velasco, Reforma
agraria y movimiento campesino indigena en la sierra (Quito, 1979), is a
valuable study. See also La movilizacion campesina antes de la reforma agraria
(Quito, 1979), by Hernan Ibarra, who is also the author of Bibliografta
analitica agraria, 19001982 (Quito, 1982). The Ecuadorian Amazon has
begun to receive attention. See, for example, James F. Hick et al., Ecua-
dor's Amazon Region: Development Issues and Options (Washington, D.C.,
!99); Blanca Muratorio, Rucucaya y la historia social y economica del Alto
Negro, 18501950 (Quito, 1987); Dorothea S. Whitten and Norman E.

41. Ecuador 831
Whitten, Jr., From Myth to Creation: Art from Amazonian Ecuador (Urbana-
Champaign, 111., 1988).
There has been a substantial development of studies on the indigenous
peoples: for example, Oswaldo Albornoz, Las luchas indigenas en el Ecuador
(Quito, 1971); Gonzalo Rubio Orbe, Los indios ecuatorianos: Evolution histo-
ricaypolitica indigenistas (Quito, 1987); Alicia Ibarra, Los indigenasy elestado
en el Ecuador (Quito, 1987); Norman E. Whitten, Jr., Sacha Runa: Ethnicity
and Adaptation of Ecuadorian Jungle Quichua (Urbana, 111., 1976); and Jose
Sanchez Parga, La trama del poder en la comunidad andina (Quito, 1986).
On the birth and development of the labour movement, see Pedro Saad,
La CTE y su papel historko (Guayaquil, 1974); Patricio Ycaza, Historia del
movimiento obrero ecuatoriano (Quito, 1983); Ivan J. Paz and Mino Cepeda,
La CEDOC en la historia del movimiento obrero ecuatoriano (Quito, 1988);
Lucas Achig and Tatiana Neira, 'Movimiento obrero ecuatoriano y proceso
sindical: Los origenes: 1880-1930', Revista IDIS (May 1989); and Isabel
Robalino Bolle, El sindicalismo en el Ecuador (Quito, n.d.). A more general
approach is taken in Hernan Ibarra, La formation del movimiento popular
(1925-1936) (Quito, 1984). But it is a strike and massacre that took
place before 1930, on 15 November 1922, that have attracted most
attention: Elias Munoz Vicuna, El 15 de noviembre de 1922, su importancia y
sus proyecciones (Guayaquil, 1973); INFOC, El 15 de noviembre de 1922 y la
fundacidn del socialismo relatados por sus protagonistas, 2 vols. (Quito, 1982);
and Patricio Martinez, Guayaquil, noviembre de 1922 (Quito, 1988).
Another bloody event in labour history which occurred in 1977 is the
topic of Victor Granda, La masacre de Aztra (Cuenca, 1979). A general
work worthy of mention is Marco Velasco, Insubordination y conciencia de
clase (Quito, 1983). There are also several publications in which popular
history is discussed in relation to leftist organizations: Manuel Agustin
Aguirre, 'El marxismo, la revolution y los partidos socialista y comunista
en el Ecuador', in Carlos Marx Homenaje (Cuenca, Ecu., 1983); Alexei
Paez, El anarquismo en el Ecuador (Quito, 1986); and Leonardo Munoz,
Testimonio de lucha: Memorias sobre la historia del socialismo en el Ecuador
(Quito, 1988). There is a large quantity of information, although much of
it now out of date, in Osvaldo Hurtado and Joachim Herudek, La or-
ganization popular en el Ecuador (Quito, 1974).
On Ecuadorian culture, especially literature, there are various texts:
Benjamin Carrion, El nuevo relato ecuatoriano (Quito, 1958); Angel F.
Rojas, La novela ecuatoriana (Mexico, D.F., 1950); Augusto Arias, Pan-
orama de le literatura ecuatoriana (Quito, 1956); Antonio Sacoto, La nueva

novela ecuatoriana (Quito, 1981); Agustin Cueva, Lecturas y rupturas

(Quito, 1986), and Fernando Tinajero, De la evasion al desencanto (Quito,
1987). The richly illustrated Historia del arte ecuatoriano (Quito, 1978)
offers a broad view of the subject. A general overview of the most recent
period can be found in Casa de la Cultura Ecuatoriana, 19691979; Diez
anos de la cultura en el Ecuador (Quito, 1980). The country's problems of
cultural, ethnic and national definition are addressed in Ruth Moya,
Ecuador: Cultura, conflicto y Utopia (Quito, 1987), and Ecuador multi-
national: Conciencia y cultura (Quito, 1989). For an interesting account by a
foreign visitor who resided in the country during the 1930s and 1940s,
see Albert B. Franklin, Ecuador: Retrato de unpueblo (1943; Buenos Aires,
1984). The basic reference in the field of the philosophy and history of
ideas is a book by Arturo Andres Roig, Esquemas para una historia de la
filosofia ecuatoriana (Quito, 1977).
Finally, three bibliographical and research guides should be mentioned:
John J. Tepaske (ed.), Research Guide to Andean History: Bolivia, Chile,
Ecuador and Peru (Durham, N.C., 1981), in which the section on Ecuador
has an introduction by Jaime E. Rodriguez; Robert E. Norris, Guia
bibliogrdfica para el estudio de la historia ecuatoriana (Austin, Tex., 1978),
complete and well organized; and a recent volume in the World Biblio-
graphical Series, Ecuador (Oxford, 1989), compiled by David Corkill,
which contains a large bibliography in English, classified by topics, but
very few titles in Spanish. See also Rodolfo Agoglia (ed.), Historiografia
ecuatoriana (Quito, 1985).
42. VENEZUELA
The best bibliographical guide is John Lombardi et al., Venezuelan History:

A Comprehensive Working Bibliography (Boston, 1977). Since 1970, the
Biblioteca Nacional has irregularly issued the series Bibliografia venezolana
and Anuario bibliogrdfico venezolano. For historiography, see German Car-
rera Damas, Historia de la historiografia venezolana: Textos para su estudio
(Caracas, 1961), Cuestiones de historiografia venezolana (Caracas, 1964) and
Historiografia marxista venezolana y otros temas (Caracas, 1967). A useful
chronological guide is A. Arellano Moreno, Guia de historia de Venezuela,
3rd ed. (Caracas, 1977). The Diccionario de historia de Venezuela, 3 vols.
(Caracas, 1990), edited by Manuel Perez Vila and published by the
Fundacion Polar, is invaluable.

42. Venezuela 833
Several collections of printed source material have appeared. The most

impressive general series is Ramon J. Velasquez, El pensamiento politico
venezolano del siglo XX: Documentospara su estudio, 15 vols. to date (Caracas,
1983 ). See also Naudy Suarez Figureroa's Programaspoliticos venezolanos de
la primera mitad del siglo XX, 2 vols. (Caracas, 1977)- Allan R. Brewer-
Carias, Las constituciones de Venezuela (Madrid, 1985), discusses and repro-
duces the texts of all constitutions. Jose Augustin Catala has edited and
reprinted documents relating to the dictatorship of Perez Jimenez and the
clandestine resistance of the Accion Democratica (AD) frequently taken
from the 1960s trials of perezjimenistas. See Libro negro 1952 (Caracas,
1974); Documentos para la historia de la resistencia, 4 vols. (Caracas, 1969);
Los crimenes de Perez Jimenez (various subtitles and volumes, Caracas, 1971);
and Los jerarcas impunes del perezjimenismo (various subtitles and volumes,
Caracas, 1971). Jose Rivas Rivas has compiled and reproduced newspaper
clippings which cover the period from 1936 to 1958 in Historia grdfica de
Venezuela, 3 vols. (Caracas, 1961). Economic and statistical sources may be
found in the Banco Central de Venezuela, La economia venezolana en los
ultimos treinta y cinco anos (Caracas, 1978); Miguel Izard, Series estadisticas
para la historia de Venezuela (Merida, Ven., 1970); and the official Anuario
Estadistico, published since 1877 with some interruptions.
Two collections of interviews with public figures provide valuable
source material for recent history. Alfredo Pena conducted several lengthy
interviews at the time of the 1978 election: Conversaciones con Douglas Bravo
(Caracas, 1978); Conversaciones con Luis Herrera Campins (Caracas, 1978);
Conversaciones con Americo Martin (Caracas, 1978); Conversaciones con Jose
Vincente Rangel (Caracas, 1978); Conversaciones con Uslar Pietri (Caracas,
1978); Conversaciones con Luis Beltrdn Prieto (Caracas, 1979); and Conversa-
ciones con Carlo Andres PSrez, 2 vols. (Caracas, 1979). Augustin Blanco
Munoz's series, Testimonios violentos, 10 vols. (Caracas, 198090), includes
the following titles: El 23 de enero: Habla la conspiracion; La lucha armada:
Hablan 5 jefes; La lucha armada: Hablan 6 comandantes; La conspiracion
civicomilitar: Guairazo, Barcelonazo, Carupanazo, y Portenazo; La los iz-
quierda revolucionaria insurge; La lucha armada: Hablan 3 comandantes de la
izquierda revolucionaria; Pedro Estrada habld; Habla el General; Venezuela:
Historia de una frustracion; Habla D. F. Maza Zavala; Accion Democratica,
Memorias de una contradiccion: Habla Gumersindo Rodriguez.
The following general works treat all of Venezuelan history or the
period since independence: John V. Lombardi, Venezuela: The Search for
Order, the Dream of Progress (New York, 1982); Guillermo Moron, A History

of Venezuela (London, 1976); J. L. Salcedo-Bastardo, Historia fundamental de

Venezuela (Caracas, 1979); and Mariano Picon Salas, Augusto Mijares and
Ramon Diaz Sanchez, Venezuela independiente: Evolucion politka y social,
1810-1960 (Caracas, 1975). The most ambitious effort to cover the twen-
tieth century is that of Juan Bautista Fuenmayor, Historia de la Venezuela
politica contempordnea, 18991960, 10 vols. to date (1978 ). Fuenmayor
has written a one-volume survey entitled 19281948: Veinte anos de politica
(Caracas, 1979). Judith Ewell, Venezuela: A Century of Change (London,
1984), and Ramon J. Velasquez et al., Venezuela moderna: Medio siglo de
historia, 19261976, 2nd ed. (Caracas, 1979), concentrate on the post-
G6mez period.
For economic history, see Federico Brito Figueroa, Historia econdmica y
social de Venezuela, 2 vols. (Caracas, 1966); Domingo Alberto Rangel,
Capital y desarrollo, 3 vols. (Caracas, 1969); Loring Allen, Venezuelan Eco-
nomic Development: A Politico-Economic Analysis (Greenwich, Conn., 1977);
and Sergio Aranda, La economia venezolana (Mexico, D.F., 1977). More
specialized studies include M. Ignacio Purroy, Estado e industrializacion en
Venezuela (Valencia, Ven., 1982); Clemy Machado de Acedo, Elena Plaza
and Emilio Pacheco, Estado y grupos econdmicos en Venezuela (su andlisis a
traves de la tierra, construccidn y banca) (Caracas, 1981); Janet Kelly de
Escobar, Empresas del estado en America Latina (Caracas, 1985); Louis E.
Heaton, The Agricultural Development of Venezuela (New York, 1969); and
Gaston Carvallo, El hato venezolano, 19001980 (Caracas, 1985).
For petroleum, see William Sullivan and Winfield J. Burggraaff, El
petroleo en Venezuela: Una bibliografia (Caracas, 1977). Sullivan and Brian S.
McBeth have updated and annotated the guide for the English-speaking
audience: Petroleum in Venezuela: A Partially Annotated Bibliography to 1980
(Boston, 1985). The classic work is still Romulo Betancourt, Venezuela:
Politica y petroleo (Mexico, D.F., 1956); see also the compilation of
Betancourt's essays in El petroleo de Venezuela (Barcelona, 1978). Other
good studies include Edwin Lieuwen, Petroleum in Venezuela: A History
(Berkeley, 1954), and 'The politics of energy in Venezuela', in John D.
Wirth (ed.), Latin American Oil Companies and the Politics of Energy (Lincoln,
Nebr., 1985), 189225; Franklin Tugwell, The Politics of Oil in Venezuela
(Stanford, Calif., 1975); B. S. McBeth, Juan Vincente Gomez and the Oil
Companies in Venezuela, 19081935 (Cambridge, Eng., 1983); George
Philip, Oil and Politics in Latin America: Nationalist Movements and State
Companies (Cambridge, Eng., 1982); James F. Petras et al., The National-
ization of Venezuelan Oil (New York, 1977); Jorge Salazar Carrillo, Oil in the

42. Venezuela 835
Economic Development of Venezuela (New York, 1976); Luis Vallenilla, Oil:

The Making of a New Economic Order Venezuelan Oil and OPEC (New York,
1975); and Comision Ideologica de RUPTURA, El imperialismopetrolero y
la revolution venezolana, 2 vols. (Caracas, 19779)- Anibal Martinez has
several useful introductions to the topic, including Gumersindo Torres (Cara-
cas, 1980), Historia petrolera venezolana en 20 jornadas (Caracas, 1973) and
Cronologia del petroleo venezolano (Caracas, 1970). Juan Pablo Perez Al-
fonzo's writings provide a guide to government policy and his criticisms of
it: Hundiendonos en el excremento del diablo, 3rd ed. (Caracas, 1976), El
pentdgonopetrolero (Caracas, 1976), Petroleo y dependencia (Caracas, 1971) and
Polltica petrolera (Caracas, 1962).
The literature on the Gomez dictatorship (1908-35) is growing, but
little useful material has yet been published on the L6pez and Medina
administrations (193645). On Gomez, in addition to the old but still
useful works of Thomas Rourke (Daniel J. Clinton), Gomez, Tyrant of the
Andes (New York, 1937), and John Lavin, A Halo for Gomez (New York,
1954), see Luis Cipriano Rodriguez, Gomez: Agricultura, petroleo y de-
pendencia (Caracas, 1983); Yolanda Segnini, La consolidation del regimen de
Juan Vicente Gomez (Caracas, 1982); Domingo Alberto Rangel, Gomez el
amo delpoder (Caracas, 1975); Ramon J. Velasquez's fictionalized account,
Confidencias imaginarias de Juan Vicente Gomez (Caracas, 1979); Elias Pino
Iturrieta, Positivismo y gomecismo (Caracas, 1978); and Arturo Sosa A.,
Ensayos sobre elpensamiento politico positivista venezolano (Caracas, 1985). On
the Gomez dictatorship, see also essay VI:27. On the Lopez Contreras
years, see E. Lopez Contreras, Proceso politico social, 19281936 (Caracas,
1935), Paginas para la historia militar de Venezuela (Caracas, 1945) and El
triunfo de la verdad (Mexico, D.F., 1949), among his other works; Alfredo
Tarre Murzi, Lopez Contreras: De la tirania a la libertad, 3rd ed. (Caracas,
1982), a fictionalized account; and Silvia Mijares, Organizacionespoliticas de
1936 (Caracas, 1980). On the Medina years, see Isaias Medina Angarita,
Cuatro anos de democracia (Caracas, 1963); Luis Cordero Velazquez, Betan-
court y la conjura militar del 45 (Caracas, 1978); and Domingo Alberto
Rangel, Los andinos en el poder (Caracas, 1975).
Scholars have directed some attention to the democratic trienio (1945
8) and the dictatorship of 1948-58. See, for example, Charles D.
Ameringer, The Democratic Left in Exile: The Antidictatorial Struggle in the
Caribbean, 1945-59 (Coral Gables, Fla., 1974); Glen L. Kolb, Democracy
and Dictatorship in Venezuela, 1945-1958 (Hamden, Conn., 1974); and
Judith Ewell, The Indictment of a Dictator: The Extradition and Trial of

Marcos Perez Jimenez (College Station, Tex., 1981). Perez Jimenez's minis-
ter of the interior, Laureano Vallenilla Lanz, provides the most interesting
of his apologies: Escrito de memoria (Caracas, 1967), and Razones de proscrito
(Caracas, 1967). Andres Stambouli, Crisis politica: Venezuela, 1945-1958
(Caracas, 1980), is a balanced account, as is Manuel Rodriguez Campos,
Venezuela, 19481958: Elproceso economico y social de la dictadura (Caracas,
1983). Three studies chronicle Perez's downfall: Helena Plaza, El 23 de
enero de 1958 y el proceso de consolidacion de la democracia representativa en
Venezuela (Caracas, 1978); Philip B. Taylor, Jr., The Venezuelan Golpe de
Estado of 1958: The Fall of Marcos Perez Jimenez (Washington, D.C.,
1968); and Joseph Doyle, 'Venezuela 1958: Transition from dictatorship
to democracy (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, George Washington University,
1967).
Most modern political histories have lauded the development of a viable
democracy since 1958 and the role of AD in particular. See, for example,
John Martz, Accion Democrdtica: Evolution of a Modern Political Party in
Venezuela (Princeton, N.J., 1966); with Enrique Baloyra, Political Attitudes
in Venezuela: Societal Cleavages and Political Opinion (Austin, Tex., 1979);
and with David J. Myers (eds.), Venezuela, the Democratic Experience (New
York, 1977; rev. ed., 1986). Other standard works are Robert Alexander,
The Venezuelan Democratic Revolution (New Brunswick, N.J., 1964); Daniel
Levine, Conflict and Political Change in Venezuela (Princeton, N.J., 1973)
and 'Venezuela since 1958: The consolidation of democratic polities', in
Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan (eds.), The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes
(Baltimore, 1978), 82-109; David Blank, Politics in Venezuela (Boston,
1973) and Venezuela: Politics in a Petroleum Republic (New York, 1984); Jose
Antonio Gil Yepes, The Challenge of Venezuelan Democracy (New Brunswick,
N.J., 1981); Harrison Sabin Howard, Romulo Gallegos y la revolucion
burguesa en Venezuela (Caracas, 1976); and Clemy Machado de Acedo, El
positivismo en las ideas politicas de Romulo Gallegos (Caracas, 1982). John A.
Peeler compares Venezuelan political development with that of two other
countries in Latin American Democracies: Colombia, Costa Rica, Venezuela
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1985).
A number of studies are more critical both of AD and of Venezuelan
democracy. See Moises Moleiro, El partido del pueblo: Crdnica de un fraude,
2nded. (Valencia, Ven., 1979); Jose Silva Michelena, The Illusion of Democ-
racy in Dependent Nations (Cambridge, Mass., 1971) and, with Frank
Bonilla, The Failure of Elites (Cambridge, Mass., 1970); Carlos Rangel,
Del burn salvaje al buen revolucionario (Caracas, 1976); Daniel Hellinger,

42. Venezuela 837
'Populism and nationalism in Venezuela: New perspectives on Accion

Democratica', LAP, 11/4 (1984), 33-59; Terry Karl, 'The political econ-
omy of petrodollars: Oil and democracy in Venezuela' (unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, Stanford University, 1982); Anibal Romero, Miseria del populism):
Mitos y realidades de la democracia en Venezuela (Caracas, 1986); Margarita
Lopez Maya et al., De punto fijo al pacto social: Desarrollo y hegemonia en
Venezuela (Caracas, 1989); and the various works of Domingo Alberto
Rangel.
On Comite de Organizacion Politica Electoral Independiente (COPEI),
Rafael Caldera's writings and speeches are valuable; see, for example,
Ideario: La democracia cristiana en America Latina (Barcelona, 1970) and
Habla el presidente (Caracas, 1969). See also Donald Herman, Christian
Democracy in Venezuela (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980). On other parties, see
Robert Alexander, The Communist Party of Venezuela (Stanford, Calif,
1980); Steve Ellner, 'The MAS Party in Venezuela', LAP, 13/2 (1986),
81107 an< i Venezuela's Movimiento al Socialismo: From Guerrilla Defeat to
Innovative Politics (Durham, N.C., 1988). Manuel Caballero, Latin America
and the Comintern, 19191943 (Cambridge, Eng., 1986), contains some
information on the early history of the Venezuelan Communist Party.
Manuel Vicente Magallanes, Los partidos politicos en la evolucion historica
venezolana, 5th ed. (Caracas, 1983), is indispensable in tracing the rise and
fall of many minor parties, as well as the major ones.
The quinquennial elections since 1958 have inspired considerable na-
tional self-examination; see, for example, the following compilations from
El Nacional's anniversary issues: Venezuela 1979: Examen y futuro (Caracas,
1980), and 1984: A ddnde va Venezuela? (Caracas, 1984). The excellent El
caso Venezuela: Una Huston de armonia (Caracas, 1985), edited by Moises
Nairn and Ramon Pifiango, does much the same thing from a scholarly
perspective.
Romulo Betancourt is the only major political figure who has received
extensive attention from biographers. In addition to Betancourt's own
voluminous writings, see Robert Alexander, Romulo Betancourt and the
Transformation of Venezuela (New Brunswick, N.J., 1982); Alejandro
Gomez, Romulo Betancourt y el Partido Comunista de Costa Rica: 19311935
(Caracas, 1985); Arturo Sosa A. and Eloi Lengrand in Del garibaldismo
estudiantil a la izquierda criolla: Los origenes marxistas del proyecto de AD
(19281935) (Caracas, 1981); Manuel Caballero, Romulo Betancourt (Cara-
cas, 1979); Ramon J. Velasquez, J. F. Sucre Figarella and Bias Bruni Celli,
Betancourt en la historia de Venezuela del siglo XX (Caracas, 1980); and the

fictionalized biography by Alfredo Tarre Murzi [Sanin], Romulo (Valencia,

Ven., 1984).
Little has been written on women in politics (or on women in general),
and the women who spoke to Fania Petzoldt and Jacinta Bevilacqua for the
book Nosotras tambien nos jugamos la vida: Testimonios de la mujer venezolana en
la lucha clandestina, 19481958 (Caracas, 1979) show some bitterness at
being overlooked. Angela Zago writes an engaging memoir of her days
with the guerrillas in the mid-1960s, Aqui no ha pasado nada (Caracas,
1972), and the acrid essays of Elisa Lerner - such as Cronicas ginecologicas
(Caracas, 1984) - discuss women's roles.
Studies of interest groups and pressure groups have enriched the politi-
cal literature. See Robert F. Amove, Student Alienation: A Venezuelan Study
(New York, 1971); Robert D. Bond, 'Business associations and interest
politics in Venezuela: The FEDECAMARAS and the determination of
national economic policies' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Vanderbilt Univer-
sity, 1975); Samuel Moncada, Los huevos de la serpiente: FEDECAMARAS
por dentro (Caracas, 1985); John Duncan Powell, Political Mobilization of the
Venezuelan Peasant (Cambridge, Mass., 1971); and Talton F. Ray, The
Politics of the Barrios of Venezuela (Berkeley, 1969). On the military, see
Winfield J. Burggraaff, The Venezuelan Armed Forces in Politics, 19351959
(Columbia, Mo., 1972); Angel Ziems, Elgomecismoy laformacidn delejercito
nacional (Caracas, 1979). And on the church, see Daniel Levine, Religion in
Latin America: The Catholic Church in Venezuela and Colombia (Princeton,
N.J., 1981).
The history of the labour movement has received considerable atten-
tion. See Charles Bergquist, Labor in Latin America: Comparative Essays on
Chile, Argentina, Venezuela, and Colombia (Stanford, Calif., 1986); Steve
Ellner, Los partidos politkos y su disputa por el control del movimiento sindical en
Venezuela, 1936-1948 (Caracas, 1980); Julio Godio, El movimiento obrero
venezolano, 18501980, 3 vols. (Caracas, 1980); Paul Nehru Tennassee,
Venezuela, los obreros petroleros y la lucha por la democracia (Caracas, 1979);
Mostafa Hassan, Economic Growth and Employment Problems in Venezuela: An
Analysis of an Oil-Based Economy (New York, 1975); Alberto J. Pla et al.,
Clase obrera, partidos y sindicatos en Venezuela, 1936-1950 (Caracas, 1982);
and Hector Lucena, El movimiento obrero y las relaciones laborales (Carabobo,
Ven., 1981).
Some good studies of social problems have appeared. The best general
study of the Venezuelan population is by Chi-Yi Chen and Michel Picouet,
Dindmica de la poblacion: Caso de Venezuela (Caracas, 1979). See also Chi-Yi

42. Venezuela 839
Chen, Movimientos migratorios en Venezuela (Caracas, 1968); and Susan
Berglund and Humberto Hernandez Caliman, Los de afuera: Un estudio
analitico delproceso migratorio en Venezuela, 19361985 (Caracas, 1985). On
national nutritional deficiencies, see George Schuyler, Hunger in a Land of
Plenty (Cambridge, Mass., 1980); Paulina Dehollain and Irene Perez
Schael, Venezuela desnutrida (Caracas, 1978); and Eleanor Witte Wright,
'The political economy of Venezuelan food policy, 19581978' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. thesis, University of Maryland, 1982). Jeannette Abou-
hamad provides a profile of Venezuelans in Los hombres de Venezuela: Sus
necesidades, sus aspiraciones (Caracas, 1970). Agustin Blanco Muiioz deals
with class conflict in Clases sociales y violencia en Venezuela (Caracas, 1976).
See Esteban Emilio Mosonyi, Identidad nacional y culturas populates (Cara-
cas, 1982), and Maritza Montero, Ideologia, alienacidn e identidad nacional
(Caracas, 1984), for a discussion of national psychology and identity.
Finally, Winthrop R. Wright offers a perceptive overview of Venezuelans'
views of race over the years in Cafe con Leche: Race, Class and National Image
in Venezuela (Austin, Tex., 1990).
The multi-volume study undertaken by the Universidad Central de
Venezuela, Estudio de Caracas, 15 vols. (1967-72), is useful for Caracas's
urban problems, and Lloyd Rodman et al., Planning Urban Growth: The
Experience of the Guayana Program of Venezuela (Cambridge, Mass., 1969),
depicts the new city of Ciudad Guayana. People of the barrios receive
special attention in Luise Margolies (ed.), The Venezuelan Peasant in Country
and City (Caracas, 1979); Kenneth Karst, Murray Schwartz and Audrey
Schwartz, The Evolution of Law in the Barrios of Caracas (Los Angeles,
1973); and Lisa Redfield Peattie, The View from the Barrio (Ann Arbor,
Mich., 1970). For regional issues, see John Friedman, Regional Development
Policy: A Case Study of Venezuela (Cambridge, Mass., 1966); and Allan R.
Brewer-Canas and Norma Izquierdo Corser, Estudios sobre la regionalizacion
de Venezuela (Caracas, 1977).
Administrative history has been dominated by the voluminous works of
Allan R. Brewer-Carias - for example, Estudios sobre la reforma administra-
tiva (Caracas, 1980), Cambio politico y reforma del estado en Venezuela (Ma-
drid, 1975), and El estado, crisis y reforma (Caracas, 1984). Roderick
Groves, "Administrative reform in Venezuela, 19581963' (unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1965), examines the early efforts
to streamline the government bureaucracy, and E. Mark Hanson discusses
educational administration in Educational Reform and Administrative Develop-
ment: The Cases of Colombia and Venezuela (Stanford, Calif, 1986).

Venezuela's expansionist foreign policy in the 1970s awakened more

scholarly interest in this field. See Robert Bond (ed.), Contemporary Venezu-
ela and Its Role in International Affairs (New York, 1977); Stephen G. Rabe,
The Road to OPEC: United States Relations with Venezuela, 1919-1976 (Aus-
tin, Tex., 1982); Demetrio Boersner, Venezuela y el Caribe: Presencia
cambiante (Caracas, 1978); Sheldon Liss, Diplomacy and Dependency: Venezu-
ela, the United States, and the Americas (Salisbury, N.C., 1978); FerminToro
Jimenez, La politica de Venezuela en la conferencia inter-americana de consoli-
dation de lapaz: Buenos Aires, 1936 (Caracas, 1977); Freddy Vivas Gallardo,
Venezuela en la sociedad de las naciones, 19201939: Description y andlisis de
una actuation diplomdtica (Caracas, 1981); Anibal Romero (ed.), Seguridad,
defensa y democracia en Venezuela (Caracas, 1980); Andres Serbin (ed.),
Geopolitica de las relaciones de Venezuela con el Caribe (Caracas, 1983); Julio
Portillo, VenezuelaCuba, 19021980 (Caracas, 1981); Clemy Machadode
Acedo and Marisela Padron Quero, La diplomacia de Lopez Contreras y el
tratado de retiprocidadcomercial con Estados Unidos (Caracas, 1987); and Insti-
tuto de Estudios Politicos, Universidad Central de Venezuela, La agenda de
la politica exterior de Venezuela (Caracas, 1983). Francisco J. Parra, Doctrinas
de la cancilleria venezolana: Digesto, 6 vols. (New York, 195264), provides
a useful guide to Venezuelan foreign policy since independence.
43. BRAZIL
GENERAL
There is no satisfactory general history of Brazil from 1930 to the present

day. Israel Beloch and Alzira Alves de Abreu (eds.), Ditiondrio historico-
bibliogrdfico brasileiro, 19301983, 4 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1984) is an
indispensable guide. It is the most ambitious and substantial of a large
number of important contributions from the Centro de Pesquisas e Docu-
mentagao em Historia Contemporanea (CPDOC) of the Fundac,ao Getiilio
Vargas (FGV) in Rio de Janeiro, the creation of which in 1973 transformed
the study of contemporary Brazilian history. For the period from the
revolution of 1930 to thegolpe of 1964 Boris Fausto (ed.), Historia geral da
tivilizaqdo brasileira, III: 0 Brasil republicano, 3. Sociedade epolitica (1930
64), 4. Economia e cultura (193064) (Sao Paulo, 1981, 1984) is an
outstanding collaborative history. Chapters that treat the entire period
include Aspasia de Alcantara Camargo, 'A questao agraria: Crise de poder

43- Brazil 841
e refbrmas de base (1930-1964)', Decio Saes, 'Classe media e politica no
Brasil (19301964)', Sergio Miceli, 'Carne e osso da elite politica bra-
sileira pos-1930', Leoncio Martins Rodrigues, 'O PCB: Os dirigentes e a
organizacao" and 'Sindicalismo e classe operaria (1930-1964)' in vol. 3;
and Tamas Szmrecsanyi, 'O Desenvolvimento da produgao agropecuaria
(19301970)' in vol. 4. See also a series of informative books by Edgard
Carone: A Segunda republica (1930-1937) (Sao Paulo, 1973), A Republica
nova (193031) (Sao Paulo, 1974), A Terceira republica (Sao Paulo, 1976),
0 Estado Novo (193745) (Sao Paulo, 1976), A Quarta republica (194564)
(Sao Paulo, 1980), and A Republica liberal, I: Institutes e classes sociais,
1945-64, II Evolugdo politica, 1945-64 (Sao Paulo, 1985). Thomas E.
Skidmore, 'The historiography of Brazil, 1889-1964', part 1, HAHR,
55/4 (1975), 7 I ^ - 4 9 , part 2, HAHR, 56/1 (1976), 81-109, remains
valuable but takes account of publications to c. 1972 only. Robert M.
Levine, Brazil since 1930: An Annotated Bibliography for Social Historians
(New York, 1980) includes publications to c. 1979.
Outstanding among general economic histories of Brazil since 1930 is
Marcelo de Paiva Abreu (ed.), A Ordem do progresso: Cent anos de politica
economica republicana, 18891989 (Rio de Janeiro, 1990); individual es-
says, all by leading Brazilian economists and economic historians, will be
cited below. See also Werner Baer, The Brazilian Economy: Growth and
Development, 3rd ed. (New York, 1989) and Luiz Carlos Bresser Pereira,
Development and Crisis in Brazil, 19301983 (Boulder, Colo., 1984). And
on financial issues, see Raymond W. Goldsmith, Brasil, 18501984:
Desenvolvimentofinanceirosob um seculo de inflagao (Sao Paulo, 1986); on the
economic role of the state, Sonia Draibe, Rumos e metamorfoses: Estado e
industrializagdo no Brasil, 19301960 (Rio de Janeiro, 1985), O. Ianni,
Estado e planejamento economico do Brasil (19301970) (Rio de Janeiro,
1971) and Gustavo Maia Gomes, The Roots of State Intervention in the
Brazilian Economy (New York, 1986); on the land question and the fron-
tier, Joe Foweraker, The Struggle for Land: A Political Economy of the Pioneer
Frontier in Brazil from 1930 to the Present Day (Cambridge, Eng., 1981);
and on demographic aspects of development, Thomas W. Merrick and
Douglas H. Graham, Population and Economic Development in Brazil: 1800 to
the Present (Baltimore, 1979).
General political histories include Peter Flynn, Brazil: A Political Analy-
sis (London, 1978); Ronald M. Schneider, 'Order and Progress': A Political
History of Brazil (Boulder, Colo., 1991); and, taken together, two works
by Thomas E. Skidmore, Politics in Brazil, 1930-1964: An Experiment in

Democracy (New York, 1967) and The Politics of Military Rule in Brazil,
1964-85 (New York, 1988). On the historical fragility of democracy in
Brazil, Bolivar Lamounier, 'Brazil: Inequality against democracy' in Larry
Diamond, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in
Developing Countries, vol. 4 (Boulder, Colo. 1989) is a thoughtful essay by
one of Brazil's leading (and most productive) political scientists. On politi-
cal participation, see Joseph L. Love, 'Political participation in brazil,
1881-1969', L-BR, 20/1 (1983), 65-92. On political parties, see David
V. Fleischer (ed.), Os Partidos politicos no Brasil, 2 vols. (Brasilia, 1981).
On the military, Alfred Stepan, The Military in Politics: Changing Pat-
terns in Brazil (Princeton, N.J., 1971) is fundamental. See also Edmundo
Campos Coelho, Em busca de identidade: 0 exercito e a politica na sociedade
brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1976); Alexandre de Souza Costa Barros, 'The
Brazilian military: Professional specialization, political performance and
state building' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Chicago, 1978);
Frederick M. Nunn, 'Military professionalism and professional milita-
rism in Brazil, 1870-1970', JLAS, 4/1 (1972), 29-54; and Frank D.
McCann, A Nagdo armada: Ensaios sobre a histdria do exercito brasileiro
(Petropolis, 1982) and 'The military' in Michael L. Conniff and Frank D.
McCann (eds.), Modern Brazil, Elites and Masses in Historical Perspective
(Lincoln, Nebr., 1989). On labour, see Timothy Harding, 'A political
history of organized labor in Brazil' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Stanford
University, 1973); Michael Hall and Marco Aurelio Garcia, 'Urban labor',
in Conniff and McCann (eds.), Modern Brazil; Kenneth P. Erickson, The
Brazilian Corporative State and Working Class Politics (Berkeley, 1977); and,
less convincing, Youssef Cohen, The Manipulation of Consent: The State and
Working Class Consciousness in Brazil (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1989).
On the history of social welfare policy, see James M. Malloy, The Politics
of Social Security in Brazil (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1979). There are many general
histories of the Brazilian Communist party; see, for example, Ronald H.
Chilcote, The Brazilian Communist Party: Conflict and Integration, 1922-
1972 (New York, 1974) and Moises Vinhas, 0 Partiddo: Uma luta por urn
partido de massas, 1922-1974 (Sao Paulo, 1982).
The Catholic church is well served: see Ralph Delia Cava, 'Catholicism
and Society in 20th century Brazil', LARR, 11/2 (1976), 7-50; T. C.
Bruneau, The Political Transformation of the Brazilian Catholic Church (New
York, 1974) and The Church in Brazil: The Politics of Religion (Austin, Tex.,
1982); and Scott Mainwaring, The Catholic Church and Politics in Brazil,
191685 (Stanford, Calif., 1986). Carlos Guilherme Mota, Ideologia da

43- Brazil 843
cultura brasileira (1933-1974) (Sao Paulo, 1977) and Daniel Pecaut, Entre
le peuple et la nation: Les intellectuels et la politique au Brail (Paris, 1989;
Portuguese trans., Sao Paulo, 1990), are interesting contributions to intel-
lectual history. Amado Luiz Cervo and Clodoaldo Bueno, Histdria da
politica exterior do Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1992), chaps. 10-16, represents a
useful survey of Brazil's international relations.
1930-1945
Boris Fausto, A revolugdo de 1930: Historiografia e histdria (Sao Paulo, 1970)
remains the best guide to the 1930 revolution which brought an end to
the First Republic (1889-1930) and brought to power Getulio Vargas.
See also Fausto's essay, 'A Revolucjio de 1930' in Carlos Guilherme Mota
(ed.), Brasil em perspectiva (Sao Paulo, 1968). Alexandre J. Barbosa Lima
Sobrinho, A Verdade sobre a revolugdo de outubro de 1930 (1933; 2nd ed.
1975) still has interest. Two volumes from CPDOC-FGV to mark the
fiftieth anniversary of the Revolution are indispensable: A Revolugdo de 30:
simposio international (Brasilia, 1982) (see, in particular, the essays by
Luciano Martins, 'A Revolugao de 1930 e seu significado politico' and
Aspasia Camargo, 'A Revolugao dos elites: Conflitos regionais e cen-
tralizacjio') and A Revolugdo de 30: Textos e documentos, 2 vols. (Brasilia,
1982). CPDOC, A Revolugdo de 1930 (Rio de Janeiro, 1980) is a valuable
collection of photographs. Lucia Lippi Oliveira (ed.), Elite intelectual e
debate politico nos anos 30: Uma bibliografia contentada da revolugdo de 30 (Rio
de Janeiro, 1980), explores the political and social thought of the period
immediately after the Revolution through an analysis of 143 books pub-
lished between 1929 and 1936. Other contributions worthy of mention
include Jordan M. Young, The Revolution 0/1930 and the Aftermath (New
Brunswick, N.J., 1967); Helio Silva, 1930: A Revolugdo traida (Rio de
Janeiro, 1966); and an interpretive essay by Silvio R. Duncan Baretta and
John Markoff, 'The limits of the Brazilian Revolution of 1930', Review,
9/3 (1986), 413-52-
On the gaucho background and origins of the Revolution, see Joseph L.
Love, Rio Grande do Sul and Brazilian Regionalism, 1882-1930 (Stanford,
Calif, 1971), chap. 10; Joan L. Bak, 'Cartels, cooperatives and cor-
poratism: Getulio Vargas in Rio Grande do Sul on the eve of Brazil's 1930
Revolution', HAHR, 63/2 (1983), 255-75; and Pedro Cezar Dutra
Fonseca, Vargas: 0 Capitalism) em construgdo (Sao Paulo, 1987), chaps. 2
and 3. On Sao Paulo and the Revolution, see Vavy Pacheco Borges, Getulio

Vargas e a oligarquia paulista (Sao Paulo, 1979), Maria Ligia Prado, A

Democracia ilustrada: 0 Partido Democrdtico em Sao Paulo, 19261934 (Sao
Paulo, 1986) and Mauricio A. Font, Coffee, Contention and Change in the
Making of Modern Brazil (Cambridge, Mass., 1990).
On the role of the tenentes in the Revolution of 1930 and their early
influence over Vargas's provisional government there is a vast literature.
See, in particular, Peter Flynn, 'The Revolutionary Legion and the Brazil-
ian Revolution of 1930', in Raymond Carr (ed.), Latin American Affairs:
St. Antony's Papers no. 22 (Oxford, 1970); Edgard Carone, 0 Tenentismo
(Sao Paulo, 1975); Maria Cecilia Spina Forjaz, Tenentismo e Alianga Liberal
(19271930) (Rio de Janeiro, 1977); Tenentismo epolitica: Tenentes e camadas
medias urbanas na crise de Primeira Republica (Rio de Janeiro, 1982) and
Tenentismo e forgas armadas na revolugao de 1930 (Rio de Janeiro, 1989);
Octavio Malta, Os Tenentes na revolugao brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1969); Vavy
Pacheco Borges, Tenentismo e revolugao brasileiro (Sao Paulo, 1992); John
Wirth, 'Tenentismo in the Brazilian Revolution of 1930', HAHR, 44/2
(1964), 16279; Helio Silva, 1931: Os Tenentes no poder (Rio de Janeiro,
1966); Michael L. Conniff, 'The tenentes in power: A new perspective on
the Brazilian Revolution of 1930', JLAS, 10/1 (1978); 6182; and espe-
cially Jose Augusto Drummond, 0 Movimento tenentista: intervengdo militar
e conflito hierdrquico (19221935) (Rio de Janeiro, 1986).
On the military itself, see Eurico de Lima Figueiredo (ed.), Os Militares
e a revolugao de 30 (Rio de Janeiro, 1979). Jose Murilo de Carvalho explores
the internal reorganization of the military following the Revolution (and
the role of the military in politics during the Vargas regime) in 'Armed
forces and politics in Brazil, 1930-45', HAHR, 62/2 (1982), 193-223.
See also Campos Coelho, Em busca da identidade, cited above. On the role
of General Goes Monteiro, the key military figure of the period, see
Lourival Coutinho, 0 General Goes depoe (Rio de Janeiro, 1956).
Biographies of Vargas include Affonso Henriques, Ascengdo e queda de
Getulio Vargas, 3 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1966), John W. F. Dulles, Vargas of
Brazil: A Political Biography (Austin, Tex., 1967), Richard Bourne,
Getulio Vargas of Brazil, 1883-1954 (London, 1974), and Paulo Brandi,
Vargas, da vida para a historia (Rio de Janeiro, 1983). See also Valentina de
RochaLima(ed.), Getulio: Uma historia oral (Rio de Janeiro, 1986). Robert
M. Levine, The Vargas Regime: The Critical Years, 1934-38 (New York,
1970), remains the best account of those years. Ana Ligia Medeiros and
Monica Hirst (eds.), Bibliografia historica: 1930-45 (Brasilia, 1982) is an
invaluable guide to the literature on all aspects of the Vargas era.

43- Brazil 845
For state politics and the relationship of state to federal politics in the
period between the Revolution of 1930 and the establishment of the
Estado Novo in 1937, see, in particular, Angela Maria de Castro Gomes et
al., Regionalismo, centralizagdopolitica, partidos e Constituinte nos anos 30 (Rio
de Janeiro, 1980), which has chapters by Helena Maria Bousquet Bomeny
on Minas Gerais, Maria Helena de Magalhaes Castro on Rio Grande do
Sul, Angela Castro Gomes and others on Sao Paulo and Dulci Chaves
Pandolfi on the North; Carlos E. Cortes, Gaucho Politics in Brazil: The
Politics of Rio Grande do Sul, 1930-1964 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1974)
and Joan L. Bak, 'Political centralisation and the building of the interven-
tionist state in Brazil: Corporatism, regionalism and interest group poli-
tics in Rio Grande do Sul, 1930-1937', L-BR, 22/1 (1985), 9 - 2 5 ;
Michael L. Conniff, Urban Politics in Brazil: The Rise of Populism, 1928
1945 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1981) on Rio de Janeiro; the concluding chapters
of John Wirth, Minas Gerais in the Brazilian Federation, 18891937 (Stan-
ford, Calif., 1977); Robert M. Levine, Pernambuco in the Brazilian Federa-
tion, 18891937 (Stanford, Calif, 1978); Eul-Soo Pang, Bahia in the First
Republic: Coronelismo and Oligarchies, 18891934 (Gainesville, Fla., 1979);
and Joseph L. Love, Sao Paulo in the Brazilian Federation, 18891937
On the 1932 Civil War, see Helio Silva, 1932: A Guerra paulista (Rio
de Janeiro, 1967), Paulo Nogueira Filho, A Guerra civica, 1932, 4 vols.
(Rio de Janeiro, 196571) and, a useful synthesis, Stanley Hilton, 1932:
A Guerra civil brasileira (Historia da revoluqdo constitutional de 1932) (Rio de
Janeiro, 1982). On the 1933 Constituent Assembly, the 1934 Constitu-
tion and the restoration of constitutional rule in 1934, see Angela Maria
de Castro Gomes, 'Confronto e compromiso no proceso da constitu-
tionalizaâo (19301935)', in Historia geralda civilizagdo brasileira III, vol.
3 and 'A Representagao de classes na Constituinte de 1934', in Castro
Gomes et al., Regionalismo, centralizacdo politica, partidos e Constituinte nos
anos 30, cited above. June Hahner, Emancipating the Female Sex: The Struggle
for Women's Rights in Brazil, 1850-1940 (Durham, N.C., 1991) deals
with, among other things, the securing of female suffrage in 1932. On the
working class in politics in the early 1930s, see Ricardo Antunes, Classe
operdria, sindicatos e partido no Brasil: Urn estudo sobre a constiencia de classe da
revoluqdo de 30 ate a ANL (Sao Paulo, 1982), and on the ANL, Lelia M. G.
Hernandez, Alianga National Libertadora: ldeologia e agdo (Porto Alegre,
1985)-
A great deal has been written on the attempted Communist putsch of

November 1935. Two scholarly accounts are Paulo Sergio Pinheiro,

Estrategias da ilusdo: A Revolugdo mundial e 0 Brasil, 1922-1935 (Sao Paulo,
1991) and Marly de Almeida Gomes Vianna, Revolutionaries de 35: Sonho e
realidade (Sao Paulo, 1992). See also on communism in Brazil before and
after 1935, as well as Chilcote, The Brazilian Communist Party and Rodri-
gues in Historia geral da civilizagdo brasileira III, vol. 3 cited above, John
W. F. Dulles, Anarchists and Communists in Brazil, 190035 (Austin, Tex.,
1973) and Brazilian Communism, 19351945: Repression during World Up-
heaval (Austin, Tex., 1983), and Stanley Hilton, Brazil and the Soviet
Challenge, 191J194J (Austin, Tex., 1991). On Brazilian fascism in the
form of the integralistas, the leading authority is Helgio Trindade: Inte-
gralismo (0 fascismo brasileiro na dicada de 30) (Sao Paulo, 1974) and 'Inte-
gralismo: Teoria e praxis politica nos anos 30', Historia geral da civilizagdo
brasileira, III, vol. 3. See also Jarbas Medeiros, Ideologia autoritdria no
Brasil, 1930-1945 (Rio de Janeiro, 1978).
The classic account of the impact of the 1929 Depression on the Brazil-
ian economy and the economic policy of the Vargas governments during
the 1930s remains Celso Furtado, Formacdo economica do Brasil (Rio de
Janeiro, 1959); Eng. trans. The Economic Growth of Brazil (Berkeley,
1963). Among the economists and economic historians of the following
generation who have studied the period 1930-45, Marcelo de Paiva Abreu
has made the most substantial contribution: see, in particular, 'Brazil and
the world economy, 1930-1945: Aspects of foreign economic policies and
international economic relations under Vargas' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
Cambridge, 1977); 'O Brasil e a economia mundial (19291945)', in
Historia geral da civilizagdo brasileira III, vol. 4; 'Argentina and Brazil
during the 1930s: The impact of British and American international
economic policies', in Rosemary Thorp (ed.), Latin America in the 1930s
(Oxford, 1984); 'AngloBrazilian economic relations and the consolida-
tion of American pre-eminence in Brazil, 193045', in C. Abel and C. M.
Lewis (eds.), Latin America: Economic Imperialism and the State (London,
1985), as well as 'Crise, crescimento e modernizaâo autoritaria: 1930
1945', in Abreu, A Ordem do progresso, cited above. Apart from Abreu, the
best study of Brazil's international economic relations remains Stanley E.
Hilton, Brazil and the Great Powers, 1930-1939: The Politics of Trade
Rivalry (Austin, Tex., 1978).
Other notable contributions include A. Villela and W. Suzigan, Politica
do governo e crescimento da economia brasileira, 18891945 (Rio de Janeiro,
1973), Eng. trans. Government Policy and Economic Growth of Brazil, 1889

43- Brazil 847
1945 (Rio de Janeiro, 1977); Simao Silber, 'Analise da politica economica

e do comportamento da economia brasileira durante o periodo 1929
1939', in F. Versiani and J. R. Mendonca de Barros (eds.), Formacdo
economica do Brasil: A experiencia da industrializagdo (Rio de Janeiro, 1977);
Luciano Martins, Pouvoir et developpement economique: Formation et evolution des
structurespolitiques au Bresil (Paris, 1976) (especially chap. 5, 'La Siderurgie
et l'etatisme'); Fonseca, Vargas: 0 capitalismo em construgdo, chap. 4; Eli
Diniz, Empresdrio, estado e capitalismo no Brasil, 19301945 (Rio de
Janeiro, 1978); and, by Carlos Manuel Pelaez, 'The state, the Great
Depression and the industrialisation of Brazil' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
Columbia University, 1968), 'A Balance comercial, grande depressao e a
industrializagao brasileira', RBE, 22/1 (1968), 'As Consequencias eco-
nomicas de ortodoxia monetaria cambial e fiscal no Brasil entre 1889 e
1945', RBE, 25/3 (1971), and 'Analise economica do programa brasileiro
de sustentacao do cafe, 1906-45: Teoria, politica e medigao', RBE, 25/4
(1971). See also Warren Dean, The Industrialization of Sao Paulo, 1880
1943 (Austin, Tex., 1969); John D. Wirth, The Politics of Brazilian Devel-
opment, 19301954 (Stanford, Calif, 1970); A. Fishlow, 'Origins and
consequences of import substitution in Brazil', in L. E. di Marco (ed.),
International Economics and Development (New York, 1972); and Stanley E.
Hilton, 'Military influence on Brazilian economic policy, 19301945',
HAHR, 53/1 (1973), 7194, and 'Vargas and Brazilian economic develop-
ment, 193045: A reappraisal of his attitudes towards industry and plan-
ning', Journal of Economic History, 35/4(1975), 75478.
The most valuable work on the coup of November 1937 which led to
the establishment of the Estado Novo is Aspasia Camargo et al., 0 Golpe
silencioso: As origens da republica corporativa (Rio de Janeiro, 1989). See also
Lourdes Sola, 'O Golpe de 37 e o Estado Novo', in Carlos Guilherme Mota
(ed.), Brasil em perspectiva, cited above, and Helio Silva, 1937: Todos os
golpes separecem (Rio de Janeiro, 1970).
On the Estado Novo (19371945), see Carone, 0 Estado Novo, cited
above; Eli Diniz, 'O Estado Novo: Estructura de poder e relacoes de
classes', in Historia geral da civilizagdo brasileira III, vol. 3; Lucia Lippi
Oliveira, Monica Pimenta Velloso and Angela Maria de Castro Gomes,
Estado Novo: Ideologia e poder (Rio de Janeiro, 1982); Simon Schwartzman
(ed.), Estado Novo: Auto-retrato (arquivo Gustavo Capanema) (Brasilia, 1983)
and Simon Schwartzman, Helena Maria Bousquet Bomeny and Vanda
Maria Ribeiro Costa, Tempos de Capanema (Sao Paulo, 1984), on the work
of Vargas's Minister of Education, Gustavo Capanema; Sergio Miceli,

Intelectuais e classe dirigente no Brasil (19201946) (Sao Paulo, 1979), on

the cooptation of the intellectuals; Silvana Goulart, Sob a verdacU oficial:
Ideologia, propaganda e censura no Estado Novo (Sao Paulo, 1990); and Re-
ynaldo Pompeu de Campos, Repressdo judicial no Estado Novo: Esquerda e
direita no banco nos reus (Rio de Janeiro, 1982), and Nelson Jahr Garcia, 0
Estado Novo, ideologia e propaganda politica: A legitimacdo do estado autoritdrio
perante as classes subalternas (Sao Paulo, 1982), on propaganda, censorship
and repression. A classic contemporary analysis of the Estado Novo is Karl
Lowenstein, Brazil under Vargas (New York, 1942). Jose Luis Werneck da
Silva (ed.), 0 Feixe e 0prisma: Uma revisdo do Estado Novo, Vol. 1, 0 Feixe: 0
autoritarismo como questao teorica e historiogrdfica (Rio de Janeiro, 1991) is a
recent collection of revisionist essays.
Most of the works on the economic history of the 1930s cited above
include discussion of the economy during the Estado Novo (and the Sec-
ond World War). See also Marcelo de P. Abreu, 'A Economia brasileira e a
segunda guerra mundial: O setor external', in P. Neuhaus (ed.), Economia
brasileira: Uma visdo histdrica (Rio de Janeiro, 1980); Werner Baer, The
Development of the Brazilian Steel Industry (Nashville, Tenn., 1969); Fon-
seca, Vargas: 0 capitalismo em construgdo, chap. 5; and Pedro S. Malan,
Regis Bonelli, Marcelo de P. Abreu, and Jose Eduardo de C. Pereira,
Politica economica externa e industrializacdo no Brasil, 19391952 (Rio de
Janeiro, 1977). On the dispute over the future of Brazilian industrializa-
tion at the end of the Second World War, including the role of the state
and of foreign capital, and over Brazil's place in the postwar international
economic order, see Instituto de Planejamento Economico e Social (IPEA),
A Controversia de planejamento na economia brasileira: Coletdnea da polemica
Simonsen x Gudin (Rio de Janeiro, 1978).
The relationship of the state to organized labour during the Vargas
period has received a great deal of scholarly attention. See, in particular,
Rosa Maria Barbosa de Araujo, 0 Batismo do trabalho: A experiencia de
Lindolfo Collor (Rio de Janeiro, 1981); John D. French, 'The origins of
corporatist state intervention in Brazilian industrial relations, 193034',
L-BR, 28/2 (1991), 13-26; Angela Maria de Castro Gomes, Burguesia e
trabalho: Politica e legislacdo social no Brasil, 1917-37 (Rio de Janeiro,
1979); Robert Rowland, 'Classe operaria e estado de compromiso', Estudos
CEBRAP, 8 (1974), 1-40; Jose Albertino Rodrigues, Sindicato e desenvolvi-
mento no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1968); Aziz Simao, Sindicato e estado: Suas
relaqoes na formaqdo do proletariado de Sao Paulo (Sao Paulo, 1966); Leoncio
Martins Rodrigues, Conflito industrial e sindicalismo no Brasil (Sao Paulo,

43- Brazil 849
1966); Luis Werneck Vianna, Liberalismo e sindicato no Brasil (Rio de

Janeiro, 1976); Antonio Carlos Bernardo, Tutela e autonomia sindical: Bra-
sil, 19301945 (Sao Paulo, 1982); Maria Herminia Tavares de Almeida,
'Estado e classes trabalhadores no Brasil (193045)' (unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, University of Sao Paulo, 1978); Boris Fausto, 'Estado, classe
trabalhadora e burguesia industrial (19201945): Uma revisao', Novos
Estudos CEBRAP, 20 (1988), 6-37; and Maria Celia Pinheiro-Machado
Paoli, 'Labour, law and the state in Brazil, 1930-1950' (unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1988). Two outstanding contribu-
tions are Angela de Castro Gomes, A Invenqdo do trabalhismo (Sao Paulo,
1988) and John D. French, The Brazilian Workers' ABC: Class Conflict and
Alliances in Modern Sao Paulo (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992), part 1.
On the church during the period 19301945, see Jose Oscar Beozzo, 'A
Igreja entre a revolugao de 1930, o Estado Novo e a redemocratizagao', in
Histdria geral da civilizagdo brasileira III, vol. 4, and Margaret Patricia
Todaro Williams, 'Pastors, prophets and politicians: A study of the politi-
cal development of the Brazilian Catholic church, 19161945' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, 1971).
On Brazil's foreign relations culminating in the decision to enter the
Second World War on the side of the Allies in 1942, see Stanley Hilton, 0
Brasil e a crise international, 193045 (Rio de Janeiro, 1977); Ricardo A.
Seitenfus, 0 Brasil de Getulio Vargas e a forma$ao dos blocos: Processo de
envolvimento brasileiro na II guerra mundial, 19301942 (Sao Paulo, 1985);
Roberto Gambini, 0 Duplo jogo de Getulio Vargas: influencia americana e
alerndo no Estado Novo (Sao Paulo, 1977); Gerson Moura, Autonomia na
dependencia: A politica externa brasileira de 1935 a 1942 (Rio de Janeiro,
1980) and 'Brazilian foreign relations, 193950: The changing nature of
BrazilU.S. relations during and after the Second World War' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1982); Frank D. McCann, The
Brazilian-American Alliance, 1937-1945 (Princeton, N.J., 1973) and
'Brazil, the United States and World War II: A commentary', Diplomatic
History, 3/1 (1979), 5976; Stanley E. Hilton, 'Brazilian diplomacy and
the WashingtonRio de Janeiro "Axis" during the World War II era',
HAHR, 59/2 (1979), 2 0 1 - 3 1 , and 'Critique' by McCann, HAHR, 59/4
(1979), 691-700; M6nica Hirst, 'O Proceso de alinhamento nas relac,6es
BrasilEstados Unidos, 194245' (unpublished M.A. dissertation, Insti-
tuto Universitario de Pesquisas do Rio de Janeiro, 1982); and R. A.
Humphreys, Latin America and the Second World War, vol. 2, 19425
(London, 1982), chaps. 3 and 8.

An early and famous exchange of views on the fall of the Estado Novo
(and Vargas), and the 'democratisation' of Brazil at the end of the Second
World War was between Franciso Weffort, 'Origens do sindicalismo popu-
lista no Brasil (A conjuntura do apos-guerra)', Estudos CEBRAP, 4 (April-
June 1973) and Carlos Estevam Martins and Maria Herminia Tavares de
Almeida, 'Modus in rebus: Partidos e classes na queda do Estado Novo', un-
published paper, Centro Brasiieiro de Analise e Planejamento (CEBRAP)
(1973). See also Helio Silva, 1945: Por que depuseram Vargas (Rio de
Janeiro, 1976) and Stanley Hilton, 'The overthrow of Getiilio Vargas in
1945: Diplomatic intervention, defense of democracy, or political retribu-
tion?', HAHR, 67/1 (1987), 1-37. On the role of the PCB, see Dulles,
Brazilian Communism, 19351945 and Hilton, Brazil and the Soviet Chal-
lenge, cited above, and Arnaldo Spindel, 0 Partido Comunista na genese do
populismo: Analise da conjuntura de redemocratizagdo no apos-guerra (Sao Paulo,
1980); on the Liberal opposition to Vargas, see John W. F. Dulles, The Sao
Paulo Law School and the Anti-Vargas Resistance (1938-43) (Austin, Tex.,
1986) and Maria Victoria Benevides, UDN e Udenismo: Ambiguidades de
liberalismo brasiieiro, 1945-1965 (Rio de Janeiro, 1981). On organized
labour, see many of the works cited above on the period 1930-45 but in
particular Castro Gomes, A Invengdo do trabalhismo, chap. 8; Vianna, Liber-
alismo e sindicato, chap. 6, and French, Brazilian Workers' ABC, part 2 (on
Sao Paulo workers), together with Silvio Frank Alem, 'Os Trabalhadores e
a 'redemocratizagao': Estudo sobre o estado, partidos e a participacao dos
trabalhadores assalariados urbanos na conjunctura da guerra e do p6sguerra
imediato, 1946-1948' (unpublished M.A. thesis, Universidad Estadual
de Campinas, 1981). On the role of U.S. Ambassador Adolf Berle, see C.
Neale Ronning, 'Adolf Berle in Brazil: 1945-6', in Ronning and Albert
P. Vannucci (eds.), Ambassadors in Foreign Policy: The Influence of Individuals
on U.S. Latin American Policy (New York, 1987); Jordan A. Schwarz,
Liberal: Adolf A. Berle and the Vision of an American Era (New York, 1987);
Stanley Hilton, 0 Ditador e 0 embaixador: Getulio Vargas, Adolf Berle Jr. e a
queda do Estado Novo (Rio de Janeiro, 1987); and Berle's own published
diaries and correspondence: B. B. Berle and T. B. Jacobs (eds.), Navigating
the Rapids, 1918-71: From the Papers of AdolfA. Berle (New York, 1973).
On G6es Monteiro and the military, see Coutinho, 0 General Goes depoe; on
General Dutra, who was elected president in December 1945, see Osvaldo
Trigueiro do Vale, 0 General Dutra e a redemocratizagdo de 1945 (Rio de
Janeiro, 1978). On the constituent assembly of 1946, see Joao Almino, Os
Democratas autoritdrios: Liberdades individuais, de associaqdo politica e sindical

43- Brazil 851
na Constituinte de 1946 (Sao Paulo, 1980). Leslie Bethell, 'Brazil', in Leslie

Bethell and Ian Roxborough (eds.), Latin America between the Second World
War and the Cold War, 194448 (Cambridge, Eng., 1992) is a recent
analysis and synthesis of the postSecond World War conjuncture in
Brazil.
1945-1964
On the economic history of Brazil during the years following the Second
World War, besides Baer, The Brazilian Economy; Abreu (ed.), A Ordem do
progresso, chaps. 48, Goldsmith, Brasil 18501984, chap. 5, Wirth,
Politics of Brazilian Development, and Draibe, Rumos e metamorfoses, cited
above, the following are important: Pedro Malan, 'Relagoes economicas
internacionais do Brasil, 194564', Histdria geral da civilizagdo brasileira
III, vol. 4; Pedro Malan and Regis Bonelli, 'The success of growth policies
in Brazil 1950-80]' in Sim6n Teitel (ed.), Towards a New Development
Strategy for Latin America (Washington, D.C., 1992); Maria de Conceicjio
Tavares, 'Growth and decline of the process of import substitution in
Brazil', ECLA, Economic Bulletin for Latin America, 1 (March 1964); Carlos
Lessa, 'Fifteen years of economic policy in Brazil', Economic Bulletin for
Latin America, 2 (December 1964); EugenioGudin, 'The chief characteris-
tics of the postwar economic development in Brazil', in H. Ellis, (ed.) The
Economy of Brazil (Berkeley, 1969); Werner Baer, Industrialisation and Eco-
nomic Development in Brazil (Homewood, 111., 1965); Nathaniel H. Leff,
Economic Policy-Making and Development in Brazil, 194164 (New York,
1968) and The Brazilian Capital Goods Industry, 19291964 (Cambridge,
Eng., 1968); Joel Bergsman, Brazil, Industrialisation and Trade Policies
(Cambridge, Eng., 1970); RaoufKahil, Inflation and Economic Development
in Brazil, 194663 (Oxford, 1973); and Robert T. Daland, Brazilian
Planning: Development Policies and Administration (Chapel Hill, N.C.,
1967). On the economic problems of the north-east, see S. H. Robock,
Brazil's Developing North East: A Study of Regional Planning and Foreign Aid
(Washington, D.C., 1963); Riordan Roett, The Politics of Foreign Aid in the
Brazilian Northeast (Nashville, Tenn., 1972); and Albert O. Hirschman,
'Brazil's northeast', in his Journeys towards Progress: Studies in Economic Policy
Making in Latin America (New York, 1973).
The postwar period is rich in economic ideas and ideologies, with
varying impact on economic policy and performance. See, for example,
Miriam Limoeiro Cardoso, Ideologia do desenvolvimento, Brasil: JK-JQ (Rio

de Janeiro, 1978); Lourdes Sola, 'The political and ideological constraints

on economic management in Brazil, 19451963' (unpublished D.Phil,
thesis, University of Oxford, 1982); Ricardo Bielschowsky, Pensamento
economico brasileiro: 0 ciclo ideologico do desenvolvimentismo (Rio de Janeiro,
1988) and 'Ideologia y desarrollo: Brasil, 19301964', Revista de la
CEPAL, 45 (1991), 15577; a n d Kathryn Sikkink, Ideas and Institutions:
Developmenialism in Brazil and Argentina (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991).
On the political history of Brazil in the postwar period, besides Skid-
more, Politics in Brazil, Flynn, Brazil: A Political Analysis, and Schneider,
'Order and Progress': A Political History of Brazil, cited above, see, in particu-
lar, Maria do Carmo Campello de Souza, Estado e partidos politicos no Brasil
(1930 a 1964) (Sao Paulo, 1976) and 'A democracia populista (1945-64):
Bases e limites', in Alain Rouquie et al., Como renascent as democracias (Sao
Paulo, 1985); Glaucio Ary Dillon Soares, Sociedade e politica no Brasil:
Desenvolvimento, classe, e politica durante a segunda republica (Sao Paulo,
1973); Francisco Weffort, 0 Populismo na politica brasileira (Rio de Janeiro,
1978) and 'Democracia e movimento operario: Algumas questoes para a
historia do periodo 19451964', Revista de Cultura Contemporanea, 11
(July 1978), 12 (January 1979); Phyllis J. Peterson, 'Brazilian political
parties: Formation, organisation and leadership, 19451959' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. thesis, University of Michigan, 1962), and 'Brazil, institu-
tionalized confusion', in M. Needier (ed.), Political Systems of Latin America
(Princeton, N.J., 1964); David V. Fleischer (ed.), Os Partidos politicos no
Brasil, 2 vols., cited above; Olavo Brasil de Lima, Os Partidos politicos
brasileiros: A experiencia federal e regional, 19451964 (Rio de Janeiro,
1983); and Antonio Lavareda, A Democracia nas urnas: 0 processo partiddrio
eleitoral brasileiro (Rio de Janeiro, 1991).
There are excellent histories of the three major political parties of the
period: Maria Victoria Benevides, UDN e udenismo; Lucia Hippolito, De
raposas e reformistas: 0 PSD e a experiencia democratica brasileira (194564)
(Rio de Janeiro, 1985); and Lucilia de Almeida Neves Delgado, PTB: Do
getulismo ao reformismo, 1945-64 (Sao Paulo, 1989). On the UDN, see also
Izabel Fontenelle Picaluga, Partidos, politica e classes sociais: A UDN na
Guanabara (Petropolis, 1980) and Octavio Soares Dulci, A UDN e 0 anti-
populismo no Brasil (Belo Horizonte, 1986). On the PTB, see also Maria
Victoria Benevides, 0 PTB e 0 trabalhismo: Partido e sindicato em Sao Paulo,
194564 (Sao Paulo, 1989); Maria Andrea Loyola, Os Sindicatos e 0 PTB:
Estudo de um caso em Minos Gerais (Petropolis, 1980); and Maria Celina
Soares D'Araujo, 'A Ilusao trabalhista: O PTB de 1945 a 1964' (unpub-

4$. Brazil 853
lished Ph.D. thesis, Instituto Universitario de Pesquisas do Rio de Ja-

neiro, 1989). On the Partido Social Progressista, see Regina Sampaio,
Adhemar de Barros e 0 PSP (Sao Paulo, 1982), and on the Frente do Recife,
Jose Arlindo Soares, A Frente do Recife e 0 governo do Arraes: Nacionalismo em
crise: 19551964 (Sao Paulo, 1982).
On the relationship between the state, the political parties and orga-
nized labour in the postwar period, besides Harding, 'Political history of
organized labor in Brazil', Erickson, Brazilian Corporative State and Work-
ing Class Politics, and other works cited above, Jover Telles, 0 Movimento
sindical no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1962), and Heloisa Helena Teixeira de
Souza Martins, 0 Estado e a burocratizagao do sindicato no Brasil (Sao Paulo,
1979) deserve mention. On interest groups, see Philippe Schmitter, Inter-
est Conflict and Political Change in Brazil (Stanford, Calif, 1971). On the
military, see Stepan, The Military in Politics, part 2; Campos Coelho, Em
busca de identitade; and Frank D. McCann, 'The Brazilian army and the
problem of mission, 19391964', JLAS, 12/1 (1980), 10726.
Brazil's relations with the United States in the period after 1945 have
received close attention from U.S. historians: see, for example, Stanley E.
Hilton, 'The United States, Brazil and the Cold War, 1945-1960: End of
the special relationship', Journal of American History, 68/3 (1981), 599
624; Gerald K. Haines, The Americanization of Brazil: A Study of United
States Cold War Diplomacy in the Third World, 1945-54 (Wilmington,
Del., 1989); Elizabeth A. Cobbs, The Rich Neighbor Policy: Rockefeller and
Kaiser in Brazil (New Haven, Conn., 1992); and W. Michael Weis, Cold
Warriors and Coups d'Etat: BrazilianAmerican Relations, 19451964 (Albu-
querque, N.Mex., 1993). John W. F. Dulles, Carlos Lacerda: Brazilian
Crusader, Vol. I, The Years 1914-1960 (Austin, Tex., 1991) is the first of
a projected two-volume biography of one of the period's most controversial
political figures.
There is no general study of the Dutra administration (194651) nor
scholarly biography of Dutra, but see Mauro R. Leite and Novelli Junior,
Marechal Eurico Dutra: 0 dever da verdade (Rio de Janeiro, 1983). On the
economy, Malan et al., Politica economica externa e industrializacdo no Brasil,
19391952, Sergio Besserman Vianna, 'Politica economica externa e in-
dustrializac,ao: 1946-1951', in Abreu (ed.), A Ordem do progresso, and
Fausto Saretta, 'O Elo perdido: Uma estudo da politica economica do
governo Dutra (1946-1950)' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Universidade
Estadual de Campinas, 1990) are important contributions. On urban
labour in Sao Paulo, see French, The Brazilian Workers' ABC, part 3. John

French, 'Workers and the rise of Adhemarista populism in Sao Paulo,

Brazil', HAHR, 68/1 (1988), 1-43 is an important article.
On the Vargas administration (19514), besides the biographies of
Vargas cited above, see Maria Celina Soares D'Araiijo, 0 Segundo governo
Vargas, 19514: Democracia, partidos e crisepolitka (Rio de Janeiro, 1982);
Adelina Maria Alves Novais e Cruz et al. (eds.), Impasse na democracia
brasileira, 195155: Coletanea de documenios (Rio de Janeiro, 1983); and
Ana Ligia Silva Medeiros and Maria Celina Soares D'Araiijo (eds.), Vargas e
os anos cinquenta: Bibliografia (Rio de Janeiro, 1983) are invaluable. On the
economy, see S. Besserman Vianna, A Politka economka no segundo governo
Vargas (Rio de Janeiro, 1987) and 'Duas tentativas de estabilizacao: 1951-
1954', in Abreu (ed.), A Ordem doprogresso; and Fonesca, Vargas: 0 capital-
ismo em construcao, chap. 6. On the oil question and the creation of
Petrobras, see John Wirth, Politics of Brazilian Development and 'Setting the
Brazilian agenda, 193653', in Wirth (ed.), Latin American Oil Companies
and the Politics of Energy (Lincoln, Nebr., 1985); Peter S. Smith, Oil and
Politics in Modern Brazil (Toronto, 1976); George Philip, Oil and Politics in
Latin America (Cambridge, Eng., 1982), chap. 11; Gabriel Cohn, Petroleo e
nacionalismo (Sao Paulo, 1968); and Martins, Pouvoir et developpement
economique, chap. 6, 'La politique du petrole et la nationalisme'. See also
Martins, chap. 7, 'La creation de la BNDE et la "cooperation interna-
tionale".' Jose Alvaro Moises, Greve de massa e crise politka: Estudo da greve
dos 300 mil em Sao Paulo 195354 (Sao Paulo, 1978) analyses the labour
militancy of 19534. On Brazil's international relations in this period, see
Monica Hirst, 'Ac,ao e pensamento de politica externa brasileira: O
Segundo governo Vargas', mimeo (Rio de Janeiro, 1982). On the crisis
leading to the suicide of Getiilio Vargas in August 1954, see J. V. D.
Saunders, 'A revolution of agreement among friends: The end of the
Vargas era', HAHR, 44/2 (1964), 197213; Helio Silva, 1954: Urn tiro no
coracdo (Rio de Janeiro, 1978); and Armando Boito Junior, 0 golpede 1954:
A burgesia contra 0 populismo (Sao Paulo, 1982).
On the Kubitscheck administration (195661), see Maria Victoria
Benevides, 0 Governo Kubitscbek: Desenvolvimento economico e estabilidade po-
litica, 1956-61 (Rio de Janeiro, 1976), Angela de Castro Gomes (ed.), 0
Brasil de JK (Rio de Janeiro, 1991), and Robert J. Alexander, Juscelino
Kubitscbek and the Development of Brazil (Athens, Ohio, 1991). Specifically
on the economy, see also Celso Lafer, 'The planning process and the
political system in Brazil: A study of Kubitschek's target plan' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. thesis, Cornell University, 1970); Luiz Orenstein and Anto-

43- Brazil 855
nio Claudio Sochaczewski, 'Democracia com desenvolvimento: 195661'
in Abreu (ed.), A Ordem de progresso; and Martins, Pouvoir et developpement
economique, chap. 8, 'L'industrie automobile et le "desenvolvimentismo".'
Edward Anthony Reidinger, Como se faz um presidente: A campanha de JK
(Rio de Janeiro, 1988) examines Kubitsheck's election in 1955 and Shel-
don Maram, 'Juscelino Kubitscheck and the i960 presidential election',
JLAS, 24/1 (1992), 12345, hi s r l e m t n e elections that gave victory to
Janio Quadros five years later.
On the Quadros administration (1961), see Maria Vitoria Benevides, 0
governo Janio Quadros (Sao Paulo, 1981). Vera Chaia, A lideranqa politica de
Janio Quadros (Sao Paulo, 1991) is an interesting study of Quadros's politi-
cal career as a whole; chap. 5 deals with the Quadros presidency. Keith
Larry Storrs, 'Brazil's independent foreign policy, 1961-64' (unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, Cornell University, 1973), is a valuable account of the shift
in Brazilian foreign policy in the early 1960s initiated by Quadros. The
resignation of Quadros in August 1961 remains to be adequately ex-
plained. But see Helio Jaguaribe, 'A Renuncia de Janio Quadros e a crise
politica brasileira', Revista Brasileira de Ciencias Sociais, 1/1 (1961), a clas-
sic contemporary account which has stood the test of time. On the immedi-
ate consequences of the resignation, see Amir Labaki, 1961: A crise da
renuncia e a solugdo parliamentarista (Sao Paulo, 1986).
There is no satisfactory general account of the prolonged political crisis
which began with the resignation of Quadros and culminated in the
overthrow of his constitutional successor by military coup in April 1964,
that is to say, of the Goulart administration (196164). Alfred Stepan,
'Political leadership and regime breakdown: Brazil', in Juan Linz and
Alfred Stepan (eds.), The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes (Baltimore,
1978) offers an excellent, brief analysis. Wanderley Guilherme dos Santos,
'The calculus of conflict: Impasse in Brazilian politics and the crisis of
1964' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, 1974); Port, trans.
Sessenta e quatro: Anatomia da crise (Sao Paulo, 1986), and Argelina Maria
Cheibub Figueiredo, 'Political coalitions in Brazil, 1961^1964: Demo-
cratic alternatives to the political crisis' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Univer-
sity of Chicago, 1987); Port, trans., Democracia ou reformas? Alternativas
democrdticas a crise politica, 1961-1964 (Sao Paulo, 1993) are fundamental,
as is Stepan, Military in Politics, part 3. Rene Dreifuss, 1964: A Conquista
do estado: Aqdo politica, poder e golpe de classe (Petropolis, 1981) is based on
prodigious but somewhat undisciplined research. Also valuable is John W.
F. Dulles, Unrest in Brazil: Civil-Military Conflict, 1955-1964 (Austin,

Tex., 1970). See also Luis Alberto Moniz Bandeira, 0 Governojodo Goulart:
As lutas sociais no Brasil, 1961-1964 (Rio de Janeiro, 1978); Carlos
Castello Branco, Introduqdo a revolugdo de 1964, vol. 1, Agonia dopoder civil,
vol. 2, A Queda dejoao Goulart (Rio de Janeiro, 1975); and Helio Silva,
1964: Golpe ou contragolpe? (Rio de Janeiro, 1975).
On the congressional elections of 1962, see T. Cavalcanti and R.
Dubnic (eds.), Comportamento electoral no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1964) and
a special issue of the Revista Brasileira de Estudos Politkos, 16 (1964). On
the economic problems of the early sixties and their contribution to the
political crisis, see Marcelo de Paiva Abreu, 'Inflac,ao, estagnagao e
ruptura: 196164', in Abreu (ed.), A Ordem do Progresso and Michael
Wallerstein, 'The collapse of democracy in Brazil: Its economic determi-
nants', LARR, 15/5 (1980), 340. On the militancy of organized labour,
see Sergio Amad Costa, 0 CGT e as lutas sindicais brasileiras (1960-64)
(Sao Paulo, 1981) and Lucilia de Almeida Neves Delgado, 0 Comando geral
dos trabalhadores no Brasil, 1961-4 (Belo Horizonte, 1981). On the role of
the church, besides the works of Bruneau and Mainwaring cited above, see
Emanuel de Kadt, Catholic Radicals in Brazil (London, 1970). On peasant
leagues and rural unions in the Northeast, see Clodomiro Moraes, 'Peasant
Leagues in Brazil', in R. Stavenhagen (ed.), Agrarian Problems and Peasant
Movements in Latin America (Garden City, N.Y., 1970); Cynthia Hewitt,
'An analysis of the peasant movement in Pernambuco, Brazil: 1961
1964', in Henry Landsberger (ed.), Latin American Peasant Movements (Ith-
aca, N.Y., 1969); Shepard Forman, 'Disunity and discontent: A study of
peasant political movements in Brazil', in R. Chilcote (ed.), Protest and
Resistance in Angola and Brazil (Berkeley, 1972); Joseph A. Page, The
Revolution That Never Was: Northeast Brazil, 1955-1964 (New York,
1972); Florencia E. Mallon, 'Peasants and rural laborers in Pernambuco,
19551964', LAP, 5/4 (1978), 4970; Fernando Antonio F. Azevedo, As
Ligas camponeses: Campesinato epolitica, 1955-64 (Recife, 1982); and Elide
Rugai Bastos, As Ligas camponesas (Petropolis, 1984). On the coup in the
north-east, see Manuel Correia de Andrade, 1964 e 0 Nordeste: Golpe,
revolugdo ou contrarevolucdo? (Sao Paulo, 1989).
John W. F. Dulles, Castelo Branco: The Making of a Brazilian President
(College Station, Tex., 1978) is the first of a two-volume biography of one
of the key figures in the organisation of the coup who became president on
the overthrow of Goulart. The role of the United States in the coup has
been discussed in Skidmore, Politics in Brazil, Appendix; Phyllis Parker,
Brazil and the Quiet Intervention, 1964 (Austin, Tex., 1979); and Ruth

43- Brazil 857
Leacock, Requiem for Revolution: The United States and Brazil, 1961-9
(Kent, Ohio, 1990).
19641990
On Brazil under military rule (1964-85), Skidmore, The Politics of Mili-
tary Rule in Brazil, and Schneider, 'Order and Progress' A Political History
of Brazil, chaps. 7 and 8, are the best guides (and have the most
comprehensive bibliographical endnotes). Both are essentially political
analyses, with Skidmore stronger than Schneider on the economic and
social aspects of the period. On the politics of presidential succession,
Carlos Chagas, A Guerra das estrelas (1964-84): Os bastidores das sucessoes
presidenciais (Porto Alegre, 1985) has a good deal to offer. On rela-
tions between the federal government and state governments, Antonio
Medeiros, Politics and Intergovernmental Relations in Brazil (New York,
1986) is instructive.
Politics in the years immediately after the coup the presidencies of
Castelo Branco (19647) and Costa e Silva (19679) can be studied in
John W. F. Dulles, President Castelo Branco, Brazilian Reformer (College
Station, Tex., 1980); Luis Viana Filho, 0 Governo Castelo Branco (Rio de
Janeiro, 1975), the best account by an insider; Stepan, Military in Politics,
part 4; Eliezer Rizzo de Oliveira, As Forqas armadas: Politica e ideologia no
Brasil, 1964-69 (Petropolis, 1976); Ronald M. Schneider, The Political
System of Brazil: Emergence of a 'Modernizing' Authoritarian Regime, 1964
1970 (New York, 1971); Georges-Andre Feichter, Le regime modernisateur
du Bresil, 196412 (Geneva, 1972), Eng. trans. Brazil since 1964: Modern-
isation under a Military Regime (New York, 1975); and an important collec-
tion of essays on various aspects of military rule, Alfred Stepan (ed.),
Authoritarian Brazil: Origins, Policy and Future (New Haven, Conn., 1973).
On the first ten to fifteen years of military government including the
repressive Medici administration (196974) and at least the beginning of
the Geisel administration (19749) the following could be added: Barry
Ames, Rhetoric and Reality in a Military Regime: Brazil since 1964 (Beverly
Hills, Calif:, 1975); Lucia Klein and Marcus Figueiredo, Legitimidade e
coagdo no Brasil pos 64 (Rio de Janeiro, 1978); Flynn, Brazil: A Political
Analysis; Alain Rouquie (ed.), Les partis militaires au Bresil (Paris, 1980)
(see in particular the essay by Eliezer Rizzo de Oliveira, 'Conflits militaires
et decisions sous le presidence du General Geisel (1974-1979)'; Philippe
Faucher, Le Bresil des militaires (Montreal, 1981); and Peter McDonough,

Power and Ideology in Brazil (Princeton, N.J., 1981) and 'Mapping an

authoritarian power structure: Brazilian elites during the Medici regime',
LARR, 16/1 (1981), 79-106.
The question of labour control can be approached through Kenneth S.
Mericle, 'Corporatist control of the working class: Authoritarian Brazil
since 1964', in James M. Malloy (ed.), Authoritarianism and Corporatism in
Latin America (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1976) and John Humphrey, Capitalist
Control and Workers' Struggle in the Brazilian Auto Industry (Princeton, N.J.,
1982). On the opposition to the military and the repression it suffered,
Maria Helena Moreira Alves, Estado e oposigao no Brasil, 1964-1984
(Petr6polis, 1984), Eng. trans. State and Opposition in Military Brazil
(Austin, Tex., 1985), remains the most comprehensive account. On the
principal (from 1966 to 1979 the only) opposition party, the MDB/
PMDB, Maria D'Alva Gil Kinzo, Legal Opposition Politics under Authoritar-
ian Rule in Brazil: The MDB, 1966-79 (Oxford, 1988) is excellent. See
also Margaret Sarles Jenks, 'Political parties in authoritarian Brazil' (un-
published Ph.D. thesis, Duke University, 1979) and 'Maintaining control
through political parties: The Brazilian strategy', Comparative Politics, 15/
1 (1982), 4172. On the church under an authoritarian regime, see
Bruneau and Mainwaring cited above.
On political parties and congressional elections under military rule, the
literature is extensive: see Raimundo Pereira et al., Eleigoes no Brasilpos 64
(Rio de Janeiro, 1984); David V. Fleischer, Os Partidospoliticos, cited above,
and 'Constitutional and electoral engineering in Brazil: A double edged
sword, 1964-1982', Inter-American Economic Affairs, 37/4(1984); Bolivar
Lamounier and Fernando Henrique Cardoso (eds.), Os Partidos e as eleigoes no
Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 197 5); Fundagao Milton Campos, As Eleigoes nacionais
de 1978, 2 vols. (Brasilia, 1979); Bolivar Lamounier (ed.), Voto de
desconfianga: Eleigoes e mundanga politica no Brasil, 19701979 (Petr6polis,
1980); David Fleischer (ed.), Da distensao a abertura: as eleigoes de 1982
(Brasilia, 1988); Wanderley Guilherme dos Santos, Crise e castigo: Partidos e
generals na politica brasileira (Sao Paulo, 1987); and special issues of the
Revista Brasileira de Estudos Politicos: 23I24 (1967-8) on the 1966 elections;
43 (1976) on the 1974 elections; 51 (1980) on the 1978 elections; and 57
(1983) on the 1982 elections. And on the municipal elections of 1976,
Fabio Wanderley Reis (ed.), Os Partidos e 0 regime: A logica deprocesso eleitoral
brasileiro (Sao Paulo, 1978) is a useful study.
The state and especially the economic role of the state during the period
of military rule has attracted a good deal of attention. See, in particular,

43- Brazil 859
Peter Evans, Dependent Development: The Alliance of Multinational, State and
Local Capital in Brazil (Princeton, N.J., 1979); Luciano Martins, Estado
capitalista e burocracia no Brasil pos 64 (Rio de Janeiro, 1985); Christian
Anglade, 'Brazil', in C. Anglade and C. Fortfn (eds.), The State and
Capital Accumulation in Latin America, vol. I, Brazil, Chile, Mexico (Lon-
don, 1985); Thomas J. Trebat, Brazil's State-Owned Enterprises: A Case
Study of the State as Entrepreneur (New York, 1983); and Ben Ross
Schneider, Politics within the State: Elite Bureaucrats and Industrialization
Policy in Authoritarian Brazil (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1992).
Economic policy and performance is best approached through Baer, The
Brazilian Economy and Abreu (ed.), A Ordem doprogresso. But see also Malan
and Bonelli, 'The success of growth policies in Brazil' in Teitel (ed.),
Towards a New Development Strategy for Latin America. On economic
stabilisation in the aftermath of the 1964 coup, see Andre Lara Rezende,
'Estabilizac.ao e reforma, 1964-7', in Abreu (ed.), A Ordem doprogresso and
'A Politica brasileira de estabilizagao, 1963-8', Pesquisa e Planejamento Eco-
nomico, 12/3 (1982); Howard S. Ellis (ed.), The Economy of Brazil (Berkeley,
!969); Donald E. Syvrud, Foundations of Brazilian Economic Growth (Stan-
ford, Calif., 1974); Werner Baer and Isaac Kerstenetzky, 'The Brazilian
economy in the 1960s', in Riordan Roett (ed.), Brazil in the 1960s (Nash-
ville, Tenn., 1972); and Albert Fishlow, 'Some reflections on post-1964
Brazilian economic policy', in Stepan (ed.), Authoritarian Brazil. On the
'economic miracle' associated in particular with the Medici administration
(196974), see Luiz Aranha Correa do Lago, 'A Retomada do crescimento e
as distorgoes do "milagre", 196773' in Abreu (ed.), A Ordem doprogresso;
Jos Roberto Mendonga de Barros and Douglas H. Graham, 'The Brazilian
economic miracle revisited: Private and public sector initiative in a market
economy', LARR, 13/2 (1978), 5-38;EdmarBacha, OsMitosdeuma dkada:
Ensaios de economia brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1978). On the Brazilian econ-
omy between the oil shocks (that is to say, during the Geisel administration,
1974-9), s e e Dionisio Dias Carneiro, 'Crise e esperanga, 1974-80', in
Abreu (ed.), A Ordem do progresso; Sebastiao C. Velasco e Cruz, 'Estado e
planejamento no Brasil, 1974-76', Estudos CEBRAP, 27 (1980); and, most
important, Antonio Barros de Castro and Francisco Pires de Souza, A
Economia brasileira em marcha forgada (Rio de Janeiro, 1985). Also see Edmar
Bacha, 'Choques externas e perspective de crescimento: O caso do Brasil,
1973-79', Pesquisa e Planejamento Economico, 14I3 (1984); and Albert
Fishlow, 'A Economia politica de ajustamento brasileiro aos choques do
petr61eo: Uma nota sobre o periodo 1974-84', Pesquisa e Planejamento Eco-

86o VII. Economy, society, politics, 1930 to c. 1990
nomico, 16/3 (1986) and 'A tale of two presidents: The political economy of
crisis management', in A. Stepan (ed.), Democratizing Brazil: Problems of
Transition and Consolidation (New York, 1989).
On the growth of the external debt leading to the debt crisis, see Sergio
Goldenstein, A Divida externa brasileira, 1964-1982. Evolucao e crise (Rio
de Janeiro, 1986); Dionisio Dias Carneiro and Eduardo Modiano, 'Ajuste
externa e disequiiibrio interno, 1980-84', in Abreu (ed.), A Ordem do
progresso; Jeffry Frieden, 'The Brazilian borrowing experience from miracle
to debacle and back', LARR, 22/1 (1978), 95-131; and Edmar L. Bacha
and Pedro S. Malan, 'Brazil's debt: From the miracle to the Fund', in
Stepan (ed.), Democratizing Brazil.
The literature on the opening up of Amazonia, principally during the
period of military rule, is extensive. Besides Foweraker, The Struggle for
Land, cited above, see, for example, Denis J. Mahar, Frontier Development
Policy in Brazil: A Study of Amazonia (New York, 1979); Shelton H. Davis,
Victims of the Miracle: Development and the Indians of Brazil (New York,
1977); Emilio Moran, 'An assessment of a decade of colonisation in the
Amazon Basin', in J. Hemming (ed.), The Frontier after a Decade of Co-
lonisation (Manchester, Eng., 1985); Marianne Schmink and Charles H.
Wood (eds.), Frontier Expansion in Amazonia (Gainesville, Fla., 1984) and
Schmink and Wood, Contested Frontiers in Amazonia (New York, 1992);
Stephen G. Bunker, Underdeveloping the Amazon (Urbana, 111., 1985); and
Sue Branford and O. Glock, The Last Frontier: Fighting over Land in the
Amazon (London, 1985). A number of works by Jose de Souza Martins
examine the land question more broadly: Expropriagao e violencia: A questao
politica no campo (Sao Paulo, 1980); Os Camponeses e a politka no Brasil: As
lutas sociais no campo e seu lugar no processo politico (Petropolis, 1981); and A
Militarizaqao da questao agrdria no Brasil (Petr6polis, 1984).
The most comprehensive analysis of social change during the years
196485 can be found in Edmar L. Bacha and Herbert S. Klein (eds.), A
transiqdo incompleta: Brasil desde 1945, 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1986), Eng.
trans. Social Change in Brazil, 19458$: The Incomplete Transition (Albu-
querque, N.Mex., 1989); particularly valuable are chapters by Jose Pas-
tore on inequality, Helga Hoffmann on poverty, Claudio de Moura Castro
on education, William P. McGreevey and others on health, Thomas W.
Merrick on population, Vilmar Faria on social stratification, David Good-
man on rural society, and Martin T. Katzman on urban growth. See also
Wanderley Guilherme dos Santos, 'A Pos-revolucao brasileira' in Helio
Jaguaribe et al., Brasil, sociedade democratica (Rio de Janeiro, 1985); Vilmar

43- Brazil 861
Faria, 'Desenvolvimento, urbanizagao e mudancas na estructura do em-

prego: A experiencia brasileira dos ultimos trinta anos', in Bernardo Sorj
and Maria Herminia Tavares de Almeida (eds.), Sociedade epolitica no Brasil
pos 64 (Sao Paulo, 1983); Samuel A. Morley, Labor Markets and Inequitable
Growth: The Case of Authoritarian Capitalism in Brazil (Cambridge, Eng.,
1982); and Charles H. Wood and Jose Alberto Magno de Carvalho, The
Demography of Inequality in Brazil (Cambridge, Eng., 1988). On the ques-
tion of race in Brazilian society and politics, see Pierre-Michel Fontaine
(ed.), Race, Class and Power in Brazil (Los Angeles, 1985) and the conclud-
ing chapters of George Reid Andrews, Blacks and Whites in Sao Paulo,
Brazil, 1888-1988 (Madison, Wis., 1991).
On relations between the military regime and the United States, see
Robert Wesson, The United States and Brazil: Limits of Influence (New York,
1981) and Andrew J. Hurrell, 'The quest for autonomy: The evolution of
Brazil's role in the international system, 1964-1985' (unpublished
D.Phil, thesis, Oxford, 1986). See also Wayne A. Selcher, Brazil in the
International System: The Rise of a Middle Power (Boulder, Colo., 1981).
The liberalisation of the military regime under Presidents Geisel and
Figueiredo (197985) and the transition first to civilian rule (1985) then
to democracy (1990) is the subject of a large number of books and articles:
see, for example, Thomas E. Skidmore, 'Brazil's slow road to demo-
cratisation, 19741985' in Stepan (ed.), Democratizing Brazil; Sebastiao
C. Velasco e Cruz and Carlos Estevam Martins, 'De Castelo a Figueiredo:
Uma incursao na pre-historia de "abertura" ', in Sorj and Tavares de
Almeida (eds.), Sociedade e politica no Brasil pos 64; M. F. Figueiredo and J.
A. B. Cheibub, 'A Abertura politica de 1973 a 1981: Quern disse o que,
quando - inventario de urn debate', Boletim Informativo e Bibliogrdfico de
Ciencias Sociais, 14 (1982); Bolivar Lamounier and Alkimar R. Moura,
'Economic policy and political opening in Brazil', in J. Hartlyn and
Samuel A. Morley (eds.), Latin American Political Economy: Financial Crisis
and Political Change (Boulder, Colo., 1986); Luciano Martins, 'The "lib-
eralisation" of authoritarian rule in Brazil', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Phi-
lippe C. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authori-
tarian Rule: Latin America (Baltimore, 1986); Alfred Stepan, Os Militares:
Da abertura a Nova Republica (Rio de Janeiro, 1986) and Rethinking Mili-
tary Politics. Brazil and the Southern Cone (Princeton, N.J., 1988); Wayne
A. Selcher (ed.), Political Liberalization in Brazil: Dynamics, Dilemmas and
Future Prospects (Boulder, Colo., 1986); David Fleischer (ed.), Da distensao
a abertura, cited above; Fleischer, 'Brazil at the crossroads: The elections of

1982 and 1985' and Glaucio Ary Dillon Soares, 'Elections and the
redemocratisation of Brazil', in Paul W. Drake and Eduardo Silva (eds.),
Elections and Democratization in Latin America, 19801985 (San Diego,
Calif., 1986); William C. Smith, 'The political transition in Brazil: From
authoritarian liberalisation and elite conciliation to democratisation', in E.
Baloyra (ed.), Comparing New Democracies: Dilemmas of Transition and Consoli-
dation in Mediterranean Europe and the Southern Cone (Boulder, Colo., 1987);
and Silvio R. Duncan Baretta and John Markoff, 'Brazil's abertura: A
transition from what to what?', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A.
Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transitions in Latin
America (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1987).
On the role of the Partido dos Trabalhadores, see Rachel Meneguello,
PT: Aformacdo de um partido, 19^^-1^82 (Sao Paulo, 1989) and Margaret
E. Keck, The Workers Party and Democratization in Brazil (New Haven,
Conn., 1992); on that of the new unions, see Maria Herminia Tavares de
Almeida, 'Novo sindicalismo and politics in Brazil', in John D. Wirth,
Edson de Oliveira Nunes and Thomas E. Bogenschild (eds.), State and Soci-
ety in Brazil: Continuity and Change (Boulder, Colo., 1987) and Margaret E.
Keck, 'The new unionism in the Brazilian transition', in Stepan (ed.),
Democratizing Brasil; on that of women's movements, see Sonia E. Alvarez,
'Women's movements and gender politics in the Brazilian transition', in
Jane S. Jaquette (ed.), The Women's Movement in Latin America: Feminism and
the Transition to Democracy (Boston, 1989) and Engendering Democracy in
Brazil: Women's Movements in Transition Politics (Princeton, N.J., 1990).
On the early years of the Nova Repiiblica (1985- ), its economic
problems and the consolidation of democracy leading to the election of
Fernando Collor de Mello in 1989, it is too early for considered judgment.
But see Eduardo Modiano, 'A Opera das tres cruzados, 1985-9', in Abreu
(ed.), A Ordem deprogresso; Werner Baer and Paul Beckerman, 'The decline
and fall of Brazil's cruzado', LARR, 24/1 (1989), 35-64; Lourdes Sola
(ed.), 0 Estado da transicao: Politica e economia na Nova Repiiblica (Sao Paulo,
1988) and 'Heterodox shock in Brazil: Tecnicos, politicians and democ-
racy', JLAS, 23/1 (1991), 163-95; G. O'Donnell and Fabio Wanderley
Reis (eds.), A Democracia no Brasil: Dilemas eperspectivas (Sao Paulo, 1988);
J. A. MoisesandJ. A. Guilhon Albuquerque (eds.), Dilemas da consolidacdo
da democracia (Rio de Janeiro, 1989); Eli Diniz, Renato Boschi and Renato
Lessa (eds.), Democracia no Brasil: Dilemas da Nova Repiiblica (Sao Paulo,
1989); Stepan (ed.), Democratizing Brazil; and Bolivar Lamounier (ed.), De
Geisel a Collor: 0 balanco da transigdo (Sao Paulo, 1990).

VIII
IDEAS IN LATIN AMERICA
SINCE INDEPENDENCE
i. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL IDEAS,

1 8 3 0 - 1930
The principal sources for the study of political and social ideas in Latin
America in the century after independence are the writings of the
pensadores, those Latin American intellectual leaders who were in part men
of letters, in part journalists, in part social or political theorists, and most
often also politicians or bureaucrats. They were rarely professional aca-
demic scholars, in the present-day sense, and they lacked the leisure, the
library resources and the training to engage in extensive empirical re-
search. Thus, the pensadores were not isolated thinkers; they were usually
respected and influential public figures. Though spokesmen for the estab-
lishment received most attention in the chapter by Frank Safford, 'Politics,
ideology and society in postindependence Spanish America,' in CHLA III
and in the chapter by Charles Hale, 'Political and social ideas in Latin
America, 18701930,' in CHLA IV, dissenters, both inside and outside
the governing group, were also treated. Moreover, since Latin American
thought cannot be considered in isolation from Europe, frequent reference
was made to European intellectual and political currents. Limitations of
space dictate that only the secondary literature on Latin America be dis-
cussed in this essay. See also, for the period c. 1820 to c. 1870, essay V:2.
Three principal bibliographical problems were encountered in preparing
this essay. The first is the paucity of general, and particularly comparative,
studies which go beyond national boundaries and/or which treat the years
1830 to 1930 as a whole. Especially scarce are studies that compare ideas in
Spanish America and Brazil. The second problem is the lack of bio-
bibliographical studies, even on major figures. To analyse ideas in context,
it is essential to establish the genesis and publication history of specific
863

864 VIII. Ideas since independence
texts, which can be complex. Books usually appeared first as articles or

speeches and often reappeared several times in slightly revised form. One
welcomes such painstaking works as Jose Ignacio Mantecon Navasal et al.,
Bibliografia general de don Justo Sierra (Mexico, D.F., 1969), Peter J.
Sehlinger, 'El desarrollo intelectual y la influencia de Valentin Letelier: Un
estudio bibliografico', Revista Chilena de Historia y Geografia, 136 (1968),
25084, and Guiiiermo Rouillon, Bio-bibliografia deJose Carlos Maridtegui
(Lima, 1963), just as one laments the lack of similar works for other
figures, such as Ingenieros, Molina Enriquez, or Oliveira Vianna.
The third bibliographical problem is that the analysis of political and
social ideas does not fall into an established category of scholarship. It
must draw on both the study of the literary and philosophic essay by
humanists, and of political elites, social movements and ideologies by
social-science-oriented historians. Not only do the two groups often em-
phasize different intellectuals, but the former tend to be less concerned
with political and social context and the latter less concerned with the
analysis of ideas themselves. Moreover, their respective inquiries are often
guided by distinct questions and methodological assumptions.
Probably the two best general studies of ideas, both by humanists who
do have a sense of historical context, are Alberto Zum Felde, Indice critico de
la literatura hispanoamericana: Los ensayistas (Mexico, D.F., 1954), and
Martin S. Stabb, In Quest of Identity: Patterns in the Spanish American Essay of
Ideas, 1890-1960 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1967). It is lamentable that nei-
ther work has been reprinted. For the nineteenth century, Leopoldo Zea,
Dos etapas del pensamiento en hispanoamerica (Mexico, D.F., 1949), Eng.
trans., The Latin American Mind (Norman, Okla., 1963), is valuable,
despite the author's philosophical opposition to historical detachment.
The only general synthesis that treats Brazil and Spanish America is Jean
Franco, The Modern Culture of Latin America: Society and the Artist, 2nd ed.
(Harmondsworth, 1970). Francois Bourricaud, 'The adventures of Ariel',
Daedalus, 101 (1972), 10936 offers numerous insights. The standard
manual of pensadores is William R. Crawford, A Century of Latin American
Thought (Cambridge, Mass., 1961; rev. ed., New York, 1966); also useful
is Harold E. Davis, Latin American Thought: A Historical Introduction (Baton
Rouge, La., 1972; 2nd ed., New York, 1974). A superb, comprehensive
essay treating educational ideas from the sixteenth to the twentieth cen-
tury is Mario Gongora, 'Origin and philosophy of the Spanish American
university', in Joseph Maier and Richard W. Weatherhead (eds.), The
Latin American University (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1979), 1764. Several

i. Political and social ideas, 18301930 865
penetrating essays by Tulio Halperin Donghi that treat ideas are reprinted
in El espejo de la historia: Problemas argentino y perspectivas latinoamericanas
(Buenos Aires, 1987). No student of ideas can overlook the challenging
essay by Benedict Anderson, which touches occasionally on Latin Amer-
ica, Imagined Communities: Reflection on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism
(London, 1983).
Other comparative studies that touch tangentially on ideas include Carl
Solberg, Immigration and Nationalism in Argentina and Chile, 18901914
(Austin, Tex., 1970), Hobart A. Spalding, Jr., Organized Labor in Latin
America (New York, 1977), and Thomas E. Skidmore, 'Workers and sol-
diers: Urban labor movements and elite responses in twentieth-century
Latin America', in Virginia Bernhard (ed.)> Elites, Masses, and Moderniza-
tion in Latin America, 1 8301930 (Austin, Tex., 1979). Though not
explicitly comparative, J. Lloyd Mecham, Church and State in Latin Amer-
ica (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1934), remains a standard guide. The work of
Claudio Veliz, most recently The Centralist Tradition of Latin America
(Princeton, N.J., 1980), has proved valuable despite his one-dimensional
view of liberalism. On corporatism, see the essays by Philippe C.
Schmitter and Ronald C. Newton in Fredrick B. Pike and Thomas Stritch
(eds.), The New Corporatism (Notre Dame, Ind., 1974), and James M.
Malloy's introduction to Malloy (ed.), Authoritarianism and Corporatism in
Latin America (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1977).
Substantive national coverage in this essay is limited to Argentina,
Brazil, Chile, Mexico and Peru. Among the few national studies that are
general in scope, see, for Argentina, Jose Luis Romero, Las ideaspoliticas en
Argentina, 3rd ed. (Buenos Aires, 1959), Eng. trans. Argentine Political
Thought (Stanford, Calif., 1963), and more particularly Eldesarrollo de las
ideas en la sociedad argentina del sigh xx (Mexico, D.F., 1965). Alejandro
Korn, Influenciasfilosoficasen la evolucion nacional (Buenos Aires, 1936) is a
primary source that can also be used as an authority. Academia Nacional
de la Historia, Historia argentina contempordnea, 18621930, 2 vols. (Bue-
nos Aires, 1963) is a valuable reference work for the non-specialist. David
Rock, Politics in Argentina, 18901930: The Rise and Fall of Radicalism
(Cambridge, Eng., 1975) is fundamental. Since most Argentine intellec-
tual expression took place in the capital, James R. Scobie, Buenos Aires:
From Plaza to Suburb, 18701910 (New York, 1974) is invaluable. On
Brazil, see T. E. Skidmore's Black into White: Race and Nationality in
Brazilian Thought (New York, 1974), Joao Cruz Costa, A History of Ideas in
Brazil (Berkeley, 1964), Richard Graham, Britain and the Onset of Modern-

ization in Brazil, 18501914 (Cambridge, Eng., 1968), and more re-

cently Emilia Viotti da Costa, The Brazilian Empire: Myths and Histories
(Chicago, 1985). For Chile, Fredrick B. Pike, Chile and the United States
(Notre Dame, Ind., 1963) treats ideas and politics comprehensively and
includes prolific notes for further study. Also an essential work is Mario
G6ngora, Ensayo historico sobre la nocion de estado en Chile en los siglos xix y xx
(Santiago, Chile, 1986). On Peru, La literatura politica de Gonzalez Prada,
Maridtegui y Haya de la Torre (Mexico, D.F., 1957) by Eugenio Chang-
Rodriguez is a thorough study of ideas. F. B. Pike, The Modern History of
Peru (New York, 1967) is a good reference, as is Jorge Basadre's monumen-
tal Historia de la republica del Peru, 5th ed., 6 vols. (Lima, 1961-2).
More specific works that are useful include, for Argentina, the studies
of university reform by Richard J. Walter, Student Politics in Argentina
(New York, 1968) and 'The intellectual background of the 1918 univer-
sity reform in Argentina', HAHR, 49/2 (1969), 23353. H. Spalding's
brief 'Sociology in Argentina', in Ralph L. Woodward (ed.), Positivism in
Latin America, 1850-1900 (Boston, 1971), makes some interesting
points. Sandra McGee Deutsch, Counterrevolution in Argentina, 1900
1932: The Argentine Patriotic League (Lincoln, Nebr., 1986) breaks new
ground in treating the political Right of the 1920s. For the Uruguayan
Jose E. Rodo, Gordon Brotherston's introduction to his edition of Ariel
(Cambridge, Eng., 1967) is excellent.
On Brazil Fernando Azevedo, Brazilian Culture (New York, 1950) is
valuable for positivist educational thought. See also Robert G. Nachman,
'Positivism, modernization, and the middle class in Brazil', HAHR, -j-jli
(1977), 123. Robert Conrad's English edition of, and commentary on,
Joaquim Nabuco, Abolitionism (Urbana, 111., 1977), is a boon to the non-
expert. Richard Graham, 'Landowners and the overthrow of the empire',
L-BR, 1 (1970), 44-56, places abolitionist ideas in social and political
context, and his 'Joaquim Nabuco, conservative historian', L-BR, 17
(1980), 1-16 is valuable, despite some doubts about his use of the label
'conservative'. W. Douglas McLain, Jr., 'Alberto Torres, ad hoc national-
ist', L-BR, 4 (1967), 17-34, i s a useful precis of ideas, though the best
study is now Adalberto Marson, A ideologia nacionalista em Alberto Torres
(Sao Paulo, 1979). Joseph L. Love illuminates the political system of the
Old Republic in Rio Grande do Sul and Brazilian Regionalism, 1882-1930
Chilean sources are varied. Alejandro Fuenzalida Grand6n, Lastarria y
su tiempo (Santiago, Chile, 1893) and Luis Galdames, Valentin Letelier y su

i. Political and social ideas, 1830-1930 867
obra (Santiago, Chile, 1937) are intellectual biographies by disciples.

Ricardo Donoso, Las ideas politicas en Chile (Mexico, D. F., 1946) covers
the pre-1891 period. Simon Collier, 'The historiography of the "Portalian"
period (1830-1891) in Chile', HAHR, 57/4 (1977), 660-90, is an excel-
lent guide. Allen Woll treats several facets of the change in ideas in A
Functional Past: The Uses of History in Nineteenth-Century Chile (Baton
Rouge, La., 1982), and Ivan Jaksic, Academic Rebels in Chile: The Role of
Philosophy in Higher Education and Politics (Albany, N.Y., 1989) focuses on
the special significance of formal philosophy. A good reference for political
events of the pre-1891 era is Francisco A. Encina, Historia de Chile, 20
vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1941-52). Harold Blakemore, British Nitrates and
Chilean Politics, 18861896: Balmaceda andNorth (London, 1974) is indis-
pensable for its period, as is Julio Heise Gonzalez, Historia de Chile: El
periodoparlamentario, 18611925, 1 (Santiago, Chile, 1974), for the twen-
tieth century. On the important topic of German influence in Chile, see
Jean-Pierre Blancpain, Les Allemands au Chile 18161945 (Cologne,
1974) and William W. Sywak, 'Values in nineteenth-century Chilean
education: The Germanic reform of Chilean public education, 1885
1910' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los An-
geles, 1977). Arnold J. Bauer provides a valuable characterization of the
Chilean elite around 1910 in Chilean Rural Society from the Spanish Conquest
to 1930 (Cambridge, Eng., 1975). Brian Loveman's Chile: The Legacy of
Hispanic Capitalism (New York, 1979), gives the non-specialist a good
sense of the social bases of politics in the twentieth century. Frederick M.
Nunn properly stresses the role of the military in Chilean Politics, 1920-
1931: The Honorable Mission of the Armed Forces (Albuquerque, N.Mex.,
1970). Julio Cesar Jobet, Luis Emilio Recabarren (Santiago, 1955) is a
sympathetic treatment. James O. Morris, Elites, Intellectuals, and Consen-
sus. A Study of the Social Question and the Industrial Relations System in Chile
(Ithaca, 1966), is an authoritative study of the Labour Code of 1924.
For late-nineteenth-century ideas in Mexico, see Charles A. Hale, The
Transformation of Liberalism in Late NineteenthCentury Mexico (Princeton,
N J . , 1989). Leopoldo Zea, El positivismo en Mexico, 3rd ed. (Mexico, D.F.,
1968) is a standard work, but should be complemented by W. Dirk Raat,
El positivismo durante el Porfiriato (Mexico, D.F., 1975). Moises Gonzalez
Navarro, Sociologia e historia en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1970) is a ready
summary of the ideas of several leading intellectual figures. On Justo
Sierra, see Claude Dumas, Justo Sierra et le Mexique de son temps, 3 vols.
(Lille, 1975). M. S. Stabb, 'Indigenism and racism in Mexican thought:

18571911', JIAS, 1 (1959), 40523 elucidates the subject. Daniel

Cosio Villegas et al., Historia moderna de Mexico (9 vols. in 10; Mexico,
D.F., 195572) is an indispensable reference. Among the many essential
works of Alan Knight, one particularly relevant to this essay is 'El liberal-
ismo mexicano desde la reforma hasta la revolucion (una interpretacion),'
HM, 35 (1985), 5991. Several important essays on Mexican political
culture can be found in David Brading, Prophery and Myth in Mexican
History (Cambridge, Eng., 1984), and approached quite differently in the
major work by Frangois-Xavier Guerra, Le Mexique de I'ancien regime a la
revolution, 2 vols. (Paris, 1985; Spanish ed., 2 vols., Mexico, D.F., 1988).
On the Ateneo group, Juan Hernandez Luna's introduction to Conferencias
del Ateneo de la Juventud (Mexico, D . F , 1962) and Patrick Romanell's
philosophical The Making of the Mexican Mind, 2nd ed. (South Bend, Ind.,
1967) are useful. Enrique Krauze, Caudillos culturales en la revolucion mexi-
cana (Mexico, D.F., 1976) illuminates the intellectual generation of 1915,
and Henry C. Schmitt, The Roots ofLo Mexicano: Self and Society in Mexican
Thought, J9001934 (College Station, Tex., 1978) highlights the ambigu-
ous relation between social reform and humanism. John Womack's Zapata
and the Mexican Revolution (New York, 1969) is unsurpassed. James D.
Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors of the Mexican Revolution, 19001913 (Aus-
tin, Tex., 1968) and John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working
Class, i8601931 (Austin, Tex., 1978), are complementary works on
anarchism and the PLM. Ramon E. Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolu-
tionaries: Mexico, 1911-1923 (Baltimore, 1976) elucidates government
policy, as does Barry Carr, 'The Casa del Obrero Mundial, Constitu-
cionalismo and the Pact of February 1915', in El trabajoy los trabajadores en
la historia de Mexico (Mexico, D . F , and Tucson, Ariz., 1979), 60332.
On the development of social thought after 1910, see Alan Knight,
'Racism, revolution, and indigenismo: Mexico, 19101940,' in Richard
Graham (ed.), The Idea of Race in Latin America, 18101940 (Austin,
Tex., 1990), 71 113; David Brading, 'Manuel Gamio and official
indigenismo in Mexico,' BLAR, 7 (1988), 7589; and Cynthia Hewitt de
Alcantara, Anthropological Perspectives on Rural Mexico (London, 1984). Jean
Meyer revises much of the history of the 191030 era in La revolution
mexicaine (Paris, 1973), emphasizing the growth of the revolutionary
state. Arnaldo Cordova, La ideologta de la revolucion mexicana (Mexico,
D.F., 1973) is a stimulating interpretation from the Left. Another ap-
proach to the authoritarian state is Peter H. Smith, Labyrinths of Power:
Political Recruitment in Twentieth-Century Mexico (Princeton, N.J., 1979).

2. The multiverse of identity, c.i920-c. 1970 869
Besides the general works on Peru, J. Basadre's essay on Francisco Garcia
Calderon in the anthology En torno al Peru y America (Lima, 1954) is
superb. Jesus Chavarria, Jose Carlos Maridtegui and the Rise of Modern Peru,
18901930 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1979), illuminates the national con-
text for Mariategui's thought; John M. Baines, Revolution in Peru: Ma-
ridtegui and the Myth (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1972), the European sources. Peter
F. Klaren, Modernization, Dislocation, and Aprismo: Origins of the Peruvian
Aprista Party, 18701932 (Austin, Tex., 1973) is a model study, emphasiz-
ing Aprismo's tie with the Trujillo region. Thomas M. Davies, Jr., 'The
indigenismo of the Peruvian Aprista party: A reinterpretation', HAHR,
51/4 (1971), 626-45, is a critical analysis, as is Frangois Chevalier, 'Offi-
cial indigenismo in Peru in 1920', in Magnus Morner (ed.), Race and Class in
Latin America (New York, 1970), 184-96. Steve Stein, Populism in Peru:
The Emergence of the Masses and the Politics of Social Control (Madison, Wis.,
1980) provides excellent context for understanding Haya de la Torre.
Robert J. Alexander (ed.), Aprismo: The Ideas and Doctrines of Victor Raul
Haya de la Torre (Kent, Ohio, 1973) is a useful English version of the key
texts, together with an uncritical study of Haya. On the ideas of the Latin
American Left in the first decades of the twentieth century, see essay VII:9.
2. T H E MULTIVERSE OF LATIN A M E R I C A N
I D E N T I T Y , c. 1 9 2 0 - c . 1970
A deeply imaginative reflection on the character of cultural expression in

the Americas, presented by historical eras, is La expresion americana by the
noted Cuban writer Jose Lezama Lima, first published in Havana in 1957.
The sole critical edition is the Portuguese version, A expressdo americana (Sao
Paulo, 1988), translated with a highly competent introduction and notes
by Irlemar Chiampi. In his essays 'Vision de America' and 'Conciencia e
identidade de America" in La novela latinoamericana en visperas de un nuevo
siglo (Mexico, D.F., 1981), 59-158, AlejoCarpentier addressed continen-
tal Americanism. Leopoldo Zea expands the barbarism-civilization theme
to global proportions in Discurso desde la marginacion y la barbarie (Barcelona,
1988). See also his Filosofia de la historia americana (Mexico, D.F., 1978).
The role of intellectuals is examined in Juan F. Marsal (ed.), El intelectual
latinoamericano (Buenos Aires, 1970).
Studies of Latin American thought include two classics by the Spanish
philosopher Jose Gaos, El pensamiento hispanoamericano (Mexico, D.F.,

870 VHI. Ideas since independence
1944) and Pensamiento de lengua espanola (Mexico, D.F., 1945). Gaos's

Mexican disciple Leopoldo Zea produced a volume which, although contro-
versial, remains seminal for the nineteenth century: The Latin-American
Mind, trans. J. H. Abbott and L. Dunham (Norman, Okla., 1963). See
also Harold Eugene Davis, Latin American Thought: A Historical Introduc-
tion, 2nd ed. (New York, 1974); and W. Rex Crawford, A Century of Latin-
American Thought, rev. ed. (New York, 1966).
Historical analyses of culture include German Arciniegas, Latin Amer-
ica: A Cultural History (New York, 1967) and Jean Franco, The Modern
Culture of Latin America: Society and the Artist, rev. ed. (Harmondsworth,
1970). Two well-illustrated studies of art since independence emphasize
historical context: Stanton L. Catlin and Terence Grieder, Art of Latin
America since Independence (New Haven, Conn., 1966) and Dawn Ades, Art
in Latin America: The Modern Era, 18201980 (New Haven, Conn.,
1989). La nueva novela hispanoamericana, 6th ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1980) by
the Mexican novelist Carlos Fuentes is a concise study of how modern
narrative fiction can 'give form, fix goals, set priorities, and elaborate
criticism for a determinate style of life: to say all that cannot otherwise be
said.' A study of how language itself yields clues to social experience is the
essay 'Language in America' in Richard M. Morse, New World Soundings
(Baltimore, 1989), 11-60.
Useful for the background of modernism (i.e., Spanish-American van-
guardism) are: Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Dehumanization of Art and Other
Writings on Art and Culture (New York, 1956); Renato Poggioli, The Theory
of the Avant-garde, trans. Gerald Fitzgerald (Cambridge, Mass., 1981);
Frederick R. Karl, Modern and Modernism: The Sovereignty of the Artist,
1885-1925 (New York, 1985); R. P. Blackmur, 'Anni Mirabile, 1 9 2 1 -
1925: Reason in the madness of letters', in A Primer of Ignorance (New
York, 1967), 180; Malcolm Bradbury and James McFarlane (eds.), Mod-
ernism, 1890-1930 (Harmondsworth, 1976); Richard Kostelanetz (ed.),
The Avant-garde Tradition in Literature (Buffalo, N.Y., 1982), which ac-
knowledges Brazilian poets; and Meyer Schapiro, Modern Art, 19th and
20th Centuries (New York, 1978).
For broad perspectives on Latin American vanguardism, see Guillermo
de Torre, Historia de las literaturas de vanguarda, 3rd ed., 3 vols. (Madrid,
1974); Oscar Collazos, Los vanguardismos en la America Latina (Barcelona,
1977); Saul Yurkievich, A travis de la trama: Sobre vanguardismos literarios y
otras concomitancias (Barcelona, 1984); Hugo J. Verani et al. (eds.), Las
vanguardas literarias en Hispanoamirica (Rome, 1986); Mario de Andrade,

2. The multiverse of identity, c. 1 9 2 o - c . 1 9 7 0 871
'O movimento modernista,' in Aspectos da literatura brasileira, 4th ed. (Sao

Paulo, 1972), 23155; and Raul Antelo, Na ilha de Marapatd (Mario de
Andrade le os hispanoamericanos) (Sao Paulo, 1986).
Earlier criticism held that the 'naturalist novels' or 'novels of the land'
of the 1930s were derivative, that they fell into the realist or naturalist
vein of previous European novels. Since the 1970s, critics have been more
tolerant. They no longer draw a sharp line between the esthetically 'ele-
gant' fiction of the 'boom' and the 'worn-out' naturalism and costumbrismo
of the 1930s and 1940s. They now warn us of'the dangers of a conception
of literary history that perceives progress in literary developments, thereby
sanctioning the relegation of certain texts to oblivion.' See Carlos J.
Alonso, The Spanish American Regional Novel, Modernity and Autochthony,
(Cambridge, Eng., 1990). For rehabilitation of the fiction of the 1930s,
see also Roberto Gonzalez Echevarria, Voice of the Masters: Writing and
Austerity in Modern Latin American Literature (Austin, Tex., 1985), and
Doris Sommer, Foundational Fictions, the National Romances of Latin America
(Berkeley, 1991). On the other hand, Flora Siissekind, Tal Brasil, qual
romance? (Rio de Janeiro, 1984) traces naturalism as a recurrent authorial
device of positivist origin from the 1890s to the 1970s, with deeper roots
in the eyewitness 'natural history' of the early chroniclers; she makes no
resolute attempt to link the Brazilian equivalent to the 'realistic' novelas de
la tierra with the supposed 'magic' of the narratives that were to follow.
Books that shed light on the transition from the 1930s and 1940s to the
1950s, 1960s and 1970s include: Emir Rodriguez Monegal, Narradores de
esta America, 2 vols. (Montevideo, 1969) and El boom de la novela la-
tinoamericana (Caracas, 1972); Jos6 Donoso, The Boom in Spanish American
Literature (New York, 1977); Angel Rama, La novela latinoamericana,
19201980 (Bogota, 1982); and Fernando de Ainsa, Identidad cultural de
Iberoamerica en su narrativa (Madrid, 1986).
On more specialized subjects, see Antonio Cornejo Polar, La novela
indigenista (Lima, 1981); Efrain Kristal, The Andes Viewed from the City:
Literal and Political Discourse on the Indian in Peru, 1848-1930 (New York,
1987); Adalbert Dessau, La novela de la Revolucion Mexicana, trans. Juan
Jose Utrilla (Mexico, D.F., 1972); Jose Mauricio Gomes de Almeida, A
tradiqdo regionalista no romance brasileiro (Rio de Janeiro, 1981); Jose Hilde-
brando Dacanal, 0 romance de 30 (Porto Alegre, 1982).
General introductions to identity in Latin America include Martin S.
Stabb, In Quest of Identity: Patterns in the Spanish American Essay of Ideas,
1890i960 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1967) and Dante Moreira Leite, 0 cardter

national brasileiro, 4th ed. (Sao Paulo, 1983). The following may also be
consulted for the national-character essayists: Alberto Zum Felde, India
critico de la literatura hispanoamerkana, los ensayistas (Mexico, D.F., 1954);
Juan F. Marsal, Los ensayistas socio-politicos de Argentina y Mexico (Buenos
Aires, 1969); Peter Earle and Robert Mead, Historia delensayo hispanoameri-
cano (Mexico, D.F., 1973); Isaac J. Levy and Juan Loveluck (eds.), Elensayo
hispdnico (Columbia, S.C., 1984); and Horacio Cerutti Guldberg (ed.), El
ensayo en nuestra America para una reconceptualizacion (Mexico, D.F., 1993).
In the field of philosophy, the Peruvian philosopher Francisco Miro
Quesada published two books that follow the technical development of the
discipline in Latin America through four generations and stress the regional
accents they gave it: Despertar y proyecto delfilosofar latinoamericano (Mexico,
D.F., 1974) and Proyecto y realization del filosofar latinoamericano (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1981). Other broad treatments with distinctive emphases in-
clude Leopoldo Zea, Elpensamiento latinoamericano (Barcelona, 1976); Fran-
cisco Larroyo, La filosofia iberoamericana, 2nd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1978);
Abelardo Villegas, Panorama de la filosofia iberoamericana actual (Buenos
Aires, 1963); and Arturo A. Roig, Filosofia, universidadyfilosofosen America
Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1981). The Argentine Francisco Romero, one of the
region's most distinguished twentieth-century philosophers, outlined his
views on New World philosophizing in Sobre lafilosofia en America (Buenos
Aires, 1952). A collection of studies by foremost practitioners that have
implications well beyond the book's restrictive title is Luis Recasens Siches
et al., Latin American Legal Philosophy (Cambridge, Mass., 1948). For the
important impact of exiled Spanish philosophers after 1936, see Jose Luis
Abellan, Filosofia espanola en America, 193666 (Madrid, 1967), and the
chapter 'Filosofia' by Raul Cardiel Reyes in Salvador Reyes Nevares (ed.), El
exilio espanol en Mexico, 1939-1982 (Mexico, D.F., 1982), 205-34. A
leading interpretation for Brazil is Joao Cruz Costa, A History of Ideas in
Brazil, trans. Suzette Macedo (Berkeley, 1964). For an important polemic
on the identity question by two leading philosophers, see Augusto Salazar
Bondy, ,-Existe unafilosofiade nuestra America? (Mexico, D.F., 1968), and
Leopoldo Zea, La filosofia americana comofilosofiasin mas (Mexico, D.F.,
1969). A highly competent book of both intellectual and practical interest
is Horacio Cerutti Guldberg, Filosofia de la liberation latinoamericana (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1983). Anthologies include Anibal Sanchez Reulet, Lafilosofia
latinoamericana contempordnea (Mexico, D.F., 1949); Jorge J. E. Graciaetal.
(eds.), Philosophical Analysis in Latin America (Dordrecht, 1984); and Jorge

3 . Economic ideas since 1930 873
J. E. Gracia(ed.), Latin American Philosophy in the Twentieth Century (Buffalo,

N.Y. 1986).
3. ECONOMIC IDEAS AND IDEOLOGIES

SINCE 1930
For general surveys of the development of economic thought in Latin Amer-

ica since the Second World War, see Albert Fishlow, 'The state of Latin
American economies', in Inter-American Development Bank, Economic and
Social Progress in Latin America: 1985 Report (Washington, D. C , 1986),
12348; republished in Christopher Mitchell (ed.), Changing Perspectives in
Latin American Studies: Insights from Six Disciplines (Stanford, Calif., 1988).
Fishlow covers the rise and decline of the several schools of thought, based
on their policy outcomes. Also valuable is Cristobal Kay, Latin American
Theories of Development and Underdevelopment (London, 1989), which offers a
sympathetic but critical review of structuralism and dependency and related
works on marginality and internal colonialism. A briefer survey which gives
particular attention to policy issues is Felipe Pazos, 'Cincuenta anos de
pensamiento economico en la America Latina', TE, 50/4(1983), 1915-48.
An old but still useful survey of Latin American adaptations of extra-
continental ideas is Juan Noyola Vazquez, 'La evolucion del pensamiento
economico del ultimo cuarto de siglo y su influencia en la America Latina',
TE, 23/3 (1956), 269-83.
Three works may serve to indicate the impact of Latin American ideas
on development theory at large. H. W. Arndt, Economic Development: The
History of an Idea (Chicago, 1987), especially 119-30, places structuralism
and dependency in broad historical context. Bjorn Hettne, Development
Theory and the Three Worlds (Harlow, Eng., 1990), attempts to address
underdevelopment and development in a non-Eurocentric and interdisci-
plinary framework, and in this context Latin American ideas play a promi-
nent role. Dieter Senghaas, The European Experience: A Historical Critique of
Development Theory (Dover, N.H., 1985), incorporates structuralist and
dependency perspectives in a comparative treatment of European and non-
European economic development, emphasizing 'selective de-linking' as a
historically-proven development strategy.
On the 'pretheoretical' justifications of industrial development in Latin
America, a documentary collection for Brazil, representative in many

874 Will. Ideas since independence
respects of nations of the Southern Cone, is Edgard Carone (ed.), 0

pensamento industrial no Brasil (18801945) (Sao Paulo, 1971). A debate
on the role of industrialization in the development process at the end of
that period is Roberto Simonsen and Eugenio Gudin, A controversia do
planejamento na economia brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1977).
On the UN Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA, and from
1985, ECLAC, to include the Caribbean), see the agency's anthology,
Development Problems in Latin America: An Analysis by the UN ECLA (Austin,
Tex., 1970). Fundamental structuralist statements include the ECLA docu-
ments, The Economic Development of Latin America and Its Principal Problems
(Lake Success, N. Y., 1950) and Economic Survey ofLatin America: 1949 (New
York, 1951). Raul Prebisch was the exclusive author of the first study, and
the principal author of the second. Another important work was his Towards
a Dynamic Development Policy for Latin America (New York, 1963). The classic
statement of the structuralist thesis on inflation is Osvaldo Sunkel, 'Infla-
tion in Chile: An unorthodox approach', International Economic Papers, 10
(i960), 10731 In La teoria delsubdesarrollo de la CEPAL (Spanish acronym
for ECLA) (Mexico, D. F., 1980), Octavio Rodriguez, a former ECLA econo-
mist, surveys, evaluates and critiques the organization's doctrines. Joseph
Hodara, Prebisch y la CEPAL: Sustancia trayectoria y contexto internacional
(Mexico, D.F., 1987), is an exposition of ECLA's doctrines, largely in
nontechnical terms, combined with an institutional history.
On the European antecedents of structuralism, see H. W. Arndt, 'The
origins of structuralism', World Development, 13/2 (1985), 1519. For
more on the context of the formulation of Prebisch's first thesis in 1949,
see Joseph L. Love, 'Raul Prebisch and the origins of the doctrine of
unequal exchange,' LARR, 15I3 (1980), 4 5 - 7 2 .
On neostructuralism, a representative collection is Osvaldo Sunkel
(ed.), El desarrollo desde dentro: Un enfoque neoestructuralista para la America
Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1991; Eng. trans., 1993), containing essays by
Sunkel, Joseph Ramos, Ricardo Ffrench-Davis, Winston Fritsch, Jose
Antonio Ocampo, Victor Tokman, Oscar Munoz, Adolfo Figueroa, and
others. A brief introduction to the doctrine, comparing it to neoliberal-
ism, can be found in Ricardo Ffrench-Davis, 'An outline of a neo-
structuralist approach', CEPAL Review, 34 (April 1988), 37-44.
Structuralist and neostructuralist thought can be followed not only in
CEPAL Review (since 1976), and its predecessor, the Economic Bulletin for
Latin America, but also in Pensamiento Iberoamericano, published by ECLA
and the Instituto de Cooperaci6n Iberoamericana in Madrid since 1982.

3- Economic ideas since 1930 875
A frequent commentator on Latin American structuralism whose own

structuralist writings have often paralleled developments in the Latin
American school is Albert O. Hirschman. A survey and critique of ECLA's
theses through i960 is Hirschman, 'Ideologies of economic development
in Latin America', in Hirschman (ed.), Latin American Issues: Essays and
Comments (New York, 1961), 342. On the structuralist interpretation of
inflation in Chile, set in a historical context, see 'Inflation in Chile' in
Hirschman, Journeys toward Progress: Studies of Economic Policy-Making in
Latin America (New York, 1963), 161-223. An explanation of why the
structuralist thesis on inflation lost out at the policy level is 'The social
and political matrix of inflation: Elaborations of the Latin American experi-
ence' in Hirschman, Essays in Trespassing: Economics to Politics and Beyond
(Cambridge, Eng., 1981), 177-207. On the crisis of import-substitution
industrialization and its implications for structuralism, see 'The political
economy of import substituting industrialization in Latin America' in
Hirschman, A Bias for Hope (New Haven, Conn., 1971), 85123; see also
Werner Baer, 'Import substitution and industrialization in Latin America:
Experiences and interpretations', LARR, 7/1 (1972), 95-122.
In the vanguard of the neoclassical counterattack on structuralism and
dependency was the Chicago School, which was most influential in Chile.
Juan Gabriel Valdes offers a scholarly but highly critical study of its
ideology and practice in La escuela de Chicago: Operacion Chile (Buenos
Aires, 1989). See also Alejandro Foxley, Latin American Experiments in Neo-
Conservative Economics (Berkeley, 1983), which deals principally with
Chile.
On 'developmentalisrn' (desarrollismo in Spanish, desenvolvimentismo in
Portuguese), an ideology and set of policies associated with structuralism
in Argentina and Brazil, see Kathryn Sikkink, Ideas and Institutions: Devel-
opmentalism in Brazil and Argentina (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991). That Argentine
desarrolHstas ignored Prebisch himself, possibly because of his earlier role
in forming government policies in Argentina, is shown in Julio G.
Nosiglia, El desarrollismo (Buenos Aires, 1983). Ricardo Bielschowsky,
Pensamento economico brasileiro: 0 ciclo ideoldgico do desenvolvimentismo (Rio de
Janeiro, 1988) not only considers in detail the relationship between devel-
opmentalism and structuralism, but surveys all other major schools of
thought in Brazil from the end of the Second World War to the coup d'etat
of 1964.
A survey and a collection of readings of Marxist thought, including
contributions by writers who emphasized relations of exchange rather than

relations of production and thereby influenced dependency analysis, is

Michael Lowy, Le marxisme en Amerique latine de 1909 a nos jours: Anthologie
(Paris, 1980; Eng. trans. 1992). On Marxism through the 1960s, also see
Sheldon B. Liss, Marxist Thought in Latin America (Berkeley, 1984). For
the influence of Antonio Gramsci, indirectly important in some versions
of dependency through his notion of hegemony, consult Jose Arico, La cola
del diablo: Itinerario de Gramsci en America Latina (Buenos Aires, 1988).
A study of dependency analysis should begin with Fernando Henrique
Cardoso and Enzo Faletto, Dependencia y desarrollo en America Latina (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1969); Eng. trans., much revised, Dependency and Development in
Latin America (Berkeley, 1979); and Andre Gunder Frank, Capitalism and
Underdevelopment in Latin America (New York, 1967). Later works in the
dependency tradition by the evolving structuralists Prebisch and Furtado
are important and similar to one another, in their employment of the
classical concept of surplus. See Raul Prebisch, Capitalismo periferico: Crisis
y transformacion (Mexico, D.F., 1981) and Celso Furtado, Accumulation and
Development: The Logic of Industrial Civilization, trans. Suzette Macedo
(Port, orig., 1978; Oxford, 1983).
A review of the dependency literature through the mid-1970s can be
found in two critical but sympathetic studies: Jose Gabriel Palma, 'Depen-
dency: A formal theory of underdevelopment or a methodology for the
analysis of concrete situations of underdevelopment?,' World Development,
6/7-8 (1978), 881-924; and Heraldo Mufioz, 'Cambio y continuidad en
el debate sobre la dependencia y el imperialismo', Estudios Internacionales,
11I44 (1978), 88-138. For likenesses and differences in Latin American
and Caribbean versions of dependency, see Norman Girvan, 'The develop-
ment of dependency economics in the Caribbean and Latin America: Re-
view and comparison', Social and Economic Studies, 22/1 (1973), 133.
Jorge Larrain offers a defence of dependency as a legitimate Marxist enter-
prise in Theories of Development: Capitalism, Colonialism and Dependency (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1989). On the relationship between Marxism and depen-
dency analysis, also see Ronald H. Chilcote (ed.), Dependency and Marxism:
Toward a Resolution of the Debate (Boulder, Colo., 1982). For an assessment
of the relative importance of Marxism and structuralism, the two tradi-
tions from which dependency drew, see Joseph L. Love, 'The origins of
dependency analysis', JLAS, 22/1 (1991), 14368. Robert A. Packen-
ham, in The Dependency Movement: Scholarship and Politics in Development
Studies (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), argues that dependency is non-
scientific and ideological, including the much-praised work of F. H.

3 . Economic ideas since 1930 877
Cardoso, though much of his criticism is directed against North Ameri-

can, rather than Latin American, dependency analysts. An extensively
annotated bibliography chiefly concerned with dependency is Charles W.
Bergquist (ed.), Alternative Approaches to the Problem of Development: A Se-
lected and Annotated Bibliography (Durham, N.C., 1979). The volume also
deals with structuralism and Third World Marxist contributions.
Though a critic of the dependency literature, one of the few writers on
dependency who worked within the tradition of formal Marxist econom-
ics, as opposed to historical materialism, is the Colombian Salomon
Kalmanovitz, who sketched a theory of dependent reproduction and ac-
counted for the incomplete accumulation process in the periphery. See
Kalmanovitz, El desarrollo tardi'o del capitalismo: Un enfoque critico de la teoria
de la dependencia (Bogota, 1983).
For the flavor of the modes-of-production debate, see two collections:
Carlos Sempat Assadourian (ed.), Modos de produccion en America Latina
(Mexico, D.F., 1973); and Roger Bartra et al., Modos de produccion en
America Latina (Lima, 1976). On the articulation of pre-capitalist relations
of production with capitalism in the informal economy, see Lucio
Kowarick, 'Capitalismo, dependencia e marginalidade urbana na America
Latina: Uma contribuic,ao teorica', Estudos CEBRAP, 8 (1974), 7996;
and Francisco de Oliveira, 'A economia brasileira: Critica a razao dualista',
Estudos CEBRAP, 2 (1972), 3 - 8 2 .
On individual writers, including biographical and autobiographical
materials, the following may be consulted:
On Prebisch, see CEPAL, Raul Prebisch: Un aporte al estudio de supensami-
ento (Santiago, Chile, 1987), which contains the Spanish version of his 'Five
Stages' and an annotated list of 466 of his publications from 1920 to 1986;
Gerald M. Meier and Dudley Seers (eds.), Pioneers in Development (New
York, 1984), which includes Prebisch's retrospective, 'Five stages in my
thinking on development' (17591) and Hans W. Singer's 'The terms of
trade controversy and the evolution of soft financing: Early years in the UN'
(275303); Mateo Magarinos, Dialogos con Raul Prebisch (Mexico, D.F.,
1991), which offers episodic reminiscences by Prebisch through the 1960s;
and a brief survey of Prebisch's career in Joseph L. Love, 'Raiil Prebisch
(1901 1986): His life and ideas,' in Abraham F. Lowenthal (ed.), Latin
American and Caribbean Record, vol. 5: 19851986 (New York, 1988).
On Furtado, a wide-ranging anthology of his writings with a biographi-
cal sketch by the editor is Francisco de Oliveira (ed.), Celso Furtado: Economia
(Sao Paulo, 1983). Furtado's memoirs (still in process) consist of three

volumes: A fantasia organizada (1985); A fantasia desfeita (1989); Os ares do

mundo (1991), all published in Rio de Janeiro; and a brief autobiographical
statement in English, 'Adventures of a Brazilian economist', International
Social Science Journal, 25/12 (1973), 28-38. Furtado's and Singer's work
on the implications of structuralism for the domestic economy is examined
in Joseph L. Love, 'Modeling internal colonialism: History and prospect',
World Development, 17/6 (1989), 905-22. Two studies that place Furtado's
work in the context of postwar Brazilian economic thought are Guido
Mantega, A economia politica brasileira (Sao Paulo, 1984) and Ricardo Biel-
schowsky, Pensamento economico brasileiro. The former also treats dependency.
On Noyola, see Carlos Bazdresch Parada, Elpensamiento dejuan F. Noyola
(Mexico, D.F., 1984), which reviews the work of the Mexican economist,
one of the earliest structuralist writers, on industrialization, external dis-
equilibrium, and inflation.
On Cardoso, see Fernando Henrique Cardoso, 'The consumption of
dependency theory in the United States', LARR, 12/3 (1977), 7-24,
which contains autobiographical elements, and Joseph L. Kahl, 'Fernando
Henrique Cardoso', a biographical interview with critical commentary, in
Kahl, Modernization, Exploitation and Dependency in Latin America: Germani,
Gonzalez Casanova and Cardoso (New Brunswick, N. J., 1976), 12994.
On Frank, see Andre Gunder Frank, 'The underdevelopment of develop-
ment', Scandinavian Journal of Development Alternatives, 10/3 (1991), 5-72,
an autobiographical statement which treats his intellectual development
before, during, and after his dependency period. An appendix contains a
complete bibliography of Frank's works, 1955-90 (133-50).
This essay has offered English versions of relevant works where they
exist. Original versions can be found in the footnotes to the chapter by
Joseph L. Love, 'Economic ideas and ideologies in Latin America since
1930', in CHLA VI, Part 1, where the reader will also find citations of
primary sources.
4. SCIENCE IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY
LATIN AMERICA
GENERAL WORKS
To synthesize the history of science in twentieth-century Latin America is

to explore a largely uncharted territory. The first great generation of Latin

4- Science 879
American historians of science, whose tepresentative figures were Juan B.

Lastres in Peru, Alfredo Bateman, Enrique Perez Arbelaez and Guillermo
Hernandez de Alba in Colombia, and Enrique Beltran and German
Somolinos in Mexico, worked preeminently on the science of the Enlight-
enment, when scientific activity in Latin America reached a level of bril-
liance still unsurpassed. Another group of historians domiciled mainly in
Argentina (Aldo Mieli, Cortes Pla, Jose Babini and Desiderio Papp) wrote
on mainstream European science, although Babini provided a useful syn-
thesis of science in Argentina, Historia de la ciencia en la Argentina (1949;
Buenos Aires, 1986) The 1986 edition includes a perceptive historio-
graphical introduction by Marcelo Montserrat.
Beside's Babini's primer, there are few other single-country histories of
science. Of these, by far the most analytical is Simon Schwartzman,
Formagdo da comunidade cientifica no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1979), Eng. trans. A
Space for Science: The Development of the Scientific Community in Brazil (Univer-
sity Park, Pa., 1991). Although the entire twentieth century is covered,
the book's strength is its description of the prise de conscience by Brazilian
scientists of the 1930s through the 1950s, based on interviews with 69
scientific leaders; their biographies are given in a companion volume,
Histdria da ciencia no Brasil: Acervo de depoimentos (Rio de Janeiro, 1984).
Marcos Cueto's study of high-altitude physiology in Peru, Excelencia
cientifica en la periferia: Actividades cientificas e investigation biomedica en el
Peru, 1890-1950 (Lima, 1989), is also a study of a nascent scientific elite.
Much less useful are Ramiro Condarco Morales, Historia del saber y la
ciencia en Bolivia (La Paz, 1978) which, like too much history of Latin
American science, is little more than a list of people and institutions, and
Eli de Gortari, La ciencia en la historia de Mexico, 2nd ed. (Mexico, D.F.,
1980), which devotes too much space to a defense of Aztec science and not
enough on the achievements of the twentieth century.
In an attempt to cover nineteenth- and twentieth-century science in
Argentina by disciplines, the Sociedad Cientifica Argentina published two
series of studies, one in the 1920s, the other in the 1970s. Although the
volumes vary in coverage and style, the earlier series is, on the whole,
better. Among the most distinguished and interesting disciplinary histo-
ries are those of Ramon G. Loyarte, La evolution de la fisica (Buenos Aires,
1924) and Cristobal M. Hicken, Los estudios botdnicos (Buenos Aires,
1923). Less objective is Claro Cornelio Dassen, Las matematicas en la
Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1924), which in part is a polemic against modern
mathematics. The most recent series consists of multi-authored volumes,

88o VIII. Ideas since independence
in which sub-fields have been delegated to specialists (scientists, not

historians) in those areas. As a result most of the volumes are chaotic
compilations of names, dates and institutions with scant analysis or synthe-
sis. However, some of the volumes may be mined for their rich lode of
information; see, in particular, Luis A. Santalo (ed.), Matemdtica (1972),
Jose Federico Westerkamp, Fisica (1975), Luis B. Mazoti and Juan H.
Hunziker, Genelica (1976), and Noemi G. Abiusso, Quimica (1981). A
somewhat parallel treatment can be found for Brazil. First are two volumes
published in the 1950s under the editorship of Fernando de Azevedo, As
ciencias no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1955), characterized by chapters, again writ-
ten mainly by scientists who had participated in the institutionalization of
their own disciplines, of uniformly high quality. Of particular interest are
the chapters on astronomy (Abraao de Morais), physics (J. Costa Ribeiro),
geology and paleontology (Viktor Leinz) and chemistry (Heinrich Rhein-
boldt). A more recent work, Mario Guimaraes Ferri and Shozo Motoyama
(eds.), Historia das ciencias no Brasil, 3 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1979-81), suffers
by comparison. Most of its chapters are unenlightening lists of names and
research projects, compiled by scientists in the various disciplines. The
same can be said of multi-authored Estudios de historia de la ciencia en el
Peru, 2 vols. (Lima, 1986). Possibly the best collection of disciplinary
articles from a single country is Hebe M. C. Vessuri (ed.), Ciencia aca-
demica en la Venezuela moderna (Caracas, 1984), a collection of mature
studies, mainly by social scientists, of discrete disciplines, always within
the framework of larger issues of the institutionalization of academic
science. In 1993 the Instituto Colombiano para el Desarrollo de la Ciencia
(Bogota) published a 9-volume Historia social de la ciencia en Colombia, with
volumes on methodology (1), mathematics, astronomy and geology (2),
natural history (3), engineering and history of technology (4 and 5),
physics and chemistry (6), medicine (7 and 8) and social science (9).
The Sociedad Latinoamericana de Historia de las Ciencias y la Tecno-
logia has published since 1984 a distinguished journal, Quipu (Mexico,
D.F., 1984 ), in which appear a variety of studies, by historians, of
modern Latin American science. The Society also publishes an occasional
series called Cuadernos de Quipu, of which two have appeared: Elperfil de la
ciencia en America (Mexico, D.F., 1987), and Cross Cultural Diffusion of
Science: Latin America (Mexico, D.F., 1987). The acts of the Society's
second congress, with many articles on twentieth-century science, were
published as Anais do Segundo Congresso Latino-Americano de Historia da
Ciencia e da Tecnologia (Sao Paulo, 1989).

4. Science 881
INSTITUTIONS AND DISCIPLINES
Few Latin American scientific institutions have had proper histories. For
Brazil, Nancy Stepan, Beginnings of Brazilian Science (New York, 1976) is a
model account of the founding (in 1900) and early years of the Oswaldo
Cruz Institute at Manguinhos, the country's most important biomedical
institution. The more recent history of the Cruz Institute and its political
problems under the military dictatorship in the 1960s is chronicled by
Herman Lent, 0 massacre de Manguinhos (Rio de Janeiro, 1978). On scien-
tific institutions in Rio de Janeiro, see Simon Schwartzman (ed.), Univer-
sidades e instituqoes cientificas no Rio de Janeiro (Brasilia, 1982). On botany,
see Joao Conrado Niemeyer de Lavor, Histdria dojardim Botanico do Rio de
Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro, 1983) and F. C. Hoehne et al., OJardim Botanico de
Sao Paulo (Sao Paulo, 1941).
For Mexico, Horacio Garcia Fernandez's account of the Faculty of Chemis-
try, Historiadeunafacultad:Quimica, 1916-1983 (Mexico, D.F., 1985), isa
model study of a university science department based in part on interviews
with its own alumni. On the related Institute of Chemistry, see Alberto
Sandoval L., 'Cinco lustros de existencia,' Boletin del Instituto de Quimica, 17
(1965), 83121. On Mexican physics, there is Hector Cruz Manjarrez,
Resena histdrica del Instituto de Fisica, 2 vols. (mimeo) (Mexico, D.F., 1975
76), and Juan Manuel Lozano et al., 'Historia de la Sociedad Mexicana de
Fisica', Revista Mexicana de Fisica, 28 (1982), 27793. A broader study of
university science, for Argentina, is Horacio H. Camacho, Las ciencias
naturales en la Universidad de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires, 1971).
Astronomical institutions have fared better than most. For Brazil,
Henrique Morize, Observatorio Astronomico: Um seculo de histdria (1827
1 2
9 7)> rev. ed. (Rio de Janiero, 1987) deals mainly with the nineteenth
century; the new edition includes two biographical articles about Morize.
For Chile, see Philip C. Keenan et al., The Chilean National Astronomical
Observatory (1852-1965) (Santiago, Chile, 1985). Marco Arturo Moreno
Corral (ed.), Historia de la astronomia en Mexico (Ensenada, Mex., 1983) has
an institutional focus.
The few disciplinary histories written tend to be highly institutional in
focus; see, for example, Jorge Griinwald Ramasso, Historia de la quimica en
el Uruguay (1830-1930) (Montevideo, 1966). A thrilling institutional
and political history of atomic physics in Argentina is Mario Mariscotti, El
secreto atomico de Huemul (Buenos Aires, 1985).
Hebe Vessuri wrote two pioneering studies of the scientific press: 'La

revista cientifica periferica: El caso de Ada Cientifica Venezolana,' In-

terciencia, 12 (1987), 124-34, and 'Una estrategia de publication cien-
rifica para la fisiologia latinoamericana: Ada Physiologica Latinoamericana,
19501971,' in Anais do Segundo Congresso (cited above), 23240.
BIOGRAPHIES AND AUTOBIOGRAPHIES
There is no tradition of biographical memoirs in Latin American science

and, as a result, this kind of literature is scant. Of the great figures in
biomedicine, see the commemorative volume, Bernardo A. Houssay, su vida
y su obra, 188J-1971 (Buenos Aires, 1981), and Ricardo Archila, Luis
Razetti, sintesis biogrdfaa (Caracas, 1973). For Brazil, see Miguel Osorio de
Almeida, Carlos Chagas (mimeo) (Rio de Janeiro, 1988); Ivone Freire de
Mota and Amelia Imperio Hamburger, 'Retratos de Luiz de Barros Freire
como pioneiro da ciencia no Brasil,' Ciencia e Cultura, 40 (1988), 8 7 5 - 8 1 ,
and the biographical essays in M. Amoroso Costa, As idiias fundamentais da
matemdtica e outros ensaios (Sao Paulo, 1981). An unusually informative
autobiography is that of the Chilean agronomist Manuel Elgueta Guerin,
Memorias de una vida, 790219S3 (Santiago, Chile, n.d.). See also Enrique
Beltran, Medio siglo de recuerdos de un biologo mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1977).
Interviews are perhaps the most distinctive form of scientific biography in
Latin America, especially in Brazil. See, for example, Lourdes Cedran
(ed.), Didlogos com Mario Schenberg (Sao Paulo, 1985) and another collection
of interviews about Schenberg with his students and colleagues in Brazil-
ian physics, Gita K. Guinsburg and Jos6 Luiz Goldfarb (eds.), Mario
Schenberg: Entre-vistas (Sao Paulo, 1984).
THE FOREIGN CONTRIBUTION
There is a considerable literature on the contributions of foreigners to

Latin American science. See, for example, Lewis Pyenson's discussion of
the German contribution to physics, physical chemistry and astronomy in
Argentina in Cultural Imperialism and Exact Science: German Expansion Over-
seas, 1900-1930 (New York, 1985). See also Marcelo Montserrat, 'La
influencia italiana de la actividad cientifica argentina del siglo XIX,' in
Francis Korn (ed.), Los italianos en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, n.d.), 1 0 5 -
23; H . M. Nussenzveig, Guido Beck (mimeo) (Rio de Janeiro, 1989); and
J. Leite Lopes, Richard Feynman in Brazil: Recollections (mimeo) (Rio de
Janeiro, 1988). More analytical is Miguel J. C. de Asiia, 'Influencia de la

4- Science 883
Facultad de Medicina de Paris sobre la de Buenos Aires', Quipu, 3 (1986),

7989, which raises the issue of European versus American disciplinary
and institutional identities. There is a complementary literature on Latin
American science students abroad; see, for example, Eddy Stols, 'Les
etudiants bresiliens en Belgique,' Revista de Histdria (Sao Paulo), 50
(1974), 65391; and Humberto Ruiz Calderon, 'Una vieja historia: Los
becarios de Venezuela en el exterior (1900-1954),' Interriencia, 15 (1990),
8-14.
There is a considerable literature on Spanish scientific exiles, particu-
larly in Mexico. See two articles by Jose Cueli in El exilio espanol en Mexico,
19391982 (Mexico, D.F., 1982): 'Ciencias medicas y biologicas', 495
528, and 'Matematicas, fisica y quimica', 53143. Biographies of Spanish
figures can be culled from the chapters on exile, such as Jose Luis Barona
Vilar and Maria Fernanda Mancebo, J W Puche Alvarez (1896-1979).- Histo-
ria de un compromiso (Valencia, Spain, 1989) ('El exilio mexicano {1939
1979}', 57-73); L. Valencia Gaya, El doctor Lafora y su epoca (Madrid,
1977) ('Nueve anos de exilio de Mexico', 145-60). On Lafora and Mexi-
can criminology, see Raquel Alvarez Pelaez and Rafael Huertas Garcia-
Alejo, f-Criminales 0 locos? Dos peritajes psiquidtricas del Dr. Gonzalo R.
Lafora (Madrid, 1987). On Julio Rey Pastor and Latin American mathe-
matics, see Sixto Rios, et A., Julio Rey Pastor, matemdtico (Madrid, 1979)
('Rey Pastor y la matematica en la Argentina', 49134); and Mario Otero,
'Las matematicas uruguayas y Rey Pastor', in Luis Espanol Gonzalez (ed.),
Estudios sobre Julio Rey Pastor (Logrofio, Spain, 1990), 181-93.
SCIENTIFIC IDEAS
Scientific culture has been thin enough in Latin America to discourage

studies of the reception or development of specific ideas there. Those ideas
that have had culture-wide repercussions have attracted the most atten-
tion. On Darwinism (mainly a nineteenth-century topic, but with tremen-
dous repercussions on popular perceptions of science that extended well
into the twentieth century) there are a number of national studies, for
example, Eduardo L. Ortiz, 'La polemica del darwinismo y la inserci6n de
la ciencia en Argentina,' in Adas II Congreso de la Sociedad Espanola de
Historia de las Ciencias, 3 vols. (Zaragoza, 1984), I, 89108; Marcelo
Montserrat, 'La presencia evolucionista en el positivismo argentino,'
Quipu, 3 (1986), 91 101; Terezinha Alves Ferreira Collichio, Miranda
Azevedo e 0 darwinismo no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1988); Bernardo Marquez

Breton, Origenes del darwinismo en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1982); Pedro M.

Pruna and Armando Garcia Gonzalez, Darwinismo y sociedad en Cuba (Ma-
drid, 1989); Roberto Moreno, Lapolemica del darwinismo en Mexico (Mexico,
D.F., 1984); Rosaura Ruiz Gutierrez, Positivismoy evolucion: Introduccion del
darwinismo en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1987); and Thomas F. Glick, Darwiny
el Darwinismo en el Uruguay y en America Latina (Montevideo, 1989).
On eugenics, see Nancy Stepan, 'Eugenesia, genetica y salud publica:
El movimiento eugenesico brasileno y mundial,' Quipu, 2 (1985), 351
84, and the fuller treatment in her book, The Hour of Eugenics: Latin
America and the Movement for Racial Improvement, 19181940 (Ithaca, N. Y.,
1991).
On the reception of psychoanalysis, the Brazilian case is the best stud-
ied. See Gilberto S. Rocha, Introdugdo ao nascimento da psicandlise no Brasil
(Rio de Janeiro, 1989); Marialzira Perestrello, 'Primeiros encontros com a
Psicandlise: Os precursores no Brasil (1899-1937),' in Servulo Figueira
(ed.), Efeito psi: A influencia da psicandlise (Rio de Janeiro, 1988), 15181;
Roberto Yutaka Sagawa, 'A Psicandlise pioneira e os pioneiros da psica-
ndlise em Sao Paulo,' in Servulo Figueira (ed.), Cultura da psicandlise (Sao
Paulo, 1985), 1534; and Ana Cristina Figueiredo, 'O Movimento
psicoanalitico no Rio de Janeiro na decada de 70,' in Joel Birman (ed.),
Percursores na historia da psicandlise (Rio de Janeiro, 1998), 12347. 'Precur-
sors' in this literature refers to early commentators on Freud who were not
canonically trained analysts. An important work on Peru is Honorio
Delgado, Freudy elpsicoandlisis: Escritosy testimonios, Javier Mariategui, ed.
(Lima, 1989). German Garcia's La entrada del psicoandlisis en Argentina
(Buenos Aires, 1978) is a perceptive 'intrahistory' from a Lacanian perspec-
tive. More balanced are Jorge Balan's sociologically perceptive Cuentame tu
vida: Una biografia colectiva del psicoandlisis argentino (Buenos Aires, 1991),
and Hugo Vezzetti (ed.), Freud en Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires, 1989), an
anthology of texts.
RECENT POLEMICS
An excellent introduction to contemporary policy debates can be found in

Hebe M. C. Vessuri, 'The social study of science in Latin America', Social
Studies of Science, 17 (1987), 51954. Two standard documents are
Amilcar O. Herrera, Ciencia y politica en America Latina, 9th ed. (Mexico,
D.F., 1985), and J. Leite Lopes, Ciencia e libertaqdo, 2nd ed. (Rio de
Janeiro, 1978). On the sociology of science in Mexico, see Maria Luisa

4. Science 885
Rodriguez Sala-Gomezgil and Adrian Chavero Gonzalez, El cientifico en

Mexico: Su formation en el extranjero, su incorporation y adecuacion al sistema
ocupacional mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1982). For a survey of recent Brazilian
science, see the special section on 'Science in Brazil', in Nature, 342
(1989). 355-74-

IX
LATIN AMERICAN CULTURE
SINCE INDEPENDENCE
i . ART A N D LITERATURE, c. 1 8 2 0 - f . 1870
The study of artistic production in nineteenth-century Latin America

remains in a disconcertingly incomplete state. To take the case of litera-
ture, for example, on which there is a vast, if widely scattered bibliogra-
phy, many of the most elementary tasks remain to be completed. With the
exception of Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Mexico and Peru, histories of
Latin America's national literatures are incomplete, and the inter-relation
of national and continental patterns has not been satisfactorily established.
Paradoxically, the extraordinary expansion of interest in contemporary
Latin America and its culture during the past two decades, when Latin
American artists in a wide range of fields have come to international
attention, threatens to obscure or even obliterate all that has gone before.
Few scholars, since the mid-1960s, have set out to become specialists on
colonial or nineteenth-century literature and culture. The historian of the
nineteenth century must for the most part rely on many of the same
textual and critical materials that would have been used a quarter of a
century ago, albeit with a number of invaluable additions, above all in the
bibliographical field.
Of general works on cultural history, Pedro Henriquez Urena, Historia
de la cultura en la America hispdnica (Mexico, D.F., 1947); Eng. trans.,
with a supplementary chapter by G. Chase, A Concise History of Spanish
American Culture (New York, 1947), although little more than an anno-
tated checklist, remains perhaps the most useful. More exuberant, less
balanced but also invaluable, is G. Arciniegas, El continente de siete colores
(Buenos Aires, 1965); Eng. trans., Latin America: A Cultural History (New
York, 1966). M. Picon Salas, De la conquista a la independencia (Mexico,
D.F., 1958), Eng. trans., A Cultural History of Spanish America from Con-
887

888 IX. Culture since independence
quest to Independence (Berkeley, i960), is as stimulating today as when it

was written. Specifically on Brazil, F. de Azevedo, A cultura brasileira (Rio
de Janeiro, 1950), English translation, Brazilian Culture (New York,
1950) remains indispensable. See also Nelson Werneck Sodre, Sintese da
cultura brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1970).
The history of Latin American architecture is relatively underworked,
and the nineteenth century, usually viewed as a sterile transition from the
glories of the colonial period to the adventures of the modern age, is
particularly neglected. An understanding of the pre-Columbian and colo-
nial background is essential. See especially Diego Angulo Ifiiguez, Historia
del arte hispanoamericano, 3 vols. (Barcelona, 1950); V. Gesualdo, Enci-
clopedia del arte en America Latina, 5 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1968); P.
Keleman, Baroque and Rococo in Latin America (New York, 1951); V. Fraser,
The Architecture of Conquest: Building in the Viceroyalty of Peru, 15351635
(Cambridge, Eng., 1990), on Peru; on Mexico, G. Tovar de Teresa, The
City of Palaces: Chronicle of a Lost Heritage, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1990);
and, above all, G. Kubler and M. Soria, Art and Architecture in Spain and
Portugal and Their American Dominions, 15001800 (Baltimore, 1959).
And for a fuller discussion, see essays II: 18 and III: 10. The most accessible
outline history is L. Castedo, A History of Latin American Art and Architec-
ture from Precolumbian Times to the Present (New York, 1969). However,
Castedo has now published a two-volume Historia del arte iberoamericano
(Madrid, 1988), whose second volume covers the nineteenth and twenti-
eth centuries and is now fundamental. Of similar importance, though
without Brazil, is D. Bayon, Historia del arte hispanoamericano, 3 vols.
(Madrid, 1988). Vol. 3 deals with the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
R. Segre (ed.), America Latina en su arquitectura (Mexico, D.F., and Paris,
1975), is a useful attempt at an historical synthesis. See also I. Katzman,
Arquitectura del siglo XIX en Mexico (Mexico, D . F , 1973), J. Weis, La
arquitectura cubana del siglo XIX (Havana, 1960), J. Arango and C. Marti-
nez, Arquitectura en Colombia, 1538-1951 (Bogota, 1951), and M. J. Bus-
chiazzo, Arquitectura del siglo XIX en Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires, 1966).
Authoritative works on painting and sculpture in this period are very
thin on the ground, and for that reason, Dawn Ades (ed.), Art in Latin
America: The Modern Era, 1820-1980 (London, 1989), based on the 1989
Hayward Gallery Exhibition in London, is indispensable. But see also
Castedo and Angulo Ifiiguez, cited above. D. Bay6n (ed.), America Latina
en sus artes (Mexico, D.F, and Paris, 1974), gives a structured historical
overview. On national developments, see J. Chariot, Mexican Art and the

i. Art and literature, C.1820-C.1870 889
Academy of San Carlos, 1785-1915 (Austin, Tex., 1962); J. Fernandez, El

arte del siglo XIX en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1983); M. Romero de Terreros,
Paisajistas mexicanos del siglo XIX (Mexico, D.F., 1943); R. Tibol, Historia
general del arte mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1964); B. Smith, Mexico: A History
in Art (London, 1979); A. Boulton, Historia de la pintura en Venezuela, 3
vols. (Caracas, 1968); M. Ivelic and G. Galaz, La pintura en Chile desde la
colonia hasta 1981 (Valparaiso, 1981); R. Brughetti, Historia del arte en la
Argentina (Mexico, D.F., 1965); A. Matienzo, Carlos Morel, precursor del
arte argentino (Buenos Aires, 1959); A. D'Onofrio, La epoca y el arte de
Prilidiano Pueyrredon (Buenos Aires, 1944); and J. M. dos Reis, Jr., Histo-
ria da pintura no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1944).
There is a vast bibliography on Latin American literature, though
surprisingly few works which are both accessible and useful on the period
in question here. A basic bibliographical resource is S. M. Bryant, A
Selective Bibliography of Bibliographies of Latin American Literature (Austin,
Tex., 1976), with 662 entries. A well-organized general survey is W.
Rela, Guia bibliogrdfica de la literatura hispanoamericana desde el siglo XIX
hasta 1970 (Buenos Aires, 1971), whilst J. Becco, Fuentes para el estudio de
la literatura hispanoamericana (Buenos Aires, 1968), is a helpful minimal
list. A. Flores, Bibliografia de escritores hispanoamericanos: A Bibliography of
Spanish American Writers, 16091974 (New York, 1975), provides perhaps
the most useful practical guide to criticism on individual writers.
In view of the lack of definitive critical editions of nineteenth-century
works, it would be fruitless to attempt a guide in the space available. This
bibliography is accordingly devoted above all to secondary sources. One
might mention here, however, the Biblioteca Ayacucho, published in
Caracas since 1976 and edited (until his untimely death in 1983) by Angel
Rama, which has reissued numerous historic works unavailable in some
cases for decades. Useful anthologies include J. C. Chiaramonte (ed.),
Pensamiento de la ilustracion (1979); J. L. and L. A. Romero (eds.),
Pensamiento politico de la emancipacion, 1790-1825, 2 vols. (1977); E.
Carilla (ed.), Poesia de la independencia (1979); E. Nunez (ed.), Tradiciones
hispanoamericanas (1979); and A. Rama (ed.), Poesia gauchesca (1977).
There are few English translations of works of this period, and those
that exist are frequently the efforts of enthusiasts rather than specialists.
For an overview of what is available, see W. K. Jones, Latin American
Writers in English Translation: A Classified Bibliography (Washington, D.C.,
1944); B. A. Shaw, Latin American Literature in English Translation: An
Annotated Bibliography (New York, 1976); and the following anthologies:

W. K. Jones (ed.), Spanish American Literature in Translation: A Selection of

Prose, Poetry and Drama before 1888 (New York, 1966); J. Englekirk et al.,
An Anthology of Spanish American Literature, 2 vols., 2nd ed. (New York,
1968); and A. Flores (ed.), The Literature of Spanish America, 5 vols. (New
York, 19659). Examples of translated works from the period are Manoel
Antonio de Almeida's Memoirs of a Militia Sargeant, translated by L. J.
Barrett (Washington, D.C., 1959); Sarmiento's Life in the Argentine Repub-
lic in the Days of the Tyrants, translated by Mrs. H. Mann (New York,
1868); Alencar's Iracema, the Honey-lips, translated by I. Burton (London,
1866); Palma's The Knights of the Cape, translated by H. de Onis (New
York, 1945); Taunay's Innocence, translated by H. Chamberlain (New
York, 1945); Altamirano's El Zarco, the Bandit, translated by M. Allt
(London, 1957); Galvan's The Cross and the Sword, translated by Robert
Graves (London, 1957); and Villaverde's Cecilia Valdes, translated by S. G.
Gest (New York, 1962).
The outstanding synthesis of Latin American literary development to
1940 is still Pedro Henriquez Urena, Las corrientes literarias en la America
hispanica (Mexico, D.F., 1949), which included Brazil and appeared first
in English as Literary Currents in Hispanic America (Cambridge, Mass.,
1945). Also valuable is Luis Alberto Sanchez, Historia comparada de las
literaturas americanas, 4 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1976), in which the veteran
Peruvian critic drew on a lifetime's experience. Two useful works on the
period to 1820 are M. Hernandez Sanchez-Barba, Historia y literatura en
Hispanoamerica, 1492-1820 (Madrid, 1978), and L. Inigo Madrigal (ed.),
Historia de la literatura hispanoamericana, Vol. I: Epoca colonial (Madrid,
1982). Vol. 2 of Inigo Madrigal's Historia, Del neoclasicismo al modernismo
(Madrid, 1987), is now a fundamental source for the nineteenth century.
There are a number of well-known general histories. J. Franco, An
Introduction to Spanish American Literature (Cambridge, Eng., 1969), and
Spanish American Literature since Independence (London, 1973), remain useful
outline introductions in English, as does D. P. Gallagher, 'Spanish Ameri-
can literature', in P. E. Russell (ed.), Spain: A Companion to Spanish Studies
(London, 1976), 4 2 9 - 7 1 . The best of the general works in Spanish in-
clude R. Lazo, Historia de la literatura hispanoamericana, Vol. 1: Elperiodo
colonial (Mexico, D.F., 1965), and Vol. 2: El siglo XIX, 1780-1914
(Mexico, D.F., 1967); E. Anderson Imbert, Historia de la literatura
hispanoamericana, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1954), also available in English;
and A. Zum Felde, Indice critico de la literatura hispanoamericana, 2 vols.
(Mexico, D.F., 1959). Among the many works specifically on fiction, K.

i. Art and literature, c.i820-c. 1870 891
Schwartz, A New History of Spanish American Fiction, 2 vols. (Miami,
1972), is particularly helpful for the independence and post-independence
periods, and P. Lastra, El cuento hispanoamericano del siglo XIX (Santiago,
Chile, 1972) is helpful on the short story. On drama, see F. Dauster,
Historia del teatro hispanoamericano, siglos XIX y XX (1966; 2nd ed., Mex-
ico, D.F., 1973).
The leading authority on the literature of the independence period in
Spanish America is E. Carilla: La literatura barroca en Hispanoamerica (New
York, 1972); La literatura de la independencia hispanoamericana: Neoclasicismo
y romanticismo (Buenos Aires, 1964), brief but much cited; El romanticismo
en la America hispdnica (Madrid, 1958); and Estudios de literatura hispano-
americana (Bogota, 1977), which includes important studies of a number
of early nineteenth-century authors. See also B. Gonzalez Stephan, La
historiografia literaria del liberalismo hispanoamericano del siglo XIX (Havana,
1987), an important polemical essay. On romanticism, see M. Suarez-
Murias, La novela romdntica en Hispanoamerica (New York, 1963), particu-
larly useful on minor novelists; M. Yariez (ed.), La novela romdntica la-
tinoamericana (Havana, 1978), a collection of well-known studies of key
texts; R. Lazo, El romanticismo: Lo romdntico en la lirica hispdnica (Mexico,
D.F., 1971); and C. Melendez, La novela indianista en Hispanoamerica,
1832-1889 (San Juan, P.R., 1961). J. Brushwood, Genteel Barbarism:
Experiments in Analysis of Nineteenth-Century Spanish-American Novels (Lin-
coln, Nebr., 1981), examines eight well-known texts. Doris Sommer's
Foundational Fictions: The National Romances of Latin America (Los Angeles,
1991) is already a critical classic. Works of social contextualization include
E. L. Tinker, The Horsemen of the Americas and the Literature They Inspired
(Austin, Tex., 1967); F. Fox-Lockhart, Women Novelists in Spain and Spanish
America (Metuchen, N.J., 1979); G. Brotherston, 'Ubirajara, Hiawatha,
Cumanda: National virtue from American Indian literature", Comparative
Literature Studies, 9 (1972), 24352; and A. Losada's pathbreaking La
literatura en la sociedad de America Latina: Peru y el Rio de la Plata, 183J
1880 (Frankfurt, 1983).
On Mexico, see J. Jimenez Rueda, Letras mexicanas en el siglo XIX
(Mexico, D.F., 1944), and, above all, a number of works by J. L. Marti-
nez: La expresion nacional: Letras mexicanas del siglo XIX (Mexico, D.F.,
1955), La emancipacion literaria de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1954), and 'Mex-
ico en busca de su expresion', in Historia general de Mexico, vol. 3 (Mexico,
D.F., 1976). Also indispensable are R. E. Warner, Historia de la novela
mexicana en el siglo XIX (Mexico, D.F. 1953); J. L. Read, The Mexican

Historical Novel, 1826-1910 (New York, 1939); J. S. Brushwood, The

Romantic Novel in Mexico (Columbia, Mo., 1954); S. Ortiz Vidales, Los
bandidos en la literatura mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1949); and L. Reyes de la
Maza, Cien anos de teatro mexicano, 18101910 (Mexico, D.F., 1972). On
Cuba, see J. J. Remos, Proceso historico de las letras cubanas (Madrid, 1958);
M. Henriquez Urefia, Historia de la literatura cubana, 2 vols. (New York,
1963); and the invaluable though politically selective Diccionario de la
literatura cubana, 2 vols. (Havana, 1980); and on Guatemala, D. Vela,
Literatura guatemalteca, 2 vols. (Guatemala City, 19445), and O. Oli-
vera, . literatura en publicaciones periodicas de Guatemala, siglo XIX (New
Orleans, La., 1974). On Venezuela, see M. Picon Salas, Formacion y proceso
de la literatura venezolana (Caracas, 1940), and R. Diaz Sanchez, Paisaje
historico de la cultura venezolana (Buenos Aires, 1965); and on Colombia, D.
McGrady, La novela historica en Colombia, 1844-1959 (Bogota, 1962). On
Peru, see M. J. Watson Espiner, El cuadro de costumbres en el Peru
decimononico (Lima, 1980), and L. A. Sanchez, Introduccion a la literatura
peruana (Lima, 1972).
On Chile, see R. Silva Castro, Panorama literario de Chile (Santiago,
Chile, 1962); A. Torres Rioseco, Breve historia de la literatura chilena (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1956); F. Alegria, La poesia chilena: Origenes y desarrollo del siglo
XVIalXIX(Mexico, D.F., 1954); N. Pinilla(ed.), Lapolemicadelromanti-
cismo en 1842 (Santiago, Chile, 1945), and an invaluable work, B.
Subercaseaux, Cultura y sociedad liberal en el siglo XIX: Lastarria: ideologia y
literatura (Santiago, Chile, 1981).
There is a vast bibliography on Argentina, where, unusually and for
well-known historical reasons, the nineteenth century is better studied
than the twentieth. Particularly useful on this period are R. Rojas, Histo-
ria de la literatura argentina: Ensayofilosqficosobre la evolucion de la cultura en
la Plata, 9 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1957), a foundational classic; J. C.
Ghiano, Constantes de la literatura argentina (Buenos Aires, 1953); and E.
Carilla, Estudios de literatura argentina: Siglo XIX (Tucuman, 1965). Works
of more specific orientation include A. Prieto et al., Proyeccion del rosismo en
la literatura argentina (Rosario, 1959); H. E. Frizzi de Longoni, Las
sociedades literarias y elperiodismo, 18001852 (Buenos Aires, 1947); R. H.
Castagnino, Contribucion documental a la historia del teatro en Buenos Aires
durante la epoca de Rosas, 1830-1852 (Buenos Aires, 1945); J. Cruz, Teatro
romdntico argentino (Buenos Aires, 1972), with texts by Marmol and Mitre;
F. Chavez, La cultura en la epoca de Rosas: Aportes a la descolonizacion mental de
la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1973); A. R. Cortazar (ed.), Indios y gauchos en

2. Art and literature, c.1870-1930 893
la literatura argentina (Buenos Aires, 1956). On Uruguay, see L. Ayestaran,

La primitiva poesi'a gauchesca en el Uruguay, 18121838 (Montevideo,
1950), and W. Rela, Historia del teatro uruguayo, 18081968 (Montevi-
deo, 1969). On Paraguay, see J. Pla, El teatro en el Paraguay: De la
fundacion a 1870 (Asuncion, 1967).
On Brazil, Afranio Coutinho, Introdugdo a literatura no Brasil (Rio de
Janeiro, 1955), translated as An Introduction to Literature in Brazil (New
York, 1969), is perhaps the most satisfactory general presentation. Also in
English, see particularly E. Verissimo's chatty Brazilian Literature: An
Outline (New York, 1945), and S. Putnam's celebrated MarvelousJourney: A
Survey of Four Centuries of Brazilian Writing (New York, 1948). C. Hulet
(ed.), Brazilian Literature, 3 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1974), is an invalu-
able critical anthology with texts in Portuguese and commentary in En-
glish. Other essential works are Silvio Romero's classic pioneering Historia
da literatura brasileira, 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1888); A. Candido, Brigada
ligeira (Sao Paulo, 1945) and Formagdo da literatura brasileira, 17501880,
2 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1959); N. Werneck Sodre, Histdria da literatura bra-
sileira: Seus fundamentos economicos (Rio de Janeiro, 1940; rev. ed., Sao
Paulo, 1982); and Alfredo Bosi, Histdria concisa da literatura brasileira (Sao
Paulo, 1972). On romanticism, see particularly F. Cunha, 0 romantismo em
Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1971), and D. Salles, Do ideal as Husoes (Rio de
Janeiro, 1980). For social themes, see D. Driver, The Indian in Brazilian
Literature (New York, 1942), and M. Garcia Mendes, A personagem negra no
teatro brasileiro, 1838-1888 (Sao Paulo, 1982). David T. Haberly, Three
Sad Races: Racial Identity and National Consciousness in Brazilian Literature
(Cambridge, Eng., 1983), includes chapters on Goncalves Dias, Jose de
Alencar and Castro Alves. Finally, on the relation between theatre and
national society, see F. Aguiar, A comedia nacional no teatro dejost de Alencar
(Sao Paulo, 1984).
2. A R T A N D L I T E R A T U R E , c. 1 8 7 0 - 1 9 3 0
The problems of preparing a bibliographical review of Latin American

culture flow directly from the problems of the existing bibliographical
materials themselves: fragmentary in nature, with few standard works,
and many of those inaccessible. Even in literature, by far the most re-
searched of the arts in Latin America, there are few classic histories either
of the continent's literary production as a whole or of that of individual

republics. On painting and architecture, as well as music, the existing

material for most periods is very sparse indeed. In addition, most works
about 'Latin American' culture exclude Brazil. Although this review of the
period 1870-1930 is intended to stand alone, the reader will also find it
useful to consult essay IX: 1 on the period 182070.
GENERAL WORKS ON CULTURAL HISTORY
Pedro Henrfquez Urena, Historia de la cultura en la America hispdnica (Mex-

ico, D.F., 1947), trans., with a supplementary chapter, by G. Chase: A
Concise History of Spanish American Culture (New York 1947), although
barely more than an annotated check-list, remains the most useful of the
general surveys. Also invaluable, if less objective, is G. Arciniegas, El
continente de siete colores (Buenos Aires, 1965), Eng. trans. Latin America: A
Cultural History (New York, 1966). S. Clissold, Latin America: A Cultural
Outline (London, 1965), has appeal for the non-specialist beginner, as does
J. Ocampo Lopez, Historia de la cultura hispanoamericana, siglo XX (Bogota,
1987), whilst J. Franco's title, Society and the Artist: The Modern Culture of
Latin America (London, 1967), has flattered a generation of readers only to
deceive them, but remains a stimulating literary introduction. The .most
remarkable recent book is R. M. Morse, New World Soundings: Culture and
Ideology in the Americas (Baltimore, 1989), a work of rare brilliance which
ranges far and wide in time and space. Specifically on Brazil, F. de
Azevedo, A cultura brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1943), Eng. trans. Brazilian
Culture (New York, 1950), remains an essential introduction. See also N.
Werneck Sodre, Sintese da cultura brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1970), W.
Martins's monumental Histdria da inteligencia brasileira (Sao Paulo, 1981),
and J. Needell, A Tropical Belle Epoque: Elite Culture and Society in Turn-of-
the-Century Rio de Janeiro (Cambridge, Eng., 1987), which gives excellent
insight into its subject.
On Latin American thought and its influence on culture, see M. S.
Stabb, In Quest of Identity (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1967), especially useful on
the 18901930 period; L. Zea, El pensamiento latinoamericano, 2 vols.
(Mexico, D.F., 1965), and The Latin American Mind (Norman, Okla.,
1963), indispensable for an understanding of nineteenth- and twentieth-
century cultural trends, as are two other works by self-styled pensadores:
Radiografia de la pampa (Buenos Aires, 1933) by Ezequiel Martinez Es-
trada, and El laberinto de la soledad (Mexico, D.F., 1950) by Octavio Paz.
On Brazil, see J. Cruz Costa, Contribuiqdo a historia das ideias no Brasil (Rio

2. Art and literature, C.18J0-1930 895
de Janeiro, 1956), Eng. trans. A History of Ideas in Brazil (Berkeley,

1964), and I. Lins, Historia do positivismo no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1964).
The Ayacucho collection of Latin American classic texts published from
Caracas includes Pensamiento conservador, 18151898, ed. J. L. and L. A.
Romero (1978); Utopismo socialista, 1830-1893, ed. C. M. Rama (1977),
and Pensamientopositivista latinoamericano, ed. L. Zea, 2 vols. (1980). These
volumes have excellent chronological appendixes (an innovation propa-
gated in Latin America by the Cuban publishing house, Casa de las
Americas), which provide very helpful background for students of culture
and are ongoing.
ARCHITECTURE
The most useful outline work in English is L. Castedo, A History of Latin

American Art and Architecture from Precolumbian Times to the Present (New
York, 1969), though sketchy and in no sense a handbook. Castedo has
since published a handsome two-volume survey for the Quinto Cente-
nario, Historia del arte iberoamericano (Madrid, 1988), whose second volume
covers the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and is indispensable.
Equally important, except that it excludes Brazil, is Damian Bay6n,
Historia del arte hispanoamericano, 3 vols. (Madrid, 1988); vol. 3 deals with
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. See also D. Bayon (ed.), Arte
moderno en America Latina (Madrid, 1985), which does include Brazil. On
architecture alone, see F. Bullrich, New Directions in Latin American Architec-
ture (New York, 1969) and D. Bayon and P. Gasparini, The Changing Shape
of Latin American Architecture (London, 1979), for the later part of this
period, and J. E. Hardoy, Las ciudades en America Latina (Buenos Aires,
1972), and R. Segre (ed.), America Latina en su arquitectura (Mexico, D.F.,
and Paris, 1975). The integrationist approach is taken by D. F. Damaz,
Art in Latin American Architecture (New York, 1963), and P. M. Bardi,
Histdria da arte brasileira: Pintura, escultura, arquitetura, outras artes (Sao
Paulo, 1975).
Valuable national surveys are I. E. Myers, Mexico's Modern Architecture
(New York, 1952), S. Moholy-Nagy, Carlos Raul Villanueva and the Archi-
tecture of Venezuela (New York, 1964), and J. Arango and C. Martinez,
Arquitectura en Colombia, 1538-1951 (Bogota, 1951), for Spanish Amer-
ica; and for Brazil, H. E. Mindlin, Modern Architecture in Brazil (New
York, 1956), E. Corona, Diciondrio da arquitetura brasileira (Sao Paulo,
1972), with unique coverage in both breadth and depth, and A. de Souza,

Arquitetura no Brasil: Depoimentos (Sao Paulo, 1978), brief, but with well-
focused insights into, among others, Warchavchik, Costa and Niemeyer.
PAINTING AND SCULPTURE
Important general reference books are J. A. Findlay, Modern Latin American

Art: A Bibliography (London, 1983), and, especially, J. W. Bailey (ed.),
Handbook of Latin American Art, 3 vols. (Oxford, 1984). Curiously no
doubt there is an economic explanation more general works on Latin
American art exist in English than in Spanish or Portuguese. Outstanding
among these is Dawn Ades (ed.), Art in Latin America: The Modern Era,
18201980 (London, 1989), which includes avant-garde manifestoes as
useful appendices. For panoramic syntheses, see Castedo, History of Latin
American Art and Architecture and his Historia del arte iberoamericano, men-
tioned above, S. L. Catlin and T. Grieder, Art of Latin America since
Independence (New Haven, Conn., 1966) and Bayon, Historia del arte
hispanoamericano, vol. 3. Specifically on the contemporary period, see G.
Chase, Contemporary Art in Latin America (New York, 1970), both knowl-
edgeable and readable, and works by the two most prominent Latin Ameri-
can critics of recent times, M. Traba, La pintura nueva en Latinoamerica
(Bogota, 1961), and D. Bayon, Aventura pldstica de Hispanoamerica (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1973). See also, D. Bayon (ed.), America Latina en sus artes
(Mexico, D.F., and Paris, 1974), another structured overview produced
under the aegis of UNESCO, and, for the end of the period, T. H. Day
and H. Sturges, Art of the Fantastic: Latin America, 1920198J (Indianapo-
lis, Ind., 1987).
On Mexico, see B. Smith, Mexico: A History in Art (London, 1979), and
the sumptuous Cuarenta siglos de pldstica mexicana, vol. 3: Arte moderno y
contempordneo (Mexico, D.F., 1971), lavishly illustrated and edited by E.
O'Gorman et al., with chapters by J. Fernandez on the nineteenth century
and L. Cardoza y Aragon on the art of the Revolution. See.also Fernandez's
Arte moderno y contempordneo de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1952) and Cardoza y
Arag6n's Pintura mexicana contempordnea (Mexico, D.F., 1953), both essen-
tial reading on the topic. Other useful works are B. S. Myers, Mexican
Painting in Our Time (New York, 1956); J. A. Manrique, 'El proceso de las
artes, 19101970', in Historia general de Mexico, 4 (Mexico, D.F., 1976),
285301; E. Baez Macias, Fundacidn e historia de la Academia de San Carlos
(Mexico, D.F., 1974); O. Paz, La pintura mural de la Revolucion Mexicana
(Mexico, D.F., i960); Jean Chariot, The Mexican Mural Renaissance,

2. Art and literature, c.i870-1930 897
19201925 (New Haven, Conn., 1966), an authoritative view from one

who was there; O. S. Suarez, Inventario del muralismo mexicano (Mexico,
D.F., 1972), a brilliantly rnultifaceted study by a Cuban practitioner of
the art; and R. Tibol, Documentation sobre el arte mexicano (Mexico, D.F.,
1974), an invaluable source of background materials. On the Mexican
muralists, see also essay IX:6. E. W. Weismann's Mexico in Sculpture
(Cambridge, Mass., 1950) gives insight into the art of the period.
On Cuba, see J. Gomez Sicre, Pintura cubana de hoy (Havana, 1944), by
a former member of the Parisian avant-garde, and L. de la Torriente,
Estudio de las artes pldsticas en Cuba (Havana, 1954). On Venezuela the
leading authority is A. Boulton: see his Historia de la pintura en Venezuela, 3
vols. (Caracas, 1968); see also J. Calzadilla and P. Bricefio, Escultura,
escultores: Un libra sobre la escultura en Venezuela (Caracas, 1977), indispens-
able in its field. On the Andean countries, see G. Giraldo Jaramillo, La
pintura en Colombia (Mexico, D.F., 1948), M. Serrano, Cien anos de arte
colombiano (Bogota, 1985), T. Nunez Ureta (ed.), Pintura contempordnea, 2
vols. (Lima, 1975), which divides Peruvian artistic history into the peri-
ods 18201920 and 19201968, providing illustrations unavailable else-
where; M. Lauer, Introduction a la pintura peruana del siglo XX (Lima,
1976), particularly helpful on indigenism; and J. Sabogal, Del arte en el
Peruy otros ensayos (Lima, 1975), by the standard-bearer of artistic national-
ism himself. M. Ivelic and G. Galaz, La pintura en Chile desde la colonia
hasta 1981 (Valparaiso, 1981), beautifully illustrated, is the best guide to
Chilean art of the period.
On Argentina, see especially R. Brughetti, Historia del arte en la Argen-
tina (Mexico, D.F., 1965); A. Pellegrini, Panorama de la pintura argentina
contempordnea (Buenos Aires, 1967), polemical and individualist but essen-
tial reading; C. C6rdova Iturburu, Ochenta anos de pintura argentina (Buenos
Aires, 1978); and also Arte Argentina dalla independenzia ad oggi, 1810
1987 (Rome, 1987). The most useful work on Uruguayan art is J. P.
Argul, Proceso de las artes pldsticas del Uruguay desde la epoca indigena al
momento contempordneo (Montevideo, 1958), and on Paraguay, see T.
Escobar, Una interpretation de las artes visuales en Paraguay (Asuncion,
1982).
Brazil is particularly well provided with dictionaries and handbooks on
modern and contemporary art, with the 1920s as in Mexico and par-
ticularly the Sao Paulo Modern Art Week of 1922, providing the focal
point of departure. See R. Pontual, Diciondrio das artes pldsticas no Brasil
(Rio de Janeiro, 1969); C. Cavalcanti, Diciondrio brasileiro de artistas plds-

ticos, 5 vols. (Brasilia, 1973); W. Zanini, Histdria geraldoarte no Brasil(Sao

Paulo, 1983); P. M. Bardi, 0 modernismo no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1978), very
good on both the 1920s and 1930s, with invaluable insights into the
contribution of architects to the new wave; and A. Amaral, Arte y
arquitectura del modernismo brasileno, 19171931 (Caracas, 1978), as good
an anthology of critical articles and original documents as can be found in
any Brazilian publication. Finally, A. Amaral, Tarsila, sua obra eseu tempo,
3 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1975), makes the whole period come alive.
LITERATURE
This bibliographical essay is devoted almost exclusively to secondary

sources of continental or national scope, rather than to individual authors,
however distinguished. Mention should be made here, however, of the
'Coleccion Archivos', published since 1988 by the Asociaci6n Archivos de
la Literatura Latinoamericana, del Caribe y Africana del Siglo XX
(ALLCA) of Paris, a multi-national enterprise which is undertaking the
production of critical editions of several hundred Latin American writers.
No attempt has been made in this essay, however, to offer a guide to
critical editions of major texts, nor to record even the most important
translations. The reader is referred to B. A. Shaw, Latin American Literature
in English Translation: An Annotated Bibliography (New York, 1976) and its
excellent successor, J. Wilson, A toZ of Modern Latin American Literature in
Translation (London, 1990).
Among the most useful bibliographical works are: S. M. Bryant, A
Selective Bibliography of Bibliographies of Latin American Literature (Austin,
Tex., 1976), with 662 entries covering the entire range of scholarly endeav-
our; P. Ward (ed.), The Oxford Companion to Spanish Literature (Oxford,
1978), with good coverage of Spanish America; W. Rela, Guia bibliogrdfica
de la literatura hispanoamericana, desde el siglo XIX hasta 1970 (Buenos
Aires, 1971); A. Flores, Bibliografia de escritores hispanoamericanos: A Bibliog-
raphy of Spanish American Writers, 1609-1974 (New York, 1975), a most
useful select practical guide; H. J. Becco, Fuentes para el estudio de la
literatura hispanoamericana (Buenos Aires, 1968), a superb concise list in 64
pages; UNESCO, Bibliografia general de la literatura latinoamericana (Paris,
1972); and Pan American Union, Diccionario de la literatura latinoamericana
(Washington, D.C., 1958 ), of which, regrettably, only the volumes
on Bolivia, Central America, Chile, Colombia and Ecuador appeared.
Important works include D. W. Foster, The Twentieth-Century Spanish

American Novel: A Bibliographical Guide (Metuchen, N.J., 1975) and Pan-
orama histdrico-literario de nuestra America, 2 vols. (Havana, 1982), whose
first volume is on the period 190043. Last but not least, see D. E.
Marting (ed.), Women Writers of Spanish America: An Annotated Bio-
bibliographical Guide (New York, 1987), a crucial resource on its subject.
On theatre, see R. F. Allen, Teatro hispanoamericano (Boston, 1987), a
useful bibliographical guide, H. H. Hoffman, Latin American Play Index,
Vol. I, 1920-62 (Metuchen, N.J., 1984), and F. de Toro and P. Roster,
Bibliografia del teatro hispanoamericano contemporaneb, 19001980, 2 vols.
(Frankfurt, 1985).
For national bibliographies, D. W. Foster, Mexican Literature: A Bibliog-
raphy of Secondary Sources (Metuchen, N.J., 1983), is essential, as is A. M.
Ocampo and E. Prado Velazquez (eds.), Diccionario de escritores mexicanos
(Mexico, D.F., 1967), using a careful bio-bibliographical approach. Since
1979 the leading publishing house, Fondo de Cultura Econ6mica, has
been publishing facsimile editions of major Revistas Literarias Mexicanas
Modernas, providing a priceless bibliographical resource for scholars.
For the Caribbean area, see D. W. Foster, Puerto Rican Literature: A
Bibliography of Secondary Sources (Westport, Conn., 1982) and Cuban Litera-
ture: A Research Guide (New York, 1975); Biblioteca Nacional Jose Marti,
Bibliografia de la poesia cubana en el siglo XIX (1965); L. Cardoso and J.
Pinto, Diccionario general de la literatura venezolana (Merida, Ven., 1974);
and H. J. Becco, Fuentes para el estudio de la literatura venezolana, 2 vols.
(Caracas, 1978).
On the Andean region, see Hector H. Orjuela, Fuentes generates para el
estudio de la literatura colombiana (Bogota, 1968); J. E. Englekirk and G. E.
Wade, Bibliografia de la novela colombiana (Mexico, D.F., 1950); J. Ortega
and A. Caceres Romero, Diccionario de la literatura boliviana (La Paz,
1977); J. M. Barnadas and J. J. Coy, Realidad historica y expresion literaria en
Bolivia (Cochabamba, 1977); F. and L. Barriga, Diccionario de la literatura
ecuatoriana (Quito, 1973); D. W. Foster, Peruvian Literature: A Bibliography
of Secondary Sources (Metuchen, N.J., 1983), another indispensable contri-
bution, and his Chilean Literature: A Working Bibliography (Boston, 1978);
and E. Szmulewicz, Diccionario de la literatura chilena (Santiago, Chile,
1977)-
As usual, the River Plate region is well served: H. J. Becco, Contribucidn
a la bibliografia de la literatura argentina: Bibliografia, antologia, historia y
critica general (Buenos Aires, 1959), is vast in scope, while D. W. Foster,
Argentine Literature: A Research Guide (New York, 1983), is yet another

outstanding contribution from an indefatigable bibliographer. P. Orgam-

bide and R. Yahni provide a very businesslike Enciclopedia de la literatura
argentina (Buenos Aires, 1970). On Uruguay, see W. Rela, Contribution a
la bibliografia de la literatura uruguaya (Montevideo, 1963) and Literatura
uruguaya, 18351986 (Montevideo, 1986); and A. F. Orreggioni and W.
Penco, Diccionario de literatura uruguaya (Montevideo, 1987); and on Para-
guay, neglected as ever, see R. Maxwell and J. D. Ford, A Tentative
Bibliography of Paraguayan Letters (Cambridge, Mass., 1934).
Finally, on Brazil, Instituto Nacional do Livro, Introdugdo ao estudo da
literatura brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1963), a critical synthesis and bibliog-
raphy, and the Diciondrio literario brasileiro, 5 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1969) by R.
de Menezes, with references to 4,000 writers, deserve mention, as does I.
Stern's outstanding Dictionary of Brazilian Literature (New York, 1980), an
excellent critical resource.
Anthologies in Spanish and English include A. Flores, Historia y
antologia del cuento y la novela en Hispanoamerica (New York, 1967), a point
of reference for all later anthologists; A. Flores and H. M. Anderson
(eds.), Masterpieces of Spanish American Literature, 2 vols. (New York,
1974), perhaps the most attractively produced of all the anthologies; M.
Benedetti and A. Benitez Rojo (eds.), Un siglo del relato latinoamericano
(Havana, 1976); S. Menton (ed.), El cuento hispanoamericano: Antologia
critico-historica, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1964); C. Ripoll and A. Valdespino
(eds.), Teatro hispanoamericano: Antologia critica (New York, 1972); J.
Lafforgue (ed.), Teatro rioplatense, 18861930 (Caracas, 1977); C. Ripoll,
Conciencia intelectual de America: Antologia del ensayo hispanoamericano, 1836
1959 (New York, 1961); Gordon Brotherston (ed.), Spanish American
Modernista Poets (Oxford, 1968), and J. E. Pacheco (ed.), Antologia del
modernismo, 18841921, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1970), different in scope
but both excellent; G. Zaid (ed.), Omnibus de poesia mexicana (Mexico,
D.F., 1971); A. de Maria y Campos, La Revolution Mexicana a traves de los
corridos populares, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1962); A. Castro Leal (ed.), La
novela de la Revolution Mexicana, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., i960), the classic
collection; D. Agustin del Saz (ed.), Antologia general de la poesia argentina
(Barcelona, 1969); G. Ara (ed.), Suma de poesia argentina, 15381968:
Critica y antologia, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1970). The most valuable anthol-
ogy of Brazilian literature for non-Brazilians is undoubtedly C. Hulet
(ed.), Brazilian Literature, 3 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1974), with texts
in Portuguese, commentaries in English, and excellent bibliographical
listings.

2. Art and literature, c.1870-1930 901
HISTORY AND CRITICISM
The outstanding synthesis of Latin American literary history remains Pe-

dro Henriquez Urena, Las corrientes literarias en la America hispdnica (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1949), which included Brazil and appeared first in English as
Literary Currents in Hispanic America (Cambridge, Mass., 1945). Henri-
quez Urefia's judgements have acquired permanent authority. Also invalu-
able are Luis Alberto Sanchez, Historia comparada de las literaturas ameri-
canas, 4 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1976), which includes Brazil, Haiti and the
United States; R. Grossman, Historia y problemas de la literatura la-
tinoamericana (Madrid, 1972), and G. Bellini, Historia de la literatura
hispanoamericana (Madrid, 1985), all mammoth works. Other well-known
general histories in English include J. Franco, An Introduction to Spanish
American Literature (Cambridge, Eng., 1969), and her Spanish American
Literature since Independence (London, 1973), both useful outlines, and the
somewhat peremptory 'Spanish American literature' by D. P. Gallagher,
in P. E. Russell (ed.), Spain: A Companion to Spanish Studies (London,
1976), 42.971. The best of the general works in Spanish, in addition to
those mentioned, are E. Anderson Imbert, Historia de la literatura
hispanoamericana, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1954), an outstanding synthesis
and critical guide, also available in English, and A. Zum Felde, Indice
critico de la literatura hispanoamericana, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1959), uni-
versally admired. An interesting comparative approach is taken in B. G.
Chevigny and G. Laguardia (eds.), Reinventing the Americas: Comparative
Studies of Literature of the U.S. and Spanish America (Cambridge, Eng.,
1986). Also worthy of note, finally, are B. G. Carter, Historia de la
literatura hispanoamericana a traves de sus revistas (Mexico, D.F., 1970), and
the imaginative collective critical history commissioned by UNESCO and
edited by C. Fernandez Moreno, America Latina en su literatura (Mexico,
D.F., and Paris, 1972). Finally, the tireless D. W. Foster has edited a
unique Handbook of Latin American Literature (New York and London,
1987), with brief histories of each national literature.
Specifically on fiction, the best-known works are L. A. Sanchez, Proceso
y contenido de la novela hispanoamericana (Madrid, 1953); F. Alegria, Historia
de la novela hispanoamericana (Mexico, D.F., 1959); J. Loveluck (ed.), La
novela hispanoamericana (Santiago, Chile, 1969), an outstanding critical
anthology whose influence is still felt; K. Schwartz, A New History of
Spanish American Fiction, 2 vols. (Miami, 1972); M. A. Arango, Origen y
evolucion de la novela hispanoamericana (Bogota, 1989); and G. Martin,

Journeys through the Labyrinth: Latin American Fiction in the Twentieth Century
(London, 1989). D. Balderston (ed.). The Historical Novel in Latin America
(Gaithersburg, Md., 1986), provides a historical approach, while R. Gon-
zalez Echevarria, Myth and Archive: A Theory of Latin American Narrative
(Cambridge, Mass., 1990), offers a post-structuralist reading. A. S.
Visca, Aspectos de la narrativa criollista (Montevideo, 1972), gives the best
insight into this continent-wide regionalist movement, whilst T. Perez
(ed.), Tres novelas ejemplares (Havana, 1971), provides a selection of seminal
critical texts and bibliographical guides to La vordgine, Don Segundo Sombra
and Dona Barbara. The same works are studied in Carlos J. Alonso, The
Spanish American Regional Novel (Cambridge, Eng., 1990). L. Leal, Historia
del cuento hispanoamericano (Mexico, D.F., 1966), is still the best work on
this topic, together with Margaret Sayers Peden (ed.), The Latin American
Short Story: A Critical History (Boston, 1983).
On Spanish American poetry there are surprisingly few general works.
Among the best are S. Yurkievich, Fundadores de la nueva poesia la-
tinoamericana, 2nd ed. (Barcelona, 1984), on the later part of the period,
and G. Brotherston, Latin American Poetry (London, 1975), which begins
with modernismo. See also M. H. Forster, Historia de la poesia hispano-
amerkana (Clear Creek, Ind., 1981). There is a large bibliography on
modernismo, of which the standard works are M. Henriquez Urefia, Breve
historia del modernismo (Mexico, D.F., 1954), a classic, and I. A. Schulman,
Genesis del modernismo (Mexico, D.F., 1966). J. Giordano, La edad del
ensueno (Santiago, Chile, 1970), and A. Rama, Ruben Dark y el modernismo
(Caracas, 1970), both place Dario's work in its cultural context and are
essential reading for all critics, as are F. Prus, Literatura y sociedad en
America Latina: El modernismo (Mexico, D.F., 1976), and N. Jitrik, Las
contradicciones del modernismo (Mexico, D.F., 1978), a fashionable sympto-
matic reading. A more recent work is D. Martinez, El modernismo en
America y Espana (Buenos Aires, 1989). Perhaps the best-known study of
an individual modernist poet is I. A. Schulman's Simbolo y color en la obra de
Jose Marti (Madrid, i960), while an interesting comparative study is E.
Marini-Palmieri, El modernismo literark hispanoamericano: Cardcteres esotericos
en las obras de Dario y Lugones (Buenos Aires, 1989). There are fewer
general works on Spanish American avant-garde poetry (unlike the case of
Brazil). The most valuable are probably O. Collazos (ed.), Los van-
guardismos en la America Latina (Havana, 1970) and N. Osorio, Manifiestos,
proclamas y polemicas de la vanguardia literaria hispanoamerkana (Caracas,
1988), whilst G. de Torre, Historia de las literaturas de vanguardia (Madrid,

1965), remains essential general reading. On individuals, see A. de

Undurraga's excellent introduction to his anthology, Vicente Huidobro,
poesia y prosa (Madrid, 1967), and T. Running, Borges' Ultraist Movement
and Its Poets (Lathrop, Mich., 1981).
On theatre, see J. J. Arrom, Historia del teatro hispanoamericano, 2nd ed.,
rev. (Mexico, D.F., 1967), F. Dauster, Historia del teatro hispanoamericano,
siglos XIX y XX, 2nd ed. (Mexico, D.F., 1973) and E. Neglia, El hecho
teatral en Hispanoamerica (Rome, 1985). Finally, as useful general back-
ground to all the foregoing, see R. G. Mead and P. G. Earle, Breve historia
del ensayo latinoamericano (Mexico, D.F., 1962), A. Sacoto, El indio en el
ensayo de la America espanola (New York, 1971), R. L. Jackson, The Black
Image in Latin American Literature (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1976), and A.
Pescatello (ed.), Female and Male in Latin America (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1973),
which contains sections on both Spanish American and Brazilian fiction.
NATIONAL LITERATURES
On Mexico, the authoritative work on the nineteenth-century novel is J. L.

Martinez, La expresion national: Letras mexicanas delsiglo XIX (Mexico, D.F.,
Z
955)> but see also J. Jimenez Rueda, Letras mexicanas en el siglo XIX
(Mexico, D.F., 1989). J. L. Martinez, 'Mexico en busca de su expresion', in
Historia general de Mexico, vol. 3 (Mexico, D.F., 1976), 283337, is invalu-
able, as is its sequel in vol. 4, by C. Monsivais, 'Notas sobre la cultura
mexicana en el siglo XX', 303476, a brilliant synthesis. See also J. Brush-
wood, Mexico in Its Novel (Austin, Tex., 1966), and A. M. Ocampo(ed.),L<z
critica de la novela mexicana contempordnea (Mexico, D.F., 1981), a judicious
anthology of critical studies of twentieth-century output. The best works on
the novel of the Mexican Revolution are A. Dessau, La novela de la Revolucion
Mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1972), Marxist in orientation but the unrivalled
classic; J. Rutherford, Mexican Society during the Revolution: A Literary Ap-
proach (London, 1971); and R. Rodriguez Coronel (ed.), Recopilacion de textos
sobre la novela de la Revolucion Mexicana (Havana, 1975), an outstanding
collection of key critical texts on this important literary phenomenon.
For the Caribbean region, see M. Henriquez Ureha, Panorama historico de
la literatura dominicana (Santo Domingo, 1966), D. Sommer, One Master for
Another: Populism as Patriarchal Rhetoric in Dominican Novels (Santo Domingo,
1983), an astringent feminist view which could be more widely applied to
Latin American fiction as a whole; and on Puerto Rico, J. L. Gonzalez,
Literaturay sociedaden Puerto Rico (Mexico, D.F., 1976). For Cuba, seej. A.

Portuondo, Bosquejo historico de las letras cubanas (Havana, 1960), by the

critic who has most influenced Cuban literary culture since 1959, and R.
Lazo, Historia de la literatura cubana (Mexico, D.F., 1974). Curiously, the
revolutionary rewriting of Cuban literary history remains to be undertaken,
and no definitive new version has yet appeared. The single most important
work on Central America is R. L. Acevedo, La novela centroamericana (F-fo
Piedras, P.R., 1982), sober and comprehensive. See also D. Vela, Literatura
guatemalteca (Guatemala City, 1948); S. Men ton, Historia critica de la novela
guatemalteca (Guatemala City, 1960);!. Gallegos Valdes, Panorama de la lite-
ratura salvadoreha (San Salvador, 1962); J. E. Arellano, Panorama de la
literatura nicaragiiense (Managua, 1966); A. Bonilla, Historia de la literatura
costaricense (San Jose, C.R., 1967); and R. Miro, La literatura panamena
(Panama, 1971).
On Venezuela, see M. Picon Salas, Formation y proceso de la literatura
venezolana (Caracas, 1940), and J. Liscano, Panorama de la literatura
venezolana actual (Caracas, 1972); and on Colombia, A. Gomez Restrepo,
Historia de la literatura colombiana (Bogota, 1956), and D. McGrady, La
novela historica en Colombia, 18441959 (Bogota, 1962).
On Ecuador, see I. J. Barrera, Historia de la literatura ecuatoriana (Quito,
i960), R. Descalzi, Historia critica del teatro ecuatoriano (Quito, 1968), and
A. Rojas, La novela ecuatoriana (Mexico, D.F., 1948). On Bolivia, see F.
Diez de Medina, Historia de la literatura boliviana (Madrid, 1959), and E.
Finot, Historia de la literatura boliviana (La Paz, 1964).
Bolivia has gradually inched its way, thanks above all to the 1952
Revolution, to the prospect of an agreed national culture; while in Peru,
perhaps the most violent and bitter cultural battlefield in the whole of Latin
America, the struggle goes on, particularly through the continuing debate
on indigenism. The best general works in Spanish are by L. A. Sanchez,
Introduction a la literaturaperuana (Lima, 1972), and La literatura peruana:
Derrotero para una historia cultural del Peru, 5 vols. (Lima, 1966). The best
work in English is undoubtedly J. Higgins, A History of Peruvian Literature
(Liverpool, 1987). The indigenist debate is unavoidable, however, going
back to Mariategui, Valcarcel, and so forth in the 1920s and returning with
a vengeance in the 1970s and 1980s. See X. Abril et al., Mariategui y la
literatura (Lima., 1980), L. E. Tord, Elindio en los ensayistasperuanos, 1848
1948 (Lima, 1978), and two outstanding works, A. Cornejo Polar, Literat-
ura y sociedaden el Peru: La novela indigenista (Lima, 1980), and Hermeneutica
y praxis del indigenismo: La novela indigenista de Clorinda Matto a Jose Maria
Arguedas (Mexico, D.F., 1980), by Julio Rodriguez-Luis.

2. Art and literature, c . 1 8 7 0 - 1 9 3 0 905
Chile, the home of some of Latin America's greatest poets, has also
produced many of her most outstanding literary critics and historians,
most of whom have given their attention not only to Chile but to the
continent as a whole; see R. Silva Castro, Panorama literario de Chile
(Santiago, Chile, 1961), A. Torres Rioseco, Breve historia de la literatura
chilena (Mexico, D.F., 1956), F. Alegria, La literatura chilena del sigh XX,
2nd ed. (Santiago, Chile, 1967), and J. Promis, Testimonios y documentos de
la literatura chilena, 1842-1975 (Santiago, Chile, 1977).
There is a profuse coverage of Argentine literature for all periods, though
the nineteenth century is better served in terms of synthesis than the twenti-
eth, which is wracked by dissension and personalism, the result being a
stream of political and sociological readings of narrative, poetry and theatre
which, on the whole, promise more than they can deliver. The outstanding
history of our period is R. Rojas, Historia de la literatura argentina: Ensayo
filosofico sobre la evolucion de la cultura en el Plata, 9 vols. (Buenos Aires,
1957), a continental classic. Other important general works are A.
Yunque's pathbreaking La literatura social en la Argentina: Historia de los
movimientos literarios desde la emancipacion nacional hasta nuestros dias (Buenos
Aires, 1941); J. C. Ghiano, Constantes de la literatura argentina (Buenos
Aires, 1953); E. Carilla, Literatura argentina, 18001950: Esquema general
(Tucuman, 1954); G. Ara, Los argentinos y la literatura nacional (Buenos
Aires, 1966); A. Prieto, La literatura autobiogrdfica argentina (Buenos Aires,
1966); and N. Jitrik, Elfuego de la especie (Buenos Aires, 1971). The period
of consolidation in the last decades of the nineteenth century, and in particu-
lar the 1880 Generation, have received renewed attention since the late
1960s. See A. Rama, Los gauchipoliticos rioplatenses (Buenos Aires, 1976),
which treats the relation between gauchesque poetry and politics through-
out the nineteenth century; E. Fishburn, The Portrayal of Immigration in
Nineteenth-Century Argentine Fiction, 1845-1892 (Berlin, 1981), an illumi-
nating survey of authorial ideology; L. Rusich, El inmigrante italiano en la
novela argentina del 80 (Madrid, 1974); and a series of somewhat unstruc-
tured but indispensable populist-Marxist works by D. Viiias: Literatura
argentina y realidadpolitica: De Sarmiento a Cortdzar (Buenos Aires, 1971),
Apogeo de la oligarquia (Buenos Aires, 1975), Indios, ejercito y frontera (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1982), and Grotesco, inmigracion y fracaso (Buenos Aires, 1973),
which takes the work of the immigrant writer A. Discepolo as its point of
departure. Similar contributions are A. R. Cortazar(ed.), Indiosy gauchos en
la literatura argentina (Buenos Aires, 1956), A. Prieto, Literatura y
subdesarrollo (Buenos Aires, 1968), andj. Hernandez Arregui, lmperialismoy

cultura (Buenos Aires, 1973). On the later period, see C. T. Leland, The
Generation 0/1922 (Syracuse, N.Y., 1986), and M. Scrimaglio, Literatura
argentina de vanguardia, 1920-1930 (Rosario, 1974).
On Uruguay, rich beyond its size and population in literary creation, see
A. Zum Felde, Proceso intelectualdel Uruguay, 3 vols. (1941; 3rd ed., rev.,
Montevideo, 1967); S. Bollo, Literatura uruguaya, 180J-1965, 2 vols.
(Montevideo, 1965); J. E. Englckirk and M. E. Ramos, La narrativa
uruguaya: Estudio critico bibliogrdfico (Berkeley, 1967); H. Achugar, Poesia y
sociedad: Uruguay, 1880-1911 (Montevideo, 1985); and W. Rela, Historia
del teatro uruguayo, 18081968 (Montevideo, 1969); and on Paraguay, for
which the reverse is true, see H. Rodrfguez-Alcala, La literaturaparaguaya
(Buenos Aires, 1969), and J. Pla, Apuntes para una historia de la cultura
paraguaya (Asuncion, 1967), and El teatro en el Paraguay (Asunci6n, 1967).
On Brazil, A. Coutinho, Introduqdo a literatura no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro,
I
955)> E n g- trans. An Introduction to Literature in Brazil (New York,
1969), is the outstanding general introduction, setting Brazil's literary
production in the international cultural context with consummate power
of synthesis, and ending with modernismo in the 1920s. The most readable
works in English remain E. Verissimo's idiosyncratic Brazilian Literature:
An Outline (New York, 1945), which plays to the English-speaking gal-
lery, and S. Putnam's enthusiastic and enduringly civilized Marvelous
Journey: A Survey of Four Centuries of Brazilian Writing (New York, 1948),
which effectively returns the compliment. Other essential general works
are A. Candido, Brigada ligeira (Sao Paulo, 1945), Formagdo da literatura
brasileira, IJ501880, 2 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1959), and Presenga da literatura
brasileira (Sao Paulo, 1964); N. Werneck Sodre, Histdria da literatura
brasileira: Seus fundamentos economicos (Rio de Janeiro, 1940; rev. ed.
Sao Paulo, 1982); A. Bosi, Histdria concisa da literatura brasileira (Sao
Paulo, 1972); and D. Brookshaw, Race and Color in Brazilian Literature
(Metuchen, N J . , and London, 1986), essential on the black presence in
Brazilian letters. On the early part of the period, see J. C. de Andrade
Muricy, Panorama do movimento simbolista brasileiro, 2 vols. (Brasilia, 1973);
for the period as a whole A. L. Machado Neto, Estrutura social da Republica
de Letras (Sao Paulo, 1973), invaluable background for this period; and for
the period preceding modernismo, see A. Bosi, 0 pri-modernismo, 3rd ed.
Brazilian modernismo is attracting ever-increasing critical attention, on a
scale far beyond that accorded to its Spanish American equivalents. See W.
Martins, 0 modernismo, 3rd ed. (Rio de Janeiro, 1969); R. Bopp,

3. Narrative since c.1920 907
Movimentos modernistas no Brasil, 19221928 (Rio de Janeiro, 1966), by
one of the participants; G. Mendonga Telles, Vanguarda europeia e modern-
ismo brasileiro (Petropolis, 1972); L. Ivo, Modernismo e modernidade (Rio de
Janeiro, 1972); F. Teixeira de Salles, Das razoes do modernismo (Rio de
Janeiro, 1974); S. Castro, Teoria e politica do modernismo brasileiro (Petro-
polis, 1979); M. R. Batista, T. P. A. Lopez and Y. S. de Lima, Brasil:
Primeiro tempo modernista, 191J-1929: Documentaqao (Sao Paulo, 1972),
invaluable as a source book; and M. E. Boaventura, A vanguarda
antropofdgica (Sao Paulo, 1985), which studies modernist reviews. Some of
the important reviews like the Revista de Antropofagia, reprint (Sao Paulo
1976) and Klaxon, reprint (Sao Paulo, 1974) have been republished, serv-
ing Brazilian criticism in the way that reprints of Amauta and Con-
tempordneos have served Spanish American criticism in recent years.
Finally, for the very end of the period, see A. Filho, 0 romance brasileiro
de 30 (Rio de Janeiro, 1969).
3. N A R R A T I V E SINCE f.1920
The last thirty years have seen an extraordinary transformation in Latin

American literature, in the recognition it has achieved internationally
and in the scholarly resources available for its study. The most ironic
aspect of this remarkable cultural phenomenon is that attention has fo-
cused precisely on that contemporary period which historians and critics
of literature normally tell us must wait until time has passed and critical
judgements have sedimented. Thus the New Novel and its euphoric
culmination, the 'Boom', have received an astonishing amount of concen-
trated attention - not only from Latin Americanists - while the colonial
period and the nineteenth century have languished in relative neglect. B.
A. Shaw, Latin American Literature in English Translation (New York,
1976) remains a valuable resource. It can now be supplemented by E. J.
Wilson, A to Z of Latin American Literature in English Translation (London,
1991).
BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND DICTIONARIES
Among the most useful bibliographical works are S. M. Bryant, A Selective

Bibliography of Bibliographies of Latin American Literature (Austin, Tex.,
1976); P. Ward (ed.), The Oxford Companion to Spanish Literature (Oxford,

1978), with good coverage of Spanish American literature despite the

title; W. Rela, Guia bibliogrdfica de la literatura hispanoamericana desde el
siglo XIX hasta 1970 (Buenos Aires, 1971); and A. Flores, Bibliografia de
escritores hispanoamericanos, 1609-1974 (New York, 1975), a very practical
select listing. Indispensable is the remarkable two-volume Panorama
historico-literario de nuestra America, vol. 1, 1900-1943, vol. 2, 1944-
1970 (Havana, 1982) which interweaves historical data with literary-
cultural entries. Another valuable resource is N. Klahn and W. F. Corral
(eds.), Los novelistas como criticos, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1991), an anthol-
ogy of key critical writings by all the leading Latin American novelists of
the last two centuries, with greater emphasis on the recent period.
The indefatigable D. W. Foster has produced a whole series of indispens-
able listings, including Mexican Literature: A Bibliography of Secondary
Sources (Metuchen, N.J., 1983). See also A. M. Ocampo and E. Prado
Velazquez (eds.), Diccionario de escritores mexicanos (Mexico, D.F., 1967),
now being updated by Ocampo, the first volume of whose Diccionario de
escritores mexicanos del siglo XX appeared in Mexico in 1988.
For the Caribbean area, see D. W. Foster, Puerto Rican Literature: A
Bibliography of Secondary Sources (Westport, Conn., 1982), and Instituto de
Literatura y Lingiiistica de la Academia de Ciencias de Cuba, Diccionario de
la literatura cubana, 2 vols. (Havana, 1980), a massive bio-bibliographical
resource.
On Venezuela, see L. Cardoso and J. Pinto, Diccionario general de la
literatura venezolana (Merida, Ven., 1974), and on Colombia, J. E.
Englekirk and G. E. Wade, Bibliografia de la novela colombiana (Mexico,
D.F., 1950).
On the Andean region, see F. and L. Barriga, Diccionario de la literatura
ecuatoriana (Quito, 1973); G. Jaramillo Buendia et al., Indice de la
narrativa ecuatoriana (Quito, 1992); J. M. Barnadas and J. J. Coy, Realidad
histdrica y expresidn literaria en Bolivia (Cochabamba, 1977); D. W. Foster,
Peruvian Literature: A Bibliography of Secondary Sources (Metuchen, N.J.,
1983) and Chilean Literature: A Working Bibliography (Boston, 1978); and
E. Szmulewicz, Diccionario de la literatura chilena (Santiago, Chile, 1977).
For the River Plate, always well served by bibliographers, see H. J.
Becco, Contribucion a la bibliografia de la literatura argentina: bibliografia,
antologia, historia y critica general (Buenos Aires, 1959), vast in scope; P.
Orgambide and R. Yahni's businesslike Enciclopedia de la literatura argen-
tina (Buenos Aires, 1970); D. W. Foster's indispensable Argentine Litera-
ture: A Research Guide (New York, 1983); and W. Rela, Contribucion a la

3- Narrative since a 920 909
bibliografia de la literatura uruguaya (Montevideo, 1963), now supple-
mented by A. F. Orreggioni and W. Penco, Diccionario de literatura uru-
guaya (Montevideo, 1987).
Finally, on Brazil, see Instituto Nacional do Livro, Introducdo ao estudo
da literatura brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1963), a critical synthesis and
bibliography; R. de Menezes, Diciondrio literario brasileiro, 5 vols. (Sao
Paulo, 1969), with references to 5,000 writers from all periods; A. Brasil,
Diciondrio prdtico de literatura brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1979); and M.
Moises and J. P. Paes (eds.), Pequeno diciondrio de literatura brasileira, 2nd
ed. (Sao Paulo, 1980)
GENERAL HISTORY AND CRITICISM
Probably no scholar will ever again achieve the kind of elegant synthesis
produced by Pedro Henriquez Urefia in Las corrientes literarias en la America
hispdnica (Mexico, D.F., 1949), which though it included Brazil appeared
first in English as Literary Currents in Spanish America (Cambridge, Mass.,
1945). It reaches only the first part of the period since 1930, but remains
an essential work for preparing the critical terrain. Also invaluable is Luis
Alberto Sanchez, Historia comparada de las literaturas americanas, 4 vols.
(Buenos Aires, 1976), which includes Brazil, Haiti and the United States.
Other well-known general histories in English include J. Franco's works,
Society and the Artist: The Modern Culture of Latin America (London, 1967),
mainly literary despite the title, An Introduction to Spanish American Litera-
ture (Cambridge, Eng., 1969), and Spanish American Literature since Indepen-
dence (London, 1973), all essential works. The best of the general works in
Spanish are E. Anderson Imbert, Historia de la literatura hispanoamericana,
2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1954), an outstanding synthesis and critical guide,
also available in English; A. Zum Felde, Indice critico de la literatura
hispanoamericana, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1959), much admired; and G.
Bellini, Historia de la literatura hispanoamericana (Madrid, 1985), a solid
compendium. Also especially worthy of note is the imaginative collective
critical history commissioned by UNESCO and edited by C. Fernandez
Moreno, America Latina en su literatura (Mexico, D.F., and Paris, 1972).
Finally, another invaluable contribution is D. W. Foster (ed.), Handbook of
Latin American Literature (New York, 1987), with individual chapters on
national production in each republic.
Specifically on fiction, the best-known traditional works are L. A.
Sanchez, Proceso y contenido de la novela hispanoamericana (Madrid, 1953); F.

9io IX. Culture since independence
Alegria, Historia de la novela hispanoamericana (Mexico, D.F., 1959); J.

Loveluck (ed.), La novela hispanoamericana (Santiago, Chile, 1969), a his-
toric critical anthology which is still an important point of reference for
the early part of the period; K. Schwartz, A New History of Spanish Ameri-
can Fiction, 2 vols. (Miami, Fla., 1972); and J. Brushwood, The Spanish
American Novel: A Twentieth Century Survey (Austin, Tex., 1976).
Since the 1970s literary critics have largely lost faith in 'traditional'
literary history usually designed to fix some national or continental
identity - as they have in all other 'grand narratives', and there have been
few recent attempts at synthesis a la Henriquez Urena, Sanchez, Torres
Rfoseco, Anderson Imbert or Alegria. However, some critics have strug-
gled on in the face of such scepticism, including Gerald Martin, Journeys
through the Labyrinth: Latin American Fiction in the Twentieth Century (Lon-
don, 1989), the first panoramic work for some time to attempt a new
cartography; G. R. McMurray, Latin American Writing since 1941 (New
York, 1987), and D. Villanueva and J. M. Vina Liste, Trayectoria de la
novela hispanoamericana actual: Del 'realismo mdgico' a los anos ochenta (Ma-
drid, 1991), a useful guide to recent writers which disproves once and for
all the idea that Spanish critics are incapable of writing interestingly about
Latin American literature (though the influence of D. L. Shaw's pioneer-
ing Nueva narrativa hispanoamericana [Madrid, 1981], is plain to see). See
also Carlos Fuentes, Valiente mundo nuevo: Epica, Utopia y mito en la novela
hispanoamericana (Mexico, D.F., 1990), a characteristic tour d'horizon and
tour de force, and, similarly brilliant, R. M. Morse, New World Soundings:
Culture and Ideology in the Americas (Baltimore, 1989), which includes
meditations on literature as well as almost everything else.
Less comprehensive but also valuable are a large number of other works
which have appeared since the 1960s: David Gallagher, Modern Latin
American Literature (Oxford, 1973), much used by undergraduate students;
Fernando Ainsa, Los buscadores de la Utopia (Caracas, 1977) and Identidad
cultural de Iberoamerica en su narrativa (Madrid, 1986), which trace arche-
typal themes, as do Rosalba Campra, America Latina: La identidad y la
mascara (Mexico, D.F., 1987) and the contributors to S. Yurkievich (ed.),
Identidad cultural de America Latina en su literatura (Madrid, 1986).
On the period of the 'Boom', see Carlos Fuentes, La nueva novela
hispanoamericana (Mexico, D.F., 1969), Jose Donoso, Historia personal del
boom (Barcelona, 1972), E. Rodriguez Monegal, El boom de la novela la-
tinoamericana (Caracas, 1972) and, for a retrospective, A. Rama (ed.), Mas
alia del boom: Literatura y mercado (Mexico, 1981). Still indispensable are

3 . Narrative since c.1920 911
the interviews of Luis Harss, Los nuestros (1966; also in English, with
Barbara Dohmann, Into the Mainstream [New York, 1967]), carried out at
the height of the 1960s euphoria, followed, a few years later by Rita
Guibert, with Seven Voices (New York, 1973).
Also from this time a series of epoch-making essay anthologies ap-
peared: Mario Benedetti, Letras del continente mestizo (Montevideo, 1967);
E. Rodriguez Monegal, Narradores de esta America (Montevideo, 1969);
Julio Ortega, La contemplacion y la fiesta (Caracas, 1969); Jorge Lafforgue
(ed.), Nueva novela latinoamericana (Buenos Aires, 1969); Ariel Dorfman,
Imaginacion y violencia en America Latina (Santiago, Chile, 1970); O.
Collazos, J. Cortazar and M. Vargas Llosa, Literatura en la revolution y
revolucion en la literatura (Mexico, D.F., 1970), a famous debate; F.
Alegria, Literatura y revolucion (Mexico, D.F., 1971), deceptively titled;
G. Brotherston, The Emergence of the Latin American Novel (Cambridge,
Eng., 1977); A. J. MacAdam, Modern Latin American Narratives: The
Dreams of Reason (Chicago, 1977); S. Bacarisse (ed.), Contemporary Latin
American Fiction (Edinburgh, 1980); D. Kadir, Questing Fictions: Latin
America's Family Romances (Minneapolis, Minn., 1986); J. King (ed.),
Modern Latin American Fiction: A Survey (London, 1987); P. Swanson (ed.),
Landmarks in Modern Latin American Fiction (London, 1990); and R. Gonza-
lez Echevarria, The Voice of the Masters: Writing and Authority in Modern
Latin American Literature (Austin, Tex., 1986), and also his very important
Myth and Archive: A Theory of Latin American Narrative (Cambridge, Eng.,
1991). MacAdam, Kadir and Gonzalez Echevarria are all examples of that
curious and disconcerting phenomenon which has seen Latin American
fiction treated to the full French post-structuralist treatment, but not
from France (nor indeed from Latin America), where very few such studies
have been done, but from the United States. The latest studies are now
linking the 'post-Boom' with post-structuralism and post-modernism.
Good examples are E. Sklodowska, La parodia en la nueva novela hispano-
americana, i9601985 (Philadelphia and Amsterdam, 1991), and L. Par-
kinson Zamora, Writing the Apocalypse (Cambridge, Eng., 1989).
However, there have also been a large number of studies which, instead
of situating Latin American narrative in language or ideology using the
template of Barthes, Derrida, Lacan or Foucault, have tried to reinsert it
in social history. Much of the impetus for such work has come from Cuba,
where Roberto Fernandez Retamar's Caliban (Havana, 1971) and Para una
teoria de la literatura latinoamericana (Havana, 1972) were undoubtedly
political landmarks. But the acknowledged leader of this movement was

the Uruguayan critic Angel Rama, who was taking such studies to new
heights at the time of his tragic death in 1983. His most important works
were Diez problemas para el novelista latinoamericano (Caracas, 1972), La
novela latinoamericana: Panoramas, 19201980 (Bogota, 1982), Transcul-
turacion narrativa en America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1982) and La ciudad
letrada (Hanover, N.H., 1984). Rama was also responsible for the pre-
cious cultural contribution of editing the Coleccion Ayacucho of seminal
texts of Latin American literature and culture, and he took part in numer-
ous symposia and anthologies relating to Latin American narrative. Others
working in a similar tradition are Jorge Ruffinelli (Uruguay), Antonio
Cornejo Polar (Peru), Rafael Gutierrez Girardot (Colombia), Antonio Can-
dido and Roberto Schwarz (Brazil); also, before his premature death,
Alejandro Losada, author of La literatura en la sociedad de America Latina
(Frankfurt, 1983). For other works in this line, se J. Mejia Duque,
Narrativa y neocolonialhmo en America Latina (Bogota, 1972); J. Leenhardt
(ed.), Ideologies, litterature et socieH en Amerique Latine (Brussels, 1975) and
Litterature latino-americaine d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1980); F. Perus, Historia y
critica literaria: el realismo social y la crisis de la dominacion oligdrquica (Ha-
vana, 1982); Julio Rodriguez-Luis, La literatura hispanoamericana entre
compromiso y experimento (Madrid, 1984); M. Morana, Literatura y cultura
nacional en Hispanoamerka (Minneapolis, Minn., 1984); H. Vidal (ed.),
Fascismo y experiencia literaria: Reflexiones para una recanonizacion (Minneapo-
lis, Minn., 1985); and J. Calvifio, Historia, ideologia y mito en la narrativa
hispanoamericana contempordnea (Madrid, 1987). Pathbreaking works at-
tempting to establish a new way of writing Latin American narrative
history are Ana Pizarro (ed.), La literatura latinoamericana comoproceso (Bue-
nos Aires, 1985) and Hacia una historia de la literatura latinoamericana
(Mexico, D.F., 1987), with contributions from many of the critics men-
tioned above.
NATIONAL LITERATURES
D. W. Foster's Handbook of Latin American Literature, mentioned above, is

uneven but useful for all Latin American republics, and will be found
invaluable for countries with sparse bibliographical coverage.
On Mexico, Carlos Monsivais, 'Notas sobre la cultura mexicana en el
sigloXX', in Historia general de Mexico, vol. 4 (Mexico, D.F., 1976), 2 8 3 -
337, provides a stimulating synthesis. See also J. Brushwood, Mexico in Its
Novel (Austin, Tex., 1966); A. M. Ocampo (ed.), La critica de la novela

3. Narrative since c.1920 913
mexicana contempordnea (Mexico, D.F., 1981), a judicious critical collec-

tion; M. Glantz (ed.), Onday escritura en Mexico:Jovenes de 20 a 33 (Mexico,
D.F., 1971), an epoch-making critical anthology; J. A. Duncan, Voices,
Visions and a New Reality: Mexican Fiction since 1970 (Pittsburgh, Pa.,
1986); M. H. Forster and J. Ortega, De la crdnica a la nueva narrativa
mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1986); S. Sefchovich, Mexico: Pats de ideas, pats de
novelas: Una sociologia de la literatura mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1987); R.
Teichmann, De la onda en adelante: Conversaciones con 21 novelistas mexicanos
(Mexico, D.F., 1987); and Jean Franco, Plotting Women (London, 1989),
on women writers from the colony to the present day. Revista Ibero-
americana, no. 1489 (1990) was entirely devoted to twentieth-century
Mexican literature.
The single most useful volume on Central American narrative as a
whole is R. L. Acevedo, La novela centroamerkana (Rio Piedras, P.R.,
1982), which is judicious and comprehensive, but an important later work
is Literature and Politics in the Central American Revolutions by J. Beverley
and M. Zimmerman (Austin, Tex., 1990). On Honduras, see J. F. Marti-
nez, La literatura hondurena (Tegucigalpa, 1987).
For the Caribbean region, see the special number of Latin American
Literary Review, 16 (1980). On the Dominican Republic, see M. Henri-
quez Urena, Panorama historico de la literatura dominicana (Santo Domingo,
1966); D. Sommer, One Master for Another: Populism as Patriarchal Rhetoric
in Dominican Novels (Santo Domingo, 1983), a book whose perspective is
relevant far beyond the Caribbean country on which it is based; and Revista
Iberoamericana, no. 142 (1988), which has 19 essays on modern Dominican
literature. For Haiti, see J. M. Dash, Literature and Ideology in Haiti,
1915-1961 (Totowa, N.J., 1981), and for Puerto Rico, J. L. Gonzalez,
Literatura y sociedad en Puerto Rico (Mexico, D.F., 1976).
On the special case of Cuba already prolific beyond its size well
before the Revolution see J. A. Portuondo, Bosquejo historico de las letras
cubanas (Havana, i960) by the critic who set the ideological pace after the
Revolution, and R. Lazo, Historia de la literatura cubana (Mexico, D.F.,
1974). The early years of the Revolution saw a flurry of enthusiastic
anthologies, first in France and Britain for example, J. M. Cohen (ed.),
Writers in the New Cuba (Harmondsworth, 1967) and then, especially
after the fall of Franco, in Spain; typical examples are M. Benedetti et al.,
Literatura y arte nuevo en Cuba (Barcelona, 1971) and F. M. Lainez, Palabra
cubana (Madrid, 1975). Crucial background texts are Castro's own 'Words
to the Intellectuals' (1961), available in a variety of anthologies of Marxist

declarations on literature, and the documents surrounding the Padilla

affair of 1971. (See Libre, Barcelona, for example, or Index on Censorship
from this period). See also J. G. Santana (ed.), Politica cultural de la
Revolution Cubana: Documentos (Havana, 1977), which includes statements
on the fundamental place of realism in art and literature. On the narrative
fiction since the Revolution, see J. Ortega, Relato de la Utopia: Notas sobre
narrativa cubana de la revolution (Barcelona, 1973); S. Menton, Prose Fiction
of the Cuban Revolution (Austin, Tex., 1975) and, for a Cuban view, long
delayed, R. Rodriguez Coronel, ha novela de la Revolution Cubana, 1959
1979 (Havana, 1986). Excellent more recent works are G. Perez Firmat,
The Cuban Condition: Translation and Identity in Modern Cuban Literature
(Cambridge, Eng., 1989), relating Cuban literature to national culture,
and W. Luis, Slavery in Cuban Narrative (Austin, Tex., 1990). Two essen-
tial studies of Cuban pre- and post-revolutionary magazines are L. Garcia
Vega, Los anos de 'Origenes' (Caracas, 1978) and J. A. Weiss, 'Casa de las
Americas': An Intellectual Review in the Cuban Revolution (Chapel Hill,
N.C., 1977).
On Venezuela, see M. Picon Salas, Formation y proceso de la literatura
venezolana (Caracas, 1940) and J. Liscano, Panorama de la literatura
venezolana actual (Caracas, 1972). On Colombia, see A. Gomez Restrepo,
Historia de la literatura colombiana (Bogota, 1956); D. McGrady, La novela
historica en Colombia, 18441959 (Bogota, 1962); J. G. Cobo Borda, La
narrativa colombiana despues de Garcia Mdrquez (Bogota, 1989); J. Tittler,
Violencia y literatura en Colombia (Madrid, 1989); A. Pineda, La novela
colombiana a fines del sigh XX (Bogota, 1990); and an important if contro-
versial book by R. L. Williams, Novela y poder en Colombia, 1844-198'7
(Bogota, 1991).
A general treatment of the Andean novel is given by R. Lazo, La novela
andina: Pasado y futuro (Mexico, D.F. 1973). On Ecuador, see A. Rojas, La
novela ecuatoriana (Mexico, D.F., 1948); J. L. Barrera, Historia de la lite-
ratura ecuatoriana (Quito, i960); Revista Iberoamericana, no. 1445(1988),
with 26 essays on Ecuadorean literature; and A. Sacoto, Novelas claves en la
literatura ecuatoriana (Quito, 1990). On Peru, ravaged by conflict and
seemingly insoluble questions of national construction and identity, see L.
A. Sanchez, Introduccidn a la literaturaperuana (Lima, 1972), and La literat-
ura peruana: Derrotero para una historia cultural del Peru, 5 vols. (Lima,
1966); J. Higgins, A History of Peruvian Literature (London, 1987); more
socially oriented, A. Losada, Creation y praxis: La production literaria como
praxis social en Hispanoamerica y el Peru (Lima, 1976); J. Rodriguez-Luis,

3. Narrative since c.i920 915
Hermeneutica y praxis del indigenismo: La novela indigenista de Clorinda Matto
a Jose Maria Arguedas (Mexico, D.F., 1980); M. Lauer, El sitio de la
literatura (Lima, 1988); A. Cornejo Polar, Literatura y sociedaden el Peru: La
novela indigenista (Lima, 1980) and Laformacion de la tradicion literaria en el
Peru (Lima, 1989); J. Ortega, La cultura peruana: Experiencia y conciencia
(Mexico, D.F., 1978) and Critica de la identidad: La pregunta por el Peru en
su literatura (Mexico, D.F., 1988). On Bolivia, see F. Diez de Medina,
Historia de la literatura boliviana (Madrid, 1959); E. Finot, Historia de la
literatura boliviana (La Paz, 1964); A. Guzman, Panorama de la novela
boliviana (La Paz, 1973); Evelio Echevarria, La novela social de Bolivia (La
Paz, 1973); G. Lora, Ausencia de la gran novela minera (La Paz, 1979); L.
Garcia Pabon and W. Torrico, El paseo de los sentidos: Estudios de literatura
boliviana contempordnea (La Paz, 1983); R. Teixido, El minero en la novela
boliviana (La Paz, 1988); and C. Castafion, Literatura de Bolivia (La Paz,
1989). On Chile, see R. Silva Castro, Panorama literario de Chile (Santiago,
Chile, 1961); A. Torres Rioseco, Breve historia de la literatura chilena (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1956); F. Alegria, La literatura chilena del siglo XX, 2nd ed.
(Santiago, Chile, 1967); J. Promis, Testimonios y documentos de la literatura
chilena, 1842-1975 (Santiago, Chile, 1977), M. A. Jofre, Literatura
chilena en el exilio (Santiago, Chile, 1986); and H. Vidal, Cultura nacional
chilena, critica literariay derechos humanos (Minneapolis, Minn., 1989).
There is profuse coverage of Argentine literature for all periods, though
the nineteenth century is better served in terms of synthesis than the
twentieth, which is wracked by dissension, personalism and partisanship.
The result has been a torrent of political and sociological readings which,
on the whole, promise more than they can deliver. The outstanding gen-
eral history is R. Rojas, Historia de la literatura argentina: Ensayo filosofico
sobre la evolucidn de la cultura en el Plata, 9 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1957), a
continental model. See also A. Prieto, Literatura y subdesarrollo (Buenos
Aires, 1968); D. Vinas, Literatura argentina y realidadpolitical De Sarmiento
a Cortdzar (Buenos Aires, 1971); J. Hernandez Arregui, Imperialismo y
cultura (Buenos Aires, 1973); A. Adelach et al., Argentina: Cdmo matar la
cultura: Testimonios, 1976-1981 (Madrid, 1981), and A. Avellaneda,
Censura, autoritarismo y cultura: Argentina i960-1983, 2 vols. (Buenos
Aires, 1986), both on the horrifying effects of the military 'process' on
culture, not least fiction; K. Kohut, Literatura argentina de hoy (Frankfurt,
1989); and N. Lin&sttom, Jewish Issues in Argentine Literature (Columbia,
Mo., 1989). A brilliant recent retrospective, outside this period but an
essential preparatory study for it, is B. Sarlo, Buenos Aires 19201930:

Una modernidadperiferica (Buenos Aires, 1988). As important background

sources, see J. King, 'Sur': A Study of the Argentine Literary Journal and Its
Role in the Development of a Culture, 1931-1970 (Cambridge, Eng., 1986),
and W. H . Katra, 'Contorno': Literary Engagement in Post-Peronist Argentina
(Cranbury, N.J., 1988). On Uruguay, rich beyond its size in novelists
and, above all, critics, see A. Zum Felde, Proceso intelectual del Uruguay, 3
vols. (1941; 3rd rev. ed., Montevideo, 1967); J. E. Englekirk and M. E.
Ramos, La narrativa Uruguaya: Estudio critico bibliografico (Berkeley, 1967);
A. Rama, La generation critica, 19391969 (Montevideo, 1972); and J.
Ruffinelli, Palabras en orden (Buenos Aires, 1974), important interviews.
On Paraguay, with no more literary output than Honduras, Panama or
Haiti, see H . Rodriguez-Alcala, La literatura paraguaya (Buenos Aires,
1969).
On Brazil, A. Coutinho, Introdugao a literatura no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro,
X
955) Eg- trans. An Introduction to Literature in Brazil (New York,
1969), is an outstanding general introduction bringing the reader up to
the beginning of this period. S. Putnam's Marvelous Journey: A Survey of
Four Centuries of Brazilian Writing (New York, 1948) remains a stimulating
introduction. See also A. Candido, Presenca da literatura brasileira (Sao
Paulo, 1964); A. Bosi, Histdria concisa da literatura brasileira (Sao Paulo,
1972); A. Filho, 0 romance brasileiro de 30 (Rio de Janeiro, 1969); H.
Alves, Ficgao de 40 (Rio de Janeiro, 1976); A. Brasil, A nova literatura (0
romance) (Rio de Janeiro, 1973) and A nova literatura (0 conto) (Rio de
Janeiro, 1973); M. Silverman, Moderna fkgdo brasileira (Rio de Janeiro,
1978); J. H . Weber, Do modernismo a nova narrativa (Porto Alegre, 1976);
M. C. Lopes, A situacao do escritor e do livro no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1978);
J. Gaspar Machado, Os romances brasileiros nos anos 70: Fragmentagao social e
estetica (Florianopolis, 1981); and A. Candido, 'Los brasilenos y la liter-
atura latinoamericana', Casa de las Amiricas, 136 (1983), 82-92.
4. POETRY SINCE c. 1920
An appropriate starting point for any survey of twentieth-century Latin

American poetry is Saul Yurkievich, Fundadores de la nueva poesia latino-
americana (1971; 2nded., Barcelona, 1973), which contains essays on Cesar
Vallejo, Vicente Huidobro, Pablo Neruda, Jorge Luis Borges, Octavio Paz
and Oliverio Girondo. Yurkievich, a poet and a perceptive critic, favours
the experimental side of the twentieth-century poetic tradition. Despite its

4. Poetry since c. 1920 917
title, his survey does not include Brazilians. Equally stimulating, and more
wide ranging, is Guillermo Sucre, La mascara, la transparencia (Caracas,
X
975)> with essays on all the principal Hispanic poets from Dario to
Pizarnik and Pacheco; strangely it excludes Pablo Neruda. Another poet-
critic who has written engagingly on Spanish American poets is Julio
Ortega in his Figuration de la persona (Madrid, 1970), with essays on Vallejo,
Belli, Parra, Pacheco and many Peruvians. The best survey in English is
Gordon Brotherston, Latin American Poetry: Origins and Presence (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1975), from Dario to Girri and Lihn, and including the
Brazilians. Brotherston's forte is situating the poets in a cultural definition
of American-ness. The most useful academic survey (with bibliographies) is
Merlin Forster, Historia de la poesia hispanoamericana (Clear Creek, Ind.,
1981). A sympathetic approach to modern Latin American poets emerges
in Ram6n Xirau's Poesia iberoamericana contempordnea (Mexico, D.F., 1972).
A chronicle of very recent poetry, arguing for a living avant-garde, is
Eduardo Milan's Una cierta mirada (Mexico, D.F., 1989), based on reviews
in Octavio Paz's magazine, Vuelta. Pedro Lastra's critical edition of the
special number of Inti: Revista de Literatura Hispdnica, 1819 (19834),
'Catorce poetas hispanoamericanos de hoy', ranges from Gonzalo Rojas to
Antonio Cisneros. There is also a special number, 'La poesia en Hispano-
america, hoy' of Insula, no. 51213 (AugustSeptember 1989), edited by
Juan Gustavo Cobo Borda. Also recommended is Tamara Kamenszain, El
texto silencioso: Tradicidn y vanguardia en lapoesia sudamericana (Mexico, D.F.,
1983), suggesting an alternative tradition in which to ground Latin Ameri-
can poetry. Finally, a recent survey of Latin American poetry by Mike
Gonzalez and David Treece, The Gathering of Voices: The Twentieth Century
Poetry of Latin America (London, 1992) is angled socio-politically and reads
cumbersomely, but is thorough.
MONOGRAPHS
There are many good monographs on individual poets. The early-

twentieth-century break with Ruben Darfo's cosmopolitan poetics is em-
bodied by Ram6 Lopez Velarde and Leopoldo Lugones. Octavio Paz has a
key essay on Lopez Velarde in Cuadrivio (Mexico, D.F., 1965), while Allen
Phillips's Ramon Ldpez Velarde, elpoeta y elprosista (Mexico, D.F., 1962) is
more informative. Lugones is well covered in Jorge Luis Borges's critical
tribute, Leopoldo Lugones (Buenos Aires, 1955), and by the more academic
Raquel Halty Ferguson, Laforguey Lugones: Dos poetas de la luna (London,

1981). The best survey of the break with Rubendarismo is Gwen Kirkpat-
rick, The Dissonant Legacy of Modernismo: Lugones, Herrera y Reissig and the
Voice of Latin American Poetry (Berkeley, 1989).
The initiator of the poetic avant-garde is the Chilean Vicente Huidobro.
Rene de Costa has settled many controversial issues surrounding Hui-
dobro's reputation and achievements in his Vicente Huidobro: The Careers of
a Poet (Oxford, 1984). Pabio Neruda's prolific output is neatly summa-
rized in Manuel Duran and Margaret Safir, Earth Tones: The Poetry of Pablo
Neruda (Cambridge, Mass., 1981). The detailed study of early Neruda by
Jaime Concha, Neruda: 1904-1936 (Santiago, Chile, 1972) repays study,
as does Robert Pring Mill's acute introduction to his Pablo Neruda: A Basic
Anthology (Oxford, 1975). A stimulating approach is John Felstiner's Trans-
lating Neruda: The Way to Macchu Picchu (Stanford, Calif., 1980). Rene de
Costa has also surveyed Neruda in The Poetry of Pablo Neruda (Cambridge,
Mass., 1979), as has Margorie Agosin, Pablo Neruda (Boston, 1986).
Apart from Neruda's Memorias (1974), Emir Rodriguez Monegal's critical
biography, El viajero inmovil: Introduction a Pablo Neruda (1966; 2nd ed.,
Buenos Aires, 1977) stands the test of time. Chilean novelist and diplo-
mat Jorge Edwards has written a recent memoir, Adids poeta (Barcelona,
1990). Neruda's late poetry is subtly explored in Christopher Perriam, The
Late Poetry of Pablo Neruda (Oxford, 1989). Fellow Nobel Prize-winning
poet Gabriela Mistral (Lucila Godoy Alcayaga) has been well introduced
by Jaime Concha in his anthology, Gabriela Mistral (Madrid, 1987).
There has been extensive scholarship on Cesar Vallejo. The best intro-
duction in English is Jean Franco, Cesar Vallejo: The Dialectics of Poetry and
Silence (Cambridge, Eng., 1976). Juan Larrea's polemical edition of Val-
lejo's complete poems (Barcelona, 1978) should be counter-balanced by
the Archivos edition under Americo Ferrari (Paris, 1988). Ferrari's El
universo poetico de Cesar Vallejo (Caracas, 1971) is elegant and conceptually
very clear. Alberto Escobar, Como leer a Vallejo (Lima, 1973) is also worth
reading. Finally, see the introduction to James Higgins, Cesar Vallejo: A
Selection of His Poetry (Liverpool, 1987).
Jorge Luis Borges's poetry is reviewed by Guillermo Sucre, Borges el
poeta (Caracas, 1967) and Gerardo Mario Goloboff, Leer Borges (Buenos
Aires, 1978). See also Emir Rodriguez Monegal, Jorge Luis Borges: A
Literary Biography (New York, 1978). Octavio Paz has written crucial
essays on modern Mexican poets collected in Generaciones y semblanzas:
Escritores y letras de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1987). See also by Paz, Xavier
Villaurrutia en persona y en obra (Mexico, D.F., 1978), El arco y la lira

4. Poetry since c. 1920 919
(Mexico, D.F., 1956), on poetry in general, and Los hijos del limo (Mexico,
D.F., 1974), on the decline of the avant-garde. An introduction to Paz's
complete works is Jason Wilson, Octavio Paz (Boston, 1986). Wilson's
earlier Octavio Paz: A Study of His Poetics (Cambridge, Eng., 1979) focuses
on Paz's debt to surrealism. More recent studies include Alberto Ruy
Sanchez, Una introduction a Octavio Paz (Mexico, D.F., 1989) and John
Fein, Towards Octavio Paz: A Reading of His Major Poems (Lexington, Ky.,
1986). On the Cuban poet Nicolas Guillen, there is a fascinating essay by
Ezequiel Martinez Estrada, Lapoesia afrocubana de Nicolas Guillen (Montevi-
deo, 1966), with a small anthology. For more background information,
see Adriana Tous, La poesia de Nicolas Guillen (Madrid, 1971) and Keith
Ellis, Cuba's Nicolas Guillen: Poetry and Ideology (Toronto, 1983).
A clear introduction to a typical Latin American poet of the 1930s and
1940s is Peter Beardsell, Winds of Exile: The Poetry of Jorge Carrera Andrade
(Oxford, 1977). There are several thorough studies on Mexican poets of
the 1920s and 1930s: see, for example, Merlin Forster, Fire and Ice: The
Poetry of Xavier Villaurrutia (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1976); Edward Mullen,
Carlos Pellicer (Boston, 1977); Andrew Debicki, La poesia dejose Gorostiza
(Mexico, D.F., 1962); Sonja Karsen, Jaime Torres Bodet (Boston, 1971);
and Jaime Garcia Terres, Poesia y alquimia, los tres mundos de Gilberto Owen
(Mexico, D.F., 1981). The Chilean poet Humberto Diaz-Casanueva's po-
etry was explored by fellow poet and friend Rosamel del Valle in La
violencia creadora (Santiago, Chile, 1959), and more briefly by Argentine
poet Ricardo Herrera, La marcas del extasis (Buenos Aires, 1983).
The best introduction to Ernesto Cardenal is Paul Borgeson, Hacia el
hombre nuevo: Poesia y pensamiento de Ernesto Cardenal (London, 1984); it
explores Cardenal's work chronologically. There are monographs on the
Peruvian poet Carlos German Belli by Mario Canepa, Lenguaje en conflicto:
La poesia de Carlos German Belli (Madrid, 1987), and on Alberto Girri by
Muriel Slade Pascoe, La poesia de Alberto Girri (Buenos Aires, 1986). A
subtle critical biography is Alejandra Pizarnik (Buenos Aires, 1991), by
Cristina Pifia. Edith Grossman has written the most informative introduc-
tion to Nicanor Parra in English: The Antipoetry of Nicanor Parra (New
York, 1975). Another general study on Parra is Marlene Gottlieb, No se
termina nunca de nacer: La poesia de Nicanor Parra (Madrid, 1977). A careful
linguistic analysis of the avant-garde poet Oliverio Girondo is Beatriz
Nobile, El acto experimental (Buenos Aires, 1968) which should be read
with Jorge Schwartz (ed.), Homenaje a Girondo (Buenos Aires, 1987).
There are several monographs on individual Brazilian poets. On Drum-

mond de Andrade, John Gledson, Poesia e poetica de Carlos Drummond de

Andrade (Sao Paulo, 1981), and Jose Guilherme Merquior, Verso universo em
Drummond (Rio de Janeiro, 1976). On Manuel Bandeira, see Emanuel de
Moraes, Manuel Bandeira (Rio de Janeiro, 1962), and a more recent work
by Davi Arrigucci, Jr., Humildade, paixdo e morte: A poesia de Manuel Ban-
deira (Sao Paulo, 1990). On Joao Cabral de Melo Neto, see Marta Peixoto,
Poesia com coisas: Uma leitura dejodo Cabral de Melo Neto (Sao Paulo, 1983).
SURVEYS OF NATIONAL POETIC TRADITIONS
There are many informative surveys of national poetic traditions, both

critical studies and critical anthologies. A chatty, well-documented survey
of Brazilian modernism is The Modernist Movement in Brazil: A Literary
Study (Austin, Tex., 1967), by critic and translator John Nist, comple-
mented by the translation of Wilson Martins, The Modernist Idea: A Criti-
cal Survey of Brazilian Writing in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1970).
Equally comprehensive are Giovanni Pontiero's introduction and notes to
his An Anthology of Brazilian Modernist Poetry (Oxford, 1969). Manuel
Bandeira himself wrote a useful Apresentagdo da poesia brasileira (Rio de
Janeiro, 1967). Luiz Costa Lima sets Brazilian poetry into the Western
tradition in his Lira e antilira: Mario, Drummond, Cabral (Rio de Janeiro,
1968). A more recent survey, employing critical theory, is Antonio Sergio
Lima Mendonga, Poesia de vanguarda no Brasil de Oswald de Andrade ao
poema visual (Rio de Janeiro, 1983).
A starting point for Mexican poetry would be Frank Dauster, Breve
historia de la poesia mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1956). This should be supple-
mented by Merlin Forster, Los contempordneos, 19201932: Perfildeun experi-
mento vanguardista mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1964), and Guillermo Sheridan,
Los contempordneos ayer (Mexico, D.F., 1985). Andrew P. Debicki's compre-
hensive Antologia de la poesia mexicana moderna (London, 1977) contains
useful notes and bibliographies. A sensible survey of more recent poetry is
Frank Dauster, The Double Strand: Five Contemporary Mexican Poets (Lexing-
ton, Ky., 1986), with a good bibliography.
The most informative introduction to twentieth-century Colombian
poetry is Poesia colombiana 1880-1980 (Medellin, 1987) by the poet-critic
Juan Gustavo Cobo Borda, who also contributed to Ricardo Herrera's
polemical survey of Argentine poetry, Usos de la imaginacion (Buenos Aires,
1984), supplemented by Herrera's more controversial La hora epigonal:
Ensayos sobre poesia argentina contemporanea (Buenos Aires, 1991). A more

4. Poetry since c.1920 921
conventional study is Juan Carlos Ghiano, Poesia argentina del siglo XX

(Mexico, D.F., 1957). A politicized view of recent Argentine poetry is
Francisco Urondo, Veinte anos de poesia argentina, 1940-1960 (Buenos
Aires, 1968), but written before he became a Montonero. A dull but
broader academic approach can be found in the first volume of Guillermo
Ara's Suma de poesia argentina (Buenos Aires, 1969). James Higgins has
written a useful introduction in English to Peruvian poetry, The Poet in
Peru (Liverpool, 1982), with essays on Vallejo, Moro, Belli, Cisneros and
others, which can be complemented by Americo Ferrari, Los sonidos del
silencio: Poetas peruanos en el siglo XX (Lima, 1990). Venezuelan poetry is
covered in Vilma Vargas, El devenir de la palabra poetica: Venezuela siglo XX
(Caracas, 1980). The Venezuelan poet-critic Juan Liscano has collected his
reviews of his country's poets in Lecturas de poetas y poesias (Caracas, 1985).
An early survey of Chilean poetry is Fernando Alegria's La poesia chilena
(Santiago, Chile, 1954), updated by Ricardo Yamal, La poesia chilena
actual (1960-1984) y la critica (Concepcion, Chile, 1988). The best intro-
duction to Puerto Rican poetry available is Cesareo Rosa-Nieves, La poesia
en Puerto Rico (San Juan, P.R., 1969). Uruguayan poet Jorge Medina Vidal
has surveyed his country's poetry in Vision de la poesia uruguaya en el siglo
XX (Montevideo, 1967). Jose Olivio Jimenez covers Cuban poetry in his
balanced but academic Estudios sobre la poesia cubana contempordnea (New
York, 1967). Further studies of national traditions are cited in the section
on general anthologies.
INTERVIEWS
There are a number of collections of interviews with Latin American poets.

An amusing start could be made with U.S. poet Selden Rodman, Tongues
of Fallen Angels (New York, 1974), travelling to interview Neruda, Paz,
Cabral, Parra, and others. Hugo Verani collected several interviews with
Paz in Pasion critica (Barcelona, 1985); equally stimulating, with more
references to poetry, is Paz and Julian Rios's dialogue, Solo a dos voces
(Barcelona, 1973). Volumes of interviews with Borges include Georges
Charbonnier, Entretiens avec Jorge Luis Borges (Paris, 1967), Jean de Mille-
ret, Entrevista con Jorge Luis Borges (Caracas, 1971), Richard Burgin, Conver-
sations with Jorge Luis Borges (New York, 1974), Ernesto Sabato, Didlogos
(Buenos Aires, 1976) and more recently, Osvaldo Ferrari, Borges en didlogo
(Buenos Aires, 1985). Mario Benedetti interviewed Fernandez Retamar,
Gelman, Parra, Rojas, Dalton and others in Los poetas comunicantes (Monte-

video, 1972). Pedro Lastra has Conversaciones con Enrique Lihn (Xalapa,
1980). Juan Gelman talks about his politics as much as his poetry in
Roberto Mero, Conversaciones con Juan Gelman (Buenos Aires, 1988). Poet
Alberto Girri has collected questions asked him in his Cuestiones y razones
(Buenos Aires, 1978). The philosophically refined Argentine poet Roberto
Juarroz published Poesia y creacion: Didlogos con Guillermo Boido (Buenos
Aires, 1980). Margaret Randall includes poets in her Risking a Somersault
in the Air: Conversations with Nicaraguan Writers (San Francisco, 1984).
Miguel Angel Zapata has collected interviews with 26 poets in 'Coloquios
del oficio mayor', Inti: Revista de Literatura Hispdnica, 267 (19878);
they include Liscano and Cisneros. Juan Andres Pifia thoroughly inter-
views Parra, Anguita, Rojas, Lihn, Hahn and Zurita in Conversaciones con
la poesia chilena (Santiago, Chile, 1990).
GENERAL ANTHOLOGIES
The most comprehensive starting point is Jose Olivio Jimenez's Antologia

de la poesia hispanoamericana contempordnea, 19141970 (Madrid, 1971).
Jimenez had earlier combined with Eugenio Florit to produce a critical
anthology, La poesia hispanoamericana desde el modernismo (New York, 1968),
with good bibliographies. A more provocative and influential anthology
was created by Argentine surrealist poet Aldo Pellegrini with his Antologia
de la poesia viva latinoamericana (Barcelona, 1966), introducing the His-
panic world to many surrealistic poets. Stefan Baciu has anthologized
Spanish American surrealist poetry along orthodox surrealist lines in his
Antologia de la poesia surrealista latinoamericana (Mexico, D.F., 1974).
Practising poets make the best anthologists. Mexican poet Homero Aridjis
published his Seis poetas latinoamericanos de hoy (New York, 1973), ending
with Paz and Parra. Two younger poet-critics have attempted to redefine
Spanish American poetry. Juan Gustavo Cobo Borda has a poet's catholic
tastes, as evidenced in his Antologia de la poesia hispanoamericana (Mexico,
D.F., 1985), with an acute prologue. Julio Ortega, a fine poet-critic,
produced the equally wide-ranging Antologia de la poesia hispanoamericana
actual (Madrid, 1987), with prologue and useful notes. Jose Antonio
Escalona-Escalona's uneven anthology, Muestra de poesia hispanoamericana
del siglo XX (Caracas, 1985) cannot compete with either Cobo Borda's or
Ortega's, despite its critical notes on poets in the second volume. Guer-
rilla and resistance poetry are well represented in Jorge Alejandro
Boccanera and Saul Ibargoyen Islas, Poesia rebelde en Latinoamerica (Mexico,

4- Poetry since a<)2O 923
D.F., 1978), with 129 poets, including Brazilians. Boccanera updated his
earlier anthology with La novisima poesia latinoamericana (Mexico, D.F.,
1982), grouping poets nationally. Mario Benedetti has compiled an anthol-
ogy of guerrilla poets killed in action Dalton, Heraud, Marighella,
etc.in Poesia trunca: Poesia latinoamericana revolucionaria (Madrid, 1980).
An anthology of Brazilian poetry is Fernando Ferreira de Loanda, Antologia
da nova poesia brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1970). Two Brazilians are included
in Jorge Lafforgue's Poesia latinoamericana contempordnea (Buenos Aires,
1988), a popular volume that excludes Paz but includes Dario, Agustini,
Neruda, Vallejo, Drummond, Bandeira, Cardenal and Parra. Lastly, a
young Octavio Paz was involved in the re-issued Laurel: Antologia de la
poesia moderna en lengua espanola (1941; Mexico, D.F., 1986) with Xavier
Villaurrutia, Emilio Prados and Juan Gil-Albert, breaking new ground by
combining Spaniards and Spanish Americans.
NATIONAL ANTHOLOGIES
Octavio Paz, with All Chumacero, Jose Emilio Pacheco and Homero
Aridjis, edited the stimulating chronologically reversed anthology, Poesia
en movimiento, 1915-1966 (Mexico, D.F., 1966). For Mexican poetry this
could be complemented with Sergio Mondragon's useful Republica depoetas
(Mexico, D.F., 1985). For Chilean poetry, see Roque Esteban Scarpa and
Hugo Monies, Antologia de la poesia chilena contempordnea (Madrid, 1968),
Alfonso Calderon, Antologia de la poesia chilena contempordnea (Santiago,
Chile, 1970), with a long, useful appendix where the anthologised poets
expatiate about poetry, and, more recently, Erwin Diaz, Poesia chilena de
hoy: De Parra a nuestros dias (Santiago, Chile, 1988). A good introduction
to Peruvian poetry is Alberto Escobar, Antologia de la poesia peruana (Lima,
1965). See also Leonidas Cevallos Mesones, Los nuevos (Lima, 1967), with
Cisneros, Hinostroza, Lauer, and Ortega, among others, also answering
questionnaires about their poetry, and critic Jose Miguel Oviedo, Estos 13
(Lima, 1973), with a very useful section, 'Documentos', of poets on their
poetry. Mirko Lauer and Abelardo Oquendo have grouped together Peru's
avant-garde poets in their anthology, Vuelta a la otra margen (Lima, 1970).
Argentine poetry has been well served by anthologists. The reader can
begin with the well-documented Antologia lineal de la poesia argentina
(Madrid, 1968) by Cesar Fernandez Moreno and Horacio Jorge Becco. For
a more partisan and lively anthology, see Instituto Di Telia, Poesia argen-
tina (Buenos Aires, 1963). Poet Hector Yanover's Antologia consultada de la

joven poesia argentina (Buenos Aires, 1968) is informative, with comments

by each selected poet. For the poetry of the 1960s, see Francisco Urondo
and Noe Jitrik's Antologia interna (Buenos Aires, 1965). Leopoldo Castilla
has grouped together the more recent, politicized poetry of the last twenty
years in Nueva poesia argentina (Madrid, 1987). Alejandro Paternain's 36
anos de poesia uruguaya (Montevideo, 1967) has a long introduction to
Uruguay's poets of the 1950s and 1960s. For contemporary Cuban poetry,
the Spanish poet Jose Agustin Goytisolo's Nueva poesia cubana (Barcelona,
1970) is a good starting point, supplemented by Orlando Rodriguez
Sardinas, La ultima poesia cubana (Madrid, 1973), and Nicaraguan poet
Ernesto Cardenal, Poesia cubana de la revolution (Mexico, D.F., 1976). For
contemporary Nicaraguan poetry, Ernesto Cardenal's Poesia nicaraguense
(Havana, 1973) is the best, with Jose Miguel Oviedo's Musas en guerra:
Poesia, arte, y cultura en la nueva Nicaragua (19741988) (Mexico, D.F.,
1987) very informative. Salvadorean novelist Manlio Argueta has com-
piled Poesia de El Salvador (San Jose, C.R., 1980). Jose Antonio Escalona-
Escalona has edited Antologia actual de la poesia venezolana (19501980)
(Madrid, 1981) in two volumes, with a bibliographical appendix. There is
an anthology of Bolivian poetry by Luis Ramiro Beltran, Panorama de la
poesia boliviana: Resena y antologia (Bogota, 1982); another on Paraguayan
poetry by Roque Vallejos, Antologia critica de la poesia paraguaya contempord-
nea (Asuncion, 1968); and one on Honduran poetry by Oscar Acosta,
Poesia hondurena de hoy (Tegucigalpa, 1971).
Most of the poets alluded to in this bibliographical essay, and in the
chapters by Jaime Concha and Jason Wilson in CHLA, vol. X, have been
translated into English, both individually, and in several national antholo-
gies. See Jason Wilson, An A-Z of Modem Latin American Literature in
English Translation (London, 1989).
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
For further bibliography, a comprehensive starting point is Hensley Wood-

bridge, Guide to Reference Works for the Study of the Spanish Language and
Literature and Spanish American Literature (New York, 1978), proceeding
country by country, excluding Brazil. For Brazil, Irwing Stern (ed.),
Dictionary of Brazilian Literature (New York, 1988) is rewarding. On
women writers, see Diane Marking (ed.), Women Writers of Spanish America:
An Annotated Bio-Bibliographical Guide (New York, 1987). The most re-
cent bibliography is Jacobo Sefami, Contemporary Spanish American Poets: A

5- Indigenous literatures and cultures 925
Bibliography of Primary and Secondary Sources (New York, 1992). On individ-

ual writers, Hugo Verani's Octavio Paz: Bibliografia critica (Mexico, D.F.,
1983) is judicious and complete; Horacio Jorge Becco, Jorge Luis Borges:
Bibliografia total, 1923-1973 (Buenos Aires, 1973) is complete up to its
publication date; and Hensley Woodbridge and David Zobatsky, Pablo
Neruda: An Annotated Bibliography of Biographical and Critical Studies (New
York, 1988) is most useful.
5. INDIGENOUS LITERATURES AND

CULTURES IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
SOURCES AND INTERPRETATION
As a succinct introduction to American culture and its place in the world,

Claude Levi-Strauss's essay, 'Race et histoire' (1952), published in transla-
tion in Structural Anthropology, vol. 2 (Harmondsworth, 1978), remains
unsurpassed; it has the historical underpinning lacking in the four structur-
alist volumes of his Mythologiques (Paris 196471). Joseph H. Greenberg,
Language in the Americas (Stanford, Calif., 1987) has now laid the founda-
tion for defining American culture in the joint terms of linguistics and
genetics. Michael Closs, Native American Mathematics (Austin, Tex., 1985)
is the first continental account of this subject. In recent years, America
Indigena, the journal of the Instituto Indigenista Interamericano (Mexico),
has increasingly accepted native languages and literatures as a key element
in culture and education; see issue 50 (1990). A soundly researched
though theoretically naive account of script in Mesoamerica is Joyce Mar-
cus, Mesoamerican Writing Systems: Propaganda, Myth and History in Four
Ancient Civilizations (Princeton, N.J., 1992). See also, 'Epigraphy', ed. V.
Bricker, Supplement to the Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 5
(Austin, Tex., 1992); and Elizabeth Boone and Walter Mignolo (eds.),
Writing without Words: Alternative Literacies in Mesoamerica and the Andes
(Durham, N.C., 1994). Facsimiles of nearly all the major codices have
been published by the Akademische Druck-und Verlags Anstalt (ADEVA)
in Graz. The recent spate of decipherments of Maya hieroglyphic script is
reported in Michael Coe, Breaking the Maya Code (New York, 1992), and
touched on in Miguel Leon-Portilla, Time and Reality in the Thought of the
Maya (Norman, Okla., 1987). K. A. Nowotny, Tlacuilolli: Die mexikan-
ischen Bilderhandschriften, Stil und Inhalt (Berlin, 1961), remains the lone

standard work on the closely related iconic script, especially in the ritual
genre. With respect to the genre of annals, see John B. Glass, 'A census of
native Middle American pictorial manuscripts', in Handbook of Middle
American Indians, vol. 14 (Austin, Tex., 1975), 81250. The Mixtec
tradition is comprehensively treated by Alfonso Caso in Reyes y reinos de la
Mixteca, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 19779); and an update on that of the
Chichimec is offered in Gordon Brotherston, Mexican Painted Books: Origi-
nals in the United Kingdom and the World They Represent (Colchester, Eng.,
1992). The sophistication of the Inca quipu, used as a literary source by
the mestizo historian Guaman Poma (see below), has been vindicated by
Marcia and Robert Ascher, Code of the Quipu: A Study in Media, Mathematics
and Culture (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1981). Miguel Leon-Portilla, Literaturas
indigenas de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1992), Jose Juan Arrom, Mitologia
y artes prehispdnicas de las Antillas (Mexico, D.F., 1989), and Gerdt
Kutscher, Nordperuanische Keramik (Berlin, 1954), are all exemplary in
incorporating inscriptions and ancient texts into literary history.
Within what is often uncritically referred to as 'orality', 'Watunna' is a
fundamental Carib text encountered as a result of the 1950 expedition
described by Rene Lichy in Yaku: Expedicidn Franco-Venezolana del Alto
Orinoco (Caracas, 1978); it has been edited by Marc de Civrieux in Spanish,
Watunna: Mitologia makiritare (Caracas, 1970), and in English, Watunna:
An Orinoco Creation Cycle, trans. David Guss (San Francisco, 1980). Little
of this critical perception is available in the otherwise standard Handbook of
South American Indians, 6 vols., ed. J. H. Steward (Washington, D.C.,
194650). The ideas and practices of the new literary anthropology are set
out by exponents in Dell Hymes, 'In Vain I Tried to Tell': Essays in Native
American Ethnopoetics (Philadelphia, 1981); Jerome Rothenberg, Technicians
of the Sacred, 2nd enlarged ed. (Berkeley, 1985); Dennis Tedlock, The
Spoken Word and the Work of Interpretation (Philadelphia, 1983); Joel Sherzer
and Greg Urban (eds.), Native South American Discourse (Berlin, 1986); Joel
Sherzer and Anthony C. Woodbury (eds.), Native American Discourse: Poetics
and Rhetoric (Cambridge, Eng., 1987); and Ellen Basso and Joel Sherzer
(eds.), Las culturas nativas latinoamericanas a traves de su discurso (Quito and
Rome, 1990). An analysis that works out from native scripts and texts
into political memory and cosmogony is found in Gordon Brotherston,
Book of the Fourth World: Reading the Native Americas through Their Literature
(Cambridge, Eng., 1992), a convenient source for references not otherwise
given here.

$. Indigenous literatures and cultures 927
WORLD VIEW AND COSMOGONY
The outstanding example of Mesoamerican cosmogony, the Popol vuh of

the Quiche-Maya, was first directly translated into English by Munro
Edmonson, The Book of Counsel: The Popol vuh of the Quiche Maya of Guate-
mala (New Orleans, La., 1971). Edmonson also provided a transcription
of the original, in couplet form, and reviewed and compared previous
translations into Spanish (Villacorta y Rodas; Recinos), French (Brasseur;
Raynaud - the source of the Spanish version made by M. A. Gonzalez de
Mendoza and the Guatemalan novelist Miguel Angel Asturias), and other
major languages. His work was followed by Dennis Tedlock's intrepidly
entitled Popol Vuh: The Definitive Edition of the Mayan Book of the Dawn of
Life and the Glories of Gods and Kings (New York, 1985), English text only,
which benefits from the author's experience of studying with Quiche
shamans in Guatemala. With the lowland Maya books of Chilam Balam,
Munro Edmonson again provides direct translations plus original texts,
albeit heavily reconstructed, as well as surveys of previous translations; in
the case of the Book of Chumayel, Heaven Born Merida and Its Destiny
(Austin, Tex., 1986), previously known through Gordon's facsimile of
1914 and Ralph Roys's The Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel (Washing-
ton, D.C., 1933); and in the case of the Book of Tizimin, The Ancient
Future of the Itza (Austin, Tex., 1982), rendered as The Book of the Jaguar
Priest by Maud Makemsom (New York, 1951). In their classic study, El
libro de los libros de Chilam Balam (Mexico, D . E , 1948), Alfredo Barrera
Vasquez and Silvia Rendon show the interrelationship between five of the
six principal surviving versions of these books (those mentioned above,
plus the books of Mani, Kaua, Oxcutzcab and Ixil). Echoes of Yucatec
Maya cosmogony are also found in El ritual de los bacabes, ed. Ramon
Arzapalo Marin (Mexico, D.F., 1987).
In the Nahuatl language tradition, the two cosmogonical texts pre-
served in the Codex Chimalpopoca, the Cuauhtitlan Annals and the Leg-
end of the Suns, have been translated for the first time directly into
English by John Bierhorst, History and Mythology of the Aztecs (Tucson,
Ariz., 1992). In doubting the integrity of the native year count, which
runs unbroken from 1 Reed 635 to 1 Reed 1519 AD and into which the
far more ancient story of the Suns is set, this version differs from those in
German (Walter Lehmann, Die Geschichte der Konigreiche von Colhuacan und
Mexico [1938; Berlin, 1974] and in Spanish (Primo Feliciano Velazquez,

Codice Chimalpopoca [Mexico, D.F., 1945]). The pattern of Mesoamerican

world ages or Suns is discussed in Jesiis Monjaras Ruiz's most useful and
informed overview, Mitos cosmogonicos del Mexico indigena (Mexico, D.F.,
1987), where Mercedes de la Garza notes how in Popol vuh the scheme of
four prior Suns has been obscured by translators, among them Edmonson
and Tedlock, who run together the first two distinct creations of mud
people and doll people. Garza is also editor of Antonio Mediz Bolio's
pioneer 1930 Spanish version of the Chilam Balam Book of Chumayel
(Mexico, D.F., 1985). Robert Carmack and James Mondloch have edited
papers given at the milestone first international conference devoted to the
Popol vuh: Nuevas perspectivas sobre el Popol vuh (Guatemala City, 1983).
Munro Edmonson (ed.), Literatures, Supplement to the Handbook of Middle
American Indians, vol. 3 (Austin, Tex., 1985) features modern Mesoamer-
ican creation stories, notably those of the Tzotzil discussed by Gary Gos-
sen; for the Mixe, see Frank Lipp, The Mixe ofOaxaca: Religion, Ritual and
Healing (Austin, Tex., 1991).
The question of mapping and ritual geography germane to models
found in the ancient Mesoamerican books is taken up by, amongst others,
Eva Hunt, The Transformation of the Hummingbird: Cultural Roots of a
Zinacantecan Mythical Poem (Ithaca, N.Y., 1966); Juan Negrin, The Huichol
Creation of the World (Sacramento, Calif., 1975); Leland C. Wyman, South-
west Indian Dry Painting (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1983); and K. A.
Nowotny, Tlacuilolli, cited above.
In the Andean area, the key Quechua manuscript of Huarochiri (c. 1608),
long neglected, has now been widely edited and translated; see Hermann
Trimborn, Damonen undZauber in Inkareich: Fr. de Avila, Tratado de errores
(Leipzig, 1939-41); Jose Maria Argiiedas, Dioses y hombres de Huarochiri:
Narracidn quechua (Lima, 1966); Gerald Taylor, Ritos y tradiciones de
Huarochiri: Manuscrito quechua, version paleogrdfica (Lima, 1987); George
Urioste, Hijos de Pariya Qaqa: La tradicion oral de Wara Chiri, 2 vols. (Syra-
cuse, N.Y., 1983); and Frank Salomon and George Urioste, The Huarochiri
Manuscript: A Testament of Ancient and Colonial Andean Religion (Austin,
Tex., 1991). Roswith Hartmann surveys several of these renderings in 'Zur
Ueberlieferung indianischer Oraltradition aus dem kolonialzeitlichen Peru:
Das Huarochiri Manuscript', in B. Illius and M. Laubscher, Circumpacifica:
Festschrift fur Thomas S. Barthel, vol. 1 (Frankfurt, 1990), 534-61. Felipe
Guaman Poma de Ayala's Elprimer nueva coronicay buengobiemo, completed c.
1613 and first published in facsimile as late as 1936 (Paris), has been
comprehensively edited and transcribed by John V. Murra and R. Adorno, 3

5- Indigenous literatures and cultures 929
vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1980). Overall views of Andean cosmogony are pre-
sented in J. M. Ossio, Ideologia mesidnica delmundoandino (Lima, 1973). The
Huinkulche and other narratives of Mapuche creation from the southern
Andes today are gathered by Bertha Kossler-Ilg in her indispensable
Indianermdrchen aus den Kordilleren (Dusseldorf, 1956); partially available in
Spanish in her Cuentan los araucanos (Buenos Aires, 1954), and Tradiciones
araucanas (La Plata, 1962). Living in San Martin de los Andes, Kossler-Ilg
was able to take down directly the recollections of Mapuche born before the
military assaults on native territory carried out by Argentina and Chile in
the late-nineteenth-century. The link between cosmogony and political
consciousness in the Andes today is lucidly described by Malii Sierra in
Mapuche, gente de la tierra (Santiago, Chile, 1992).
Beside Paul Zolbrod's remarkable reworking of Washington Matthew's
late-nineteenth-century texts in Dine Bahane: The Navajo Creation Story
(Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1984), the most accessible accounts of Anasazi
genesis are those found in the dry-painter narratives collected by Gladys
Reichard in Navajo Religion (New York, 1963), and Navajo Medicine Men
Sandpaintings (New York, 1977); and in Dennis Tedlock's Finding the
Center: Narrative Poetry of the Zuni Indians (Lincoln, Nebr., 1972). For the
Tatkan Ikala of the Panamanian Cuna, see Erland Nordenskiold, An His-
torical and Ethnographical Survey of the Cuna Indians, in collaboration with
the Cuna Indian Ruben Perez Kantule, ed. Henry Wassen (Goteborg,
1938); and Fritz Kramer, Literature among the Cuna Indians (Goteborg,
1970). Accounts of rain-forest cosmogony are given in Juan Adolfo
Vazquez's excellent 'The present state of research in South American
mythology', Numen, 25 (1970), 240-76; Lawrence Sullivan, Icanchu's
Drum (New York, 1988), which contains very full notes and bibliography;
and John Bierhorst's more popularizing The Mythology of South America
(New York, 1988). Individual editions and translations of note include:
Le6n Cadogan, Ayvu rapyta (Sao Paulo, 1959), and La literatura de los
guaranies (Mexico, D.F., 1965); Ruben Bareiro Saguier, Literatura guarani
del Paraguay (Caracas, 1980), which includes the early texts of Kurt
Onkel-Nimuendaju; Marc de Civrieux, Watunna: Mitologia makiritare
(Eng. trans., Watunna: An Orinoco Creation Cycle), cited above; David
Guss, 'Medatia' (a companion piece to 'Watunna'), in The Language of
Birds (San Francisco, 1985); Konrad Theodor Preuss, Die Religion und
Mythologie der Uitoto (Gottingen-Leipzig, 1921); Umusin Panlon Kumu,
Antes 0 mundo ndo existia, trans. Tomalan Kenhiri and Berta Ribeiro (Sao
Paulo, 1980) (a text in the Desana-Tukano tradition also featured in

93 JX. Culture since independence
Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff, Amazonian Cosmos (Chicago, 1971); and Ste-

phen Hugh-Jones, The Palm and the Pleiades: Initiation and Cosmology in
Northwest Amazonia (Cambridge, Eng., 1979). Shuar-Jivaro texts, in the
original language with Spanish translation, are edited by Siro Pellizaro in
the Mitologfa shuar series published in Sucua, Ecuador; the flood story
appears in Tsunki: El mundo del agua y de los poderes fecundantes, vol. 2
(Sucua, 1979). Mircea Eliade's classic study, Shamanism: Archaic Techniques
of Ecstasy, trans. W. R. Trask (Princeton, N.J., 1964), is especially illumi-
nating on the epic within American cosmogony.
RESILIENCE AND MEDIUM
Wide-reaching theoretical models of cultural resistance of the kind pro-

posed by Nestor Garcia Canclini, Culturas hibridas: estrategias para entrar y
salir de la modernidad (Mexico, D.F., 1990), which reflect developments in
the global economy, often find themselves modified in specific cases.
Examples are Gary Gossen (ed.), Symbol and Meaning beyond the Closed
Community (Albany, N.Y., 1986); Frank Salomon on Otavalo weaving and
lore in David Gross (ed.), Peoples and Cultures of Native South America (New
York, 1973); Herta Puls, Textiles of the Kuna Indians of Panama (Aylesbury,
Eng., 1988); Juan Negrin, Acercamiento historico y subjectivo al huichol
(Guadalajara, 1985); Alan R. Sandstrom, Traditional Curing and Crop Fertil-
ity Rituals among Otomi Indians (the Lopez manuscripts) (Bloomington, Ind.,
1981), and (with Pamela Effrein), Traditional Papermaking and Paper Cult
Figures of Mexico (Norman, Okla., 1986); and Catharine Good Eshelman,
Haciendo la lucha: Arte y comercio nahuas de Guerrero (Mexico, D.F., 1988).
The theme of specifically literary resistance has been well examined by Jose
Maria Argiiedas, Canto quechwa (Lima, 1938), and Formacion de una cultura
nacional indoamericana (Mexico, D.F., 1975) (which includes his seminal
1956 essay on the Inkarri legend); and Regina Harrison, Signs, Songs and
Memory in the Andes (Austin, Tex., 1989). Robert Laughlin, author of the
Great Tzotzil Dictionary of San Lorenzo Zinacantan (Washington, D.C.,
I
975). has been a main force in establishing Sna Jtzi'bajom, the writers'
center in San Cristobal; see also Neville Stiles, 'Purist tendencies among
native Mayan speakers of Guatemala', Linguist, 26 (1987), 18791. Carlos
Montemayor's comprehensive Los escritores indigenas actuales, 2 vols. (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1992) also deals with computers and 'informants'. See also Juan
de Dios Yapita, 'Problemas de traduccion de aymara al castellano', Adas del
3er. Congreso de Lenguas Nacionales (La Paz, 1976). For observations on the

^. Indigenous literatures and cultures 931
impact of video recorders and other technology, see articles by T. Turner, J.

Ruby and others in Visual Anthropology Review, 7/2 (1991), and F.
Ginsburg, 'Indigenous media: Faustian contract or global village?', Cul-
tural Anthropology, 6/1 (1991), 94-114 (noted in Patricia Aufderheide,
'Grassroots video in Latin America', unpub ms. 1992); on the Consejo
Regional Indigena del Cauca (CRIC), see Christian Gros, Colombia in-
digena: Identidad cultural y cambio social (Bogota, 1991). The tenacity and
adaptability of native lore within modern Latin America are authoritatively
detailed by William Rowe and Vivian Schelling in Memory and Modernity:
Popular Culture in Latin America (London, 1991). The experience of making
film out of a Mexican codex is described by Enrique Escalona in Tlacuilo
(Mexico, D.F., 1989); the Popol vuh and Watunna have been filmed by
PBS and the Museum of the American Indian, New York.
MODERN AUTHORS
No general survey exists of works in native American languages by

individually named authors, although Carlos Montemayor's Los escritores
indigenas actuates, cited above, breaks new ground in providing a common
platform for writers in five or six Mesoamerican languages. A general
context can be sketched out on the basis of individual publications, as well
as collections and scholarly studies relating to particular languages. Among
these are counted for Guarani, Julio Correa and Tadeo Zarretea in Antonio
Pecci, Teatro breve del Paraguay (Asunci6n, 1981); for Mapudungu/
Mapuche, Ivan Carrasco, 'Literatura mapuche', America Indigena, 48
(1988), 695730; Pascual Cona, Kuifikemapucheyem chumnechi: Testimoniode
un cacique mapuche, ed. E. W. Moesbach (1930; Santiago, Chile, 1984);
Leonel Lienlaf, Nepey ni gunu'n piuke: Se ha despertado el ave de mi corazon
(Santiago, Chile, 1989), with an illuminating prologue by Raul Zurita; for
Quechua, Abd6n Yaranga, 'The Wayno in Andean civilization', in G.
Brotherston(ed.), Voices of the First America: Text and Context in the New World
(Santa Barbara, Calif., 1986); Kilku Waraka (Andres Alencastre), Yawar
Para (Cuzco, 1972); Carlos Falconi, Eusebio Huamani, Lino Quintanilla
and others in Rodrigo Montoya, Edwin Montoya and Luis Montoya,
Urqukunapa yawarnin: La sangre de los cerros (Lima, 1987); John McDowell,
Sayings of the Ancestors: The Spiritual Life of the Sibundoy Indians (Lexington,
Ky., 1989); Jesus Lara, Poesiapopular quechua (La Paz, 1947), and La literat-
ura de los quechuas (La Paz, 1969); Yuyachkani, in Rodrigo Montoya,
'Quechua theater: History, violence and hope', in Latin America: Literal

932 ' X . Culture since independence
Territories, ed. G. Brotherston (Bloomington, 1993); for Nahuatl, Fausto

Hernandez Hernandez in Joel Martinez Hernandez, Xochitlajtolkoskatl:
Poesia nauatl contemporanea (Tlaxcala, 1987); Luis Reyes in Miguel Le6n-
Portilla(ed.), 'Yancuictlahtolli: La nueva palabra: Antologiade laliteratura
nahuatl contemporanea', Estudios de Cultura Nahuatl, nos. 1820 (1988
90); for Maya, Domingo Dzul Poot, Cuentos mayas, 2 vols. (Merida, 1985
6); Paulino Yama in Allan F. Burns, An Epoch ofMiracles: Oral Literature ofthe
YucatecMaya (Austin, Tex., 1983); Asis Ligorred Perramon, Consideraciones
sobre la literatura oral de los mayas modernos (Mexico, D.F., 1990); and, for
Jakaltec Maya, Victor Montejo, The Bird Who Cleans the World and other
Mayan Fables (Willimantic, Conn., 1992).
IMPACT ON LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE
Taking the first term of its title from the Cuban ethnomusicologist Fer-
nando Ortiz, Angel Rama's Transculturacion narrativa en America Latina
(Mexico, D.F., 1982), creates the space necessary for any fair discussion of
the intertextuality common to native and imported literary traditions in
America. Rama also draws heavily on the socio-literary approach of both
Jos Maria Arguedas and the Brazilians Nunes Pereira, Marcio Souza and
Darcy Ribeiro. Under the theme-title 'Proyeccion de lo indigena en la litera-
tura de la America Hispanica', Revista Iberoamericana, 50/127 (1984) deals
with native influence on a range of Spanish American authors. Studies with
the same focus have been steadily carried by the Latin American Indian Litera-
tures Journal from the late 1980s onwards. John Bierhorst's 'Incorporating
the native voice: A look back from 1990', in Brian Swann (ed.), On the
Translation of Native American Literatures (Washington, D.C., 1992), 5 1 -
63, has continental scope though the thinness of the data (he totally ignores
Asturias, for example) may account for the author's extraordinary opinion
that native sources have 'supplied precious little to the formation of En-
glish, Spanish, and Portugese letters in the New World'. Jose Juan Arrom's
analysis of the Modernista Ruben Dario's native debt ("El oro, la pluma y la
piedra preciosa: Indagaciones sobre el trasfondo indigena de la poesia de
Dario', (1967); reprinted in Certidumbre de America: Estudios de letras, folklore
y cultura (Madrid, 1989), points the way to subsequent case studies.
The veritable network of native texts drawn upon by Asturias, Car-
pentier, Abreu Gomez, Cardenal and other authors is examined in Gordon
Brotherston: 'Gaspar I16m en su tierra', in G. Martin (ed.), M. A. Astu-
rias: Hombres de maiz (Madrid, 1992), 593-602; 'Pacaraima as destination

6. Art and architecture since c. 1920 933
in Carpentier's Los pasos perdidos, in Latin America: Literal Territories (Bloo-

mington, Ind., 1993), 15476; "The Latin American novel and its indige-
nous sources', in J. King (ed.), Modern Latin American Fiction: A Survey
(London, 1987), 60-77; and 'The American Palimpsest', Book of the
Fourth World, cited above, 341-9. The Andean textual tradition is ana-
lysed by Martin Lienhard, Cultura andina y forma novelesca: Zorros y
danzantes en la ultima novela de Arguedas (Lima, 1990), and Laura Lee
Crumley, 'El intertexto de Huarochiri en Manuel Scorza: Una vision multi-
ple de la muerte en Historia de Carabombo el invisible, America Indigena, 44
(1984), 74755. Tele Porto Ancona Lopez's edition of Mario de Andrade's
Macunaima (Sao Paulo, 1988) superbly reveals the impact of Carib and
Tupi texts on that work. Italo Calvino's intuition of the literary wealth of
the rain-forest is quoted by Gerald Martin in Journeys through the Labyrinth
(London, 1989). Garibay's versions of the Cantares mexicanos and their
effect on Mexican literature are dealt with in Gordon Brotherston,
'Nezahualcoyotl's Lamentaciones and their Nahuatl origins', Estudios
de Cultura Nahuatl, 10 (1972), 393-408, and in Sara Castro-Klaren,
Escritura, transgresion y sujeto en la literatura latinoamericana (Puebla, 1989).
For the debate provoked by Bierhorst's translation, Cantares Mexicanos:
Songs of the Aztecs (Stanford, Calif., 1985), see Amos Segala, Histoire de la
litterature nahuatl: Sources, identites, representations (Rome, 1989); and Mi-
guel Leon-Portilla, 'Ûna nueva aportaci6n sobre literatura nahuatl?',
Estudios de Cultura Nahuatl, 21 (1991), 293310.
6. A R T A N D A R C H I T E C T U R E S I N C E c. 1 9 2 0
There are few reliable general surveys of modern Latin American art and
architecture, but see important early contributions by the British professor
of literature Jean Franco, The Modern Culture of Latin America: Society and
the Artist (1967; 2nd ed., London, 1970); the Uruguayan art historian V.
Gesualdo (ed.), Enciclopedia del arte en America, 5 vols. (Buenos Aires,
1968), a most helpful guide to both art and architecture organized by both
country and artist; the U.S. musicologist Gilbert Chase, Contemporary Art
in Latin America (New York, 1970); and the Argentine art historian and
critic Damian Bay6n, Aventura pldstica de Hispanoamerica (1974; Mexico,
D.F., 1992). See also Damian Bay6n (ed.), America Latina en sus artes (Paris
and Mexico, D.F., 1974). More recent works include Historia del arte
iberoamericano, 2 vols. (Madrid, 1988) by the Chilean Leopoldo Castedo, a

book that covers art from the pre-Columbian period to the present;
Damian Bay6n, Historia del arte hispanoamericano, vol. 3, Siglos XIX y XX
(Madrid, 1988); Damian Bayon (ed.). Arte moderno en America Latina
(Madrid, 1988), with contributions from J. Romero Brest, Marta Traba,
J. A. Manrique and others; Dawn Ades, Art in Latin America: The Modern
Era, 18201980 (London, 1989); Oriana Baddeley and Valerie Fraser,
Drawing the Line: Art and Cultural Identity in Contemporary Latin America
(London, 1989) and Edward Lucie-Smith, Latin American Art of the 20th
Century (London, 1993). Specifically on architecture, see H. R. Hitch-
cock, Latin American Architecture since 1945 (New York, 1955); Paul
Damaz, Art in Latin American Architecture (New York, 1963); Francisco
Bullrich, New Directions in Latin American Architecture (New York, 1969)
and Arquitectura latinoamericana, 193070 (Buenos Aires, 1970); Roberto
Segre (ed.), America Latina en su arquitectura (Paris, 1973); Damian Bayon,
Panordmica de la arquitectura latinoamericana (Barcelona, 1977), a useful
collection of interviews, illustrated with excellent photographs by Paolo
Gasparini; Bay6n and Gasparini, The Changing Shape of Latin American
Architecture (New York, 1979); Ram6n Gutierrez, Arquitectura y urbanismo
en Iberoamerica (Madrid, 1983); and E. Tejeira-Davis, Roots of Modern Latin
American Architecture (Heidelberg, 1987).
MEXICO
Works in English on the Mexican muralists include Bertram D. Wolfe,

Portrait of Mexico (New York, 1937); Bernard Myers, Mexican Painting in
Our Time (New York, 1956); Alma Reed, The Mexican Muralists (New York,
i960); Jaime and Virginia Plenn, A Guide to Mexican Modern Murals
(Ixtapalapa, 1963); and Desmond Rockfort, Mexican Muralists: Orozco,
Rivera and Siqueiros (London, 1993). On Rivera, see Desmond Rockfort,
The Murals of Diego Rivera (London, 1987) and a biography, Bertram D.
Wolfe, The Fabulous Life of Diego Rivera (New York, 1963). On Orozco, see
MacKinley Helm's biography, Man of Fire: Orozco (Boston, 1953) and Alma
Reed, Jose" Clemente Orozco (New York, 1956). On David Alfaro Siqueiros,
see Leonard Folgarait, So Farfrom Heaven: David Alfaro Siqueiros' 'The March
of Humanity' and Mexican Revolutionary Politics (Cambridge, Eng., 1987).
There are several studies of Tamayo: see, in particular, Robert Goldwater,
Tamayo (New York, 1947) and James B. Lynch, Tamayo (Phoenix, Ariz.,
1968). Hayden Herrera's Frida Kahlo (New York, 1982) contributed to the
contemporary fashion for that conflictive woman painter.

6. Art and architecture since c.1920 935
In Spanish, the Guatemalan poet and critic Luis Cardoza y Aragon has
contributed various luminous studies on Mexican art: see, for example, La
nube y el reloj (Mexico, D.F., 1940); Mexico: Pintura activa (Mexico, D.F.,
1961) and Mexico: Pintura de hoy (Mexico, D.F., 1964). Another excep-
tional figure, Octavio Paz, has written on art, especially Mexican art,
with wonderful intuition, from his study of Tamayo (Mexico, D.F., 1958)
to a more recent collection of essays, Los privilegios de la vista (Mexico,
D.F., 1987); Eng trans., Essays on Mexican Art (New York, 1993). The
essayist Samuel Ramos dedicated two of his studies to art: Diego Rivera
(Mexico, D.F., 1958) and The Mexican Muralists (New York, i960). The
'Three Greats' (Rivera, Orozco, Siqueiros) found the time and energy to
write on their own lives and experiences: see by Rivera, Autobiografia
(Mexico, D.F., 1963) and Mi arte, mi vida (Mexico, D.F., 1963); by
Orozco, the most literarily endowed of the three, Autobiografia (Mexico,
D.F., 1942), and El artista en Nueva York (Mexico, D.F., 1971); by
Siqueiros, No hay mas ruta que la nuestra (Mexico, D.F., 1945) and, many
years later, A un joven mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1967). One of the earliest
muralists was the French-born Jean Chariot, who wrote The Mexican
Mural Renaissance, 1920-1925 (New Haven, Conn., 1966) based on his
own experiences.
The following works by professional historians and critics are worthy of
note: Justino Fernandez, Arte moderno y contempordneo de Mexico (Mexico,
D.F., 1952) and La pintura moderna mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1964);
Raquel Tibol, a dedicated polemist of the left, Siqueiros, introductor de
realidades (Mexico, D.F., 1961), and Historia general del arte mexicano, epoca
moderna y contempordnea (Mexico, D.F., 1964), among others; Juan Garcia
Ponce, a novelist who analyses works of art, Nueve pintores mexicanos (Mex-
ico, D.F., 1968), and La aparicion de lo invisible (Mexico, D.F., 1968); Ida
Rodriguez Prampolini, a professor at UN AM, El surrealismo y el arte
fantdstico de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1969); and Shifra Goldman, Contempo-
rary Mexican Painting in a Time of Change (Austin, Tex., 1980). On architec-
ture, Israel Katzman, La arquitectura moderna mexicana (Mexico, D.F.,
1963) is an important study.
CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN
On painting in Cuba, Adelaida de Juan, Pintura cubana (Havana, 1980) is

an interesting work. On architecture only the works of Roberto Segre, the
great specialist on Caribbean architecture, are of real value: see Diez anos de

IX. Culture since independence
arquitectura revolucionaria en Cuba (Havana, 1970), and La vivienda en Cuba:

Republica y revolution (Havana, 1980).
On the Guatemalan-born painter Merida, see Carlos Merida (Mexico,
D.F., 1961) by the Spanish critic Margarita Nelken. One of the few books
on Guatemalan architecture is L. Lujan Mufioz, Sintesis de la arquitectura en
Guatemala (Guatemala City, 1968). See also Lionel Mendez Davila, Guate-
mala (Washington, D.C., 1966).
On the architecture of Panama, see R. Rodriguez Porcel, Panorama histo-
ricodela arquitectura de Panama (Havana, 1972). A French specialist resident
in Santo Domingo, Marianne de Tolentino, has written several works on the
art of the Dominican Republic. Holger Escoto, Historia de la arquitectura
dominicana (Santo Domingo, 1978) is an interesting work on its architec-
ture. On the art and architecture of Puerto Rico, see E. Fernandez Mendez,
Historia cultural de Puerto Rico (San Juan, P.R., 1970).
The Argentine-born Marta Traba was for many years the most important
art critic in Colombia. See, for example, a polemical text, Dos decadas
vulnerables en las artes plasticas latinoamericanas (Mexico, D.F., 1973) and
two collections of articles: Mirar en Bogota (Bogota, 1976) and Mirar en
Caracas (Bogota, 1974). On modern Colombian architecture, see German
Tellez, Critica e imagen (Bogota, 1977); J. Arango and C. Martinez,
Arquitectura en Colombia, 15381951 (Bogota, 1951) and A. Berty, Archi-
tectures colombiennes (Paris, 1971). The senior art historian of Venezuela is
Alfredo Boulton; see, in particular, his Historia de lapintura en Venezuela, 3
vols. (Caracas, 1968). Other distinguished critics are Juan Calzadilla
see, for example, El arte en Venezuela (Caracas, 1967) and El ojo que pasa
(Caracas, 1969), and Roberto Guevara see, for example, Arte para una
nueva escala (Caracas, 1977). On architecture, the leading figure remains
Italian-born Graziano Gasparini. See, in particular (with J.P. Posani),
Caracas a traves de su arquitectura (Caracas, 1971). There are two volumes in
the OAS series on Latin American art: Marta Traba, Colombia (Washing-
ton, D.C., 1959) and Clara Sujo, Venezuela (Washington, D.C., 1962).
PERU, BOLIVIA AND CHILE
On Peru, there are valuable contributions by J. M. Ugarte Elespuru (a

painter himself) - see, in particular, Pintura y escultura en el Peru content-

6. Art and architecture since c. 1920 937
pordneo (Lima, 1970) and by Mirko Lauer, Introduction a la pintura

peruana del siglo XX (Lima, 1976). On Peruvian architecture, see J. Garcia
Bryce, 'La arquitectura en el virreinato y la republica', in Jose Garcia
Bryce, Luis Enrique Tord and Enrique Pinilla (eds.), Historia del Peru, vol.
9 (Lima, 1980). For Bolivia, R. Villaroel Claure has contributed two
useful volumes: Pintores, grabadoresy escultores bolivianos (La Paz, 1952), and
Bolivia (OAS, Washington, D.C., 1963). The country's two leading histo-
rians, Jose de Mesa and his wife, Teresa Gisbert, are primarily specialists
on colonial art, but they have contributed important essays on the modern
plastic arts, and especially architecture - see, for example, Emilio Villa-
nueva: Hacia una arquitectura national (La Paz, 1984). The classical work on
Chilean painting is A. R. Romero, Historia de la pintura chilena (Santiago,
Chile, 1968). See also Milan Ivelic and Gaspar Galaz, La pintura chilena
(Valparaiso, 1981). On architecture, above all see O. Ortega, M. Andu-
aga, C. Miranda, S. Pirotte, F. Riquelme, and A. Sahady: Guia de la
arquitectura en Santiago (Santiago, Chile, 1976).
ARGENTINA, URUGUAY AND PARAGUAY
A pioneer in the critical approach to the study of art in Argentina was A.

Chiabra Acosta ('Atalaya'), Criticas de arte argentino, 19201930 (Buenos
Aires, 1934). A contemporary, but more of a historian, was Jose Leon
Pagano. See his monumental work, El arte de los argentinos, 3 vols. (Buenos
Aires, 1940). Other distinguished, important - and very different -
works are C. C6rdova Iturburu, La pintura argentina del siglo XX (Buenos
Aires, 1958); Aldo Pellegrini, La pintura argentina contempordnea (Buenos
Aires, 1967); and Romualdo Brughetti, Geografia pldstica argentina (Bue-
nos Aires, 1958) and Historia del arte en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1965).
The most active and influential author not only in Argentina but in the
rest of South America was Jorge Romero Brest. Most of his books are on
general subjects, but, on Argentina, see El arte en la Argentina (Buenos
Aires, 1969). Laura San Martin, Pintura argentina contempordnea (Buenos
Aires, 1961) is a useful listing of artists. A short book written by a
member of a younger generation in collaboration with three other critics is
Fermin Fevre, La pintura argentina (Buenos Aires, 1975), On architecture,
see F. Bullrich, Arquitectura argentina contempordnea (Buenos Aires, 1963);
J. M. Pefia and J. X. Martini, La ornamentation en la arquitectura de Buenos
Aires, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1980); Marina Waisman (ed.), Documentos
para una historia de la arquitectura argentina (Buenos Aires, 1978); and an

important bibliography, Arquitectura en Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1980),

written by specialists like F. Ortiz, A. de Paula and R. A. G6mez.
On Uruguay there are two fundamental works by J. P. Argul: Pintura y
escultura en el Uruguay (Montevideo, 1958) and Las artes plasticas en el
Uruguay (Montevideo, 1966). For a different view, see F. Garcia Esteban,
Panorama de la pintura uruguaya contempordnea (Montevideo, 1965). The
'pope' of Uruguayan art, Joaquin Torres-Garcia, produced two indispens-
able books: one on theory, Universalismo constructive (Buenos Aires, 1944),
where he preaches his ideas on art, the other much more intimate
Autobiografia (Montevideo, 1939). The great Uruguayan architectural his-
torian was J. Giuria, author of two historical works: La arquitectura en el
Paraguay (Buenos Aires, 1950), and La arquitectura en el Uruguay (Montevi-
deo, 1955). See also L. A. Artucio, Montevideo y la arquitectura moderna
(Montevideo, 1971). In Paraguay, apart from the book by J. Giuria al-
ready mentioned, the literature on art and architecture is scarce. But see J.
Baez, Artey artistasparaguayos (Asuncion, 1941); and the more recent, and
indispensable, book by Ticio Escobar, Una interpretation de las artes visuales
en el Paraguay, 2 vols. (Asuncion, 1984).
BRAZIL
An early book by Sergio Milliet, Pintores e pinturas (Sao Paulo, 1940)

remains valuable. Two theorists of the Antropofagia movement published
important works: Mario de Andrade, 0 movimento modernista (Rio de Ja-
neiro, 1942) and Oswald de Andrade, Ponta de langa (1945; Rio de Ja-
neiro, 1972). An early and useful study by the Argentine J. Romero Brest,
published in Spanish, is La pintura brasilena contempordnea (Buenos Aires,
1945). Like Romero Brest, Mario Pedrosa was a prolific author: see among
his general works Arte, necessidade vital (Rio de Janeiro, 1949), and Mundo,
homem, arte em crise (Sao Paulo, 1975). An Italian resident in Brazil, Pietro
Maria Bardi, published two popular books in English: The Arts in Brazil:
A New Museum at Sao Paulo (Milan, 1956) and Profile of the New Brazilian
Art (Rio de Janeiro, 1970). De Anita ao Museu (Rio de Janeiro, 1976) by
the Paulista writer Paulo Mendes de Almeida, is an interesting work: the
title refers to the painter Anita Malfatti and the Museum of Fine Arts in
Sao Paulo. Other interesting works include 0 modernismo (Sao Paulo,
1975), by Affonso Avilaof Belo Horizonte, and Visconti e as artes decorativas
(Rio de Janeiro, 1983), by an Argentine specialist, Irma Arestizabal.
Three important Brazilian critics belonging, more or less, to the same

7. Music since c.1920 939
generation - Aracy Amaral, Frederico Morais, and Roberto Pontual -

have made a major contribution to the study of Brazilian art. By Amaral,
see in particular Artespldsticas na Semana de 22 (Sao Paulo, 1970), and Arte
para que? A preocupacdo social no arte brasileira, 19301970 (Sao Paulo,
1984); by Morais, Artes pldsticas: A crise da bora atual (Rio de Janeiro,
1975) and As artes pldsticas na America latina: Do transe ao transitorio (Rio de
Janeiro, 1979); by Pontual, Diciondrio das artes pldsticas no Brasil (Rio de
Janeiro, 1969) and Entre dois skulos (Arte brasileira do siculo XX na colegao
Gilberto Chateaubriand) (Rio de Janeiro, 1987) as well as La peinture de
I'Amerique latine au xxe siecle (Paris, 1990). Other contributions by well-
known critics include Ferreira Gullar, Cultura posta em questdo (Rio de
Janeiro, 1965); Clarival do Prado Valladares, Riscadores de milagres urn
estudo sobre arte genuina (Rio de Janeiro, 1967); and J. R. Teixeira Leite,
Pintura moderna brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1979)- An important collective
work is Historia geral da arte no Brasil, 2 vols. (Sao Paulo, 1983), edited by
Walter Zanini, former director of the Museum of Fine Arts in Rio de
Janeiro.
Three pioneer books on modern Brazilian architecture were Philip Good-
win, Brazil Builds: Architecture Old and New, 16521942 (New York,
1943); Stamo Papadaki, Works in Progress (New York, 1950); and Hen-
rique Mindlin, Modern Architecture in Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, 1956).
Bullrich, New Directions in Latin American Architecture, cited above, in-
cludes a bright and controversial essay on Brasilia. More recent works
include Paulo F. Santos, Quatro seculos de arquitetura (Rio de Janeiro, 1977);
Alberto Xavier, Brasilia e arquitetura moderna brasileira (Sao Paulo, 1977);
and Carlos Lemos, Arquitetura brasileira (Sao Paulo, 1979). A practical
guide is Nestor Goulart Reis, Quadro da arquitetura no Brasil, 4th ed. (Sao
Paulo, 1978). See also the useful essay by Julio R. Katinsky, 'Arquitectura
y diseno en el Brasil' in D. Bayon, Arte moderno en America Latina.
7. M U S I C S I N C E c. 1 9 2 0
A review of popular music literature, of centres and research collections,

and future research on popular music is provided in Gerard Behague
'Popular music' in Handbook of Latin American Popular Culture, edited by
Harold E. Hinds, Jr. and Charles M. Tatum (Westport, Conn., 1985), 3
38. Vol. 6/2 (1987) of the journal Popular Music is dedicated to Latin
America and includes a section on 'sources and resources.' Jan Fairley

94 1X- Culture since independence
tated bibliography of Latin American popular music with particular refer-

ences to Chile and nueva canciori', Popular Music, 5 (1985), 30556. John
Schechter provides a good discussion and selected bibliography on popular
music in his article 'The current state of bibliographic research in Latin
American ethnomusicology', in Dan C. Hazen (ed.), Latin American Masses
and Minorities: Their Images and Realities, 2 vols. (Madison, Wise, 1987).
For an assessment of studies of Latin American folk and traditional music,
see Gerard Behague, 'Latin America', in Helen Myers (ed.), Ethnomusicol-
ogy: Historical and Regional Studies (London, 1993).
Gilbert Chase, A Guide to the Music of Latin America (1955; 2nd ed.,
Washington, D.C., 1962), remains valuable. For bibliographic references
since c. i960, the music section of the Handbook of Latin American Studies
should be consulted. Gerard Behague's detailed survey of Latin American
art music, Music in Latin America: An Introduction (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,
1979; Sp. trans., Caracas, 1983), provides copious bibliographical notes on
twentieth-century music. Trends, stylistic development and detailed and
updated biographical information concerning Latin American music, musi-
cians and institutions are provided in the twenty volumes of The New Grove
Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie (London, 1980).
Quite useful, in spite of many factual errors and the lack of updating of the
material, is t h e series Composers of the AmericaslCompositores de las Americas,
published by the OAS (Washington, D.C.), which provides biographical
data and catalogues of the works of selected composers from all countries of
the Western Hemisphere.
Carlos Chavez's life and works have been the subject of numerous studies.
Roberto Garcia Morillo, Carlos Chavez: Vida y obra (Mexico, D.F. i960) is
one of the best analytical studies and includes a catalogue of the composer's
works, a bibliography and a discography, brought up to date in Carlos
Chavez, Mexico's Modern-Day Orpheus, by Robert L. Parker (Boston, 1983).
Mexican musical nationalism is well treated in Otto Mayer-Serra's Panorama
de la musica mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1941), and his study of'Silvestre Revu-
eltas and musical nationalism in Mexico', The Musical Quarterly, 27 (1941),
12345, is still valuable. Yolanda Moreno Rivas, Rostros del nacionalismo en
la musica mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1989) is a thought-provoking essay with
interesting analyses. Dan Malstrom, 'Introduction to twentieth-century
Mexican music' (unpublished Ph.D dissertation, Uppsala University,
1974) contains good general information, although the musical analyses
leave a great deal to be desired. Vol. 5 of La musica de Mexico, edited by Julio
Estrada (Mexico, D.F., 1984) deals with the period 195880.

7. Music since c.1920 941
Cuban nationalism and the study of afrocubanismo are best treated in Alejo
Carpentier, La musica en Cuba (Mexico, D.F., 1946). Nicolas Slonimsky,
'Caturla of Cuba,' Modern Music, 17I1 (1940), 76-80, provides some ana-
lytical comments on that composer's works. The early works of Aurelio de la
Vega are studied in Alice Ramsay's 'Aurelio de la Vega: His life and his
music'(M. A. thesis, California State University, 1963). Ronald Erin wrote
on 'Cuban elements in the music of Aurelio de la Vega,' Latin American
Music Review, 5/1 (1984), 1-32, and Paul Century on 'Leo Brouwer: A
portrait of the artist in Socialist Cuba,' Latin American Music Review, 8/'2
(1987), 15171, with a detailed bibliography on the composer. For a
general assessment of Cuban musical life in the 1980s, see Victoria Eli
Rodriguez, 'Apuntes sobre la creacion musical actual en Cuba', Latin Ameri-
can Music Review, 10/1 (1989), 287-97.
The best and most detailed study of Puerto Rican music in general is
Hector Campos-Parsi's La musica, which makes up vol. 7 of La Gran
Enciclopedia de Puerto Rico (Madrid, 1976). Anna Figueroa de Thompson,
An Annotated Bibliography of Writings about Music in Puerto Rico (Ann Arbor,
Mich., 1974) is the best bibliographic reference.
A good general survey of Venezuelan music up to the 1950s is Jose Anto-
nio Calcano, La ciudady su musica (Caracas, 1958). Colombian music his-
tory of the- twentieth century is surveyed in Jose Ignacio Perdomo Escobar,
Historia de la musica en Colombia, 3rd ed. (Bogota, 1963) and Andres Pardo
Tovar, La cultura musical en Colombia (Bogota, 1966). Studies on Uribe Hol-
guin include Guillermo Rendon's 'Maestros de la musica: Guillermo Uribe
Holguin (18801971),' in Boletin de Musica (Havana) nos. 501 (1975),
and Eliana Duque, Guillermo Uribe Holguin y sus '300 trozos en el sentimiento
popular' (Bogota, 1980). Segundo Luis Moreno provided a general survey of
Ecuadorian music history in 'La musica en el Ecuador', in J. Gonzalo
Orellana(ed.), El Ecuador en cien anos de independencia, vol. 2 (Quito, 1930).
Peruvian music and musicians have been studied in Rodolfo Barbacci,
'Apuntes para un diccionario biografico musical peruano', Fenix, 6 (1949),
Carlos Raygada, 'Guia musical del Peru,' FSnix, 12 (19567), 13 (1963),
and 14 (1964), and Enrique Pinilla, 'La musica contemporanea en el Peni,'
Fanal (Lima), 79 (1966). Four chapters dealing with Peruvian music from
1900 to 1985, written by Enrique Pinilla, form part of the book La musica
en el Peru (Lima, 1985). Bolivian music is surveyed in Atiliano Auza Le6n,
Dindmica musical en Bolivia (La Paz, 1967).
Numerous articles on Chilean music institutions, composers and their
works with catalogues have been published in Revista Musical Chilena, a

general index of which appears in 98 (1966), 12930 (1975), and 163

(1985). A general survey of Chilean art music since 1900 is Vicente Salas
Viu, La creacidn musical en Chile, 19001951 (Santiago, Chile, 1952),
updated by Samuel Claro V. and Jorge Urrutia B. in their Historia de la
musica en Chile (Santiago, Chile, 1973).
The most relevant studies of Brazilian music are Luiz Heitor Correa de
Azevedo, 150 anos de musica no Brasil (18001950) (Rio de Janeiro, 1956),
Mario de Andrade's epoch-making Ensaio sobre a musica brasileira (Sao
Paulo, 1928), Renato Almeida, Historia da musica brasileira, 2nd ed. (Rio
de Janeiro, 1942), Vasco Mariz, Figuras da musica brasileira contemporanea
(Brasilia, 1970) and Historia da musica no Brasil, 4nd ed. (Rio de Janeiro,
1994), and Bruno Kiefer, Historia da musica brasileira (Porto Alegre, 1976).
Musica contemporanea brasileira, by Jose Maria Neves (Sao Paulo, 1981),
brings some updated information on new composers' activities. On the life
and works of Heitor Villa-Lobos, see Andrade Muricy, Villa-Lobos, uma
interpretaqao (Rio de Janeiro, 1961); Vasco Mariz, Heitor Villa-Lobos: Life and
Work of the Brazilian Composer, 2nd ed. (Washington, D.C., 1970) (the
eleventh edition of this book, much enlarged, appeared in Portuguese
translation in 1989 in Belo Horizonte); Lisa M. Peppercorn, Heitor Villa-
Lobos: Leben und Werk des brasilianischen Komponisten (Zurich, 1972); Bruno
Kiefer, Villa-Lobos e 0 modernismo na musica brasileira (Porto Alegre, 1981);
Luiz Pablo Horta, Heitor Villa-Lobos (Rio de Janeiro, 1987); Simon Wright,
Villa-Lobos (Oxford, 1992); and Gerard Behague, Hector Villa-Lobos: The
Search for Brazil's Musical Soul (Austin, Tex., 1994). Specific analytical
works include Arnaldo Estrella, Os quartetos de cordas de Villa-Lobos (Rio de
Janeiro, 1970); Adhemar Nobrega, As Bachianas brasileiras de Villa-Lobos
(Rio de Janeiro, 1971); and Os Choros de Villa-Lobos (Rio de Janeiro, 1975).
A general overview of Argentine musical life in the twentieth century is
provided in Mario Garcia Acevedo, La musica argentina durante elperiodo de
la organization national (Buenos Aires, 1961) and La musica argentina
contemporanea (Buenos Aires, 1963). Opera in Buenos Aires is the subject
of Roberto Caamano (ed.), La historia del Teatro Colon (Buenos Aires,
1969). A series of individual biographies of Argentine composers was
begun in the early 1960s by the Ministerio de Educaci6n y Justicia in
Buenos Aires, known as the 'Series Ediciones Culturales Argentinas'. It
includes biographies on Juan Jose Castro by Rodolfo Arizaga (1963), on
Jacobo Ficher by Boris Zipman (1966), and on Alberto Ginastera by Pola
Suarez Urtubey (1967). On Ginastera's life and works, see Gilbert Chase,
'Alberto Ginastera: Argentine composer,' The Musical Quarterly, 43/4

8. Cinema 943
(I957)> a nd Malena Kuss, 'Type, derivation, and use of folk idioms in

Ginastera's Don Rodrigo (1964),' Latin American Music Review, 1/2 (1980).
Uruguayan music is treated in some detail in Susana Salgado, Breve historia
de la musica culta en el Uruguay (Montevideo, 1971), including comprehen-
sive catalogues of Uruguayan composers' works.
Latin American new, experimental music has not been studied very exten-
sively. For an overview of music since 1950, see Aurelio de la Vega, 'New
World composers,' Inter-American Music Bulletin, 43 (1964) and 'Avant-garde
music at the American Art Biennal of Cordoba', Yearbook-Anuario (Inter-
American Institute for Musical Research), 3 (1967). See also his review-essay
'A quick encounter with Brazil's art music through some recent recordings',
Latin American Music Review, 8/1 (1987), 11931. Juan Orrego-Salas sur-
veyed the contemporary trends and personalities in 'The young generation of
Latin American composers: Backgrounds and perspectives', Inter-American
Music Bulletin, 38 (1963), and Gustavo Becerra Schmidt wrote on 'Modern
music south of the Rio Grande', Inter-American Music Bulletin, 83 (1972).
Orrego-Salas also gave a general appraisal of several Latin American compos-
ers' stylistic tendencies in 'Traditions, experiment, and change in contempo-
rary Latin America', Latin American Music Review, 6/2 (1985).
8. CINEMA
GENERAL
Several works cover the development of cinema in Latin America from its
inception: see Guy Hennebelle and Alfonso Gumucio Dagron (eds.), Les
Cin&mas de I'Amerique Latine (Paris, 1981); John King, Magical Reels: A His-
tory of Cinema in Latin America (London, 1990); Jorge A. Schnitman, Film
Industries in Latin America: Dependency and Development (Norwood, N.J.,
1984); Peter B. Schumann, Historia del cine latinoamericano (Buenos Aires,
1986); Jose Agustin Mahieu, Panorama del cine Iberoamericano (Madrid,
1990); Paulo Paranagua, Cinema na America Latina: Longe de Deus e perto de
Hollywood (Porto Alegre, 1984); and John King, Ana Lopez, and Manuel
Alvarado (eds.), Mediating Two Worlds: Cinematic Encounters in the Americas
(London, 1993). See also Ana Lopez, 'Towards a "Third" and "Imperfect"
Cinema: A theoretical and historical study of film-making in Latin Amer-
ica' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Iowa, 1986).
Two books focus on early cinema: XI Festival del Nuevo Cine La-

tinoamericano, Cine latinoamericano: anos 304050 (Mexico, D.F., 1990)

and Silvia Oroz, Melodrama: 0 cinema de lagrimas da America Latina (Rio de
Janeiro, 1992). In the main, however, general works have focused in
particular on the 'new' cinema movements of the last thirty years. See, in
particular, Julianne Burton (ed.), Cinema and Social Change in Latin Amer-
ica: Conversations with Filmmakers (Austin, Tex., 1986). See also Burton
(ed.), The Social Documentary in Latin America (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1990) and
The New Latin American Cinema: An Annotated Bibliography, 1960-1980
(New York, 1983). Other books/catalogues concentrating on the modern
period include: Pat Aufderheide (ed.), Latin American Visions: Catalogue,
(Philadelphia, Pa., 1989); Zuzana M. Pick, The New Latin American Cin-
ema: A Continental Project (Austin, Tex., 1993); E. Bradford Burns, Latin
American Cinema: Film and History (Los Angeles, 1975); Michael Chanan
(ed.), Twenty-five Years of the New Latin American Cinema (London, 1983);
Isaac Leon Frias (ed.), Los anos de la conmocion, 1967-1973 (Mexico, D.F.,
1979); Coco Fusco (ed.), Reviewing Histories: Selections from New Latin Ameri-
can Cinema (Buffalo, N.Y., 1987); Octavio Getino, Cine latinoamericano:
Economia y nuevas tecnologias audiovisuales (Havana and Merida, Ven., 1987);
Alfonso Gumucio Dagron, Cine, censura y exilio en America Latina (La Paz,
1979); Hojas de cine: Testimonios y documentos del nuevo cine latinoamericano, 3
vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1988); Augusto Torres Martinez and Manuel Perez
Estremera, Nuevo cine latinoamericano (Barcelona, 1973); Teresa Toledo,
Diez anos de un festival (Madrid, 1990); Luis Trelles Plazaola, Cine y mujer en
America Latina (Rio Piedras, P.R., 1991); and South American Cinema:
Dictionary of Filmmakers (Rio Piedras, P.R., 1989).
Several critics have explored Latin American cinema within the broader
context of Third Cinema/Third World debates. For the seminal essay on
'Third Cinema', see Fernando Solanas and Octavio Getino, Cine, cultura y
descolonizacion (Mexico, D.F., 1973) and Getino's further comments in A
diez anos de 'Hacia un tercer cine' (Mexico, D.F., 1982). General studies
include Roy Armes, Third World Filmmaking and the West (Berkeley, 1987);
John H. Downing (ed.), Film and Politics in the Third World (New York,
1987); Teshome Gabriel, Third Cinema in the Third World: The Aesthetics of
Liberation (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1982); Zuzana Pick (ed.), Latin American
Filmmakers and the Third Cinema (Ottawa, 1978); and Jim Pines and Paul
Willemen (eds.), Questions of Third Cinema (London, 1990). Certain film
journals, in particular Cineaste, Framework, Jump Cut and Positif, carry regu-
lar articles on Latin American cinema. See, for example, 'Latin American
Film', Jump Cut, 30 (March 1985); 'Latin American Dossier', Parts 1 and 2,

8. Cinema 945
Framework, 10 (Spring 1979), 1139 and 11 (Autumn 1979), 1827;
'Latin American Militant Cinema', special issue, Cineaste, 4/3 (1970 1).
ARGENTINA AND URUGUAY
The literature tends to paint the picture in broad brush-strokes, with only
one or two works concentrating on particular directors or genres. See Tim
Barnard (ed.), Argentine Cinema (Toronto, 1986); Fernando Birri, La escuela
documentaldeSanta Fe (Santa Fe, Arg., 1964); Jose Miguel Couselo, Elnegro
Ferreyra: Un cine par instinto (Buenos Aires, 1969); Couselo et al., Historia
del cine argentino (Buenos Aires, 1984); Domingo Di Nubila, Historia del
cine argentino, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1971); Estela Dos Santos, El cine
nacional (Buenos Aires, 1971); Claudio Espana, Medio siglo de cine: Argen-
tina Sono Films (Buenos Aires, 1984); Octavio Getino, Notas sobre el cine
argentino (Mexico, D.F., 1984); John King and Nissa Torrents (eds.), The
Garden of Forking Paths: Argentine Cinema (London, 1988); Agustin
Mahieu, Breve historia del cine argentino (Buenos Aires, 1966) and Breve
historia del cine nacional: 18961974 (Buenos Aires, 1974); Jorge Abel
Martin, Losfilmesde Leopoldo Torre Nilsson (Buenos Aires, 1980); Instituto
Nacional de Cinematografia, Diccionario de realizadores contempordneos (Bue-
nos Aires, 1987); Daniel L6pez, Catdlogo del nuevo cine argentino (Buenos
Aires, 1987); Tomas Eloy Martinez, La obra de Ayala y Torre Nilsson (Bue-
nos Aires, 1961); Juan Jose Rossi (ed.), El cine documental etno-biogrdfico de
Jorge Prelordn (Buenos Aires, 1985); and Fernando Solanas, La mirada:
Reflexiones sobre cine y cultura (Buenos Aires, 1989); see also Robert Stam,
'Hour of the Furnaces and the two avant-gardes', Millenium FilmJournal, 79
(19801). On Argentine cinema in the 1980s, see David William Foster,
Contemporary Argentine Cinema (Columbia, Mo., 1992).
On Uruguay, see Eugenio Hintz (ed.), Historia y filmografia del cine
uruguayo (Montevideo, 1988). There are interviews with Mario Handler
and Walter Achugar in Burton (ed.), Cinema and Social Change. See also
Walter Achugar et al., 'El cine en el Uruguay', in Hojas de cine, Vol. 1.
BRAZIL
The most complete one-volume guide to Brazilian cinema, with the most
comprehensive bibliography, is Paulo Antonio Paranagua (ed.), Le cinema
bresilien (Paris, 1987). In English, the main reference works are Randal
Johnson, Cinema Novo x 5: Masters of Contemporary Brazilian Film (Austin,

94^ IX. Culture since independence
Tex., 1984) and The Film Industry in Brazil: Culture and the State (Pitts-
burgh, Pa., 1987), and Randal Johnson and Robert Stam (eds.), Brazilian
Cinema (Rutherford, N.J., 1982). In Brazil, there are major works on all
the different periods of cinema development. See, in particular, on the
silent period, Vicente de Paulo Araujo, A beta epoca do cinema brasileiro (Sao
Paulo, 1976) and Saloes, circos e cinema de Sao Paulo (Sao Paulo, 1981), See
also Jean-Claude Bernadet, Filmografia do cinema brasileiro, 19001935
(Sao Paulo, 1979). Bernadet is one of Brazil's most important critics. His
work, which spans the silent period to the present day, includes: Cinema
brasileiro: Propostas para uma histdria (Rio de Janeiro, 1979); Trajetoria
critica (Sao Paulo, 1978); Brasil em tempo de cinema (Rio de Janeiro, 1967);
Piranha no Mar de Rosas (Sao Paulo, 1982); Cineastas e imagens do povo (Sao
Paulo, 1985); and 0 voo dos anjos: Bressane, Sganzerla (Sao Paulo, 1990).
Other general works which include the silent period are Paulo Emilio
Salles Gomes, Cinema: Trajetoria no subdesenvolvimento (Rio de Janeiro,
1980) and Gomes and Adhemar Gonzaga, 70 anos de cinema brasileiro (Rio
de Janeiro, 1986). Gomes has also studied Brazil's most important early
director, Humberto Mauro, in his Humberto Mauro, Cataguases, Cinearte
(Sao Paulo, 1974). See also Ismail Xavier, Setima Arte: Um culto moderno
(Sao Paulo, 1978) and Jose Carlos Avellar, Imagem e som: Imagem e agdo (Rio
de Janeiro, 1982). On the early talkies, in particular the chanchada, see
Afranio M. Catani and Jose de Melo Souza, A chanchada no cinema brasileiro
(Sao Paulo, 1983) and Sergio Augusto, Este mundo e um pandeiro: A
chanchada de Getulio aJK (Sao Paulo, 1989). The attempted 'moderniza-
tion' of cinema in the 1940s and 50s is charted in Maria Rita Galvao,
Burguesia e cinema: 0 caso Vera Cruz (Rio de Janeiro, 1981).
Perhaps the most acute analyst of the Cinema Novo period is one of its
major practitioners, Glauber Rocha: see, Revisdo critica do cinema brasileiro
(Rio de Janeiro, 1963) and 0 seculo do cinema (Rio de Janeiro, 1983). Other
works include Ismail Xavier, Sertdo mar: Glauber Rocha e a estetica da fome
(Sao Paulo, 1983) and Xavier's 'Allegories of underdevelopment: From the
"Aesthetics of Hunger" to the "Aesthetics of Garbage" (unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, New York University, 1982); Michel Esteve (ed.), Le 'cinema
novo' bresilien, Etudes cinematographiques, no. 936 (Paris, 1972) and Le
'cinema novo' bresilien 2: Glauber Rocha, Etudes cinematographiques, no.
9 7 - 9 (Paris, 1973); Sylvie Pierre, Glauber Rocha (Paris, 1987); Jose Gatti,
Barravento: A Estriia do Glauber (Florianopolis, 1987); Raquel Gerber, 0
cinema brasileiro e 0 processo politico e cultural (de 1950 a 1978) (Rio de
Janeiro, 1982); Jose Maria Ortiz Ramos, Cinema, estado e lutas culturais:

8. Cinema 947
Anos 50/60/70 (Rio de Janeiro, 1983); Fernao Ramos, Cinema marginal

(1968-1973) (Rio de Janeiro, 1987); and Jose Carlos Avellar, 0 cinema
dilacerado (Rio de Janeiro, 1986). On more recent movements, see 'Brazil:
Post Cinema Novo", Framework, 28 (1985).
MEXICO
As with Brazil, the most up-to-date book on Mexican cinema, and the
most useful introductory guide, has been edited by Paulo Antonio Pa-
ranagua: Le Cinema mexicain (Paris, 1992).
Mexican scholars have developed an extensive bibliography. The most
widely published film critic is Emilio Garcia Riera, whose most compre-
hensive work is the Historia documental del cine mexicano, Epoca sonora (Mex-
ico, D.F., 196993), 12 vols. to date. Other titles by Garcia Riera in-
clude: El cine mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1963); Historia del cine mexicano
(Mexico, D.F., 1986); El cineysupublico (Mexico, D.F., 1974); Filmografia
mexicana de medio y largo metrajes, 19061940 (Mexico, D.F., 1985); Fer-
nando de Fuentes (Mexico, D.F., 1984); Emilio Fernandez (Guadalajara and
Mexico, D.F., 1987); Los hermanos Soler (Guadalajara, 1990); Julio Bracho
(Guadalajara, 1986); and Arturo Ripstein habla de su cine (Guadalajara,
1988). Another stimulating critic to cover the history of cinema is Jorge
Ayala Blanco. See his La aventura del cine mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1968); La
busqueda del cine mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1974); La condicion del cine mexicano
(Mexico, D.F., 1986); La disolvencia del cine mexicano, entre lo popular y lo
exquisito (Mexico, D.F., 1991). With Maria Luisa Amador, Ayala Blanco
has published the cartelera of four decades of cinema in Mexico: Cartelera
cinematogrdfica 1930-1939 (Mexico, D.F., 1982), 1950-1959 (Mexico,
D.F., 1985); 1960-1969 (Mexico, D.F., 1986); and 1970-1979 (Mexico,
D.F., 1988). Other general works include Aurelio de los Reyes, Medio siglo
de cine mexicano (1896-1947) (Mexico, D.F., 1987); CarlJ. Mora, Mexican
Cinema: Reflections of a Society, 1898-1980 (Berkeley, 1982); Beatriz Reyes
Nevares, Trece directores del cine mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1974), Eng. trans.
The Mexican Cinema: Interviews -with Thirteen Directors (Albuquerque,
N.Mex., 1976); and Alberto Ruy Sanchez, Mitologia de un cine en crisis
(Mexico, D.F., 1981). Ruy Sanchez is the editor of the magazine Artes de
Mexico, which has published two beautifully-illustrated numbers on Mexi-
can cinema: 'El arte de Gabriel Figueroa', Artes de Mexico, 2 (Winter 1988)
and "Revisi6n del cine mexicano1, Artes de Mexico, 10 (Winter 1990). The
cultural critic Carlos Monsivais has written extensively on Mexican cinema

in witty and trenchant style: for selections of these essays see his Amor
perdido (Mexico, D.F., 1977), Escenas depudor y liviandad (Mexico, D.F.,
1988), and Rostros del cine mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1993).
On the origins of Mexican cinema, see Gustavo Garcia, El cine mudo
mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1982); Manuel Gonzalez Casanova, Cronica del cine
silente en Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1989); Andres de Luna, La batalla y su
sombra {La revolucidn en el cine mexicano) (Mexico, D.F., 1984); Aurelio de los
Reyes, Los origenes del cine en Mexico (18961900) (Mexico, D.F., 1973).
See also de los Reyes, Ciney sociedaden Mexico, 1896-1930: Vol. 1, Vivirde
suenos {1896-1920) (Mexico, D.F., 1983). On early talkies and the
'Golden Age' of Mexican cinema, see the studies of individual directors by
Garcia Riera, already mentioned. See also Juan Bustillo Oro, Vida cin-
ematogrdfica (Mexico, D.F., 1984); Henry Burdin, La mexicaine Maria
Felix, le roman d'une vie (Paris, 1982); Adela Fernandez, El indio Fernandez,
vida y mito (Mexico, D.F., 1988); Alejandro Galindo, Verdady mentira del
cine mexicano (Mexico, D.F., 1981); Diana Negrete, Jorge Negrete: Biografia
autorizada (Mexico, D.F., 1987); Miguel Angel Morales, Comicos de Mixico
(Mexico, D.F., 1987); Tomas Perez Turrent, La fdbrica de suenos: Estudios
Churubusco, 1945-1985 (Mexico, D.F., 1985); Gabriel Ramirez, Lupe
Velez: La mexicana que escupia fuego (Mexico, D.F., 1986); David Ram6n,
Sensualidad: Las peliculas de Ninon Sevilla (Mexico, D.F., 1989); Paco Igna-
cio Taibo, La musica de Agustin Lara en el cine (Mexico, D.F., 1984), Siempre
Dolores (Mexico, D.F., 1984), Maria Felix, 4j pasos por el cine (Mexico,
D.F., 1985), and El indio Fernandez: El cine por mis pistolas (Mexico, D.F.,
1986); Eduardo de la Vega Alfaro, El cine dejuan Oro/(Mexico, D.F., 1985)
and Arcady Boytler (Guadalajara, 1992); Ariel Zuniga, Vasos comunicantes en
la obra de Roberto Gavaldon (Mexico, D.F., 1990).
Work on modern cinema includes: Paola Costa, La 'apertura' cinematogrd-
fica, Mexico, 1970-19-76 (Puebla, 1988); Klaus Eder, Arturo Ripstein:
Filmemacher aus Mexico (Munich, 1989); Marcela Fernandez Violante, La
docencia y el fendmeno filmico: Memoria de los XXV ahos del CUEC, 196388
(Mexico, D.F., 1988); Vicente Lenero, Tres guiones cinematogrdficos: Mag-
nicidio, los Albaniles, cadena perpetua (Mexico, D.F., 1982); Tomas Perez
Turrent, Canoa: Memoria de un hecho vergonzoso (Puebla, 1984); Perez
Turrent et al., Rafael Corkidi (Mexico, D.F., 1978); Florencio Sanchez,
Crdnica antisolemne del cine mexicano (Xalapa, 1989) and Hermosillo: Pasidnpor
la libertad (Mexico, D.F., 1989); Nelson Carro Rodriguez, El cine de
luchadores (Mexico, D.F., 1984); and Charles Ramirez Berg, Cinema ofSoli-
tude: A Critical Study of Mexican Film, 1967-1983 (Austin, Tex., 1992).

8. Cinema 949
CHILE
Few works cover Chilean cinema before the 1960s. There are two general
studies: Carlos Ossa Coo, Historia del cine chileno (Santiago, 1971) and
Alicia Vega, Re-vision del cine chileno (Santiago, 1979). On 'new cinema'
from the 1960s and 'exile' cinema, see Francesco Bolzoni, El cine de Allende
(Valencia, Spain, 1975); Michael Chanan (ed.), Chilean Cinema (London,
1976); Gabriel Garcia Marquez, La aventura de Miguel Littin, clandestino en
Chile (Mexico, D.F., 1986), Eng. trans., Clandestine in Chile (Cambridge,
Eng., 1989). For further criticism on Littin, see Ana Lopez, 'Towards a
"Third" and "Imperfect" Cinema', mentioned above. (Almost all the sur-
vey books cited at the beginning of this essay contain essays on Littin and
on the two other best-known directors of the period, Raoul Ruiz and
Patricio Guzman.) See also Patricio Guzman and Pedro Sempere, Chile: El
cine contra el fascismo (Valencia, 1977); Literature Chilena, Creadon y Critica,
27 (JanuaryMarch 1984), special issue on Chilean cinema; and Jacque-
line Mouesca, Piano secuencia de la memoria de Chile (Madrid, 1988). Raoul
Ruiz has received concentrated critical attention in the past decade. See
the sections in Afterimage, 10 (1982) and in particular the special editions
of two eminent French film journals dedicated to his work: Cahiers du
Cinema, 345 (March 1983) and Positif, 274 (December 1983).
CUBA
Two stimulating general studies are Michael Chanan, The Cuban Image:
Cinema and Cultural Politics in Cuba (London, 1985) and Paulo Antonio
Paranagua (ed.), Le Cinema cubain (Paris, 1990). See also Arturo Agra-
monte, Cronologia del cine cubano (Havana, 1966). On cinema after the
revolution, see Nestor Almendros, A Man with a Camera (London, 1985);
Santiago Alvarez et al., Cine y revolucidn en Cuba (Barcelona, 1975); Mi-
chael Chanan, Santiago Alvarez (London, 1980); Maria Eulalia Douglas,
Diccionario de cineastas cubanos, 1959-1987 (Merida, Ven., 1989); Ambro-
sio Fornet, Cine, literatura y sociedad (Havana, 1982); Fornet (ed.), Alea:
Una retrospectiva critica (Havana, 1987); Julio Garcia Espinosa, Una imagen
recorre el mundo (Havana, 1979); Tomas Gutierrez Alea, Dialectica del
espectador (Mexico, D.F., 1983), Eng. trans, first published in Jump Cut 29
and 30 (19845) and in book form as The Viewer's Dialectic (Havana,
1988); and Michael Myerson (ed.), Memories of Under development: The Revolu-
tionary Films of Cuba (New York, 1973). The development of cinema from

1959 is charted in the journal Cine Cubano. See also the special dossier on
Cuban cinema in Jump Cut, 19 (December 1978), 20 (May 1979) and 22
(May 1980).
BOLIVIA AND PERU
Bolivia has produced several interesting works of criticism. See, in particu-

lar, Alfonso Gumucio Dagr6n, Historia del cine en Bolivia (La Paz, 1982);
Carlos D. Mesa, La aventura del cine boliviano, 1952-1985 (La Paz, 1985)
and El cine boliviano segun Luis Espinal (La Paz, 1982); Beatriz Palacios
Mesa, Jorge Sanjines et al., Cine boliviano: Del realizador al critico (La Paz,
1979); and Jorge Sanjines and El Grupo Ukamau, Teoria y prdctica de un
cine junto al pueblo (Mexico, D.F., 1979). Sanjines is included in all the
major general studies of new Latin American cinema.
Surprisingly, there is no general reference work on Peruvian cinema.
See, however, the articles in Hablemos de Cine; for example, Isaac Le6n
Frias, 'Hacia una historia de cine peruano', 50-1 (1970); various authors,
'Diccionario del cortometraje peruano', 70 (1979) and 71 (1980); and
'Encuentro con Federico Garcia', 75 (1982). On Francisco Lombardi,
Peru's best-known director, see Paulo Antonio Paranagua, 'Francisco Lom-
bardi et le nouveau cinema peruvien', Positif, 338 (April 1989).
For general reference on the Colombian cinema, see Hernando Martinez

Pardo, Historia del cine colombiano (Bogota, 1978); Umberto Valverde, Re-
portaje critico al cine colombiano (Bogota, 1978); and Hernando Salcedo Silva,
Crdnicas del cine colombiano, 18971950 (Bogota, 1981). The Bogota-based
magazine, Cuadernos de Cine Colombiano, produced a series of studies of
individual directors in the early 1980s: see 2 (i98i)on Ciro Duran; 3 (1981)
on Francisco Norden; 4 (i98i)onLizaroTarcoTulio; 7 (1982) on Jorge Silva
and Marta Rodriguez; 10 (1983) on Luis Ospina; and 11 (1983) on Camila
Loboguerrero. On cinema of the 1980s, see Orlando Mora and Sandro
Romero Rey, 'Cine colombiano, 1977-1987: Dos opiniones', Boletin Cul-
tural y Bibliogrdfico, 25/5 (1988), 31-49, and various authors, 'Colombia:
En busca de un cine perdido', Gaceta (July-August 1989), 21-33. Finally,
see Carlos Alvarez, Sobre el cine colombiano y latinoamericano (Bogota, 1989).
Studies of Venezuela concentrate on recent cinema. See Jesus M.
Aguirre and Marcelino Bisbal, El nuevo cine venezolano (Caracas, 1980);

9. Mass media 951
Edmundo Aray, Cine venezolano: Production cinematogrdfica de la ULA

(Merida, Ven., 1986); Rodolfo Izaguirre, El tine en Venezuela, 2nd ed.
(Caracas, 1981) and Cine venezolano: Largometrajes (Caracas, 1983); R.
Grazione et al., Clemente de la Cerda (Caracas, n.d.); Alvaro N. P. Naranjo,
Roman Chalbaud: Un tine de autor (Caracas, 1984); and Ricardo Tirado,
Memoria y notas del cine venezolano, 2 vols. (Caracas, 1988).
THE CARIBBEAN AND CENTRAL AMERICA
On Caribbean cinema, see Arnold Antonin, Material para una pre-historia

del cine haitiano (Caracas, 1983); Kino Garcia, Breve historia del cine
puertorriqueno, 2nd rev. ed. (Bayamon, P.R., 1989); Jose Luis Saez, Historia
de un sueno importado, ensayos sobre el cine en Santo Domingo (Santo Domingo,
1982). See also Hojas de cine, vol. 3, cited above.
Central America has received critical attention mainly in the last fifteen
years as a result of revolutionary/guerrilla cinema. On Nicaragua, see
Alfonso Gumucio Dagr6n, El cine de los trabajadores (Managua, 1981), as
well as Hojas de cine, vol. 3, cited above; Armand Mattelart (ed.), Communi-
cating in Popular Nicaragua (New York, 1986); and John Ramirez, 'Intro-
duction to the Sandinista documentary cinema', Areito, 37 (1984). Essays
on the cinemas of the remaining Central American republics are found in
Hojas de cine, vol. 3, cited above. See also the special edition of Jump Cut on
the revolutionary cinema in El Salvador: Jump Cut, 26 (1981). On Pan-
ama, see Pedro Rivera, 'Apuntes para una historia del cine en Panama,'
Formato 16, 3 (1977).
9. THE MASS MEDIA
The historical literature on the Latin American mass media from the
1920s to the late 1960s - most of it published in small editions, often by
the pioneers of broadcasting is not abundant. The extensive literature
on development communications in Latin America was written mainly in
the United States. There is a significant Latin American body of critical
work around media reforms and the New International Information Or-
der, much of which is contained in Fernando Reyes Matta (ed.), La
Informacidn en el Nuevo Orden International (Mexico, D.F., 1977) and in
UNESCO Reports and Papers on Mass Communication: 70, Television
Traffic - A One-Way Street?; 92, Transnational Communication and Cul-

952 / X . Culture since independence
tural Industries; 93, Foreign News in the Media: International Reporting

in 29 Countries; 98, The New International Economic Order: Links
Between Economics and Communication; and 99, International Flow of
Information: A Global Report and Analysis, There have been some stud-
ies on the media under the military dictatorships of the 1970s and early
1980s, such as G. Munizaga, El discurso publico de Pinochet (Buenos Aires,
1983) and the studies cited beiow on Brazil and Argentina. Finally, there
is extensive descriptive and applied literature on the experiences of alterna-
tive communications.
There have been important efforts to collect and analyse the literature on
Latin American communications. Four annotated bibliographies of national
communication research have been published: P. Anzola and P. Cooper, La
investigation en comunicacion social en Colombia (Lima, 1985); G. Munizaga and
A. Rivera, La investigacidn en comunicacion social en Chile (Lima, 1983); O.
Peirano and T. Kudo, La investigation en comunicacidn social en el Peru (Lima,
1982); and J. B. Rivera, La investigation en comunicacion social en Argentina
(Lima, 1986). R. Atwood and E. McAnany (eds.), Communication and Latin
American Society (Madison, Wis., 1986), is a book by Latin American and
U.S. scholars on the trends in critical research in Latin America. Statistics
on the private media industries can be found in the trade newspaper Variety
Once a year, Variety dedicates a special issue to the Latin American communi-
cation industries. See, for example, ' n t h Focus on Latin America and U. S.
Hispanic Markets' (March 12, 1986); '12th Focus on Latin American and
U. S. Hispanic Markets' (March 25, 1987); and 'Global Report: The Latin
Americas' (March 25, 1991).
For the history of the media in Argentina, see A. Ford, J. B. Rivera, and
E. Romano, Medios de comunicacion y cultura popular (Buenos Aires, 1985),
and J. Noguer, Radiodifusion en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1985). For the
history of the Brazilian media, M. E. Bonavita Federico, Histdria da
comunicaqdo radio e TV no Brasil (Petropolis, 1982) and M. Ferraz Sampaio,
Histdria do radio e da televisao no Brasil e no mundo (Rio de Janeiro, 1984) are
useful. For the history of the Chilean media, see M. Hurrado, 'Sistemas de
televisi6n proyectos estatales en Chile', Opciones, (JanuaryApril 1987) and
D. Portales, La dificultad de inovar: Un estudio sobre las empresas de television en
America Latina (Santiago, Chile, 1987).
There is considerable literature on the history of the media in Colom-
bia: see, in particular, H. Martinez, Que es la television? (Bogota, 1978);
R. Pareja, Historia de la radio en Colombia, 1929-1980 (Bogota, 1984); B.
H . Tellez, Cincuenta anos de radiodifusion colombiana (Medellin, 1974) and

9. Mass media 953
25 anos de television colombiana (Bogota, 1975). For the history of the media
in Mexico, see Nestor Garcia Canclini, Las culturas populares en el capital-
ismo (Mexico, D.F., 1982); F. Fernandez, Los medios de difusion masiva en
Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1982); and L. A. Noriega and F. Leach, Broadcast-
ing in Mexico (London, 1979).
The history of the Peruvian mass media has been chronicled in J.
Gargurevich, Mitos y verdad de los diarios de Lima (Lima, 1972) and Prensa,
radio y TV: Historia critica (Lima, 1987). See also C. Ortega and C.
Romero, Las politicas de comunicacion en el Peru (Paris, 1976).
For Venezuela, see O. Capriles, El estado y los medios de comunicacion en
Venezuela (Caracas, 1980); A. Pasquali, Comunicacion y cultura de masas, 5th
ed. (Caracas, 1980) and El aparato singular: Andlisis de un dia de TV en
Caracas (Caracas, 1967); and Proyecto Ratelve (Disenopara una nueva politica
de radiodifusion del estado venezolano) (Caracas, 1977). The historical infor-
mation on the development of broadcasting in Cuba can be found in R.
Infants, "Le XXVe anniversaire de L'Institut Cubain pour la Radio et la
Television', in CEMEDIM, 6 (1987), and for Bolivia in R. Rivadeneira
and N. Tirado, La television en Bolivia (La Paz, 1986).
On the role of the United States in the Latin American media, see L. R.
Beltran, and E. Fox, Comunicacion dominada: Estados Unidos en los medios de
America Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1982); A. Mattelart, Multinacionales y
sistemas de comunicacidn: Los aparatos ideologicos del imperialismo (Mexico,
D.F., 1977); J. Schnitman, Film Industries in Latin America: Dependency and
Development (Norwood, N.J., 1984); A. Wells, Picture Tube Imperialism?
The Impact of US Television on Latin America (New York, 1972). An interest-
ing study of the role of the United States during the Second World War is
David Rowland, History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American
Affairs (Washington, D.C., 1947).
On television development and reform in Latin America, see CIESPAL,
Politica nacional de comunicacion (Quito, 1981) and Elizabeth Fox et al.,
Comunicacidn y democracia en America Latina (Lima, 1982). In the case of
Argentina, see O. Landi (comp.), Medios, transformacion cultural y politica
(Buenos Aires, 1987), and for Brazil, see S. Mattos, The Impact of the 1964
Revolution on Brazilian Television (San Antonio, Tex., 1982); M. O. Sodre,
Monopolio da fala (Petropolis, 1981). For the reforms in Peru, see S.
Mattos, The Development of Communication Policies under the Peruvian Military
Government (San Antonio, Tex., 1981); L. Peirano et al., Prensa: Apertura y
limites (Lima, 1978). For Nicaragua, see A. Mattelart (ed.), Communicating
in Popular Nicaragua (New York, 1986).

954 IX- Culture since independence
The literature on alternative communication in Latin American is exten-

sive. See, in particular, the collections by R. Reyes Matta (comp.),
Comunicacion altemativa y biisquedas democrdticas (Mexico, D.F., 1983); M.
Simpson Grinberg (comp.), Comunicacion altemativa y cambio social; 1, Amer-
ica Latina (Mexico, D.F., 1981); and Regina Festa et al., Comunicacion
popular y altemativa (Buenos Aires, 1986). For Central America, see R.
Sol, Medios masivos y comunicacion popular (San Jose, C.R., 1984). For
information on developments in communication technology, see A.
Mattelart and H . Schmucler, Communication and Information Technologies:
Freedom of Choice for Latin America? (Norwood, N.J., 1985); and Instituto
para America Latina, Sistema Economico Latinoamericano (IPAL/SELA),
Comunicacion, tecnologia y desarrollo (Buenos Aires, 1987).

X
THE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
OF LATIN AMERICA SINCE
INDEPENDENCE
i . LATIN AMERICA, EUROPE A N D T H E

U N I T E D STATES, 1 8 3 0 - 1 9 3 0
An invaluable guide with over 11,000 listings is David F. Trask, Michael

C. Meyer and Roger R. Trask (eds.), A Bibliography of United States-Latin
American Relations since 1810 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1968). See also Michael C.
Meyer (ed.), Supplement to a Bibliography of United States-Latin American
Relations since 1810 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1979). Several countries have guides
to the secondary literature for their diplomatic history. One of the best is
Daniel Cosio Villegas, Cuestiones internacionales de Mexico (Mexico, D.F.,
1966). A good overall introduction to the history of the international
relations of Latin America is Harold Eugene David, John J. Finan and F.
Taylor Peck, Latin American Diplomatic History: An Introduction (Baton
Rouge, La., 1977). A more theoretical analysis of the international di-
lemma of Latin America is Leopoldo Zea, Latin America and the World,
translated by Frances Hendricks and Beatrice Berler (Norman, Okla.,
1969). This should be read in conjunction with another classic interpreta-
tion: Arthur P. Whitaker, The Western Hemisphere Idea: Its Rise and Decline
(Ithaca, N.Y., 1954). For questions of international organization and law,
see John C. Dreir et al., International Organization in the Western Hemisphere
(Syracuse, N.Y., 1968), and C. Neale Ronning, Law and Politics in Inter-
American Diplomacy (New York, 1963).
For a more detailed presentation of United States relations with Latin
America, see Graham Stuart and James Tigner, Latin America and the
United States, 6th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1975). See also Gordon
Connell-Smith, The United States and Latin America: An Historical Analysis
of Inter-American Relations (London, 1974) and, a more general treatment
from a different perspective, Lloyd C. Gardner, Walter LaFeber and T.
955

956 X. International relations since independence
McCormick, The Creation of the Modern American Empire: U.S. Diplomatic

History (London, 1973), as well as the various works of William Appleman
Williams. Wilfrid Hardy Callcott, The Western Hemisphere: Its Influence on
United States Policies to the End of World War II (Austin, Tex., 1968), is a
well-balanced account of hemispheric relations and the international con-
text. Lester Langley, America and the Americas: The United States in the
Western Hemisphere (Athens, Ga., 1989), offers a new synthesis of inter-
American relations. John J. Johnson, A Hemisphere Apart: The Foundations
of United States Policy Toward Latin America (Baltimore, 1990), analyses the
origin., v>f U.S. policy towards Latin America, stressing the role of cultural
factors such as religion and race. The basic study of the Monroe Doctrine
remains Dexter Perkins, A History of the Monroe Doctrine (Boston, 1955).
For specific studies of Latin American relations with the United States,
see, for example, Fredrick Pike, Chile and the United States, 1880-1962
(Notre Dame, Ind., 1963) and The United States and the Andean Republics:
Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); Karl Schmitt, Mex-
ico and the United States, 182119-/3; Conflict and Co-existence (New York,
1974); and Sheldon Liss, Diplomacy and Dependency: Venezuela, the United
States, and the Americas (Salisbury, N.C., 1978). Joseph S. Tulchin, The
Aftermath of War: World War I and U.S. Policy toward Latin America (New
York, 1971), provides a good analysis of U.S. policy in the wake of
changing power relationships. An excellent analysis of power rivalries in
Mexico during the revolution is presented in Friedrich Katz, The Secret War
in Mexico: Europe, the United States and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago,
1981).
British policy towards Latin America is given excellent coverage in
several essays in R. A. Humphreys, Tradition and Revolt in Latin America,
and Other Essays (London, 1969). These are complemented by Joseph
Smith, Illusions of Conflict: AngloAmerican Diplomacy toward Latin Amer-
ica, 18651896 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1979); and Warren Kneer, Great Brit-
ain and the Caribbean, 19011913 (East Lansing, Mich., 1975). See also
Leslie Bethell, 'Britain and Latin America in historical perspective', in
Victor Bulmer-Thomas (ed.), Britain and Latin America: A Changing Rela-
tionship (Cambridge, Eng., 1989) and, more substantially, Rory Miller,
Britain and Latin America in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (London,
1993)-
For great power rivalries in the Caribbean the most extensive study is
Lester Langley, Struggle for the American Mediterranean: United States-
European Rivalry in the GulfCaribbean, IJJ61904 (Athens, Ga., 1976).

i. 1830-1930 957
See also his The United States and the Caribbean in the Twentieth Century
(Athens, Ga., 1982). On Haiti, see Brenda Gayle Plummer, The Great
Powers and Haiti, 190215 (Baton Rouge, La., 1988). On Central Amer-
ica, see Thomas D. Schoonover, The United States in Central America,
i8601911: Episodes of Social Imperialism and Imperial Rivalry in the World
System (Durham, N.C., 1991).
Detailed studies emphasizing the strategic interpretation of U.S. policy
in the Caribbean are Dana Munro, Intervention and Dollar Diplomacy in the
Caribbean, 1900-1921 (Princeton, N.J., 1964), and The U.S. and the
Caribbean Republics, 1921-1933 (Princeton, N.J., 1974). The best analy-
sis of the Caribbean policy of the United States in the early twentieth
century is David Healy, Drive to Hegemony: The United States in the Carib-
bean, 18981917 (Madison, Wis., 1988), a well-balanced study that
presents a variety of causal factors within the framework of the interna-
tional currents of the period. Richard H. Collin, Theodore Roosevelt's Carib-
bean: The Panama Canal, the Monroe Doctrine, and the Latin American Context
(Baton Rouge, La., 1990), is an excellent reinterpretation that utilizes the
political milieu of all the participants to illuminate the nature of relations.
Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934 (New
Brunswick, N.J., 1971), stresses racist and cultural factors, and is most
critical of the United States. For a well-balanced presentation, see also
David Healy, Gunboat Diplomacy in the Wilson Era: The United States in
Haiti, 1915-1916 (Madison, Wis., 1976). Recent studies of U.S. involve-
ment in Puerto Rico and Cuba include Roland I. Perusse, The United States
and Puerto Rico: The Struggle for Equality (Melbourne, Fla., 1990), and
Louis A. Perez, Jr., Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy
(Athens, Ga., 1990). The latter emphasizes the role of social, economic,
and cultural relations and the impact of these on both countries. The
economic aspects of U.S. policy towards Cuba during the 1920s can be
found in Robert Freeman Smith, The United States and Cuba: Business and
Diplomacy, 191J-1960 (New York, i960).
A study utilizing dependency theory is Jules Benjamin, The United
States and Cuba: Hegemony and Dependent Development, 18801934 (Pitts-
burgh, Pa., 1974). Lester Langley utilizes the 'colonial wars' theme in The
Banana Wars: An Inner History of American Empire, 19001934 (Lexington,
Ky., 1983). A detailed, more recent study of military intervention by the
United States that emphasizes strategic interests is Ivan Musicant, The
Banana Wars: A History of United States Military Intervention in Latin Amer-
ica from the Spanish American War to the Invasion of Panama (New York,

958 X . International relations since independence
1990). For the role played by a behind-the-scenes lobbyist, see Benjamin

T. Harrison, Dollar Diplomat: Chandler Anderson and the American Diplo-
macy in Mexico and Nicaragua, 19131928 (Pullman, Wash., 1988). On
Panama and the United States, see W. LaFeber, The Panama Canal (New
York, 1978), and John Major, Prize Possession: The United States and the
Panama Canal, 19031979 (Cambridge, Eng., 1994).
The economic involvement of Great Britain is covered in two excellent
studies by D. C. M. Platt: Latin America and British Trade, i8601914
(London, 1972), and Business Imperialism, 18401930: An Inquiry Based
on, British Experience in Latin America (New York, 1977). See also Miller,
Britain and Latin America, cited above. The classic study of U.S. invest-
ments for the period is Cleona Lewis, America's Stake in International Invest-
ments (New York, 1938). Important studies include Mira Wilkins, The
Emergence of Multinational Enterprise: American Business Abroad from the Colo-
nial Era to 1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1974) and The Maturing of Multina-
tional Enterprise: American Business Abroad from 1914 to 1970 (Cambridge,
Mass., 1974). The influence of the idea of the Open World and the
diplomatic concept of reciprocity as factors in U.S. Latin American policy
are analysed in Robert Freeman Smith, 'Reciprocity', in Alexander De-
Conde (ed.), Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy: Studies of the Principal
Movements and Ideas, vol. 3 (New York, 1978). Various case studies with
differing approaches are presented in Marvin Bernstein (ed.), Foreign Invest-
ment in Latin America: Cases and Attitudes (New York, 1966). Robert
Freeman Smith, The United States and Revolutionary Nationalism in Mexico,
19161932 (Chicago, 1972), covers the U.S. reaction to the economic
nationalism of this revolution. See also Lorenzo Meyer, Mexico and the
United States in the Oil Controversy, 1917-42 (Austin, Tex., 1977). A good
discussion of economic relations with Colombia after 1920 can be found in
Stephen J. Randall, The Diplomacy of Modernization: Colombian-American
Relations, 19201940 (Toronto, 1977). Michael L. Krenn, U.S. Policy
Toward Economic Nationalism in Latin America, 19171929 (Wilmington,
Del., 1990), is a 'new-left' interpretation that argues that the main efforts
of the United States were directed at forcing Latin American nations to
stay within the 'neo-colonial' framework of private enterprise capitalism.
For U.S.European rivalry over aviation, see Wesley Phillips Newton, The
Perilous Sky: U.S. Aviation Diplomacy and Latin America, 19191931 (Mi-
ami, 1978).
Rollie E. Poppino, International Communism in Latin America: A History
of the Movement, 19171963 (Glencoe, 111., 1964) is a good survey. This

2. i93i960 959
can be reinforced by the fine collection of documents edited by Stephen

Clissold, Soviet Relations with Latin America, 1918-1968: A documentary
Survey (London, 1970).
2. LATIN AMERICA, EUROPE AND THE

UNITED STATES, 1 9 3 0 - i 9 6 0
General works on Latin America's political, economic and cultural rela-

tions with the outside world, primarily with the United States and Eu-
rope, which discuss the period from the 1929 Depression to the Cuban
Revolution, include Herbert Goldhamer, The Foreign Powers in Latin Amer-
ica (Princeton, N.J., 1972), though this important work is mostly con-
cerned with the 1960s; Harold E. Davis and Larman C. Wilson, Latin
American Foreign Policies: An Analysis (Baltimore, 1975); and G. Pope
Atkins, Latin America in the International Political System (1977; 2nd rev.
ed., Boulder, Colo, 1989). On the foreign relations of Argentina, see
Alberto A. Conil Paz and Gustavo E. Ferrari, Argentina's Foreign Policy,
19301962 (South Bend, Ind., 1966). On Brazil, see Amado Luiz Cervo
and Clodoaldo Bueno, Histdria da politica exterior do Brasil (Sao Paulo,
1992), chaps. 10 and 11. And on Mexico, see Josefina Vazquez, Mexicoy el
mundo: Historia de sus relaciones exteriores, I, Mixico y el expansionismo
norteamericano; II, Mexico, Gran Bretana y otrospatses (Mexico, D . F . , 1990).
The literature on Latin America's relations with the United States is
particularly extensive. Donald Dozer, Are We Good Neighbors? Three Decades
of Inter-American Relations, 1930-60 (Gainesville, Fla., 1959) is a good
introduction. General works with chapters on the period 1930-1960
include J. Lloyd Mecham, A Survey of United StatesLatin American Rela-
tions (Boston, 1965); G. Connell-Smith, The United States and Latin Amer-
ica: A Historical Analysis of Inter-American Relations (New York, 1974); R.
Harrison Wagner, United States Policy towards Latin America: A Study in
Internationaland Domestic Politics (Stanford, Calif, 1970); Federico G. Gil,
Latin AmericaUnited States Relations (New York, 1971); Graham S. Stuart
and James L. Tigner, Latin America and the United States (Englewood Cliffs,
N.J., 1975); Lester D. Langley, America and the Americas: The United States
in the Western Hemisphere (London, 1989); and Frank Niess, A Hemisphere to
Itself: A History of U.S.-Latin American Relations (London, 1990). See also
Jules R. Benjamin, 'The framework of U.S. relations with Latin America
in the twentieth century: An interpretive essay', Diplomatic History, ill2

(1987). On the Inter-American system, see Samuel G. Inman, Inter-

American Conferences, 1826-1954: History and Problems (Washington,
D.C., 1965); G. Connell-Smith, The Inter-American System (London,
1966); and Jerome Slater, The OAS in U.S. Foreign Policy (Columbus,
Ohio, 1967). Cole Blasier, The Hovering Giant: U.S. Responses to Revolution-
ary Change in Latin America, 1910-1955 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1976; rev. ed.
1985) focuses on one aspect of U.S. relations with Latin America.
The strategic factor in U.S.Latin American relations is explored in S.
Conn and B. Fairchild, The Framework of Hemispheric Defense (Washington,
D.C., i96o);J. Lloyd Mecham, The United States and Inter-American Secu-
rity, 18891960 (Austin, Tex., 1961); John Child, Unequal Alliance: The
Inter-American Military System, 1938-78 (Boulder, Colo., 1980); and Lars
Schoultz, National Security and United States Policy towards Latin America
(Princeton, N.J., 1987), though the latter concentrates on the post-1960
period. On the importance of strategic raw materials in U.S. foreign
policy, see Stephen D. Krasner, Defending the National Interest: Raw Materi-
als Investments and U.S. Foreign Policy (Princeton, N.J., 1978), which
includes discussion of Latin America. A number of general works on oil as
a major factor in U.S. foreign policy include extensive discussion on
relations with Latin America in this period: see, for example, Stephen J.
Randall, United States Foreign Oil Policy, 1919-1948: For Profits and Security
(Kingston, Ont., 1985); David S. Painter, Oil and the American Century:
The Political Economy of U.S. Foreign Oil Policy, 1941-1954 (Baltimore,
1986); and Fiona Venn, Oil Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century (London,
1986). See also Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money and
Power (New York, 1991) and, specifically on Latin America, George Phil-
ip, Oil and Politics in Latin America: Nationalist Movements and State Compa-
nies (Cambridge, Eng., 1984) and John D. Wirth (ed.), Latin American Oil
Companies and the Politics of Energy (Lincoln, Nebr., 1985). On overall U.S.
investment in Latin America, see in particular Mira Wilkins, The Matur-
ing of Multinational Enterprise: American Business Abroad from 1914 to 1970
(Cambridge, Mass., 1974) and Barbara Stallings, Banker to the Third
World: U.S. Portfolio Investment in Latin America, 1900-1986 (Berkeley,
1987). See also Jeffry A. Frieden, 'The economics of intervention: Ameri-
can overseas investments and relations with underdeveloped areas, 1890
1950', CSSH, 31 (1989), 55-80. The ideological factor in U.S.Latin
American relations, especially the U.S. promotion of democracy, is ex-
plored in Abraham F. Lowenthal (ed.), Exporting Democracy: The United
States and Latin America (Baltimore, 1991). See also Lars Schoultz, Human

2. 193019^0 9^ x
Rights and United States Policy towards Latin America (Princeton, N.J.,
1981), though this is mostly concerned with the period after i960.
On Mexican-United States relations, see Howard F. Cline, The United
States and Mexico (1953; rev. ed., Cambridge, Mass., 1963); Karl M.
Schmitt, Mexico and the United States, 19211973: Conflict and Coexistence
(New York, 1974); and Josefina Vazquez and Lorenzo Meyer, Mexico/rente
a los Estados Unidos: Un ensayo historico, 17761980 (Mexico, D.F., 1982),
Eng. trans., The United States and Mexico (Chicago, 1985). On the issue of
water, see Norris Hundley, Dividing the Waters: A Century of Controversy
between the United States and Mexico (Berkeley, 1966). And on Mexican
labour in the United States, see Lawrence A. Cardoso, Mexican Emigration
to the U.S. 1897-1931 (Tucson, Ariz., 1980); Mark Reisler, By the Sweat
of Their Brow: Mexican Immigrant Labor in the United States, 1900-1940
(Westport, Conn., 1976); Abraham Hoffman, Unwanted Mexican Ameri-
cans in the Great Depression: Repatriation Pressures, 1929-1939 (Tucson,
Ariz., 1974); Richard B. Craig, The Bracero Program: Interest Groups and
Foreign Policy (Austin, Tex., 1971); and Juan Ram6n Garcia, Operation
Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954
(Westport, Conn., 1980).
On Cuban-United States relations, see Robert Freeman Smith, The
United States and Cuba: Business and Diplomacy, 1917-1960 (New Haven,
Conn., i960); Philip S. Foner, A History of Cuba and Its Relations with the
United States, 2 vols. (New York, 1962-5); Jules R. Benjamin, The United
States and the Origins of the Cuban Revolution (Princeton, N.J., 1990), which
is more wide-ranging than the title suggests (it begins with Cuban inde-
pendence); and Louis A. Perez, Jr., Cuba and the United States: Ties of
Singular Intimacy (Athens, Ga., 1990). On the United States and the
Caribbean as a whole, see Lester D. Langley, The United States and the
Caribbean, 19001970 (Athens, Ga., 1980). On the United States and
Central America, see Walter LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The United
States in Central America (New York, 1984; 2nd rev. ed., 1993) and
Thomas M. Leonard, Central America and the United States: The Search for
Stability (Athens, Ga., 1991). U.S. relations with Panama is the subject of
Michael Conniff, Panama and the United States: The Forced Alliance (Athens,
Ga., 1991); Walter LaFeber, The Panama Canal: The Crisis in Historical
Perspective (New York, 1989); and John Major, Prize Possession; The United
States and the Panama Canal, 19031979 (Cambridge, Eng., 1994).
On Venezuela and the United States, see Sheldon Liss, Diplomacy and
Dependency: Venezuela, the United States and the Americas (Salisbury, N.C.,

1975) and Stephen Rabe, The Road to OPEC: United States Relations with
Venezuela, 19191976 (Austin, Tex., 1982); on Colombia and the United
States, S.. J. Randall, Colombia and the United States: Hegemony and Interde-
pendence (Athens, Ga., 1991); on Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador and the
United States, James C. Carey, Peru and the United States, 1900-1962
(Notre Dame, Ind., 1964), and Fredrick B. Pike, The United States and the
Andean Republics: Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); on
Chile and the United States, Fredrick B. Pike, Chile and the United States,
18801962 (South Bend, Ind., 1963) and William F. Sater, Chile and the
United States: Empires in Conflict (Athens, Ga., 1990); on Argentina and the
United States, Harold F. Peterson, Argentina and the United States, 1810-
1960 (Albany, 1964), Mario Rapoport, Politica y diplomacia en la Argen-
tina: Las relaciones con EE. UU. y la URSS (Buenos Aires, 1987) and Joseph
S. Tulchin, Argentina and the United States: A Conflicted Relationship (Bos-
ton, 1990). There is no general study of relations between Brazil and the
United States.
On the origins and evolution of Roosevelt's Good Neighbor policy, see
Paul Drake, 'From Good Men to Good Neighbors, 1912-1932', in Lowen-
thal (ed.), Exporting Democracy; Bryce Wood, The Making of the Good Neigh-
bor Policy (New York, 1961); David Green, The Containment of Latin Amer-
ica: A History of Myths and Realities of the Good Neighbor Policy (Chicago,
1971); R. F. Smith, 'The Good Neighbor policy: The liberal paradox in
United States relations with Latin America', in L. P. Liggio and J. Martin
(eds.), Watershed of Empire: Essays on New Deal Foreign Policy (Boulder,
Colo., 1976); Irwin F. Gellman, Good Neighbor Diplomacy: United States
Policies in Latin America, 1933-1945 (Baltimore, 1979); Lloyd C. Gard-
ner, Economic Aspects of New Deal Diplomacy (Madison, Wis., 1964); and
Dick Steward, Trade and Hemisphere: The Good Neighbor Policy and Reciprocal
Trade (Columbia, Mo., 1975). See also Bryce Wood, The United States and
Latin American Wars, 1932-1942 (New York, 1966). Country case studies
include Irwin F. Gellman, Roosevelt and Batista: Good Neighbor Diplomacy in
Cuba, 1933-45 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1973) and David Bushnell,
Eduardo Santos and the Good Neighbor, 193842 (Gainesville, Fla., 1967).
On ColombianU.S. relations, see also S. J. Randall, The Diplomacy of
Modernization: Colombian-American Relations, 19201940 (Toronto, 1977)
and Fernando Cepeda Ulloa and R. Pardo Garcia-Pena, 'La politica exte-
rior colombiana, 193046', in A. Tirado (ed.), Nueva historia de Colombia
(Bogota, 1989), vol. 3. On Mexican-U.S. relations in the 1930s, domi-
nated by the oil question, see Lorenzo Meyer, Mexico y los Estados Unidos en

2. I93i960 963
elconflictopetrolero, 1917-1942 (Mexico, D.F., 1968), Eng. trans., Mexico

and the United States in the Oil Controversy, 191J-1942 (Austin, Tex.,
1977); E. D. Cronon, Josephus Daniels in Mexico (Madison, Wis., i960);
and C. R. Koppes, 'The Good Neighbor policy and the nationalisation of
Mexican oil: A reinterpretation', Journal of American History, 69 (1982),
6 2 - 8 1 . On Brazilian-U.S. relations and Argentine-U.S. relations, see
the literature on AngloAmerican rivalry in Brazil and Argentina below.
The impact of Latin America on U.S. strategic thinking in the late
1930s is examined in David G. Haglund, Latin America and the Transforma-
tion of United States Strategic Thought, 193640 (Albuquerque, N.Mex.,
1984). See also, for a broader perspective, John Child, 'From "Color" to
"Rainbow": U.S. strategic planning for Latin America, 1919-1945',
JIAS, 21/2 (1979), 233-59. On U.S.-Latin American cultural relations,
see Manuel J. Espinosa, Inter-American Beginnings of United States Cultural
Diplomacy, 1936-48 (Washington, D.C., 1976); GaizkaS. deUsabel, The
High Noon of American Films in Latin America (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1982);
and Fred Fejes, Imperialism, Media and the Good Neighbor: New Deal Foreign
Policy and United States Shortwave Broadcasting to Latin America (Norwood,
N.J., 1986).
The 1930s witnessed the beginning of the last stage of the decline of
Britain's economic and political position in Latin America. For a general
overview and analysis, see Leslie Bethell, 'Britain and Latin America in
historical perspective', in Victor Bulmer-Thomas (ed.), Britain and Latin
America: A Changing Relationship (Cambridge, Eng., 1989); Rory Miller,
Britain and Latin America in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (London,
1993), chap. 9; and P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism:
Crisis and Deconstruction, 1914-1990 (London, 1993), chap. 7. On the
decline of Britain's position in Mexico, see Lorenzo Meyer, Su majestad
britdnica contra la revolucidn mexicana, 1900-1950: El fin de un imperio
informal (Mexico, D.F., 1991). On Britain and Brazil (and Anglo-
American rivalry for preeminence in Brazil), see Stanley E. Hilton, Brazil
and the Great Powers, 19301939: The Politics of Trade Rivalry (Austin,
Tex., 1975) and Marcelo de Paiva Abreu, 'Anglo-Brazilian economic
relations and the consolidation of American preeminence in Brazil, 1930-
1945', in C. Abel and C. M. Lewis (eds.), Latin America: Economic Imperial-
ism and the State (London, 1985). On Britain and Argentina (and Anglo-
American rivalry there), see Roger Gravil, The Anglo-Argentine Connection,
1900-1939 (Boulder, Colo., 1985), Joseph S. Tulchin, 'Decolonising an
informal empire: Argentina, Great Britain and the United States, 1930

I
943>> International Interactions, 1/3 (1974), 12340, and Pedro R.
Skupch, 'El deterioro y fin de la hegemonfa britanica sobre la economia
argentina, 19141947', in M. Panaia, R. Lesser and P. R. Skupch,
Estudios sobre los origenes delperonismo, vol. 2 (Buenos Aires, 1973).
The standard work on German (Nazi) relations with Latin America in
the 1930s remains Alton Frye, Nazi Germany and the American Hemisphere,
I
933~I94I (New Haven, Conn., 1967). But see also Jean Pierre
Blancpain, 'Des visees pan-germanistes au noyautage hitlerien: La national-
isme allemand et l'Amerique Latine (18901945)', Revue Historique, 570
(1989), 433-82, and Albrecht von Gleich, Germany and Latin America
(Santa Monica, Calif., 1986). On Germany and Argentina, see Ronald C.
Newton, The 'Nazi Menace' in Argentina, 19314J (Stanford, Calif,
1991). Germany's challenge to U.S. and British preeminence in Brazil is a
central feature of Hilton, Brazil and the Great Powers, 19301939, cited
above. On Germany's military relations with a number of South American
republics, see Frederick M. Nunn, Yesterday's Soldiers: European Military
Professionalism in South America, 18901940 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1983). Ital-
ian (fascist) influence in Brazil is examined in Ricardo Silva Seitenfus,
'Ideology and diplomacy: Italian fascism and Brazil, 1935-38', HAHR,
64/3 (1984), 503-34. On Italy and Peru, see two articles by Orazio
Ciccarelli, 'Fascism and politics in Peru during the Benavides regime,
1933-39', HAHR, 70/3 (1990), 405-32 and 'Fascist propaganda and the
Italian community in Peru during the Benavides regime, 193339',
JLAS, 20/2 (1988), 36188. The impact of the Spanish Civil War on
Latin America is explored in Mark Falcoff and Fredrick B. Pike (eds.), The
Spanish Civil War, 19361939: American Hemispheric Perspectives (Lincoln,
Nebr., 1982), with chapters by T. G. Powell on Mexico, Alistair Hennessy
on Cuba, David Bushnell on Colombia, Thomas M. Davies, Jr. on Peru,
Paul W. Drake on Chile and Mark Falcoff on Argentina. See also T. G.
Powell, Mexico and the Spanish Civil War (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1981).
There is some discussion of Latin America's relations with the Soviet
Union in the 1930s in S. Clissold, Soviet Relations with Latin America,
19181968: A Documentary Survey (London, New York and Toronto,
1970); Cole Blasier, The Giant's Rival: The USSR and Latin America (Pitts-
burgh, Pa., 1988); and Marc Edelman, 'The other super power: The
U.S.S.R. and Latin America, 1917-1987', NACLA Report on the Americas,
26 (1987). Two fundamental works are Manuel Caballero, Latin America
and the Comintern, 1919-1943 (Cambridge, Eng., 1986) and Rodolfo
Cerdas-Cruz, La hoz y el machete (San Jose, C.R., 1986); Eng. trans. The

2. 193019^
Communist International in Central America, 19201936 (London, 1993).
On Brazil's relations with the Soviet Union, see Stanley E. Hilton, Brazil
and the Soviet Challenge, 1917-47 (Austin, Tex., 1991), and on Argentina
and the Soviet Union, Mario Rapoport, 'Argentina and the Soviet Union:
History of political and commercial relations (191755)', HAHR, 66/2
(1986), 23985 and Polttica y diplomacia en la Argentina, cited above, and
Aldo Cesar Vacs, Discreet Partners: Argentina and the USSR since 1917
(Pittsburgh, Pa., 1984). For a broader review of the literature on commu-
nism in Latin America, see essay VII: 9.
R. A. Humphreys, Latin America and the Second World War, vol. 1, 1939-
1942 (London, 1981), vol. 2, 1942-1945 (London, 1982) is the outstand-
ing work on this subject. Interesting on espionage and counterespionage,
especially in Mexico, Brazil, Chile and Argentina, is Leslie B. Rout and
John F. Bratzel, The Shadow War: German Espionage and United States Counter-
espionage in Latin America during World War II (Frederick, Md., 1986). On
Brazil, see Ricardo Antonio Silva Seitenfus, 0 Brasil de Getulio Vargas e a
formaqao dos blocos: Processo do envolvimento brasileiro na II guerra mundial,
1930-1942 (Sao Paulo, 1985); Frank D. McCann, The Brazilian-American
Alliance, 1937-1945 (Princeton, N.J., 1973) and'Brazil, the United States
and World War II: A commentary', Diplomatic History, 3/1 (1979), 54-76;
Stanley E. Hilton, 'Brazilian diplomacy and the Washington-Rio de Ja-
neiro "Axis" during the World War II era', HAHR, 59/2 (1979), 2 0 1 - 3 ,
and 'Critique' by Frank D. McCann, HAHR, 59/4 (1979), 691-700; Ger-
son Mount, Autonomia na dependencia: a polttica externa brasileira de 1935 a
1942 (Rio de Janeiro, 1980) and 'Brazilian foreign relations, 1939-50'
(unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of London, 1982); and Stanley
E. Hilton, 0 Brasil e a crise internacional, 19301945 (Rio de Janeiro, 1977)
and Hitler's Secret War in South America, 193945: German Military Espionage
and Allied Counterespionage in Brazil (Baton Rouge, La., 1981). On Mexico,
see Friedrich Schuler, 'Germany, Mexico and the United States during the
Second World V7*t,JGSWGL, 22 (1985), 457-76. On Bolivia, see Cole
Blasier, 'The United States, Germany and the Bolivian revolutionaries,
194146', HAHR, 52/1 (1972), 2654 and John Hillman, 'Bolivia and
British tin policy, 1939-45', JLAS, 22/2 (1990), 289-315. On Chile, see
Michael J. Francis, 'The U.S. and Chile during the Second World War: The
diplomacy of misunderstanding', JLAS, 9/1 (1979), 91 113 andThe Limits
of Hegemony: U.S. Relations with Argentina and Chile during World War II
(Notre Dame, Ind., 1977). On Paraguay, see Michael Grow, The Good
Neighbor Policy and Authoritarianism in Paraguay: United States Economic Expan-

sion and Great Power Rivalry in Latin America during World War II (Lawrence,
Kans., 1981).
Finally, Great Power rivalry in Argentina during the Second World War
has naturally attracted a great deal of scholarly attention. Besides Hum-
phreys, Latin America and the Second World War, see Guido di Telia and D.
Cameron Watt (eds.), Argentina between the Great Powers, 1939-46 (Lon-
don, 1989), with essays by, among others, Carlos Escude', Stanley E.
Hilton, Callum A. MacDonald and Ronald C. Newton; Mario Rapoport,
Gran Bretana, Estados Unidos y las clases dirigentes argentinas, 194045
(Buenos Aires, 1981); Carlos Escude, Gran Bretana, los Estados Unidos y la
declinacidn argentina, 1942194.9 (Buenos Aires, 1983); Ernest May, 'The
"bureaucratic politics" approach: U.S.Argentine relations, 194247', in
Julio Cotler and Richard Fagen (eds.), Latin America and the United States
(Stanford, Calif, 1974); Ryszard Stemplowski, 'Las potencias anglosa-
jones y el neutralismo argentino, 19391945', Estudios Latinoamericanos, 3
(1976), 12960 and 'Castillo's Argentina and World War II: Economic
aspects of the ArgentineBritishUnited StatesGerman Quadrangle',
Beitrdge zur Wirtschaftgeschichte, 8 (1981), 8 0 1 - 2 3 ; Nicholas Bowen, 'Brit-
ain, Argentina and the United States, 19381946: Conflict and collabora-
tion with the Atlantic triangle' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Cambridge
University, 1975); and Callum A. MacDonald, 'The politics of interven-
tion: The United States and Argentina, 1941-1946',JLAS, 12/2(1980),
365-96.
F. Parkinson, Latin America, the Cold War and the World Powers, 1945
*973 (Beverly Hills, Calif., and London, 1974) is a useful guide to Latin
America's relations with the outside world and especially with the now
hegemonic United States during the first decades of the Cold War. On the
immediate postwar period, see David Green, 'The Cold War comes to
Latin America', in Barton J. Bernstein (ed.), Politics and Policies of the
Truman Administration (Chicago, 1970); Roger R. Trask, 'The impact of
the Cold War on United StatesLatin American relations, 194549',
Diplomatic History, 1/3 (1977), 271-85; Bryce Wood, The Dismantling of
the Good Neighbor Policy (Austin, Tex., 1985); and Leslie Bethell and Ian
Roxborough (eds.), Latin America between the Second World War and the Cold
War, 194448 (Cambridge, Eng., 1992). On Latin America's economic
relations with the United States, see Stephen G. Rabe, 'The elusive confer-
ence: United States economic relations with Latin America, 1945-1952',
Diplomatic History, 2/3 (1978), 27994. Robert A. Pollard, Economic Secu-
rity and the Origins of the Cold War (New York, 1985), especially chap. 9,

2. 1930i960 967
has a good deal to offer on Latin America. On U.S. aid, see David Green,
'Paternalism and profits: The ideology of United States aid to Latin Amer-
ica, 1943-71', in J. Atherton (ed.), Historical Papers, 1972 (Ottawa,
I
973)- On U.S. military assistance to Latin America, see Stephen G.
Rabe, 'Inter-American military cooperation, 1944-1951', World Affairs,
J
37 ( r 974); Stephen S. Kaplan, 'U.S. arms transfers to Latin America,
1945-74', International Studies Quarterly, 19 (1975); and Chester J. Pach,
Jr., 'The containment of U.S. military aid to Latin America, 1944-49',
Diplomatic History, 6/3 (1982), 225-43 and Arming the Free World: The
Origins of the United States Military Assistance Program, 19451950 (Chapel
Hill, N.C., 1991). See also John Knape, 'AngloAmerican rivalry in
post-war Latin America: The question of arms sales", l-AA, 15/3 (1989).
Relations between organised labour in the United States and in Latin
America at the beginning of the Cold War have attracted a good deal of
attention: see, for example, H. W. Berger, 'Union diplomacy: American
labor's foreign policy in Latin America, 19321955' (unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1966); Hobart A. Spalding, Jr., 'U.S.
and Latin American labor: The dynamics of imperialist control', in Juan
Corradi, June Nash and Hobart A. Spalding (eds.), Ideology and Social
Change in Latin America (New York, 1977); Paul Buchanan, 'The impact of
US. labor', in A. Lowenthal (ed.), Exporting Democracy, cited above, and
Jon V. Kofas, The Struggle for Legitimacy: Latin American Labor and the U.S.,
1930-60 (Tempe, Ariz., 1992).
On the United States and Central America in the immediate postwar
years, see Thomas M. Leonard, The United States and Central America,
1944-1949 (Birmingham, Ala., 1984). On the United States and Argen-
tina, Roger R. Trask, 'Spruille Braden versus George Messersmith: World
War II, the Cold War and Argentine policy, 1945-47', JIAS, 26/1
(1984), 6 9 - 9 5 , a n d Callum A. MacDonald, 'The United States, the Cold
War and Peron', in Abel and Lewis (eds.), Latin America: Economic Imperial-
ism and the State. On AngloAmerican relations in Argentina (and Brit-
ain's final withdrawal from Argentina and thus from Latin America), see
Callum A. MacDonald, 'The United States, Britain and Argentina in the
years immediately after the Second World War', in Guido di Telia and D.
C. M. Platt (eds.), The Political Economy of Argentina, 1880-1946 (Lon-
don, 1986) and 'End of Empire: The decline of the AngloArgentine
connection, 191851', in Alistair Hennessy and John King (eds.), The
Land That England Lost: Essays on the BritishArgentine Connection (London,
1992), and Noel Fursman, 'The decline of the AngloArgentine economic

connection in the years immediately after the Second World War: A

British perspective (unpublished D.Phil, thesis, University of Oxford,
1988).
The best guide to Latin American-United States relations during the
Eisenhower administration (1953-61) is Stephen G. Rabe, Eisenhower and
Latin America: The Foreign Policy of Anti-Communism (Chapel Hill, N.C..
1988). See also Burton I. Kaufman, Trade and Aid: Eisenhower's Foreign
Economic Policy, 1953-61 (Baltimore, 1982); Thomas Zoumaras, 'Eisen-
hower's foreign economic policy: The case of Latin America', in R.
Melanson and D. Meyers (eds.), Re-evaluating Eisenhower (Urbana, 111.,
1987); and Stephen G. Rabe, 'Dulles, Latin America and Cold War anti-
communism', in Richard H. Immerman (ed.),John Foster Dulles and the
Diplomacy of the Cold War (Princeton, N.J., 1990). Marvin R. Zahniser
and W. Michael Weis, 'A diplomatic Pearl Harbor?: Richard Nixon's
goodwill mission to Latin America in 1958', Diplomatic History, 13/2
(1989) sheds new light on that episode. On the United States and the
Bolivian revolution, see James W. Wilkie, The Bolivian Revolution and
United States Aid since 1952 (Los Angeles, 1969). On the United States and
Guatemala, see Richard H. Immerman, The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign
Policy of Intervention (Austin, Tex., 1982); Stephen C. Schlesinger and
Stephen Kinzer, Bitter Fruit: The Untold Story of the American Coup in
Guatemala (Garden City, N.Y., 1982); and, above all, Piero Gleijeses,
Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 194454
(Princeton, N.J., 1991). On the United States and the Cuban Revolution,
see Morris H. Morley, 'The U.S. imperial state in Cuba, 1952-1958:
Policymaking and capitalist interests', JLAS, 14/1 (1982), 143-70, and
Imperial State and Revolution: The United States and Cuba, 1952-85 (Cam-
bridge, Eng., 1987), chaps. 2 and 3; Richard E. Welch, Jr., Responses to
Revolution: The United States and the Cuban Revolution, 1959-1961 (Chapel
Hill, N.C., 1985); Benjamin, The United States and the Origins of the Cuban
Revolution, cited above; and Thomas G. Patterson, Contesting Castro: The
United States and the Triumph of the Cuban Revolution (New York, 1994).
Finally, there are several studies by U.S. historians on Brazil's relations
with the United States in the period after the Second World War: for
example, Jan Knippers Black, United States Penetration of Brazil (Philadel-
phia, 1977); Stanley E. Hilton, 'The United States, Brazil, and the Cold
War, 1945-1960: End of the special relationship', Journal of American
History, 68 (1981), 599-624; Gerald K. Haines, The Americanization of
Brazil: A Study of United States Cold War Diplomacy in the Third World,

3. 1960199 9^9
*945-54 (Wilmington, Del., 1989); Elizabeth A. Cobbs, The Rich Neigh-
bor Policy: Rockefeller and Kaiser in Brazil (New Haven, Conn., 1992); and
W. Michael Weis, Cold Warriors and Coups d'Etat: Brazilian-American
Relations, 1945-1964 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1993).
3. LATIN AMERICA, THE UNITED STATES

AND THE WORLD, i 9 6 0 - 1 9 9 0
There is a large secondary literature on Latin America's relations with the

United States and other major powers since i960, even though the archi-
val base for it is thin. Most governments have yet to declassify materials to
enable scholars to write a professional history for these years. Therefore
scholars have often relied on their own interviews and on journalists'
accounts based on interviews, government 'leaks', and observations. These
sources are not inappropriate. Government officials report that sometimes
key decisions were not written down, and that the advent of the tele-
phone, and of jet aircraft transportation that permits frequent face-to-face
meetings, have fostered the replacement of written documents by oral
communications. Scholars have also used the memoirs of former govern-
ment officials and the published documents of governments and interna-
tional organizations. Among the most useful documents with regard to
U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America have been the Hearings of the
U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Inter-American Affairs,
in the 1980s renamed Western Hemisphere Affairs.
Certain reports by U.S. public or private groups have been influential.
Among these are Nelson Rockefeller, The Rockefeller Report on the Americas
(New York, 1969); Commission on United StatesLatin American Rela-
tions, chaired by Sol Linowitz, The Americas in a Changing World (New
York, 1975); The Committee of Santa Fe, A New Inter-American Policy for
the Eighties (1980); the Report of the National Bipartisan Commission on
Central America (Washington, D.C., 1984), chaired by Henry Kissinger;
The Tower Commission Report (New York, 1987); and in the 1980s, the
various reports of the Inter-American Dialogue, co-chaired by Sol Lino-
witz, Galo Plaza, and Daniel Oduber.
For statistical data about international economic relations, see the an-
nual reports of the IDB, Economic and Social Progress in Latin America, and
of ECLA/CEPAL, Preliminary Overview of the Latin American Economy. Valu-
able for more specialized purposes are the IMF, Direction of Trade Statistics,

and the annual reports of the OECD, Financing and External Debt for
Developing Countries, and of the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament
Agency, World Military Expenditure and Arms Transfers.
The scholarly journal that publishes most regularly on this subfield and
this period is the Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs. See also
Inter-American Economic Affairs. Very valuable also are Estudios Inter-
nationales, published by the Universidad de Chile's Instituto de Estudios
Internacionales, and in the 1980s America Latina, published in newsletter
format by the Argentine wing of the Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias
Sociales (FLACSO). More specialized has been Foro International, published
by El Colegio de Mexico. For a U.S. view of Latin America in the 1980s,
see the annual article on Latin America in the review of the year published
in Foreign Affairs.
In the 1980s the most sustained effort of high-quality scholarly analysis
on the foreign policies of Latin American countries has come, under
various titles, from the Anuario de Politicas Exteriores Latinoamericanas,
sponsored by Chile's Programa de Seguimiento de las Politicas Exteriores
Latinoamericanas (PROSPEL), under the direction of Heraldo Munoz.
Useful studies of Latin American foreign policies, of U.S.-Latin American
relations, and of their relations with western Europe, have appeared in the
following: Harold Davis and Larman Wilson (eds.), Latin American Foreign
Polities (Baltimore, 1975); Ronald Hellman and H. Jon Rosenbaum (eds.),
Latin America: The Search for a New International Role (New York, 1975);
Gustavo Lagos Matus (ed.), Las relaciones entre America Latina, Estados
Unidos y Europa Occidental (Santiago, Chile, 1979); John D. Martz and Lars
Schoultz (eds.), Latin America, the United States, and the Inter-American
System (Boulder, Colo., 1980); Walter Sanchez G. (ed.), Las relaciones entre
los paises de America Latina (Santiago, Chile, 1980); Jorge I. Dominguez
(ed.), Economic Issues and Political Conflict: U.S.Latin American Relations
(London, 1982); Viron P. Vaky (ed.), Governance in the Western Hemisphere
(New York, 1983); Jennie K. Lincoln and Elizabeth Ferris (eds.), The
Dynamics of Latin American Foreign Policies (Boulder, Colo., 1984); Heraldo
Munoz and Joseph Tulchin (eds.), Latin American Nations in World Politics
(Boulder, Colo., 1984); Wolf Grabendorffand Riordan Roett (eds.), Latin
America, Western Europe, and the United States (New York, 1985); Kevin
Middlebrook and Carlos Rico (eds.), The United States and Latin America in
the 1980s (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1986); and John D. Martz (ed.), United States
Policy in Latin America (Lincoln, Nebr.., 1988).
General works on these topics include R. Harrison Wagner, United

3 . 1960199 97!
Policy toward Latin America (Stanford, Calif., 1970); Abraham Lowen-
thal, Partners in Conflict: The United States and Latin America (Baltimore,
1987); and G. Pope Atkins, Latin America in the International Political
System (1977; rev. ed., Boulder, Colo., 1989).
With regard to western European relations with Latin America, consult
Herbert Goldhamer, The Foreign Powers in Latin America (Princeton, N J . ,
1972); William Perry and Peter Wehner (eds.), The Latin American Policies
of U.S. Allies (New York, 1985); A. Glenn Mower, Jr., The European
Community and Latin America (Westport, Conn., 1982); Jorge Heine, {Coo-
peration 0 divergencia? Hacia una nueva agenda en las relaciones europeo
latinoamericanas (Santiago, Chile, 1990). Specifically on the United King-
dom, see Victor Bulmer-Thomas(ed.), Britain and Latin America: A Chang-
ing Relationship (Cambridge, Eng., 1989). Fine work on EuropeanLatin
American relations has been produced by the Instituto de Relaciones
Europeo-Latinoamericanas (IRELA) in Madrid; see especially its series of
working papers.
On Soviet-Latin American relations, see Cole Blasier, The Giant's Ri-
val: The USSR and Latin America, rev ed. (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1987); Eusebio
Mujal-Leon (ed.), The USSR and Latin America (Boston, 1989); and Nicola
Miller, Soviet Relations with Latin America, 1959-198-/ (Cambridge, Eng.,
1989). Specifically on Soviet-Cuban relations, see Jacques Levesque,
L'URSS et la revolution cubaine (Montreal, 1976); W. Raymond Duncan,
The Soviet Union and Cuba (New York, 1985); Peter Shearman, The Soviet
Union and Cuba (London, 1987); and Richard J. Payne, Opportunities and
Dangers of Soviet-Cuban Expansion (New York, 1988). Latinskaya Amerika,
under the directorship of Sergo Mikoyan, has remained the key journal
presenting Soviet analyses of Latin America.
On Japan's relations with Latin America, see Barbara Stallings and G.
Sz6kely (eds.), Japan, the United States and Latin America (Baltimore,
1993). And on Canada's relations with Latin America, see Graeme Mount
and Edelgard Mahant, 'Review of recent literature on CanadianLatin
American relations', JIAS, 27/2(1985), 12751.
Several outstanding secondary works are helpful on specific topics in
this subfield and period. Robert Packenham, Liberal America and the Third
World (Princeton, N.J., 1973), analyses the values, theories, and doctrines
that affect U.S. policy toward the Third World, drawing the bulk of his
examples from Latin America during the Alliance for Progress years. Cole
Blasier, The Hovering Giant: U.S. Responses to Revolutionary Change in Latin
America, 19101985, rev. ed. (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1985), accounts very well

for the U.S. responses to the Cuban Revolution and also to revolutionary
or radical changes since i960. Stephen Krasner, Defending the National
Interest: Raw Materials Investments and U.S. Foreign Policy (Princeton, N.J.,
1978), analyses U.S. investment disputes worldwide but draws the bulk of
the cases from Latin America in the 1960s and 1970s. Lars Schoultz,
Human Rights and United States Policy toward Latin America (Princeton,
N.J., 1981), explores the process and the content of these policies during
their heyday in the 1970s. Vinod Aggarwal, International Debt Threat:
Bargaining among Creditors and Debtors in the 1980s (Berkeley, 1987), is the
best analytical study of this topic, drawing mainly from Latin American
cases. See also essay VII.4.
On the Caribbean crises of the early 1960s, see J. Lloyd Mecham, The
United States and Inter-American Security, 18891960 (Austin, Tex., 1961);
Gordon Connell-Smith, The Inter-American System (Oxford, 1966); and
Jerome Slater, The OAS in United States Foreign Policy (Columbus, Ohio,
1967).
On U.S. military policies in Latin America, see John Child, Unequal
Alliance: The Inter-American Military System, 19381978 (Boulder, Colo.,
1980) and Geopolitics and Conflicts in South America: Quarrels among Neighbors
(New York, 1985), and Michael Morris and Victor Millan (eds.), Control-
ling Latin American Conflicts (Boulder, Colo., 1983). The best intellectual
advocacy for what became Reagan administration policies in Central Amer-
ica and the Caribbean is David Ronfeldt, Geopolitics, Security, and U.S.
Strategy in the Caribbean Basin (Santa Monica, Calif, 1983). And the best
scholarly critique is Lars Schoultz, National Security and United States Policy
toward Latin America (Princeton, N.J., 1987). For an analysis of a turning
point in the history of arms transfers, Luigi Einaudi, Hans Heymann, Jr.,
David Ronfeldt, and Cesar Sereseres, Arms Transfers to Latin America:
Toward a Policy of Mutual Respect (Santa Monica, Calif., 1973). For a
different sort of turning point, see Donald J. Mabry (ed.), The Latin
American Narcotics Trade and U.S. National Security (Westport, Conn.,
1989), as well as the March 1990 issue of Military Review.
On inter-American economic issues, see Albert Fishlow's various articles
and also his The Mature Neighbor Policy: A New United States Economic Policy for
Latin America (Berkeley, 1977). See also Robert Williamson, William
Glade, and Karl Schmitt (eds.), Latin American-U.S. Economic Interactions
(Washington, D.C., 1974), and Joseph Grunwald (ed.), Latin America and
the World Economy (Beverly Hills, Calif, 1974).

3 . 1960-1990 973
Certain works are more narrowly focused on bilateral U.S.Latin Ameri-
can relations on important matters. These include Richard Welch, Jr.,
Response to Revolution: The U.S. and the Cuban Revolution, 1959-1961 (Cha-
pel Hill, N.C., 1985); Abraham Lowenthal, The Dominican Intervention
(Cambridge, Mass., 1972); William Jorden, Panama Odyssey (Austin,
Tex., 1984); Robert Pastor, Condemned to Repetition: The United States and
Nicaragua (Princeton, N.J., 1987); and Robert Pastor and Jorge Casta-
fieda, Limits to Friendship: The United States and Mexico (New York, 1988).
See also the 'Working Papers' series of the U.S. Commission for the Study
of International Migration and Cooperative Economic Development.
In addition to those that appear in edited collections and journals,
single-country studies that shed light on that country's relations with the
United States and other major powers include Mario Ojeda, Alcances y
limites de la politica exterior de Mexico (Mexico, D.F., 1976) and Mexico: El
surgimiento de una politica exterior activa (Mexico, D.F., 1986); Joseph
Tulchin, Argentina and the United States: A Conflicted Relationship (Boston,
1990); Robert Bond (ed.), Contemporary Venezuela and Its Role in Interna-
tional Affairs (New York, 1977); Ronald Schneider, Brazil: Foreign Policy of
a Future World Power (Boulder, Colo., 1976); Wayne Selcher, Brazil in the
International System (Boulder, Colo., 1981); and Jorge I. Dominguez, To
Make a World Safe for Revolution: Cuba's Foreign Policy (Cambridge, Mass.,
1989).
There are few works that compare intellectual approaches to these top-
ics. The most comprehensive is Julio Cotler and Richard Fagen (eds.),
Latin America and the United States (Stanford, Calif., 1974). See also Jorge
I. Dominguez, 'Consensus and divergence: The state of the literature on
inter-American relations in the 1970s', LARR, 13/1 (1978), 87-126 and
'The foreign policies of Latin American states in the 1980s: Retreat or
refocus?', in Samuel Huntington and Joseph Nye (eds.), Global Dilemmas
(Lanham, Md., 1985).


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THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

VOLUME i Colonial Latin America

VOLUME II Colonial Latin America

VOLUME in From Independence to c. i8yo

VOLUME iv c. 18jo to 1930

VOLUME V C. 18JO to 1930

V O L U M E VI Latin America since 1930: Economy, society and politics

VOLUME VII Latin America since 1930: Mexico, Central America

V O L U M E VIII Latin America since 1930: Spanish South America

VOLUME i x Latin America since 1930: Brazil; International

VOLUME x Latin America since 1930: Ideas, culture and society

VOLUME x i Bibliographical essays

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia

Cambridge University Press 1995

First published 1995

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 052139525-9 hardback

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

I. THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF MIDDLE AND

II. COLONIAL SPANISH AMERICA

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

III. COLONIAL BRAZIL

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IV. THE INDEPENDENCE OF LATIN AMERICA

V. LATIN AMERICA: ECONOMY, SOCIETY,

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

2 Post-independence Spanish America: Society and politics 252

VI. LATIN AMERICA: ECONOMY, SOCIETY,

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

VII. LATIN AMERICA: ECONOMY, SOCIETY,

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16 Mexico, c. 19301946 671

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VIII. IDEAS IN LATIN AMERICA SINCE

1 Political and social ideas, 18301930 863

IX. LATIN AMERICAN CULTURE SINCE

1 Art and literature, c. 1820c. 1870 887

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

4 Poetry since c. 1920 916

X. THE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS OF LATIN

Author index 975

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Council of Learned Societies and the Social Science Research Council; it

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

CHRISTOPHER ABEL Senior Lecturer in Latin American History, Univer-

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

FREDERICK P. BOWSER Associate Professor of History, Stanford Uni-

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

BORIS FAUSTO Professor of History, Universidade de Sao Paulo

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

JACQUES LAFAYE Professor of History, Universite de Paris IH-Sorbonne

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

K E N N E T H MILLS Assistant Professor of History, Princeton University

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

VARUN SAHNI Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies, New