u

| & usk
R-1
TPp UmThdu TkWu
AlTPp jRlThP

RrS AW
CXYNl TPp YZem
hPjur YPlThP
(tT]d Au)

wsh J a\
wsh J [S
wsh uz u \

u{mk h PP
Pa \,
\ & 600 006.
 u{k A_
Rp Tl - 2005
jV Tl - 2007

Sz u ]
Dr. A. L \
] u xz u
|UP (um])
\ & 600 005.

]P

Dr. Lzv T.R.A. uS

x| u u u|
A_ PUP (BsP) A_ PUP (BsP)
{u, \ & 600 035. {u, \ & 600 035.

N.\u Dr. V. L]kRm

xP u B] RYWVp CQlTWVo
A_ | YL]kR Lp
PhUP, Nu]-600 004.
\ & 600 024.

{ P. Pu YWXh YeLm
xnz u B] RYWVp RoX WV[o
{Pm] BsP | Utm \jRXYo
\umh, \ & 600 015 WU Lp
Nu]-600 004.
:

TPeLs RVl : RrS AWdLL

TsdLp CVdLLm, RrS

CzuP 60GSM u Aa]hmkx.

 P

{ Cx ""E \Puzv'' (Era of the Biology) x

PsiUQ ""E u~m'' (Biotechnology), ""E \v
\P'' (Bioinformatics), ""E Po Hk'' (Biochip) ""E PUP''
(Biomineralization), ""E UPqu'' (Bioremediation) zuP
GUS UP zuPQ mh. Cu w
PsuS, { UP uzu ^\x PuS E uP
a] x xnP Ex. SP vzv AUPmh
En mP (Genetically Modified Food). { En UPUP[P
m] Esk soUQ.
u [Q P EhUQ E PmkP,
E[P A \P PP { AxU Psh
EsP Jmk zu A uP UP \kzu
EuQ. UT , E v, ~sq, UT \
E, E v E u~m uP
A h[P u A, u [Q G Ax
PPx. _ u[P, g\P, Uj[P P BQ E
PP sP, Ah E EP \kP Aih
AP ""uP E'' (Modern Biology) u \zvUTP
C.
Es Aih A C u~m E C[P
Cx Gxu Es.
] Pa \P {mk \x, Gsn h[P x
u u G UP Gsn[P sk ]UP { uP
UP uP E w PsuP P
Aih u ([Q) PmkP xU Pv u
Ex G Es nPUS UP sk.
""E &-u'' G Cu Gh \P B]P uUS
AUPmh v S h Aih u
iu A GP uP GvP.
J u i ""uvk'' CnUPmkx. n
nP uUS u[P u \xU P x u vmi
PP mk \vUP hzu Pzv P sk.
C Ph] UPzv PkUPmk "" P'' u
nP iUP sk.
Dr.A.L \
Sz u
h Gx S (XI-u)
iii
 hzvmh
| & u Bsk & u : P &I

h 1 P E[P S 20
PkP & C_ Ix _ PkP & Pz
u P UQ sP P & Uj[P, ]P
- vTWLW. g\P - dLo. mkP -
dV. hhmkP - S@ lWv
P & NLv,
h 2 \ E P 20
\ E Aih AS & \ Pmk & PiU
PiU \ (u \) & J ~snUQ
GUm ~snUQ (TEM & SEM) & Pm
PiU \P ~s A & \_ & \ \ (m
\U v A) v A & \ ~s (EP
UQ, mhPsm, PoP[P, \P) & \
S, P S S S C
UQzx.
h 3 u A S 10
A usk, C BQ A
UP & g\P A PP & P, PP
uP A PP.
h 4 S 10
k Pmk & sh
PmkP & S\P & K[Sz
u Chmh & Gh].
h 5 u S 18
\ Gx \P AS (Aih) &
mh\zv sP - & u } [S &
Eg_u, } \P u, \k , ],
Ezu & EmP ku } Eu B & } Phzuku
PmkP & Azu & } US C\ &
iv
}US uzu vUS PoP & Czx vu
ku \ h] A Pmk) Czx
CUPzu vUS PoP & P Fmh & P[P
\kP & C ~sFmh [P & P
Fm US ASP & Cha] Szu PmkP &
PmP Cha] & {m ]u
E {m |kzu PP h[Ph
USu.
h 6 CUP E S 30
BgVvTomLp C]l TdL \Ls - RZY
C]lTdLm (CVtLV] Utm NVtLV] \Ls) - i
RYW C]lTdLm - T]l TdLm - ULWkRf NodL YLLs
- Bi Utm Ti LhP@ThLu Y[of, CWhPd
LRp, CjX Lu Y[of, Toj]_v Utm
Toj]Lol - R [jRp - Ru TLeLs - R
[jRu YLLs - EoRm URm.
h 7 _a ` E S 10
E[P A ` | PoP P, }, s,
, J E[P & } zu[P
|zu[P A Pnk uP AP & CP
[P k u k } ]UP }
\zu - r UiPXm - RYW Y\ Y[of CVe \Lm
YLLm.
TPm 8 Nn\ YlLs
1. rLiP RYWeLu LiQ iPeLu ERVp
BWVk TLeLs dLlThP TPeLPu TYhp
dLm.
1.1 vTWLW
1.2 dLo
1.3 dV
1.4 S@lWv
1.5 NLv
v
2. rdLiP RYW NpL[ BWVm.
2.1 YeLV N : iQdp Toj TLeL[ dLm.
2.2 ahpX CXV iQdp Toj TLeL[ dLm.
2.3 YeLV Yo V Sd UhPv CZL[ Toj TLeL[
dLm, TPeL[ YWVm.
3. Ri Utm YoLu UtdL[ TLeLs
dLlThP TPeLPu TodLm.
3.1 RWV Yu UtdLs : s[e, LWh, h-h
3.2 RWUp YoLs : AWNUWju Re YoLs
TTo hPp Hm YoLs
3.3 RWV Riu UtdLs : E[, Cg, YeLVm, Ze
4. UXo : AUl, .Y.R, UXo YWTPm Utm UXo
YnlT
4.1 avLv
4.2 PhW
5. YrVp TNR]Ls
5.1 WlTd
A. Wl Tdu CN
B. O]eu @ThPhPo
5.2 Nq TWRp
A. BvU hPo - Ro Njj \u LiP NqY ETVdLm
B. E[d Ze BvUhPo
5.3 Yo AjRm : CjX RYWeLp Yo AjRjR TNR]
Xm Nn\d LhPm.
6. R [jRp
6.1 RWr [jRp
6.2 RWUp [jRp (UQYoL[ Nn\ NnVm)
7. oYrj RYWeLs Utm Y\s XjRYWeLs
rdLiP RYWeL[ BWVm.
A. oYrjRYWeLs : ahpX/YvV, IdLV, vV
B. Y\sXjRYWeLs : JlTuV, @ToV dLp,
. BuLWm, BX, Vm
vi
 hUP
I. u 1&134
1. Cz uh uS 1
2. Szu[P UQ sP 14
2.1 P 14
2.2 Uj[P 28
2.3 g\P 41
2,3,1 dLo 53
2.4 BPUP 62
2,4,1 vTWLW 73
2.5 LmkP 81
2,5,1 dV 88
2.6 hhLmkP 100
2,6,1 S@lWv 105
2.7 uzu[P (P) 112
2,7,1 NLv 119
II. \ E 135&192
1. \& E Aih AS 135
2. \ PP 141
3. Pmk Pmk \P 144
4. J ~snUQ nq ~snUQ 151
5. \ _ 155
6. \ \ 161
7. \ ~sqP 170
8. \uS 182
III. u A 193&257
1. , usk C 193
2. g\ 215
3. P, PP uP 226
IV. 258&288
1. uh k 258
2. sh u vP 262
3. uUS S\ Aih 274
4. Chmh 279
5. zu 282
vii
 u
Azv[P

I. u 1&82

II. \ E 83&140

III. u A 141- - - & 205

IV. 206 - & 236

V. u 237 &286

VI. CUP E 287 & 326

VII. `| E 327 & 363

D D D

viii
 I. u
1. Czuh uS

u
Pnk P E[Ph kP
PnkQ. A A, , h, En Fmh
A \ BQ sPA
kQ. Pnk E[P umh u
P FmhU Tix. \zv J PnUPk i
C zx u {x US mh E[P
E. A C 1.7 E[P mk
UPmk. C 750,000 a]P, 250,000 US
u[P, 47,000 xP oP Ah[S.
E[PhU Pnk kP { u
(Biodiversity) GQ. C kPU
Psiu Aih E[P Jzu uP
x ] sP Psiu CP
SUPP UP iQx. C[P Azu P
A Azx u[P [SP PU SUPP
UPmk.
E[P C Pshu, ku Pkzxu
BQh uhh E ""Pmi''
(Taxonomy) Gk. CuS kzxu, J \zu BQ
P . hiU G Cua \ u u
P ux ""h {a_'' (Systema Natural) G
kzv. E[PhU Pnk CzuhP
Aih AP S[PP zx P P kzxu
Czuh uS (Systematics) G UP.

Pmi C
G Azx E[P A Cx. B
C[P J Smh \v SUPP zx
Bu A Ax GuQx. H J S
Ax J Skzv s AUS E Azx umh
1
E[PUS x. u (Diversity) Ax
Pu Pmi GuQx.

Pmi
{Px skP Ahi Ax
Pzua \uP E[P u[P [SP G
zuu. ] Ax AuS mh EP AP
C Pshu. Au zxzv uu G AUPmh
sh P Cv zx \U ] u[P [SP
C Pshx, UP \u.
zxzv uu G AUPmh Qmh (460 & 377
Q.) zx UQzx u ] E[P mimh.
Ahmi Ax n vLh (370&282 Q.)
uP zx US AvP UQzx AUP
E[P Pkzu ] \u. u[P
[SP A i hzv Aih
Pkzu AP . Cuz uhx u Gh (Pliny
the Elder) (23 &79 Q.) G uh ""h {a_''
(Historia Naturalis) G u P \P Pmk
AP kzv. (Johm Ray) G B[Q CP Ab u
P Gu J Ezv PUS ] (Species) G \
AP kzv. 18 sha \u h {mk
CP Ab P (Carolus Linnaeus) Gu
uu C \ k EUQ. C
Pmi uu G ux AkQ.
smh ( Species Plantarum 1753) G Ax 5900 ua
][P h {a_ (1758) G 4200 [Sa
][P zx.

Pmi S n (Taxonomy and Phylogeny)

E[P C Pshu, ku AhU
Pnk J P Aih AP
Pkzxu BQh uhh E J
Pmi Gk. APi & h Psh (Augustin -
Pyramusde Candolle) (1778&-1841) G &g_z u |n
Pmi G zu u u kzv.
]
Pmi Aih AS ] BS. z u
CUP sP Jzx Pnmk u[PUSP C
2
UP \x \uvP EUS EP Tmh
] G UPkQx. ], AuS P E
Szv Ah[S. CPmk i A a \ \
AUS Ah[Q S[P GsoUP AvPzxU Psh
Qx. Gu J Pmi Pnk H UQ S[P.
1. EP Ax _
2. L Ax
3. S
4. x
5. Sk
6.
7. ].

Sn (Phylogeny)
Smh J Szv n L Gk.
Cu Aih AUPmh Pk n Aih
Pk Gk. B Cu n Aih Pk
Gx \zv. H n PmkUS BuP
A u i SkP | ChP
|h E. n Gx J {UPmk
u {hx C. E[P nz uh
Aih Au PkP \P PkP G
AUQ. E[P A u uUS H P
kzxu, A Aih P kzxu (] \i, ua \i),
UP | ` | Ezv [S BQ
Aih Pkzxu BQ \P PkPUS
GkzxU PmkP BS. Cv \P Pmi (Non-
systematic classification) E {P kzvU PQ.

Csk EP Pmk (Two Kingdom System of Classification)

P (1758) Azx E[P Csk
EP[PP zx. A 1. u EP 2. [S EP.

1. u EP
Cv Uj[P (PmkP), Ja \PPz u[P
Ja \UP u g\P C Ah[S. Cz u
EQ UQ sP.
3
1. u[P QP Eh. CPh Ti \a^ A
Eh Eh.
2. u[P {Px. J Chzv |.
3. P {[P u[P _]zuU Pmi Ja \PP
AvPP DkkQ. G AvPP CO2 GkzxU Psk O2
kQ. C {[P CuS GvP
{hUQx. Aux O2 I GkzxU Psk CO2 kQ.
4. u u Enz u \x Pu C u\ Fmh
Eh GQ.
5. u[P a]h Ti ~PU Psh.
6. P }UP sh { sh Qhx.
7. u\ (Starch) \ P Ex.
8. u \P \_ Esk \P US (Vacuole)
Ex. u \P \m \P Qhx. A
A[PP iP[P Pnh.
9. P, } a]P Eu CUP {h.
Eh CUP xP {h.

2. [S EP
Cv J \ B mh \P \P B
[SP Ax mh \P Ah[S. C
sP.
1. [SP Smh i Eh. QP Qhx.
2. Ch mk Ch {P u Eh.
3. C, P BQ C {[P BU GkzxU Psk
P&h&BUh kQ.
4. a\ C Ja \UP x Qhx. Fmh
U Psh.
5. h a]U Psh J Smh A u
Ahuh [SP a] |k.
6. P }UP sh { sh {S uPU
Pnk.
7. \ EnPU QUP Pnk.

4
8. \PUS _ Qhx. [S EP
u EP
\P ]
USP Pnk.

h


\sm \P Esk

h h
L L

A[PP iP[P

m m

k
h

Pnhx.

mi

9. [SP UP

Gu J U Po

C
P

\ v v .

EUP xzu

Uj

(Regeneration of body parts)

CUP
BQ k Ahu h1.1 Csk EP Pmk
UP h
G E[P mk
{h .

Csk EP Pmk SkP

EUPmh Csk EP Pmk
}sh PzxUS mhx. B Pzv, G mk
Ahu E[P uPP PskiP uz,
u CPk xuP, vvPP C.
CPmi Pnmh SkP BS.
1. ] E[P u sP [S sP BQ
Csh u. (G.P.) U, gP (Sponges).
U ] ][P a\ Ex. G C
u[P u\ Fmh U Psh. B
mhP B B12 BQ C Ezv \ iuu
[SP C A x Q. ]
U ][P _[PoP[P Qhx. G |.
Fmh UPsh. \US {h \zu
DkkQ. ] ][P ] ] En mP
[Q \US {h \zu DkkQ.
a\ Eh U ][P Cmi zu A
_[PoP[P Cx Fmh DkkQ. sk
J zu A _[PoP[P sk Q.
U Ps. (eye spot) BhUv ([SP
Pnk |) PnkQx.
2. g\P Gk a \u E[P P uz u
u. CPUS a\ Qhx, [SP
5
\ FmhU Psh. B g\P CPmk
_ u[Ph \zx Pkzumk.
3. Uj[P k Ahu E[P u
sP Psiv. [S sP
Psiv. Ax kP G AUPk
E[P A EhzuU Psiu g\P
PP EshUSQ.
4. P E Ax EP Gx C
uzvS J PzuP Ex.
T CUPn[P 250 Bsk PQ Cu
Pk (E[Pz u[P [SP G Csk
PP zu) P \Px.

Ix EP Pmk
R.H. UhUP (R.H.Wittaker) (1969) G AUP Pmi
|n Azx E[P AQhU Pnk
nz uh Aih Ix EP[PP Pkzv.
CPk RUPsh UQ sP Aih Axx.
1. \ A &- Pm Ax Pm
2. Enmh & u\ Fmh Ax Fmh .
3. Eh A & J \ Bx Ax \P Bx.
4. S n Ax nz uh
Ix EP[P : (Monera) mih (Protista) g\P
(Fungi), u[P (Plantal) [SP (Animalia).

1. (PmkP EP)
Cv Azx Pmk E[P Ah[S G.P.
UP , Uj, BUi ^mkP (C Uj[P)
\ Uj[P (} _ ]) C RPsh sPU
Psk.
1. C P ~so. C Es |UU
PsiUPx. \ `mh ~sqP Qhx.
2. C u\ Ax Fmh Eh. ] Uj[P
u\ Fmh Eh. C Ja \UP Uj[P.
C ` J B Ja \UP \x P Fmh
Ezv \ v Eh. G.P. .
6
 ]Uj[P va \UP Uj[P. C ] v
P Dkmk Avx QhUS B P
Fmh Ezv \Q. G.P. {m\,
{m Uh.
3 . \, AmhUh Qii
Uj[P sh {m | |zv
AP \Q.C |Pa] E {m
| |zu G AUPkQx.
4. ] Uj[P JmksoPP ] Tmk
Uj[PP E.
5. BUQ Uj (Archaebacteria) ] UP BU
A (anaerobic) |, 80oC P AvP |, AvP Ea
\ E | Azu u s ] P Awu
_ ` Q.

2. mikP EP
Cv J \ B } PmkUPAh[S. C
RPsh sPU PsiUS.
1. C xP Pmk \ AU PsiUS.
C Ch mk Ch {P (Cilia) Ax P\P
(Flagella) Pnk.

2. Ja \UP \ u\ P. {
PhP C u EzvPPz vPQ.
Azx J \ u[P Lmh[Umh (Phytoplanktons)
G Azx J \ [SP `[h (Zooplanktons) G
xP AUPkQ. Lmh [mhP
Ja\UP . \_ Esk.
3. `[mhP P v (Predatory) Pa \u. \
_ Qhx. A \U (Holozoic) Fmh
U Psh.
4. ] mikP JmksoP, ] TmkP. H
]u. U G mh` Csk P
FmhU Pskx. ` J QhUS {[P
u\ Fmh ` J Cu {[P
FmhP Pskx. CuS P Fmh
(Myxotrophic) G . G U, u[PUS

7
 [SPUS Ch Eu C u[PP ]
\[P [SPP P kzu.

3. g\P EP
Cv kP, P Gk PP, {UShP,
|UShP, L xP (Puff balls) AhU S g\P (Bracket fungi)
BQ Ah[S. C Pmka \ AU Psh.
C RPq sP Eh.
1. C J \ Ax \P B EP.
2. C a\ |P Qhx. BP C
FmhU Psk. U^ g\P
JmksoPP \ H g\P, Cu
A[PP mPa \x mSsoPP E.
3. C Eh C Gsn LUP
B.
4. C \ _ Pmi G Bx.

4. u EP
\P B Azx |z u[P } z
u[P CQ Ah[S. P P BPUP,
LmkP, hhLmkP P
Bg] P Czu EPzua \u CU RU
Tmk sPU Psk.
1. \P \ B Ev \_U
Psk.
2. P Fmh Eh. a\ G |
u u\ Fmh Eh.
AuP ] u[P Fmh U Psk.
GkzxUPmhP ""PSmh'' (Cuscuta) J Jmkso. {u
i a]sq u[P BS.

5. [S EP
Cv \P B Pmk E[P Ah[S. C
mh\P G AUPkQ. CU RU
Tmk sPU Psk.

8
 3. {\P Pnku C EnPU Phzx v
2. C u\a \P _[S u Eh.

1. Azx [SP Fmh Eh. J `

Eh.

shzv ~PP C EUSQ.

Amhn1.1 Ix EP Pmi E Ix EP[Ph Pnk
kP
s mih g\P smh A

\ PmiU
PmiU PmiU PmiU PmiU
u

\ J \
A J \ E J \ E \ EP \ EP \ EP

] Esk C
\ _ Esk Esk
P Esk ] C
9

En Ja\, a\ a\
Fmh Ja\ a\ Ja\
Fmh Ax va\
Eg_u P
En P
Eg_u Ax Eg_u [Pu
Fmh Eg_u
[Su

{P v {P v
{P {P {P v
{P v E Ax E Ax
v A v A Eh
A A
4. [SP ] JmksoPP PnkQ. G.P. umh
UP E UP.

Ix EP Pmi |P
1. E[PhU Pnk nz uh CPk
vUQx.
2. G AU Psk Pmk \
Ax ]UP AU Psk Pmk
\ A Aih Cu Pk Axx.
3. J \ E Ax \ E G Eh
Aih Cu Pk Axx.
4. CPk Fmh Aih Axx. u\
Fmh Ax Fmh Gu Aih
Axx.

IxP Pmi SP
1. Qh S BQ u EQ
\UPmk. A J \ EP. Bu C
mih EQ \zvUP sk.
2. [S mh\P [S EPzv \UPh.
3. [S mh \P mih EQ J \
u[Ph \UPmk. A P Fmh
U Psk.
4. J \ Pm E DmkP, mih EQ
\UPh.

Pkzxu E ] ][P
E[P, mh u Ehu A
BskPUS u n a] Ahx xu,
uSPUQh | ChP Pnku
vmhmh, \ J P mi EUP iv.
E[P Pk Gx u A a]
vUQx. xU PskiP, A, Pk
AhQ. 1970 Bsk UQ UT AbP,
PmkP , mh uhu C PU
Psk GU Pshu. 1990 Bsk C. (C.Woese),
O.Psm (O.Kandler) M.L. (M.L.Wheelis) G UT

10
AbP, T v Pski Aih J v
P mi APkzv. Cu Aih Azx
E[P UQ P (domains) BP UPmh.
1. P (Azx PmkP EhUQx.
2. Uj[P (HP {S Amh PmkUP
EhUQx)
2. G AU Psk Pmk \
Ax ]UP AU Psk Pmk
\ A Aih Cu Pk Axx.
3. J \ E Ax \ E G Eh
Aih Cu Pk Axx.
4. CPk Fmh Aih Axx. u\
Fmh Ax Fmh Gu Aih
Axx.

IxP Pmi SP
1. Qh S BQ u EQ
\UPmk. A J \ EP. Bu C
mih EQ \zvUP sk.
2. [S mh\P [S EPzv \UPh.
3. [S mh \P mih EQ J \
u[Ph \UPmk. A P Fmh
U Psk.
4. J \ Pm E DmkP, mih EQ
\UPh.

Pkzxu E ] ][P
E[P, mh u Ehu A
BskPUS u n a] Ahx xu,
uSPUQh | ChP Pnku
vmhmh, \ J P mi EUP iv.
E[P Pk Gx u A a]
vUQx. xU PskiP, A, Pk
AhQ. 1970 Bsk UQ UT AbP,
PmkP , mh uhu C PU
Psk GU Pshu. 1990 Bsk C. (C.Woese),

11
O.Psm (O.Kandler) M.L (M.L.Wheelis) G
UT AbP, T v Pski Aih
J v P mi APkzv. Cu Aih Azx
E[P UQ P (domains) BP UPmh.
1. P (Azx PmkP EhUQx.
2. Uj[P (HP {S Amh PmkUP
EhUQx)
3. BUQ ( BUQUj[P G AUPmh;
PmkUP EhUQ. C Avu
Pk `|P . Cu Pk ux
Azx E {P HU Pmkx.
G PkP uhx U Pshu CUS Gv
I. |UPU Ti w J G
JzxUPU Ti J Pmi \zvUT C G
PPx.

u vk
J vs
\ hz uuk
1. Pmi Aih AS
A) B) ] C) Sk D) hU
2. { PhP ux Pnk J \u[P
C AUPkQ.
A) BPUP B) `[UhP
C) Lmh[UhP D) uz u[P
3. P APkzv Pk
A) Sn Pk B) Csk EPPk
C) Ix EP Pk D) CP Pk
Pimh Chzu |P
1. h {a_ &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& G Gumhx.
2. Bu zxzv uu &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B
3. ] G \ u u AP kzv &&&&&&&&
4. sh G Gv &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
5. Pmi (Taxonomy) G zu u u EQzu
&&&&&&&&&&&& .
12
zxP
u i SP &- I
- x EP Pk
mhUP & ]
P & Pmi
& Sn Ba]
BSi j Psh & sh
Csk vsP
1. u G G ?
2. Pmi UQ {UP[P .
3. Pmi &
4. ] & .
5. Pmk i | A ASP GxP.
6. S n (Phylogeny) G G ?
7. S n Pk H Gx \zv GuS
Csk Pn[P TP.
8. S n Pk G G ?
9. \P Pk G G & GkzxU Pmkz uP.
10. BUQ Uj[P G ?
11. C. O.Pshm M.C. BQ v Pmi
UQ P ?
12. Cz uh uS (Systematics) .
Ix vsP
1. u[PUS [SPUS ChU Pnk kP
?
2. g\PUS G u J EP (Kingdom) JxUPmhu
Pn[P x ?
3. U Pkzxu E ][P GkzxU TP.
zx vsP
1. Ix EP Pmk USP. Au |, SPz
uSzx GxP.
2. Csk EP Pmk USP Au |, SP
GxP.
_____
13
 2, TX Ylj RYWeLu dV TiLs
2.1 P

E sP EP sP
u P, C E {PUS
vP E. G PUS Pmi u
Chu JxUPmkx. mhUP Ix EP Pmi
P Pzv Ph. P ~so, GUm
~snUQ mk PnUTi, { EUS,
\US Pmh JmksoP G ux P
UPkQ.

P u Szu
P P ~so A PnP AP
A E {PUS }sh PP C Cux.
B Uj[P Au ] { EshUS
vhuP Cux u ux. 19 si P
sn C { (\U) (TMV) , oP vP
UQzx u PU PkP uUQ \u
EshUQ xu P, Ba]P Pzu u
Pux.
{ C \ {u C uzu Ax
{mhx Gu G |zxU Pmi. {
C \ Uj iPmi iPmi S Th
Aa\ uzu uuP Cuu, CzuzuUSU
Pn Uj[P A Gu IUQ G
A Ab kzv. ha_ ~sq { [U
(1898) G IUQ Psk iP Fukzv.
A Ah[Q \ ""uzu u E
v'' ("contagium vivum fluidum") G Azu. Cx
(Virion - G h) G AUPmhx. {
EshUS xPP P G AUPmhx. W.M. h
(1935) G AUP E v |n P iPi
ukzv. CiP i A { EshUS v

14
Eh Cu. Cx G v A
BP AiPx.

xsP
P GUm ~snUQ mk Pn.
u[P [SP { EshUS v E. u
E `mh |UU Azu Eh. |UU A
i.G.H. Ax B.G.H BS. B C Csh \x
Psiv. P \un \ AU
Psiv. Gu J ]u zvS u
A C UP. C \US
Pmh JmksoP. K \US mk UPhQ.
K \US C P \.

Amhn 1.2 P v

P P
EsP E sP

1. K u\ Ax [S \US UPh
\ UPh v A
v Eh

2. { EUS v Eh Gu J ]u A

3. |UU A, u mh\ A.
{vPU Psizu

4. vj Ah v iPkzu i
E.

A i
P P ~soz xPP, A GUm
~snUQ mk Pni. C { mh G
AQ AUPkQ. (1{mh = 10&9 mh Ax 1 mh
= 109 {mh) xP P A 20 {mhx
300 { mh E. P ~so A, Uj iPmi
Fka \ u BQ Csk P ]
A\[P BS. P AU PnUQkv RUPq
P kQ.
15
1. GUm ~snUQ {hP zx Au.
2. \U Q xPh Ti \ iPmku.
A xPh Ti \P E. C
\UQP P iPmhkQ. Gu A x
P Fka \Q, Gv \ i GuU
Pshx P A A i.

P\x i
Ai

_ i u
(mU)
|U P]m
]UP i (u)
Uj L
E (k)
u DNA
USP
Pzx (QUP u)
(P]m ) mh
Eh
S
{P

Aiumk
USP
h 1.3 P i[P
3. Am \mL i EUSu : C
iu uzvS xPP A izvS
E uh kzv xPP AU PnUQh i.
4. Jmi Azu : RUPsh [P JmkUPP
kzukQ.
1. hLPUP (Staphylococcus) 1000 n.m. mhzu Ehx.
2. UjL A 10&100 n.m. Ex.
xP P UQ i[P PnkQ.
1. P\x i (Cubic symmetry) : Pnh Ax P
i. G.P. Ai P, Ga.I..
2. _ i (helical symmetry) (G.P.) P \U
(TMV), CL\ .
3. ]UP Ax A\un i. G.P. UjL. U

16
P A
P Csk UQ P[P Psk. P]m
Gk u E 2. }UU A. P]m Gkx U
Pnk u ES. Cu o E E |UU Azu
xPx BS. Cx
P\P Gk
J v ]
|UU A (RNA)
ASP B. ]
Pa _
J E
PnkQx. G.P.
Ga.I.. C
E P
P]m (u)
G AUPkQ.
H EA
Ax vu P
G AUPkQ.
h 1.4 Aih P[P (TMV)
|UU Azxh
Kmi Pnk P]m
}U P]m GUPkQ. |UU A zv
Ex. H E \P A P i.G.H
U PsiUS Ax B.G.H U PsiUS. J x
Csh J \ UPx. uzuUS
|UU A PnS. K vmhmhzuUS Au u
E PnQx.

Ka \US UP Ah iu,
uzu u, J PUS
G .
kP
u E, mh i J B.G.H k
G AUPkQx. kP, ]m GU Pmi
(Citrus exocortis) oP UQzx u u
{P EshUSQ.

17
P
C { EshUP uzxPP. u
H [SP zv { shzu vUS
{PUS C PnP E. G.P. UmLm &
P { (Creutzfeldt - Jacob Discase), kP U
P { G xP AUPk.
g] G]Lv (BSE). Cv ShzuUPx
G C i.G.H Ax B.G.H Gu
PsiUPuxu. h ]
P Ba] \x 1998 { \ .

P Pk
Ix EP Pmi P J EPPU Puh
G C uzu J Pmi Hkzx AUS uzx
u.
K Aih P RUPsh {S PPP
P kzukQ.
1. u P : BP P C EhUQ & RNA
Ax DNA Eh.
2. [S P : u P C EhUQ. RNA
Ax DAN Eh.
3. g\P P (UPP) : D RNA
Eh.
4. Uj P (UjLP) C \
P EhUQ. DNA Eh.

1. u P
C u[Pz uUQ { EUSQ. ] u
{P .
A. P, PL sn C {
(TMV CMV)
B. Ea]U Pzx {
C. E Ca _ {
D. uUP AP {
PL \U u Azx u P
B.G.H U PsiUS.
18
2. [S P
C [SPz uUQ { EshUS. C }UU
A i.G.H Ax B.G.H BS. uUS EshS.
] {P \, A, (ux
JUPmkmhx), ], g\ P, ,
mhmi A,B,C,D,E,G, CL, C u
(Polio), US [Q (Mumps), {UPi{ (Rabies), Gm
(AIDS) \ (SARS). Bk, k P{hP P
{ EshUS. G.P. P {hPUS P { (Foot and
mouth disease of cattle) SvPUS GLLmi,
{PUS ih {, {UPi { BQ.
g\PUS { EshUS P UP P
GkQ. }_] (\ Uj[P)Pz uUQ {
EshUS P \LP GkQ.

4. UjLP
Uj[Pz uUQ {shUS P
UjLP Ax LP G xP
AUPkQ. C umh i Eh. |UU
A DNA BS. G.P. T2, T4, T6 Uj P.

L UPa _]
C Csk P UPa _] Ehx.

U j S \
m iU _]

ikzu L \U
DNA _]

L
ysh ku L i.G.H
J[Qnu
\
C m i hu
DNA
U P

U j \ ] u
J \zu
L

h 1.5 L miU \U _]

19
1. Ax miU _]
2. Ax \U _]

1 . Ax miU _]
Cv P \US E UPhu K Uj
\ izx AQx. P kQ.
L UP RUPsh iP {hQx.
1. JmiUPu 2. Fku 3. L P[P Ezv
\ku 4. \UP 5. va] Ahu 6. \ LP
.

1 . JmiUPu
Uj \ L ux Sv Cnu
JmiUPu GQ. L J vmhmhzu Cu
|z wUPmk kQx. L Gv uUP
iu Uj \ Th \P L i.G.H
Gkzx F] \zu i. Cx vu (u E A)
}UU Azu mk Gkzx K \ \zxx DNA
Em\zu (Transfection) G AUPkQx.

2. Fku
|UU Azv Fku, F] v Em\zx
|Pa]US JP {hQx. L i.G.H, Au Eh
US P Uj \US \Qx. FkUS S,
L uSv Sv Uj \US
Tk Pm] AUQx.

3. L P[P Ezv \ku

C| Uju, Uji.G.H B.G.H
BQ Ezv uhkQx. AuS vP L i.G.H.,
Au uSv E u, Sv E u BQ
uzuP Uj \ Ezv \kQx. Pn
uSv i.G.H voUPkQx. CvP Sv E
AP \PPkQ. Cx L P[P
uSUPmk {shUS xPPz
uuS va] Ahu G .

20
4 . LP
LP \unP Uj \ izx
Au HkQx. LP UPzvx Uj \ _
{hx, mh izu Qx. iUQx Ax
]ux kQx. Ex va]hu \ LP
kQ.

\U _]
CP, LP Ja \Ph Ju
Tmk HkzvU PQ. Ja \P Au,
]uu Qhx. E ~uh L i.G.H
Uj h J[Qnx kQx. L, Cx
J[Qnu |UU AzvS LP G .
J \ S\ J Sv \mk Cu
L Auh UPhQx. CuS \ G
.
Lz u PsiUS Uj \
\U Uj GUPkQx.
Cu L, ] v sP UjzvS [SQx.
CuS \U Ax L Hk G
. CuS ]u GkzxUPmk iLw ] G
Ujzv EshUPk ] {a_mP BS. Cu
{a_mP EshuS Pn Cv E mh L
(Prophage beta) BS. L }UQ, C{a\ EshUS
u }[Q kQx.

u {P
Ea]U Pzx {
Ea]UPzx C{ EshUSQx. {
u P a] S Qx. CP SPP ]uP
Q. uzv Ea] Sv vUPmh CP J mh
i \m Pm] AUQ. a\ \P (chlorosis),
CP _sk h[Su BQ uQ. {
uUPmh u[P EhiP h k[Q Gkzx wh
sk. Axu { Akzx u[PUS x.

21
vuPz u {P (u)
EQ P[P As u
{PUS GkzxUPmkUP G (Ebola virus), Ga.I. (HIV),
h[S, hemorrhagic fever, (lassa fever), Lm zuUS
(Rift Valley Fever), \ (SARS), Gm (mh { Gv \Uv S
{) (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome).

Gm
Gm U Ti \zv PskiUPmh
EshS J { Cx. Cu u { Gv\Uv
S (Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV) GUPkQx.

P]m
|U
P]m

D B.G.H

h 1.6 u { Gv \Uv S { (HIV)

HIV, m P G J P a \u.
Eu \P (helper cells) GUPk J T4 L\mkP
CP uUQ u Eh Gv \Uv SUQ. HIV, T4
\mkP uUQ Au A GsoUP Sx,
{ Gv \UvU SUQ. Cx u uU QP
uUP SUQx. Gm { mk J BmP { C.
Gma \uPP zx ~ u u {P Gm
{ J BmP {USQ.

{USP
HIV Pa\, Eh Gh Su, }izu |n} ia_P
UP, { Gv\Uv S Hk GUQ (T.B.)
HkQ. C{ vUPmhP wu u, A\v,
}izu US, sh C, |n} \ { (lymphomas)
22
BQ Av. ] \[P { sh
vUPh. ush Sv hP
u. C AvPP US. ] \[P UP,
{hzu P BQ u.

{ u P
HIV UQP U Ti J S. Cx
AvPP K \UP DkkPh (homosexuals) AvPPU
PnkQx. { EhP, h Eh
PP, uP BQPUS Cu uUSuUS
ES P AvP. Cu h Eh Pv
PnP AvP Qx.
Gm H PP : Czu , v_, E
BQ { mhhx uP x, \P
Q }UP \hu F]P, ]g_P EQzu,
u F] EQP , Au F]
EPkzxx G PP Gm Qx. Gm
{ uUPmh u P ]_ Cu {
vUPhUTk. u Pku vUPmh
uhx \US C{ .

uk
Gm Snkzx Qhx BP C{
Pxu { { uk BS. A Bs, s
Ehz uzu, BqP EQzu BQ
Eh C{ uz uUP i. u F]
kzxP v v J F] kzv Au Gm
u uSu P ukUP i. Czuzu E
\vzx zu u Czu zu
\u mPz u u uz ukUP
i. { uhx SuUS u PU Pzu
Ax Puz ukzu uUP. Ahui
(Azidothymidin) xP C{ uUPmhP
{ J ] u[P AvPUP mk kQ. P
{z Pmkkzu Cx.

P {
{ Gx PmkUPh[Pu J[P \P
Shx x PmiPP Exu. CUPmiP

23
E \P Eh SvPUS v Q.
\zv Ba]P i i \ (SV - 40) G
i..H. m P Gk B.G.H. P
{z uUQ G Psk iUPmkx.
{z uUS P "" { EUS P''
(Oncogenic Viruses) G AUPkQ. Czu { (leukemia),
G {) (Sarcoma) { BQ
PUS [S Esk G PskiUPmkx.

\ (SARS) GUPk vu {
Avw _\ { Sk (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome)
(SARS) GUPk
{ ux u QUS
B], h AUP
P
I BQ {kP
CuP AUPmkx.
Ca\v EP UPh
Pk v Hkzv
Cuk ][P, ^
{kP u
vP P v
EshUQx.
h1.7 u P
{USP
Pk zxh C{ BQx. u, Eh
Eh \P BQ {USP uQ.
{P mk C a_h ] Ah.

\ u
{Ph {UPPz uh Cu SP
uzu u a_z v \ Gv
Qx. \ { EshUS uhx izu U
Psh Cu CuP uk x (Vaccine) Pskix
P ] uuP Ex. \ {, P P Gk
E P EshQx. C J C
B B.G.H. BS. |UP]m _ i Ehx. `
P Cu Pa _ Cu }m]P E.

24
 uk xP (Virus Vaccines)
J {z uk B kzv {Pz
uku uk xP {UPS. u
{Pz ukUP Pa ]u, \ Su uk] uk
xP kzxu BS.

ChLP (IFNs)
C J EUPk, \mhP Pa \u
u[PS. C, P UPzu uh \Q.
E [S \P Ax Ba \ v_
u \P P uUSu ysku
PnP ChLP EUPkQ. uUSuUS
u Eh u u Gv C G
{kQx.

P UQzx
1. P E {PUS J vP E. H
C ES EUS Ch E GU
Pmi Ax CskUS Ezu sPU Psk.
2. C G A PP S u
BQ PnP P E {P UQ
BU PP kQ. SP UT E,
zx BQ xP C x
Ba]UPP kzukQ.
3. w[S UPUTi a]P Jv C [S
QUQ. E w[SUP vmh[P (Biological Control
Programes) Cx EPkQ.
4. A { US u PnP P
\zx EPUS P
EshUSQ. Uj LP so E {m
|kzx Uj[Pz uUQ Azx so zuU
SUQ.
5. u\P P ^, U]P u
kQ.

25
u vk
\ hz uuk
1. P \U RUPsh i Eh.
A. P\x (Cubical) B. _ i
C. A\un ]UP i D. \xi
2. uz uUS Cx PnQx.
A. u E B. |UU A
C. E D. {P
3. \ {US uk x Pskiv E ]
G.
A. \ umP P Qx.
B. Cx E
C. Cx uhx izu U PsiUS.
D. Cx D B. G.H. Ehx.
Pimh Chzu zv \
1. &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& u u P iPkzv.
2. P Csk UQ Sv mP &&&&&&&&&&&
&&&&&&&&&&& BS.
3. Azx &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&P D B.G.H. U
Psk.
4. i.G.H. Eh u &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& BS.
5. Gm EshUS &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& BS.
zxP.
\LP & P
UPLP & Ga.I..
\ & } _ ]
Gm & Uj
L & g\P
Csk vsP
1. Pn T: P E {P v BS.
2. :
3. P E sP G Csi GxP.

26
4. P E sP G Csi GxP.
5. P vj h s Cu UQzx x ?
6. P iPkzu i Cu UQzx x ?
7. P UQ i[P ?
8. Am \m L iu P
Av Aih x ?
9. Eh Ti P G G ?
10. |U P]m &
11. P uUPUTi u {P / [S {P /
u {P ?
12. / k / &
13. B[PU P G ?
14. CmhLP Gk ?
Ix vsP
1. P A AuS Pk P
?
2. E w[SU PP (Biological Control) G G? uSu
GkzxUPmkPh USP.
3. S GxP : P UQzx
zx vsP
1. L miU _] \U _]
kzxP.
2. Gm / \ BQ {P Pn, {USkP
uk P J Pmk P.

27
 2.2. Uj[P

~sqP EPzu u uP 1676 Bsk Bsh

U G A Ab ux G ~snUQ
Pshu. S U G Tmk~snUQU Pshuv
, Uj[P ESUSz u u. C Pa ]
EP Bu C ""Pa ] ~sqP'' Ax ~so
[SP (infusorial animalcules) GUPmh. Uj[P
P Bu h (1822&95) ""{P
PP'' mh. Cm \a G {mk
~sqb [SPUS Hk {PUS Cu
~sqPu Pn GU T {PUS ~sqPUS
uh |zu. u u Uj G \
kzv HU (1829). G. Uj[P
UP iUS US ""Uj'' Ax ''Uj''
G . Uj[P Azx PmiU Ah J
\ EPS. Aux \ `mh |U
\~sqP Qhx.

h
Uj[P A{PP G Ch[P Pnk G
_[P, A[PP m AvPP E Ch[P C
Pnk. P, }, s Azx u, [S Eh[P
PnkQ. ] Uj[P xP P\ (Commensals) BP
Q. P\ Gx Csk \x EP J
h, Guu CU Pnk) E.. ua
] Sh G\] P. ] Uj[P Tmk
UP DkkQ (G.P. \) C T
u[P E ia_P PnkQx. Uj[P,
u[P [SP uPUS {P
EshUSQ.
A
Uj[P P ~so. C \\P 0.5 u 1 U
mh 3 u 5 U } Eh.
28
Uj[P i A Aih
Pk
Uj i A Au Ev \_
|nUQx. xP Uj[P Pi (Coccus) P i
(Bacillus) vS i (Spirillum) Eh. ] Uj[P
i[P u Eh. Aux C JUS mh
i[P Pnk (Pleomorphic) G.P. BzUh C

\[QU
Pi
Pi PzxU P
Pi

\[QU P
CmhP

h 1.8 Uj[P i[P

LU G AUPkQ. Pi Uj[P
A \S Aih i[P Q.
A . iPUP (CmhU P) \P J J vUQ
Shx CsishP iPU PnkQ.
B . hhPUP (\[QU P) C P \P J
vUQ Shx \P Cnx }sh \[Q i
Pnk.
C . hmPUP ({S P) \P Csk vUQ Shx
{S {S uSPPU Pnk.
D hLPUP (PzxU P) \P vUQ
J[P v Shx Pi \P PzxU
PzuP EUSQ.
E . \] \P J[P v vUQ Shx J
P\x A EUSQ.

29
 Pi Uj[P uzuP CmhP Ax
\[Q Pnk. PUj iLw G P
i Ujzv \P JUP AP {UPP
wUSa] AkUPmkU Pnk. (\m A).

Uj Pnk P\ A
Azx P vS Uj[P P i
Uj[P J ] P i Uj[P P\P

J P\ J P P\

_ P\
C P\

P\ A

h 1.9 Uj P\ A
PnkQ. P\ A x GsoUP
A Aih Csk x PP kQx.
1. A PP Uj \ J
Ax Au C Ax Pnk uzv
Aih RUPsh P kzukQx.
A) JU P\ P J J J P\
mk Pnk.
B) J PU P\ P J P Ax J uSP
P\P J mk Pnk.
C) C U P\ P \ Csk P
P\P Pnk.
2 . _UP\ A CP \a _ Au
PU P\P Pnk.
3 . P\ CP Uj[P P\ Pnkx
C.
30
P\ oP
va \bPU P\P Pshx Au {UQ
{PQ. Cu P CUP US vz ysh {P (Chemotaxis)
G . ] P Uj[P J Smh v\ \uP
vmP Ax. En mP yshUS H Au
{UQ {Pu { vz ysh {P (Positive Chemotaxis)
GQ. v mk (w UPUTi) Qa
\ |P Gv vzysh {P (Negative Chemotaxis) G
AUPkQx.

Uj Enmh
u\ Fmh Uj[P
] Uj[P u[PUSz u Enz uz
uzxU PQ. G A u\ Fmh Uj[P G
AUPkQ. A ] J u\ Fmh Uj[P (Photo
autotrophs) G.P. . ] va u\ Fmh Uj[P (Chemo
autotrophs) G.P. {m\ {mUh.

J u\ Fmh Uj[P
CP Uj[P ` J BuPU Psk En
Ezv \Q. B C PmiU Ja \ EP
} U TP x B v. G
Uj Ja \UP x BU (O2) hkv.
m A Aih zx C RPsh
PkzukQ.

A[PP Ju\ P (Photolithotrophs)

CP A[PP mP m AP
\kQ. _ PuP Uj[P (G.P. S)
m \Lk (H2S) m APa \kQx. Cv
Pnk _[PoP Uji BS.
Fu PuP Uj[P (G.P. Smi) u \Lmk
m AP \kQx. Cv E _[PoP
Uj SL BS.

31
A[PP J u\ P (Photo Onganolithotrophs) C A[PP A[P
Ax BPP m APa \kQ (G.P.
h Fu PuP Uj[P).

v u\ Uj[P
CP Uj[P Ja\UP |P Cuu C
J B kzvU P iv. AuS vP C
A[PP A[PP mP BQ H B ATP
i Q. CP mh B
P&h&BUh BU H \x A[PP mP
EUP kQx. BU H Ah mP
Aih C RUPsh P kzukQx.

A. A[PP va \ P (Chemolithotrophs)

Cv A[PP mP BU H Ahx B
kzxQ. G.P. PuP Uj[P (u])
2H 2 S+O 2 2S+2H 2O+ B C Uj[P (L])
m Uj[P (i ), {m
|kzx Uj[P ({m\, {mUh)
BQ BS.

B. A[PP va \ P (Chemo Organotrophs)

CPP A[PPU Tmk mP BU H Ahx
B kQx. G.P. zu Uj (zuPUP)
A]mh Uj, Uh] BQ A[PP va
\ PUS GkzxU PmkPS.

Fmh Uj[P
C u En uUP Cuu Fmh a
\x. A mSsoPP (G.P. ] \i),
JmksoPP (G.P. u Jmkso & \u ]m /
[S JmksoP (G.P. ] Bz]) u
JmksoP (G.P. P) Ax T] Skz
u P Cx Tmk UP Cnx
Q.

32
Uj Pnk _\
PmhU Pa _]P (Obligate aerobes)

CP Uj[P Cv GUm HP BU \
kQx. C P Ch[P v (Aux BU
Cu Ch[P) ] UPUP Uj[P Pmh P
_]PP Q (C E PmhP BU
ukQx).

P _]P (Anerobes)

CP Uj[P uP ]u zvP
BU ukv. B {vzu P
C B Q. G.P. Qmi
PLU Uj[P : C P&h& BU\h
kzv Uj[P BS.

| P _]P (Facultative Anaerobes)

CP Uj[P BU GUm HP kzv

BU H Ax P {h {vzu
P B Q. CP
| Pa _\ Uj[P ""Pa _]P'' G
AUPkQ. G.P | Pa _]P
] {[P ] U Pmi { u Ch[P u[Q
P P A[S CUPUTi Azx BU EQzx
P ]u zvS Q. Cu A[S
P | EQx. A[S E P _\ Uj[P
uS { EshUP C SUQ.

GshP
C P i Uj[P \uP `|P x
EQ. Avmh\P {P
EshUS Uj[P hmh BzU Uj[P u)
Gs hP EUSv.

33
CUP
CshP zu
P CUP S P
(Binary Fision)
Uj[P PnkQx. Cu PnP Uj[P Av
UPhQ. Cu P uP u,
En mP Pmk u BQ |PQ.

CUP
PmkP EUP, PmkP Cn BQh |P
CUP Gx Uj[P Qhx. G,
u[P Uj[P P \UP
|PQx. A. (Transduction)
1. Cn (Conjugation)
2. mhU (Transduction)
3. C (Transformation)
1 . Cn : CP \UP [Q \x
P \h CnQx. x
Cn Sz uUQx. F + (Po) Eh
[Q \ m CmihQx. i.G.H J C
mk CnU S P \US ~Qx. Cu
CUS Cn i.Gs.H C \ Ezv
\x PQx.
2. mhU : Transduction: CP L (Bacteriophage) u
E P [Q i.Gs.H \US Gkzxa
\kQx.
3. C : C P \, [Q \ i.G.H.
CP Ax UPmhP HU PQx.
Uj[P J ] C[P Cx C zv
Eh. C [Q i.G.H. }UQ U
PQ. Ba \ C UPmhP
\P yshkQx. AvP Ea \
vj | u BQ \P P
C yshmk \US A kP

34
 [Q Uj Uj
(kh Tix) (k A)

m C
xsihu Cn i

[Q C Cmiu
C Cmiu

Cnu i u

[Q Uj Uj
(DPh Ti (DPh Ti
k Ehx) k Ehx)
h 1.10 Uj Cn

Em\zukQ. Cx PmhP \US A

kP Em\zv Uj C zu yskzu
US AihP AQx.

35
Uj[P u UQzx
u Ah Uj[P [S QUQ. ]
Uj[P w, ] uUS u BS.

w US \P.
1. Uj[P u[PUS EshS ] {P

J { EshUS
uzv { Ujzv

Ga\ ]m PP \u ]m

{ Umj \u K\

zv Pn C \u

w { `h \

Pm AP G Pmh

2. Uj[P [SPUS EshS ] {P

J { { EshUS
[Q Ujzv

BkP BzU Bz

kP \ \ Ah

\ BkP \ \ mh

3 . UjUP uUS Hk ] {P
{ { EshUS Uj
P P
hLk \ hL
mS] UPUj mS]
36
Uj[P { US \P
1. P }UP
mSso Uj[P P mP E A[PP
mP ]uUPkQ.

2. u, [S Ga\[P ]uUPku
u[P, [SP BQ Cu Eh[P mSso
Uj[P ]uUPkQ. ]uzx UP EUP
C so, shzv kQ. G CP
Uj[P CP P }UQP (CP umi) G
AUPkQ.

3. s
1 . Ph
AUS Uj[P Cu u, [S
Eh[PUS ]UP u[P AP
A EPP Q.
2 . {mUh {m\ {mmhUS
Uj[P A EUP {mmk
{mmhP Q.
3. AmhUh, Qii \ (Tmk
Uj) {m |kzx Uj[P
sh {m A[PP {mP Q. Cx
Uj[P \P s AvPUQx. {m
Ah[Q Tmk mP {mP BU H
AhQ.

mP _]
P, BU, {m PuP BQ u[P
_] Uj[P UQ [S QUQ. CP `|
C J \| EshUSQ. CP P }UQP
Uj[P \mk A[PP mP BU H \x
Ph&BUh kQ. {m Ah[Q A[PPU
Tmk mP AP u ]uUPmk
{mmk AP {mmk APP {mmhUS

37
Uj[P BU H \ kQ. E u[P Cu
AP kzv A[PPUTmk mP Ezv
\Q. {m }US Uj[P {m Ah[Q
Tmk mP BU H \Q.

u\ Uj[P [S
1. uh mP u\
UiU A Uj (G.P. hhPUP Ui)
E Uh \UP UiU AP Q.
C12H22O11 + H2O ---- 4C3H6O3 + B
Uh UiU A
z uP Uh] PP Uj
hU PmiP Uh ] AhL G
UiU A Uj EPkQ.
2. UPi (P)
AmiU A Ujzv (AmhUh Amh) \
P (AmiU A) Ezv \kQx. Pa
\UPx (molasses) mh Guzv BP Cu Uj
{vUPa \x P EshUSQx.

3. BP Amh
Qii AmhmiUP G P _\
Ujzv {vzu \ Pa \UPx mh
BP, zv BP Amh BQ
kQx.
P, u PL ukzxu
] Uj[P {vzu \P u, P
PUPmh BQ AUSzu nzu
Q. Cx u, P PL ukzxu
GkQx.
{P zukzu
Qii ] Uj[P \P { u
u[Px {P zukUPkQ. Cx mi[
GkQx.
38
zxzv Uj[P [S
1. ~sq PP
~soPP Uj[Pu kQ.
G.P. m ( \i) U (
U]) hh] (hh\ Q]).

2. mhP
uU Sh G\ P mh K
mh B BQ Ezv \Qx.
Qii G Uj ][P \UP {vUPa
\x mh B2 Ezv \Q.

Uj[P [S
UT A Cu si {
A, ~soP, SP, G.P Uj[P
Psh Aa]P BS. u C_
UjUS oP vP, , C_ Ezv
\x Cv J ShzuSu BS.

E w[S PPP Uj[P

Pa \u xgb]
Uj[P, ]P snzx a]P UPU P
k. Cx Uj[P u[PUP
SPUP Gu J v Cuu C Hk
{PU Pmk kzu kQ.

_ vk
J vs
\ hz uukUP.
1. _[ PuP Uj Pnk a\ |
A) Uj a\ B) Uji
C) LUP\ D) LUP Gz
2. izu Eh \ C AUPkQx.
A) [P B) LU
C) TmkP D) Q & {Pmi
39
Pimh Chzu |P
1. {P PP mh &&&&&&&&&&&&&& BS.
2. &&&&&&&&&&&&&& Uj[P a]US Co2 A]Qx.
3. vmP \bP {P Uj {P &&&&&&&&&&&
G AUPkQx.
4. Uj Ja \UP x &&&&&&&&& hkv.
Csk vsP
1. P\P G G?
2. Q & m-i U-j
-
- [-P G- G-?
3. Q & {Pm-i U-j
-
- [-P G- G-?
4. v u-\- -P G-k
-
-
- -?
5. C- - G- G-?
6. U-j--[-P- u-[-P-U-S/-u-P-U-S H--k {-P {-
Q -P-U T-P.
7. U-j
-
- [-P
- ""C-P- P- }U-QP
- '' G H AU-Q
- ?
8. U-j--[-P----x --k ~s-q- P--P- -P-
G-x P.
I- x v- s- P
1. U-j--[-P- u-- i-[-P ? Gkz-xU-Pm-kz uP.
2. U-j
-
- [-P
- P-- P\-
- A-P
-
- -.
3. u-\--P- U-j--- [-Q- -.
4. s--z-v U-j--[-P- [-Q- U-S-P.
z- x v- s- P -
1. U-j
-
- - Pn-k
- C--
- U-P -
- -.
2. U-j--- --u-- U-Q-z-x-z-u -.
3. U-j
-
- [
- P
-
- Fm-h
-
- Sz-x J Pm-k
- -P.

40
 2.3 g\P

UPP g\P u EQ \UPmk. mhUP

IxP PmkUS H g\P EP u EP
(BP, LmkP, hhLmkP
P) BQ Csk u EP[PP C[P
UPmk. (Bg] P }[PP).

] sP

g\P a\ Au PmiU E[P. C

CQ PP |{mhmh P EU
TmhS. C G Ch[P PnkQ. u[P
C \P _ PnkQx. B C
u[P UQ sPU Puk a\ Qhx. g\P
h Px. } E Ch[Px | C
h x. C Csh D\ | Ch[P, P
FmhmP | u[P PnkQ. PP
(mushrooms) kP DmkP S \unPU Pnk
g\P. Cu EPzv C QUS UQ [SUPP
u vP zx vP uUS P
ku. g\P P UQzx uuuPU
PukQ. g\P A UP
(g\) GkQx.

~sq }UP \u Ba \ ~sqP

zu (culture) ~m[P Uj[P
g\PUS Pku UP G C
~sq (Microbiology) J P Ex.

41
g\P usP
1. g\ \PUS _ Esk. C Pmi Gk
A]mh SUP\ ASP B J Bx.
2. CP a\ Qhx. G C Fmh
Eh. C mSsoP, JmksoP Ax
TmkP E.
3. xn iPUPi g\Pz u Azx
g\P {P v.
4. \ u\ Qhx. Gsn QUP
BS.
5. P CUP \Q. G
UP PnkQx.
A
g\ Eh u ux. Cu Eh J \ Ax
\P Bx. \P g\ {S Qzx
i LUP Gk CP B.

uk _h Ti L
uk _ A L

uk _
|UP
(^\miU)

h1.11 ^miUL
uk_PhTi L

LUP Azx \x zuP ^ G

AUPkQx. LUP Es \PP
UPh. A mh\ uha]P Ax
A[P[P \h (septum) Gk. SUSa _Ph
PnkQx. Cu SUSa _P LUP \P
SvPP UQx. CP LUPx SUS _
EhP (septate) Ax SUS _ A (aseptate)
Pnk. SUS _ A LUP |UP E.
CuS ^\miU (coenocytic) G . J L C
, Ev \ _ `mkx. Cx {mh

42
Ti \UPkP B Pmi G B.
PqUPP (arthropods) GU Tmi (exoskeleton)
Pnk Pmi BS. \mh\zv Pmka
\P UPPU Pnk ~sqP
mhPsmP, PP EP, Gsh\ ,
\P USP BQ PnkQ. vu
LUP USP P \mh\ _
Jmi J hP PnkQ.

En Fmh
g\P Fmh U Psh. Aux APUS
P[Px mh P ukQx. A
A[Px mh {m ukQx.
g\P Enmh xP Eg_ G
UPkQx. H C u[Ph EhzxUS
E Fmh Eg] GkzxU PQx. [SP CuS
P En u EmPmk Eg\kQx. G
g\ En \zu \US E {vP
Eu {hQx. g\P ux Fmhzu
mSsoPP, JmksoPP Ax TmkPP
Q.

mSsoP
Cu AQ mPx u[P Fmhzu EP
mSsoP GkQ. mSsoP Cu P mP
x {vPa _x Aa \UQ. G En \zu
EUS {hQx. C {h x PU
Ti mP g\ Ehzu Eg\mk u
UPkQ.
mSso Uj[P g\P ]u GkQ.
Fmh mP _], mPa \v C UQ
[S QUQ. C mS (humus) Gk
EshUSQ. mS Gkx Fmh mP EhUQ
AQ P mP h BS. \a ]uUS
v \ G {va _US ] g\P
]uv UQ [S QUQ. u \ UQ A[PP

43
\ Eu C \\U _P
]uUPmk mPQx.

JmksoP
E E Ax Au J E
Jmkso Gk. JmksoUS En Ch
BQ AUS E J GkQx. xP J
]zu \uuS. Jmkso CuS w
Qx. { EshUS JmksoP { u
(pathogens) GUPkQ. ] JmksoP E \P
mk x . C Pmh JmksoP Ax E\
P (obligate parasites) GkQ.
] g\P Kz uUQPQx. Au
Gg] x mSsoP Qx. C JmksoP
(facultative parasites) Ax v_a\u EP (necrotrophs)
GUPkQ. CP Pmh JmksoP Ax
JmksoPP E.
g\P [SPU Pmi u[P AvP
uUSQ. LUP CzxP Ax {hP
QmiUQ Ax zu Ax P[P P
E~Q. J \PUQh LUP {S
Qzx, ] {[P Ui (pectinase) G {va
_UQ. C{v J \P \_P AkUP
\zx kQx. uhx \ G {v \ \
_ ]uUPmk \ AUPkQx. \ EmP
g\ {iP Eg\kQ. Ax ] {vP
_x A \UPkQ.
Pmh JmksoP FkuS Eg_uS ] ]
AP EUSQ. C hUP (Haustoria)
GkQ. hUP G LUP mh
a]S. C u U Psh. \
\ ]uUP \ AUP \US ~Q.
KmksoP hUP EshUSv.

44
Tmk UP
g\P Csk UQ Tmk UP DkkQ.
(1)UPP (2) UP\UP.

UPP
Cx BPUPUS g\PUS ChU Pnk Tmk
UPS. xP Cv Pnk BP a\ BP Ax
}_ BP BS. g\ BP^mk Ax
]i^mk Sa \u. BP Ja\UP
P Ezv \x g\US [SQx. g\P }
u[P Eg_v EuQ. g\P } \zx
v EuQx. Cu PnP ] UPP u[P
Cu P _zu sh | iQx.

UP\UP
g\PUS ] E u PUShU Pnk
Tmk UP UP\UP BS. | z
u[P |zv E g\Ph CzuP uh HkzvU
PQ. g\P J E A Hkzu
(GUhiLU UP\) Ax v_UPUS C
Fka \ (GshiLU UP\). GUhiLU
P PkP Pnk a, HU P F]z u[P
PnkQ. C Pnk g\P ]i ^mk
a \u. Cg\P [Px Pimk
mhP Q. AuS vP so mQ
Pnk u[P A A[PPa ]uUQ. C GuP
u[P Eg\kQ. g\P mk
AP GuP Eg_uP Fmh AvPUQ.

g\P Pk
UPP g\P u[PP Pumk u.
BPUPUS CnP J SP Pumk uLmh G
R u EQ C Pkzumh. C R E
u[P u G Eh Eh, S v_UP
, usk, C G u Gx zu iu Eh BS.
G z (Ainsworth 1973) G g\ {

45
 EUPmk h (Webster 1980)
G mh g\P

UPmi
imi
Pk R PkUPmkx.

: UUPmh
C P A\un
EP. \ _ A.
i |UPh
UPmi

Ti mh\zu Eh
]i

izu B. ] ]
mP [Q E .
Ak CUPzu Eh.
TPm. 1.12 gNLu YLlT (GnuvYoj)

Ax A \P
Pmh

B ]h izu
B. (Pseudoplasmodium) Csk
UPmi

. Au C
AP

kP GUPkQ.
jL ^m

C SP Eh.
g\P

: UPmh
UPmi

\ _Ph Es
\P

g\P C. Cu R Ix
xn P E.

A. iPUPmi
U\UPmh

`P EshUS. g\P
C. }
U\^m

Cu R SP E.
J S J P
UPmi
iP

`P EQ.

2. \PUPmi
AU]^m

Eh L (J
) P {P v
H P. UP,
Csk, |UP Eh
Pmhg][P Cnx
46
\P EUSu {hQx. Cu PnP
\P^mkP Cn g\P (conjugation fungi) G
AUPkQ. \_ Pmi Pmh\ G

\
UP

P P

P P

\kP

h 1.13 ] \P^mkP

B. Cv Csk SP E. \unP P
miUPP GUPk \ UP Ca
\u. \ UP U Pnk \so BS.
B UPU Pmi P AvPPU PnkQx.

C.BPUPmi
SUSa _Ph Ti LUP Eh. Eh
L (J ) P Cu R Ix SP E.
Czxn R DmkP, U PP, a\UP,
C]P PP, Qsng\P, EsnUTi
P BQ E. CUP Bi (oidia),
QhP Pi (conidia) {P v
P {hQx. Pmhg][P Cn
(DmkP) Pmhg][P \UP (]) Eha
\P Cn (\) BQ UP
{hQx. BP^mkPUP Ezu sP
Cg\P BPP EQ. Cu BP P
47
BP Gk A PnkQ. mKk
Ahu u[Q BP^mkP BPP uzxU

BPP ]
mk z u ()
Pi
BP
BP
L]
PiL

PP mkzu
Qhw] w]
A w]

h 1.14 ] BP^mkP PP

PnkQ. B k Ahu BP^mkP |

BPP uSPPa \x BPP Gk Pz
uUQ. CUPP Pk.
1. Qhw] C Esh i, i. G.P.
2. w] C Sk i (G.P.) |
3. Aw] C Qsn i (G.P.)

D. ]i^mkP
C SP Eh. LUP SUSa _
Eh. Eh C |UP Eh
(di karyophase) Cx P n a]hu E g\P
EhUQ SS. Cu CUP LUP ~
uUPk Sshuii ]i G A
Cg\PUS ]i^mkP G U Pn.
48
J ]i Au
{a_U P AhUS
~ {S ]i (Toad Stool) g\
PU Pskx.
CP g\P P
CUP AP
Ax ]iPP
Gk PPz
uUQ. S
\unP { PnUTi UQ
PP, {UShP, ]i
LxP (Puff balls)
AhUS g\P ]i
BQ ]i
^mkPUS ]
]iP mkz u
GkzxUPmkP BS. C
h 1.15 ] ]i^mkP
C P ^[P A PP
Eh. u |
Csh | ^[P.
u | ^[P Bi, Pi UP
P UPhQ. u EP
Qhx Csk ]i P Ax u | ^zv
Csk L \PUQh Cn {h. k
Ahu ]i ^mkP ]iPP Gk
PPz uUQ. CUPP Pa]vx
P x A kQ.

E. imh^mkP
C R SP E. C A g\P
(Fungi Imperfecti) GUPkQx. Cg\P
CUP | (Imperfect Ax anamorphic) AkQx.
CUP | (Perfect) Ax (teleomorphic) | Cx
Ah Ax {hv.

g\P u UQzx
uUS P g\P { UQ. C
zx, \ u BQ xP P UQ [S
QUQ. C w EshUS P E.
49
g\P ] sP
"] {mhmh' G g\x ] G
x mh {mha \u AUsh L[ G
1928 Bsk PskiUPmhx. 1940 x Cx zuS
uP Uj {PUS mhx. E Gv
mP (antibiotics) EshUS EzvPP g\PUS
E A J v Auu Hkzvx.
kPx UQ E Gv mP Ezv
\kQ.
DmkP, PP, mLP P g\P
EnP EmPz uSu. C u[P mhP
|. APP ][P A., A.B
BQ Esnz uSu. ,
.h BQ EsnU Ti PP P A
oP vP Ezv \kQ.
\z u\ miz u\ DmkP
(\U^mkP) SPa \x. DmkP \UPU
P\ BPP, P & h & BUhP {vUPa
\Q. BP \z u\P CO 2 miz
u\P kzukQ.
Ev (biochemical genetics) G u UT
E (molecular biology) G Pa]PP uS |
Q\ G g\ BUPmh Ba] Aih
Cg\, x P P kzuk \
L UQmk P UQzx uuP HU
Pmhx. H Ba]US Cg\ P
zuuP Cux. |, B BQ
g\P C Ba]US mk Q.
""g\P Cmh C Th x'' G
m\ T PzvSx. mSso g\P Cu
\ | u mPa ]uzx PP
P[PP A G[Qx u Au
`|shzxUP v AQ. CP g\P
CP Pnk P H u[P _]
||zxQ.
50
g\P w P
g\P {US Su uu EUSQ. C
UTx u mP x A nUSQ.
LSD (d- \U A hGvAk) GPm Gk.
Q\ g\x kQx. Cx J u
PP yskQx. G Cg\ PP EshUS g\
G AUPkQ. Cx uP v\ CbPUS
Ju \Q x v J En
PPP EshUSQx.
u u {PUS g\ PnP E. 1845
Bsk Ax {mi LmhLu CLh G g\
EUQ[S z uUQ ""EUQ[Q AP'' {
Hkzvx. Cu PnP A{mi Au Bsi 1
{P mi i Cu. 1.5 UP {kPUS
g\ PnP Si u. H A{mi UQ En
EU Q[S BS. Axu u { G x A
Bx. Cv g\P mk Uj
P u[PUS EshS u {P Szx
Ba] Pmhx.

Amhn 1:3 ] g\ {P
u[P ] g\ {P. {shUS g\P

1. zv h (wilt of Cotton) L\ BU
2. Ph C { \UP \mh
(Tikka disease of ground nut)
3. P ]P AP { PmhiUP LPmh
(Red rot of sugarcane)

uP ] g\ {P {shUS g\P

1. E (j) GhLmh
2. E (j) iUPLmh
3. Pii] Pih BP

51
u vk
J vs
\ hz uuk
1. g\P iUS
A. L UP B. u {
C. mk C D. UP
2. g\P \_ C Bx.
A. Pmi B.
C. Ui C. ih QUP
Pimh Chzu zv \P.
1. g\ \ En mP .................. BS.
2. hUP .............. Jmkso g\P
EUPkv.
Csk vsP
1. ^\miU ^ G G ?
2. SUS _ Eh UP G G ?
3. Pmh JmksoPx | JmksoP
kzxP.
4. hUP G G ?
5. UP\UP G G ?
6. g\P u[PUS EshS {P Csi P
GxP.
7. EsnUTi g\P PU SkP.
8. ""g\P Cmh C Th x'' G
m T USP.
9. PP EshUS g\ G AUPkx Gx ? H ?
Ix vsP
1. g\ Pnk Tmk UP USP.
2. xn P BPUPmi / ]i UPmi
/ \PUPmi C ] sPU TP.
zx vsP
1. g\P Pnk Enmh .
2. g\P u UQzx Szx J Pmk P.

52
 2.3.1 dLo
: UdLP
Eh : NLUdL]
Yl : NLUhv
\ : dLWpv
mTm : dLW
T]m : dLo
Y[Pm : dLo, J Uhi gN Bm. C TYL
Fd L[u (Pin mould) Gu AZdLlT\. "Ll Whd L[u'
G]m CR AZlTi. vTWgVm
ClT]jp 50 t]eLs Ei.
C TYL NQjp, (ERWQm vToLs LUpX
dLo P) (Mucor
mucedo) DWU] TR ALp
(Shoes), D W U ] L h l T ] vTWgV@ToLs
Whp, Al T] TZm Utm
LXo
LnLLp Utm LhlT]
AeLLl ThLu "JhPP'
Tu TPok LQlT\.
A
NR]f NXp L GRL a@T
CR] Y[odLXm. J DWU] TPm 1,16 dLo-u
Whj iP LiQ vTWgVm
UfNVd Li X ShLs Utm vToLs LiP UVm
(3 ApX 4 ShLs) dLU]
rXp Yj dLW
EYdLXm.
EPX AUl : dLu EPXm YiUV] UpV TgTu\
CZL[p B]. CR UVm GuTo. C GlTm AL A[p
[jm TX dVvL[d Lim (coenocytic) LQlT\. CRt
]^d X Gu TVo. ARY df Yo At\. AL
A[ dVvL[d LiP. UVju JqY CZdm
a@T Gu TVo. UVm Y[oR[ju GpX TLm TW\.
a@T[Ls Y[o R[jsm F Y[ou\].

53
 C]lTdLm : C dLp YPhq \m, Tp Utm
TX C]lTdL \Lm SPT\. TX C]lTdL \
Y NL_UL Lp LQlT\.
vTWgVm

vToLs
YdVp

LUpX
D
dVv

dVv
E
YdVp

F
vTo
B

Nej [ G

A
H

TPm 1,17 dLo-p TX C]lTdLm

A. EPX a@T
B. Nej [u ] PjRp
C. APokR Tp Ck [ Xm LUpX RuRp
D. vTo EYdLm
E. vTo YVt\m
F. TX dVv LiP vTo
G, H vTo [j [jR UVm EYRp

YhPq C]lTdLm
a@TdLs iPYu Xm JqY im Y[ok V
UVeL[ EYd\.
54
TX C]lTdLm
TX C]lTdLm [UPvToLs Utm
vTWuVvToLs Xm SPT\.
X NUVeLp BPvToLs XULm C SPT\Xm.
[UPvToLs
Kn Xs[ vToLs [UPvToLs Bm CY
[j V dLo RYWjR Rtdu\]. NRLU] rXLp
X NUVm dLu aT CZ dLf YoLu Rt\jRp
UdLoY Tu TX NpL[d Li
LQlTu\. CfNpLs RjR E\Vf Wk
Li Tj [UPvToL[L NVpTu\].
vTWgVvToLs ApX vToLs
vTWgVeLp vToLs EiPdLlTYRu
Xm TX C]lTdLm dLp SPT\.
NV] DWlTRm YlTXm Y[ofd ELkR
rXm Yndm T UVjk UpV
o CZLs LiP a@TdLs NejRL TPm 1,18 Dvh
Y[ou\]. CYtd vTWgV @ToLs Gu Tu\
TVo. ApX vTWLd LmLs Gu TVo. CY J BnVeLs
FkRuU EPV UuUV] CZLs. CYtu
Z WNL[ CY RtlTpX. vTWgV @Tu
Tj Yd[L U\. C EiPVL, \V vToL[
Es[PdVUL, LUpXY p ReV vTWgVUL U\.
a@Tu TdL BWmdm T As[ WhP[Nd
Ls GpXm lTd CPmTVok u\]. Ydu
Yl\UL APokR WhP[N EhLs LQlTu\]. EhTp
YdYPu WhP[Nm Ld \YLd Li LQlTu\].
CY \ Ju\Pu CQk u\]. CR]p UVlT
lT CYtdPV HtT\. Y[Ut\, EiP YY
UVlT, vToLs At\ T LUpX Gu AZdLlT\.
Yl\ WhP[Nm ClT GiQt\ TX dVv LiP
WhP [N dL[ [Rp Xm EiPdu\. JqY
dm EiP YY UtLi E\Vp ZlThP Xp
vTWL Uu\. CRu E\ Rj \. vToL[ Es[PdV
55
vTWgV E\ L UpV Utm Vd V. Rus[
NLWUPks[ ALlTV] WYju LWQUL AjRjR vTWgV
E\u WVdu\. CRu [YL vTWgVm Yj
vToLs YPlTu\]. ARY R\dLlTu\]. ApX
Lt]p Fj Rs[lTu\]. vTWgV Yo YjR \ X
LXm LUpX
Xj t\.
vToLs L
i V Y ,
E X o k R Y ,
XN]Y GuTRp
Ltp CXYL
R d u \ ] .
Y[ofdj RkR
rXu r
[j dLo
RYWUL Y[ou\].

Tp C]lTdLm
dLp Tp
C]lTdLm aU
Rd BLY ApX
aWRd
BLY CdLXm.
Bi Ti
C ] l T d L
E l L s
EiPdLlTY
CpX. + RuUs[
Utm RuUs[
a@TdL[ TPm 1,19 dLo-p TpC]lTdLm
A,B&C alTu Go]Ls WLhPgV
C ] l T d L Utm ]LhL[ EYdRp
E l L [ L f D LVL
NVpTu\]. CkR E NLvTo
a @ T d L s F Vt u NLvTo [jRp
\jRt\jp JW

56
UVL Es[]. CQ (Conjugation) \p dLp Tp
C]lTdLm SPT\. RYWjd Y[ofd TRLU]
rXLu r (EQl Ts PdLR T) CQ (LgL`u)
\p Tp C]lTdLm SPT\. JW UV] C LhLu
CQYp T]l TdLm SPT\. rLiPY T]l TdL
\ LQlT\.
YqY Tp RuU EPV (+ RuU ApX RuU) CY
RYWeLu a@TdLs L ALLL YmT WLhLs
G]lTm PlLs C aTdLu TdLYh YoLm
EiPdLlTu\]. PlLs CQk LgL`u Zn ApX
CQd Zn RtdLlT\. CdZn A[p i TRm
T RnaTdLs Ju\ h Ju W Rs[lTu\]. WLhu
TLm Tj LR YY UtLs\. ARj RPok J df
Ym Ru TLm Tj LR YY UtLs\. ARj RPok
J df Ym Ru TLm dLlT\. TLm
LhPgVm Bm. ATLm ^vTu^o G]lT\. JqY
LhPgVjs[ WhP[Nd Ls J LhPL EUu\].
CY TX dVv LiPY. ]LhLs Gu CY
AZdLlTu\]. Cq LhLm GpX YLm JW UVL
Es[]. C LhPgVeLu df Ym LWk C
LhPgVeLPV WhP[Nd Lm CQk J
NLvTW EYdu\]. CkR ^LvTo EiPV, RjR
YWp ZlThP EPXUL U L\jPu E\u WWlT]
UTu\ AUlL[d Li [e\. CRs Ll YXLs
Tt\ EQl Ts AL[ \ks[.
X NUVm CQ LgL`u Nnm aT Ju\ Ju NkjR
\m P CQl HtTY CpX. LXpXUXV
(Parthenogenitically) H^LvTo G]lTm RjR E\Vt\ UpV
E\Vp B] TojR]vToL[ EiPdu\]. HNLvTo
ToYd NLvTWl TXY Es[. E\Uhm UpVRL Cdm.
NLvTo [jRp
X LXm Kn Xdl u]o NLvTo [dLj Ye\.
Yl\ E\Yj Eh\ E\ vTWgV@To (vTWLd Lm)
ApX WUVUL Zp Tu\ Yp Y[o\. CRu p
RjR vTWgVm EiPdLlT\. vTWLd Lm [jm
JqYum J vTWgVjRj ReV Xm LQlTPdm.
CkR vTWgVeLp TX vToLs Ei. B]p LUpX

57
LQlTYpX. vToLs of APkR u vTWgVm k
YPlThP u Y[of APk V dLo RYWjRj Rtd\.
aUR^m (JjR EPXm LiPY)
JW UVju aTdLs CQYRu Xm J NLvTo
RtdLlTU]p AkR Xd aUR^m Gu TVo. JjR
Tp RuUs[ (with the same strain) a@TdLs UhU Tp
C]lTdLm NnV aURd t]eLdj RY. ERWQm
dLo Uv (Mucor hiemalis) J aURd t]Um.
ahWR^m (UThP EPXm LiPY)
ahW Rd t]eLp J vTWgVjRp EYdLlTm
vToLs A]jm + RuU LiP ApX RuU LiP
UVjRj Rtdm. JW vTWgVjk + vhWnu Utm
vhWnu RuU LiP vToLs JW NUVjp RtdLlTY
CpX. G]Y Tp C]lTdLju T RtdLlTm NLhp
+ Utm RuU JeQdLlTh LQlT\. ahWRd
t]U] ,Pp YqY RuU (+ RuU Utm RuU)
LiP C RXvLdPp Tp C]lTdLm SPT\. + Utm
RuU LiP UtT a@TdLu \jRt\jp GkRR YtUm
CpX. B]p ALjp UhU YT Ei. CY YqY T]

Ls
To
v oLs
P vT
[U
vTWgVeLs Y[of
TX
C]lTdLm

dLo
(n) UVm
Y[of

vToLs UVm UVm

(+) ()
NL vTWgVm
LhPgVm () LhPgVm
WUVm a@T (+) (+) ]Lh () ]Lh
JUVX NhP[N CQl ([vUL)
Vv CUVX
dVo CQl (LVL)
NLvTo NLh

TPm 1,20 dLo - YrdLf Zp

58
CZL[Lf NVpTu\]. ClTlThP \jp JuThm ALjp
YThm Es[ CZL[d LiPY. ahW Rd t]eL[m.
Cft]eLp T]l TdLju T C YThP TpRuU
(vhWnu) LiP UVeLs AjRjR Y[W ShPp CYL
a@TdLdm CPV NLhLs VL EiPm. CkR Lrf
aWR^m Gu lPlT\.
CWi a@TdLp + ^hWnu LiP a@T, Ti]ULd
LRlT\. Ut\ vhWnu LiP a@T Bi RuUPV.

Ru Ul
J UlTi LsLs
NV] PV RokRdLm
1. dLo CjRuU LiP gNQm Bm.
(A) Uhi (B) h YrdL \ EPV
(C) Jhi (D) V
2. dLo TYL ClT AZdLlT\
(A) Ll WhdL[u (B) Yl WhdL[u
(C) Ys[ WhdL[u (D) Tl WhdL[u
3. dLo P Cp Y[o\,
(A) TR ALs (B) AV LnLLs
(C) RYW Ei XeLu NQm
(D) Fu Ei XeLu NQm
4. dLu UVm CR]d Li LQlT\.
(A) J dVv X (B) C dVv X
(C) TX dVv X (D) Cp Hm CpX
5. CqYL C]lTdL X dLp Y NL_ULd LQlT\
(A) T]l TdL X
(B) TpX C]lTdL X
(C) YhPq C]lTdL X
(D) Cp HpX
6. vTWgVjRj Rem Nej a@T CYm
(A) vTo (B) vTWgV@To
(C) NLvTo (D) H^LvTo

59
7. vTWgVju LYY UXhl Td CYu TVo
(A) BnV (B) TpUpX
(C) LUpX (D) BkRV
8. LgL`u Gu dLp Sm LiT CqYLlThP C]lTdLm
Bm.
(A) TX C]lTdLm (B) YhPq C]lTdLm
(C) Tp C]lTdLm (D) iPRp YL C]lTdLm
LhP CPeL[ WlL.
1. dLp TX dV LiP LhLs ..................... G]lTu\].
2. ..................... G]lTY dLu CRWlThP vhWuLs LiP
LhLs CQYRu Xm EiPdLlT\.
3. dLp T]l TdLju T ..................... vToLs
EiPdLlTu\].
4. dLp Es[ LhPgVju rlTd ..................... Gu TVo.
5. vTWgVjRj Rem Nej a@Td ..................... Gu
TVo.
6. vTWgVju LYY UXhl Td ..................... Gu TVo.
7. dLu UVjp LQlTm JqY CZdm ..................... Gu
TVo.
8. ..................... Xe]NQjp dLo P Y[of AP\.
9. H^LvToLs ..................... G]m AVlTu\].
CWi UlTiLs
1. u UpLs GuTY VY ? CRu AUlT Y.
2. dLu UVjR Y.
3. ]^hd X GuT Gu] ?
4. [UPvToLs GuTY VY ? CYt\ GeL LQXm ?
5. BnVm GuT Gu] ?
6. LUpX GuT Gu] ? CR] Ged LQXm ?
7. GqRm H^LvToLs EiPdLlTu\] ?
8. aUR^m GuTR] J GjdLhPu Y.
Ik UlTiLs
1. aWR^m j AY]Yt\ GjdLhPu Y.

60
2. NLvTu EtTjdd LWQU] X] dLU] Y.
3. dLUL [UPvToL[l Tt Y.
4. dLp LQlTm TX C]lTdL \V dLUL Y.
5. dLu EPX AUlT Y.
6. dLp LQlTm YhPq YL C]lTdL \V dLUL
Y.
7. dLp LQlTm aUR^m Utm aWR^m BVYt\
Y.
Tj UlTiLs
RYV] CPeLp TPeLs YWL.
1. RdL ERWQjPu TjR RYWjp LQlTm ahW R^m
LrfV Y.
2. dLp TjR Tp C]lTdL \V TPjPu Y.
3. dLp LQlTm TX C]lTdL \V Y.
4. dLp AUl Utm C]lTdLjR Y.
5. dLu YrdL YhPjRl TPjPu Y.
6. ahWR^m Utm aUR^m LrfL[ RdL
ERQeLPu Y.

61
 2.4 B-PU-P
x- s- - P
B- P U- P u- \ - - Fm- h - - - Eh- - . a- \ Esk.
C BU--- --k P-- Ja \U-P -- E-P.
}- `- u- , - x - - P - - - P |- - - .
BPUP - - A- - x- B- P - - A- - x
LU-P - G AU-P--k-Q--x.
B- P U- P - Eh- z- v - , us- k C - Es- - -
v_UP G --k P - -n-k- v
- -. Cx-- Eh-z-u "u'
G- AU-Q-. C --S- -v-_U-P-- ---v-.
u E-Pz-ua \-u C-u B-PUP C--UP E-P --
\-P- `-m-i---v-.
- - h
---- B-PU-P } - - , {-- A-x
- Ph
} -
- . Pa ] B-PU-P- |z-v - - . P AuPa ]
C[-P Av - -} F-P - -
- , ] B-PUP h-u -
P--, a \U-P-P-- Pn--k.
u- a- \- -P } -u U-S A- -x uz-x } }-x ~s-o -
BPUP Lm- h [U- h P (Phytoplanktons) G- - k .
PhP, H- P - B- - P K S- v - P - Ai- Jm- i
BPU- P - v U (Benthic) G- - k - Q - - . ] B- P U- P E
u[P- h Tm- k - - P - - P - - Q - . B- P U- P - ]
][P g\P \-x Pn--k u- - U-P-P
(lichens) G- - k - Q - - . J ] B- P U- P - B- P U- P A- - x
Hz u- [P x u- z- u - - - - P - Q - - . C
G- -L - m-k -P (Epiphytes) G- AU-P--k-Q--. ] B-PU-P
zuLmkP (lithophytes) A- - x B- P - U - P BS.

62
u A-
A i- z- v - B- P U- P - u- - P P-
kQ. G--, ~s-o- J \ E--P--x P
U- i (Macrocystis) G- Ph- -] (Seaweed) B--P U-P -

_ BPUP
P
Qh U

]P BPUP Psm
i

Ui BPUP
\P

h 1.16 BPUP u A

u-P z-v--\ k-Q--. B-PU-P- ] J \- B-

. ] Tm-h - - (colony) u-
- U-Q
- -
- . ] C-P
- (filamentous)
B- . J \ B-PU-P Q- - h {P- v
E--uP- A--x S-- - - {P- v- Pn--k.
63
- - - - CP B Eh- z- u Eh (G.P.)
- - P- . C-P Qz-x Pn--h-. C B-PU--P
u-a-\--P u-u A-x - Jm-i- - P-P
-
- Pn-k - . C-
Aia \---x - - - P (hold fast)- Ah-x Fu-
EuQ- x . ] B- P U- P P - Eh- z- u Eh- - . (G.P.)
P- (Caulerpa) - \ - P - (Sargassum) - - - - (Laminaria)
LP (Fucus) . Um- i G- BP- , us- k - , C
- A--P- E-.
B-PU-P- _[-P-o-P[-P --P-- i--[-P- Eh.
Gkz- x U- P m- h - P Q- h- - - Qs- n i- - -, - - P-
- - i-- \U- -- {m-\z-v- i--- Eh--.

\ A |P A
ux \Uj[P G AUPk } _
]Pz u Azx ]P (algae) PmiU \ A
Eh. \_ \ Ui B.
vmhmhP UPmh |U_ \ `mh \
~sqP Esk.
BPUP P Ja\UP |P
PnkQ. A 1. a\ (Chlorophylls)
2. PmikP (carotenoids) 3. u[P (biliproteins). a\ a
Azx S BPUP Pnk. B a\ b, c, d
e BQ ] BP SP mk Pnk g\, Bg_
]P | |P PmikP GkQ. Cv
PmiP, \uLP Ah[S. } PUTi
u[P LUP Gzv (]P) LUP\ (})
|P xP hL] S \L] (ux
\ Uj[P) S PnkQ. C|P
` J ]P } J AP Dzx Ja\UPUS
EuQ. BPUP |P A A Pmi
J UQ sPU PukQx.
BPUP |, A Gu | AvPPU PnkQu
Au Aih AQx. CuS \P hL] (]P
BP) SLUP Gzv G ]P | | AvPPU
Pnku C ]P |P E. |P, _[PoP[P
E \P Azx.

64
BPUP Enmh \ mP
BPUP u\ FmhU Psh. BPUP
SP Pmmk \ mP,
u ha\P \zx UPmk. GkzxU PmhP
SL] S \ ha BS. hL]
S Li ha LL] S
ha_ UL] S \ mPP
E. Pmmhz u L L] S BPUP
mh \zx UQ. \uL]
]L] BPUP P, Gsn kP
\zx UQ. BPUP Pmi \ mP J
UQ sPU PukQ.

P\P A
BP SP P\P Ax
]UP A {P vUS PnQ. CP
P\P PnkQ. 1. \mh (acronematic) P 2. i\
(pantonematic) P. \mhP x Eh. i\
P u ~sP Aa]
PsiUS. P\P GsoUP, A \h
CnUPmiUS u, A BQ sP J S
BPS z ux. G CsP BPUP
Pmi kzukQ.
BPUP {P vh
\P Csk P\P
Eh. Csk P\ CP i\
\ } u Psiu
A I\Pm (isokont) G
AUQ. miPm \mh
P Csk P\P
}zv Ax izv h 1.17 P\P PP
kQ. } _ ]P
(\Uj[P) ]P BPUP P\P
v. J P\ zv Csk
~sSP Aua _ Jx E i Cmh
~sSP E. Cx 9+2 P A Gk. ~sSP

65
Azx J E Ax \ `mk. Azx
Pmka \P 9+2 A P\P Pnk.

CUP
BPUP P C UP P PnkQ.
1. Eh CUP 2. CUP. 3. C
UP
EhC UP xshu Ax hU QP
uu Eh CUP {hQx.
CUP P P
{hQx `P, HP HPmkP
BQ ]P P BS. `P \
_. P\Ph Ti, {P u Eh (G.P.)
Qh. HP _ Eh.
{P u A. (G.P.) S. HPmkP uizu
_h Ti. {P v A. (G.P.) zuL.

CUP
CUPzv Csk PmkP CnQ. Cn
PmkP J ux u Au uU G
ux u Au miuU P
G AUQ. Cn PmkP I\PmkP Ax
miPmkP BS.

I\P
Cv A, \u BQ Csi Jzu J v
C PmkP CnQ. (G.P.) P Qh
] ][P.

miP
CP k Eh Csk PmkP CnQ. Cx
CPk) 1) A\ P (anisogamy) 2) FP (Oogamy)
1. A\P P Cn PmkP u
Eh. B \ u Jzu (Csk PmkP {P
v Eh Ax Csk PmkP {P v A).

66
2. FP P Cn PmkP uzv \
u kQ. CP Cn BsPmk
Bu_kP G s Pmk Ash G
AUPkQ. s Pmk xP BsPmhh
uP {P v Pnk. Bu_kP
EUS Bs CUP EP Bui (antheridium) G
Ashzu Esk sq \ FP G AUPkQ.
Bu_k Ash Cnx ES \ \Pm BS.
\Pm ] SS {iP zx v uz
uUQx.

BPUP Pk
F.E. Lma ux ""BPUP A CUP''
(Structure and Reproduction of Algae) G BPUP 11 SPP,
RUPq sP Aih Pkzv. 1. |P
\UP 2. \ mP 3. P\P A 4. u
A 5. CUP.

BPUP 11 SP
1. SL], 2. \uL], 3. Q\L],
4. ]L], 5. QhL], 6. hL],
7. Si, 8. UL], 9. LLL]
10. hL], 11. U\L].

BPUP u UQzx
\zv PnUPk i EQ v Ezvzv (P|
|zuku) Phu EshQx. Ph UTi J u
C BPUP Czvz vUS Bu. BPUP u
| EzvPP UQ [P Qzx } | Ena
\[QP BP E.

BPUP EnP ku
u mk [SP P BQS UQ
EnP BPUP AQ. L ][P ,
C[Qx PL {kP EmPkQ.
A, , \P S BQ BPUP
{kP EnP EsnkQ. Ph] Gk

67
, LUP BPL BQ BPUP mk
[SPUS P{hPUS EnP AUPkQ.

\zx BP [S
Bh, A, {hU A] BQ
}_ ]P sh {m |kzv szu
AvPUQ. ^ Ph]P
PUS EP kQ.

ux BP [S
A. AP & AP
Uj[P g\P Ba\ US x
AP & AP uP kQx. ] xmP,
AS \u P u Cx EQUPkQx. AP,
AP i Q BQ ]P BPUPx
uUPkQx.

B. BU A (Algenic Acid)
BU A Gk T (colloid) BPUPx
kQx. B, IQ, AS \u mP
\P | kzuk P EQUPkQx.

C. Ai
Ai "P' G AUPk BPUPx
kQx. SP Cx ][Px
kQx.

D. hmhmk (Diatomite)
hmh G AUPk (Q\L]) BPUP
]UP | \ _P i
hmhmk G AUPkQx. Cu \P CUSx
A Ph[P HP AiSv ix P
i[PPU PnkQ. Ci [Px k
hmhmk n AvP ]UP |uP Ex.
hmhmk w uUPhu mP EshUSv,
Eg_ v |uP Ex.

68
Amhn 1.4 ] BP SP ] sP

S |P P\ \ En

SL] a\ - a,b Csk Jzu ha

(_ ]P) Pmj P\P
\uL
\uL] a\ - a,b miPm P,
Pmj P J \mh UP]
\uL i\
Q\L] a\& a,b Csk Ax Gsn
(hmh, u[P Pmi AvP P\P UP]
| BPUP) kP \ } Cu

] a\ &- a,c AuPU Pnk UP]

L] Pmi PP

QhL] a\ &- a,c miPsm ha

Pmi J i\
\uL \mh
hL] a\& a,c Csk UPmkU ha,
(hL Pmi P\P Jzu Gsn
mkP) kP i

v\P E
S a\ & a,b I\Psm P Gsn
i Pmi
\uL
UL] a\ & a,b J, Csk P,
(UkP) Ax
\P
& mh P\
LL] a\ & a Csk Jzu ,
( BPUP \uL Au UPmk P
P\P
hL] a\ & a {P vx ha
(]P BPUP) UP\
UP Gz
U\L] a\ & a {P vx \ L]
Pmi ha
UP\
UPGz

69
 C AUS u u C\ mP xP
AkUSv kQ. hmk Ezv \v
C EP kzukQ.

2. snzv BPUP [S
s n[P x CO2 Ehx S
P mP S h\ G
BP EPkzukQx. Cu BP P P P Q, Ja
\UP CO 2 kzv BU kQx.
u P mP ]uzx Avx {m
ua \UP \ kzvU PQx.

Ja \u ( SCP)
S J \ BPUP u
\x Pnku C u EnP kQ.
S mhP AvP E. A A[P
ua \zx \x Pnku S
Ja \ u \UP x kzukQ.
S G ~so P (antibiotic) Sx
GkUPkQx.

P }UP
S BPUP P P } | B
umiP UPkQ. Cu BPUP Ja\P
Sv BQ kQ. Pa _\ Uj[P
~sqP Cu BU kzv _]zx E
Q. C P Ah[Q P mPa
]uzx Au y kzxQ.

BPUP w US P
] \[P BPUP P (Blooms) Gk Ahu
Az uUQ. SP SvP AvP
Fmha\zx E Ch[P C AvP uQ. {[P
P mP } Pska \zu, E[P \
|[Px ui B, H } |Pa \u
uP {hiUPP Cu P uQ. Cu
P vj u | EzvP BPUP

70
a] h[S AvPUQx. AvP A uu A
EsnkuS P iQ. Cu Cu Eh[P Pa
_\ Uj[P ]uzx SQ. Pa _\ Uj[P
UPzv } | BU A SQx. Cu
PnP } |P E P, [SP u[P BQ
Azx AQ.

u vk
J vs
\ hz uuk.
1. LUP Gkx R UPsh x.
A. u[P B.
C. BPUP D. Ui[P
Pimh Ch[P |P
1. &&&&&&&&&&&&&&& Gkx BPUP Pnk ]P |
|S.
2. &&&&&&&&&&&&&&& Gkx BPUP Pnk } |
|S.
3. &&&&&&&&&&&&&&& BPUPUS {P \P Qhx.
zxP
Ah & B } AiSv Jmi
Pnk
GLmk &
vU & P
zuLmk & u[P x
C i & P Jmi
Csk vsP
1. BP Ehzu .
2. UPP Gk ?
3. BPUP Pnk P |P ?
4. \mhU P\US i\ P\US E k x?
5. kP G G?

71
6. I\Pm P P\ miPm P
P\ kzxP?
7. I\P / miP / A\P / FP & ?
8. AP & AP Gkx x?
9. hmhmk G G?
10. hmhmi Csk PU SkP?
11. s nzv EQUPk BPUP ?
12. ua \ u (SCP) G G?
13. P }UPzv BPUP G kQ?
14. BPUP P (Bloom) G G? Ax G HP
vUQx?
15. g\P Ui[P BPUP {P
EshUSv. Cu Pn x?
Ix vsP
1. iLP (Eutrophication) G G? Au UQzx x?
2. S GxP: BPUP Enmh \ En
mP.
3. BPUP Pnk |P GxP.
zx vsP
1. BPUP u UQzx Szx GxP?
2. BPUP CUP J Pmk P?

72
 2.4.1 vTWLW
\ : LgLpv
mTm : ^dU
T]m : ^TWLW
Suo LiP [eLs, hPLs, HLs RX]Ytp L AL
A[p TfN BpLY] vTWLW Rk Yru\. CRt olTh
(Water Silk) Gu\ TVm Ei. vTWLW CZLp Xw
(ZZll Ts) Tks[ LWQjRp Lm YYlTL Es[.
v,Ah]hPp (Spirogrya adnata) Jh Ym RuU LQlT\.
Tm p JhV Xp LQlTm vTWLW Ah]hP u]o
RkWUL, Rk p Ym E]UL U u\. "alW'
Tu\ YLs Li X t]eLs LQlTu\]. v,LXmV]
(S. columbiana) RukVp LQlTm vTWLW t]Um.
Up Es[ _d orfp v,_Luv (S. Jogensis)
LQlT\.

AUl
vTWLWu CZLs [jRXt\Y. TX NpL[p B]Y .
Ju\u Up Ju JhV Xp LQlTu\]. GpX NpLm JW
UV]Y. E[ YY NpLs ALXjR P TX UPe [U]Y.
NhPl[N Npu SY Rem
CZ Xp dVv
Xw

NpYo
Rl CPVd
YWVhV
NhP[Nm
P] [vh

AjR Np RjR T]n

s
TV YY
YdVp TeLLm

TPm 1,23 vTWLWu Np AUl

73
 CZu Np E\ C AdL[p B]. Yl\ Adp Tdd
Es[]. CY p LWk lT] J E\V (Silmy Sheath)
HtTju\]. CR] u\m Ad G]d LYm E[o. CRt
Eh\ULm WhP [vhd Yl\ULm Es[ Ad
NpXNp B]. NpLs Jt\ dVv LiPY. (Unicueleate)
dVv TYL Npu UVjp
NhP[N CZL[p APokR
NhP[NjPu CQdLlThd
LQlTu\]. NhP [N CZLs W
UoVp hds (Primordial Utricle) G]m
YZeLlTu\]. Npu UVjp J TV
YdVp LQlT\.
vTWLWp LQlTm TeLLeLs HL]h
lPj RkRY. Y[V Yp ApX s
Yp, SP Tu ThPVL LQlTu\].
ThPu hU TtL[d LiP ApX
CpXUX CdLXm. YqY t]eLp
Nps LQlTm TeLLeLu HL]h
GidL 114 LQlT\. iP SP
YY TeLLjp TX T]nLs EhRk
LQlTu\]. X NUVm X t]eLs Sm
TPm 1,24
CVdLjR UtLsu\]. vTWLW -
Y[Vp
C]lTdLm : rdLm \Lp
C]lTdLm vTWLWp SPT\.
1. YPq C]lTdLm
2. TojR]vToLs, HL]hLs Utm Hl[]vToLs Xm
C]lTdLm
3. Tp C]lTdLm
1. YhPq C]lTdLm
p Ym vTWLW RYWm Wp AXdLVlTm T
iL[L idLlTu\. JqY im im V J
jRYWUL Y[ok u\.

74
2. TojR]vToLs Xm C]lTdLm
X NUVeLp CZLu NpLs Es[ WhP[Nl ThLs
e E\p Ck k UVl Tp Ei LQlTm. CRf
Zk J RlT] E\Vf Wk Li TojR]vTo B\.
C SWVL J jRYWUL Y[o\.
TojR]_v : T o j R ] v T o L s A p X
HNLvToLs EiPdLlTRp vTWLWu TX t]eLp
LQlTu\. Ce CQ (LgL`u) HtTYpX. JqY
Npm Es[ (Conjugation) EhThLs JeQk J E\Vp
ZlTh HNLvToL[L ApX TojR]vToL[L
EUu\]. ClTlThP TojR] _v vTWLW
uXiLp (S. Greenlandica) LQlT\.

(b) H]]hLs XUL C]lTdLm

vTWLW @ToXI (S. farlowii) Gum RYWjp RjR
E\s[ HL]hLs EiPdLTu\]. CY Y[ofdj RkR
TYjp J V RYWjR EYdu\].

(c) Hl[]vToLs XUL C]lTdLm

vTWLWp Y[ofdl TRLU] rXLp
Hl[]vToLs RtdLlTu\]. Npdsdm
WhP [N ThLs i Np E\um X Kn Xd
Yu\]. SLm \]t\ CY Hl[]vTo Gu AZdLlTu\].
Y[ofdLkR rX mVPu Rnj RYWju NpE\ dLlTh
V Np E\ RtdLlTh J V RYWm Ak SWVLj
R t d L l T \ . vTWLW u G h f t ] e L s
Hl[]vToLs Xm C]lTdLm Nnu\].

3. Tp C]lTdLm
vTWLWp Tp C]lTdLm Hl[]LhLs G]lTm
\l LhLu CQ]p HtT\. CRt "Hl[]L' Gu
TVo. vTWLWp LQlTm LhLs SLm \]t\Y. CQ
(Conjugation) Xm Hl[]L SPT\. vTWLWp
LQlTm CQ C YLlT\. (1) H CQ (Scalari form

75
Conjugation) (2) TdL CQ (Lateral Conjugation) JqY Npm
J RjR Hl[] Lh RtdLlTu\. C AjR Npt
J CQd Zp (Conjugation Tube) YVL ATnPp CVdLm Xm
LPjRlT\. vTWLWu t]eLs aURd BLY
ApX aWRd t]eL[LY Es[].
aURd t]eLp TdL CQ (Lateral Conjguation)
LQlT\. H JjR CQ (Scalari form Conjugation) \p
Go GWL Es[ C CZLu Hl[] LhLs CQu\].
B]p TdL CQ \p JW CZu AjRjR NpLp
EYdLlThP LhLs (Aplanogametes) CQm.

H CQ \ (Scalari form Conjugation)

vTWLWu TmTX] T]n (NhP[Nm)
t]eLp CqRU] Tp C]lTdL s YY
TeLLm
\ Ru LQlT\. CQp Te dVv
Lsm CZLs ALLUp Ym T]n
T AYtu d YoLk Go YdVp
Go Sd \ YY Y[ofLs Bi
LhPgVm
Ruu\]. Y[of APk
Ju\Vu Ru\]. RPo Pl
Lsm CPjs[ df YoLs
LWk Zp Tu\ AUl
EiPdLlTu\]. CRt LgL`u LhLs
EWYRp
Zn ApX CQd Zn Gu
TVo. AR NUVm Npu EhLs SLm Lh

i E\um k LhL[L XjR Lh

Uu\]. CYLs LNZLs
CQd Zn
Li SLm \]t\Y. B]p
ATn CVdLm NpX YpXY. Ti LhPgVm
LgL`u Zn YVL J Npp
Ck UNpd l[] LhLs NLvTo
ATn CVdLm XUL LPjRlTu\].
[vUL V j RPok
LVLm SPT\. LgL`u TPm 1,25
Zp YVL ATn CVdLm Xm SLm vTWLWp
H CQ
NVp DTm l[]Lh
76
BiLhPLm, Htd Lsm Lh TiLhPLm
LRlT\. CWi LhLm CQkR u ^Lh
RtdLlT\. NLhPf t RlT] E\ Y[ok
LQlT\. CRt NLvTo (Zygospore) Gu TVo. Ti
CZu JqY Npm J RjR NLvTo Y[ou\. Rn
CZ AYPkR \ NLvToLs YPlTu\]. Kn Xdl
\ C V RYWUL Y[ofVP\.

TdL CQ (Lateral conjugation)

a U R d
t]eLp CqYLlThP
C ] l T d L m
SPTu\. Cp JW CQd Zn
CZu AjRjs[
Ju\u r Jus[
NpLp Hl[]
L h L s
Bi LhPgVm LhLs Ti LhPgVm
RtdLlTu\]. AY
Ju\ Ju NoYRt
RRL C
NpLdPVs[
df Yp Es[ E\ NLvTo
ThLs LWYR]p TPm 1,26 vTWLWp TdL CQ
CPY HtTh CQd
Zn EiPdLlTu\.
CRu YVL J Npp Es[ EhThLs AjR Npds
Zu\]. NLh EiPdLlTu\. LVL Es[ Np Bi
LhPgVULd LRlT\. NLhPu V Np Ti
LhPgVULf NVpT\. L Wp J RjR E\ JqY
NLhPf tm WdLlT\. CR]p AjRU] \jPm
WWlT] E\Pu V NLvToLs RtdLlTu\]. CY
Kn LXjRd LPkR u rX Y[ofdLkRRL Um T V
RYWjRj Rtdu\].

NLvTo [jRp
[jRd u]o l[ NLh Vv TlT UtLi

77
Su al[ dVvL[j
Rtdu\. (J UV
dVv) Cp u al[ s YY
dVvLs Ak TP Ju TeLLm
Uhm NVpT\. NLvTo dVv

E\ k Y[oZp
YY\. C L Wp J
V RYWjRj Rtd\.
C[m CZ

NLvTo
TPm 1,27 NLvTu [jRp

HNLvTo
HL]h
G[]vTo

TX
C]lTdLm

vTWLW

[jRp
CQm NpLp
Plj RuRp
(X)

J NVpTm dVv
CQ (TdL CQ
T]l ApX H CQ)

Su Jt\ UV dVvLs TdLm

u Ru\]

LhLu
EhThLs CQRp
u\p Tl (Vv)

TPm 1,28 vTWLW

NL^To YrdL Zu hP
2(X) YWTPm

78
RuUl
J UlTi
NV] PVj RokR.
1. vTWPLW Ce LQlT\.
(A) Ku\ EYo o (B) Ku\ Suo
(C) LPp o (D) Re tm o
2. vTWLWu NLvTo [j CjRYW YLVL Y[ou\.
(A) Su RYWeLs (B) C RYWeLs
(C) u RYWeLs (D) J RYWm
3. vTWLWu CRs T]n LQlT\.
(A) dVv (B) Np E\
(C) TeLLm (D) NhP[Nm
4. vTWLWp LQlTm YZYZlT] E\ (Slimy Sheath) X
SWeLp C G]d LRlT\.
(A) u\m Ad (B) CWiPm Ad
(C) RXm Ad (D) SuLm Ad
5. vTWLW Npp LQlTm TeLLeLs CqYYm EPVY.
(A) EiP YYm (B) m YYm
(C) RXm Ad (D) SuLm Ad
6. H CQ (Scalariform conjugation) GuT CjRYWf t]eLp
LQlTm C]lTdLUm.
(A) aURd (B) TojR]Lold
(C) mTVd (D) ahWRd
LhP CPeL[ WlL.
1. ..................... GuT vTWLWu TlTVo.
2. ..................... CY TojR] _v Gum Lru T
RtdLlTu\].
3. Npu Ujp RjR TV A[s[ dVv ..................... Bp
ReLlTh NhP[Njs LQlT\.
4. ..................... CRu Xm YhPq C]lTdLm SPT\.
5. LRd u ^LvTo ..................... TlT UtLs\.

79
CWi UlTiLs
1. vTWLWY TfN BpL Gu Hu Sm AZd\m ?
2. CQ (LgL`u-I) - YWV.
3. vTWLWu Tl TVoL[d .
4. vTWLWp LQlTm Np E\u RuUV Y.
5. Hl[] LhL[ - YWV.
6. LgL`u Zn GuT Gu] ? Hu A EiPdLlT\ ?
7. TdL CQY (Lateral conjugation) GkR vTWLW t]m
UtLs\ ?
8. TojR] vToLs GqRm EiPdLlTu\] ?
9. HL]hLs GuTY VY ? CR] vTWLWu Gft]jp
LQXm ?
10. ahWRd t]eLs - YWV.
Ik UlTiLs
1. T]nLs GuTY VY ? RdL TPeLPu Utm NV]
ERWQjPu Y.
2. NLvTW H^LvTk jRL.
3. TojR] _v GuT Gu] ?
4. H CQY (Scalariform conjugation) RdL ERWQjPu Y.
5. vTWLWu \ AUlT Y.
Tj UlTiLs
1. vTWLWu Tp C]l TdLju T LQlTm CYL
C]lTdL \L[ RdL ERWQeLPu Y.
2. vTWLWu YPm Utm \ AUlT Y.
3. RdL TLeLs dLlThP TPeLPu vTWLWu YrdL ZX
Y.

80
 2.5 WV@ThLs
YWm pVu BiLd uT XlTm TLs
(NV]TdVeLs) CkRRtm BWm pVu BiLd
uT LVhd E]eLs YrkRRtm Rpo TU
BRWeLs (fossal records) Es[]. B]p Ru RXL 420 pVu
BiLd uTLj Ru UmT APVR RYWeLs X
rXp Ru]. o rXk X rXd Um
T AYLd HtThP Rp lPjRdL WUm Y\i TRp
Bm. Ul f (Cuticle) Tu\ X \l TLl AmNeL[l
TtdLhPp CY Y\i, Wp C\k TY E.
WV@ThLu \ll TiLs
L GUV], UmT APVR XYrj RYWeLs
V@ThLs Bm. Xjp YrYRt Ht\ RLYUlL[
Lf NtTULYd LilTRp CY Cu]m DWlTN WmV,
ZX] TLXV LQlTu\]. YrdLf ZtV
UVdL Cu]m DWjR Sm Ym, YvXo dL[t\
(YvXo dL[] NXm, @[Vm PV) X Yr RYWeL[
WV@ThLs. G]Y CY RYW EXu o X YrY]
(Amphibians) Gu\ZdLlTu\].
\lT] ElL[d Lis[Rp CY BpLdL[d
Lhm UmT APkRY G]d \Xm. Bi C]lTdL El
BkRVm Gum Ti C]lTdL El BodLVm Gum
AZdLlTu\]. WV@ThLu YrdL Ztp RY]
NkR Ut\m LQlT\. UvLu, DWp (Liverworts) Utm Lm
WV@ThLs (Hornworts) WV@ThLp APem.

81
WV@ThLu RlTiLs
1. CY V X Yrj RYWeLs Bm.
2. RV] YojRlT TtdLhPm CY Rik
Rum UpV CZTu\ WNnLs Xm Y[oR[jp
Fu\lThs[].
3. m LU EldLm WNnLs EhThP RYW EPXjRp
EgNlTu\]. G]Y WNnLu CuVUVR T
FuRX Bm. EiUV] YoLu CuVUVR T
EgRp Bm. (Um EiUV] YoLs, Ri, CXL[l
TX YvXo dL[l Ttdm). G]Y X
WV@ThLu ""RiLs'' Utm ""CXLs'' YvXo
RYWeLu RiLs Utm CXLd JlTL LRlTP
UhP. RYW EPXm RXv Gu\ZdLlT\.
4. CYLd EiUV] YvXo dLs PV.
5. Bi C]lTdL ElLs BkRVm G]m Ti C]lTdL
ElLs BodLVm G]m AZdLlTu\].
6. TlLs TX NpL[p B]Y. CY UXh NpL[p B]
J TLl E\Pu VY.
7. T]l TdLm FLUv YLVf NokRY.
8. YrdLf Ztp LhP@Th NkRm vTW@Th
NkRm RYL U U Ym.
9. LhP@Th NkR KeV RuU EPV. RfNV].
10.vTW@Th NkR Lf V, iQdp UhU
LQYpX. LhP@Th NkRVf Nok YrY.
NkR Ut\m
A]j X Yrj RYWeLs, Utm X UmT APkR
X]V Tu\ X BpLdL[l Tu\ WV@ThLs

82
NkRLp Ut\jR YlTju\]. CYtu YrdL Ztp
Jt\ UV (haploid) LhP@Th NkRm CWhP UV (diploid)
vTW@Th NkRm U U Ym. CRu YrdL Zt Z
YWTPULd LdLlThs[.
Jt\UV NkR LhP@Th NkR Gu AZdLlT\.
H]p C T]lTdLm Xm LhL[ EYd\.
LhLs UhPv Tlu Xm RuYRp CY Jt\
UVU]Y. LhLs CQk CWhP UV NLhP
Rtdu\]. NLh CWhP UV vTW@Th NkRVL
Y[o\. TX C]lTdLm Nn vToL[j RtlTR]p
C vTW@Th NkR G]lT\. vToLs EYdLjt
u UVv ApX u\p Tl LrYRp Jt\UV X im
EPX C]lTdLm
(_mUdLu Y)
N
(by Gemmae)
N

RYWm
N

vTo [jRp BodNVm

N
N BkVm
N
AiPm
BkRWYnLsN
N

vToLs \ LRp
X
jR
Th
N
NLh
P@
L
h \ 2N
RX
Th
u\p Tl TW@
v
2N
vTWLVm
2N

TPm 1.29 NkR Ut\jR Lhm WV@Thu

TY] YrdLf Zt

83
m\. Jt\UV vToLs LhP@Th NkRV
EYdu\].
CWi NkRLp J NkR Lm KeVRLm, YrdL
Ztp TmTV BdWjm Es[. CkR NkR Ke NkR
G]lT\. A]j WV@ThLm
LhP@Th NkR KeV RuU EPV. Ut\
XYrj RYWeLp vTW@Th NkRV KeVRL
Es[.
YrdL Zt YWTPjp GlTm KeV NkRV Up\
Tp YWV Yim. UX LdLlThs[ YWTPm J
V@Thu YrdL ZtV [d\. LhLu
EYdLju T UhPv TlT Lr\.
LhLu EYdLju T XeLu UVv Tl
LrY TupXUp V@ThLp UhPv TlT
Lr\ GuTR Sm LY]jp Ls[ Yim. vToLu
EYdLjt uT UVv SPT\.
YLT
WV@ThLs u dV YlL[Ll dLlThs[].
WV@ThLs

1. alThdL 2. BkRNWhP 3. Uv^

(DWp YY) (Lm YY) (UvLs)
G.L. dV G.L. BkRNWv G.L. @]V
1. Yl alThdL (Hepaticae)
CY WV@ThLp Lm uReVY. UvL[ P
L GUV] AUlT EPV]. DWm \kR Zp TLp UhU

84
Y[oTY .YT CpXR RXv AUlT EPVY. WhPU
X PV vTW@Th NkR Lm GUV]. V
LXU YrTY. T]eLp vTW@Th TRm, hP, Llp
Gu jRV \. (G.L.) UoLuV. XYtp, TRm, hP
BVY PV G.L. dV.
Marchantia
UoLuV LUpX
Columella
dV
Riccia [
Branch
(Ti)
(Female)

vTW@Th
Sporophyte
RXv
Thallus
Thallus
RXv

CuYdLo
Involucre
RXv
Thallus
Fig : 1.19. Some liverworts
WNnLs
Rhizoids Fig: 1.20. Hornwort-Anthoceros

TPm 1.19 X DWp YY WV@ThLs TPm 1.20 Lm WV@Th-BkRWv

Yl BkRNWhP (Anthocerotae)
LhP@Th YT AWPVR RXv Bm. WNnLs
J NpXp B]Y. [Ls At\Y. WhPU X PV.
vTW@Th TRm Utm LlX EPVY. hP PV
G.L. BkRWv
3. Yl Uv^ (Musci)
DWp WV@ThL[d Lhm CY YT APkR
AUlT EPVY. APojV] i Tu\ AUlp
Ruu\]. CY UmT APk, LhP@Th, ""Ri''
Utm ""CX'' Tu\ AUlL[d Lis[. Ri BWfNUfo
EPV. WNnLs TX NpL[p B]Y, [jRY. WhPU

85
X Es[. vTW@Th TRm, hP Utm LlX EPV.
G.L. @T]V TPm 1.21. Uv@]V.

Llp
Capsule

LlhW
Calyptra

hP
Seta

[ (Ti)
Branch
(Female)

Rhizoids
WNnLs
Fig : 1.21. Moss - Funaria
TPm 1.21 Uv - @]V
T[RW dVjYm
1. WV@ThLs RWu APok, iLs Tu
Es[Rp CY Ui AlTj Rdu\].
2. vTd]m (Sphagnum) AL A[ W Eg Nj Yjd
Lsm \u EPV. SoNLp StdL[m, YhPlThP
RYWl TL[m DWUL YjdL CkR RYWm (vTd]m)
RhPdLWoLd Tm TVuT\.
3. LVl Tu h (Peat) G]lTY X UlTt\
GT[Ll TVuT\. vTd]m Tu\ X UvLs TX
BWdLQdL] BiL[L AjRlTh, Rpo TUUL
Ul u hPL U\.

86
 4. UXl WRNeLp UvLs XeLd EQYLl
TVuTu\].
Ru Ul
J UlTi
NV] PVj RokR.
1. WV@ThLu LhLu EYdLjt u
SPTY.
(A) UVv (B) UhPv
(C) LRp (D) HUhPv

LhP CPjR WlL.

1. A]j WV@ThLm .................... KeV NkR Bm.
2. WV@ThLs eLX] X Yrj RYWeLp ................... KeV
NkR Bm.

CWi UlTiLs
1. L W Q m L . R Y W E X u o X Y r Y ] G u
WV@ThLs AZdLlTu\].
2. WV@ThPu u dV YlLs VY ?
3. h G]lTY V ?
4. SoNLp vTd]m GqY ETVLlTu\ ?

Tj UlTiLs
1. oYr Zp Ck XYr Zd RYWeLs Um T
HtTPd V WUeLs j [dL.

87
 2.5.1 dV
Yl : alTL
\ : UodLuVv
mTm : dV
T]m : dV
dV mTjp
dV Uhm L AL
A[p LQlTu\
T]Um. CjRYWeLs
m NUY Xjm UXl
WRNeLm Y[Wd VY.
CY DWm \kR Zp W_ CRrLs
Tu\ AUl
TLp UhU
YZdVY. YT TPm 1,33 dV RXv
CpXR RXv AUlTd - Y[Vp
LiP dVu
t]eLs L GUV] AUl LiPY. ClT]jp UjR
Uo 130 t]eLs Es[]. CYts dVU] X uYU :
dV @lhPuv (Riccia Fluitans), ,Lu_hL (R.
Gangetica), dV VhP ((Riccia Cruciata), dV LVI
(R. Kashyapii), dV UXVuv ApX dV vLXo (Riccia
Himalayensis & R. Discolor). CYts , Lu_hL. , LxVI
Tu\Y CkVp UhU LQlTu\].
UX lhP t]eLp ,@lhPuv RW \ GpXU
Xm YrY]. ,@lhPuv J oYr RYWUm. C NX]Ut\
oj RdLeLu olTWlu Rk Yru\. Xm Yr t]eLs
A]jm DWU] T\Lu YrYRtL] AmNeL[ Ld \YL
Tts[ LWQjRp DWU] Zp WRNeLp Yru\]. YvXo
RlLs AUVl T\R dV, RYW EXu Bm@Vu (o, Xm
YrY]) Gum AZdLlT\.
okR LhP @Thu EPp AUl
dVp LhP@Th, vTWTh Gu C NkRLs Es[].
LhPTh EPXm RufNV], VNoPV, WR]U].
vTW@Th, LhPThP Noks[.
88
 lTs[m Al\j Rp

NUE\
YLs WNn

vLpLs

PoNp Ts[m LZX E\

WNn NUE\ Utm LZX
Ytl TWl E\ WNnLs
TWl
A B C

TPm 1,34 dV RXv

LhPTh, Xm TkR C\m RhPV] SP Tu\ EPXjRd
LiP. RXv G]lTm CqPXm. BrkR TfN \jPu LYhd
[jRXl Tts[. TX LYhd [Ls JudLu L SdLUL
AUk W_ CRr JjR AUY (Rosette form) HtTju\].
RXu JqY [m NqYL ApX ALlT YPV.
RXu PoNp TWlp (l\m) UVj Rlu Up RY]R
iP YlTs[m LQlT\. C RXv [u p J l
Ts[jp \. CkR l [p Ru TLdLlThP Y[o
LQlT\.
RXu YuhWp TWlp (Al\lTWl) TX Np CXLm YLm
(Rhizoids) LQlTu\]. TX NpL[p B] J Np RlPV YVXh
\jp Es[ CfNpLs, Y[o Es[ l[l Tp Ju\u
u Ju\L L SdLULj RV Rjp J UV s YNp
LQlTu\].
ofNj ALUL XeLp Ym t]eLp CfNp CXLs
Wk EWd V]YL Es[]. B]p Y\iP Zp Ym
t]eLp CY XjlTPu A[p TVRm Es[]. .
vPX] Gum C]jp NpLs LQlTYpX.
YLs (W^Ls) Jt\ NpXp B] iP Tu\
AUlL[m. X jRp, o Utm LU FhPeL[ EgRp
Tu\ Yu YXL[ YLm Nnu\]. CY CYLlTm.

89
(1) [Ls Tu\ EsYo UlL[l Tt\ LZX E\YLs Utm
CYt\l TtWR NU E\YLs G] CYLV] YLs dVp
LQlTu\]. CYts LZX E\ YLs, AY okRPu
WhP[Nm \Vj RPe u]o Eok u\].
,@lhPuv Gu\ o Yr C]jp NpLs Utm YLs BV
CWiU tm LQlTY CpX.

RXu Es[Ul
RXu d Yhj Rt\jp GV AUl LQlT\.
C TLs Cp RYLj Ru\]. (1) EQ RVdLYpX Po^v
T Utm (2) Nlj LiP YuhWp TL GuT] CYL[m.

\jRp Np
JfNodL
CZLs
TeLLm
JfNodLl T
Nll T

rl\jRp
Nll T WNn
A B
TPm 1,35 dV RXu EsAUl
A. RXv YWTPm B. TRdLlThP J T

Nlj
Cj RXu Al\jp (YuhWp \jp) RXv RWVj Rm
Tp Es[. Nlj u NpLs SdLUL CPYu
AUks[ TWuLUYp B]Y. Cj YuhWp TWlp J RY]
\jRp AdL AUd\. Cp Ru RXu Yl\ Y[L[]
NpLs, CYLlThP YLs BVY AUk LQlTu\].

JfNodL
YuhWp t Ut\m JfNodL Nnm CZLs TX Es[].
TeLLeL[d LiP NpLs Ju\u Up Ju\L AUlTt\

90
CqZLs s YdXUkR Ltd LpYnL[p dLlThs[].
JqY JfNodL Nnm o CZu ]m \Ut\ T
YY Np Ju LQlT\. A]j CZLu CkR NpLs Ru
RYt\ \jRp Ju\ PoNp TWlp AUdu\]. AjPu CkRd
Ltd LpYn JqYum \ UiPXjPu J [ Xm RPo
Lis[. Ltd LpYnL[f rkdm CZLu f NpLs
AUdm CPYL[ CdLtj [L[m.
dVp (1) EPp C]lTdLm Utm (2) Tp C]lTdLm
XUL C]lTdLm SPT\.

C]lTdLm
EPp C]lTdLm (Vegetative Reproduction)
TXYLp dVp EPp C]lTdLm SPT\.

1. RXu okR TLs C\k Ak TRp

oft\ RXu LYhd [Ldd r Es[ lt\
Uk AYRp [Ls Rjl k JqYum u]o Rl
RX^ AUdLj RPeu\].

2. YtPd [Ls RuRp - (By Adventitious Branches)

,@hPuv Gu\ t]jp RXu YuhWp TWlp YtPd
[Ls Ru AY u Rjl k V EPXeL[j Ru\].

3. Ze EiPRp
dV UXVuv (By Tubers, R. Discolor) Gu\ RYWjp
LP LXjp o Y\hVp l TLs RW H]V LhP@Th
dLs Ak u\]. lT Uis Rk RlTP\.
Ze Tu\ AUlL[ EiPdu\]. AY NRLUt\ rXVl
TdL ERu\]. im UZd LXjp Y[of iPlTh
ZeLk V dV RYWeLs RtdLlTu\].

4. _mUdLs RuRp
dV [dL Gu\ t]jp C[m WNLu l Tp
TlLs Lrk Np WsLs Ruu\]. CYtt _mUdLs

91
Gu TVo. CY Rn RYWjR hl k V RYWeL[ EiPdL
ERu\].

Tp C]lTdLm
LhPTh RX\
dVu TmTX] t]eLs U]Vv YLVf NokRY.
ARY Bi, Ti C]lTdL ElLs JW RYWjp AUkjRp.
CR (Homothalic) "aURd' Gum YZeYo. ERWQm ,[dL,
,Lu_L RX]Y aURd t]eLs. ahW Rd
t]eLm dVp Ei. dVu PVVv RYWeLd
ERWQm ,UXVuv Utm ,@lWvI RV]. CYtp Bi
RXvLs BkRVeL[ Uhm Lis[]. Ti RXvLs
BodLVeL[ Uhm Lis[].

vTWTh RX\
vToLu EYdLju T Tp oQVm SPTu\.
Vv p J
BkV A\
PhWp Es[ C
vToLs Ti LhP JfNodL
CZLs BkRVm
@ThL[Lm Uts[
C vToLs Bi
LhP @ThL[Lm
Y[ou\].
C ] l T d L
ElLs -
(BkRVeLs Utm
BodLVeLs)
RXu Po^v
BkV
TdLjp Es[ iP E\ Lm
YlTs[jtd ZL Nll T
C] ElLs Rp BkVju ClPjR BihW NhLs
Lhm RXu
ASd YNp sYhj Rt\m
J BkVm
Ju\u u Ju\Lj TPm 1,36 dV - Bi
Ruu\]. C]lTdL ElLs

92
 U]Vv RYWeLp J lhP GidLp AUkR
BkRVeLu YNm AR GidLp AUkR Bod
LVeLu YNm AjRj Ju\u u Ju\L EiPu\].
PoNp TdLl Ts[ju RWp UXkR TWlp C] ElLs
BWmTjp Ru]m AY Y[W Y[W AYt\f ts[ EPXj
dLs Up Sd RUL Y[oYRp AYt\f t A\ Ju
RYLj R\. BkRVjRl Tt\ A\ BkRV A\
Gum BodLVjR Es[PdV A\ Bod LV A\ Gum
AZdLlT\.

okR BkRVju AUl

dV RXu Ut\jp KvVp (Ostiole) G]lTm j \l
EPV BkRVp A\ds BkRVm EhRks[.
okR BkRVm EiP YY BkRVjRm X NpL[p
BdLlThs[ LmTm LiP. BkRVm X NUVm oUVLl
Ttm LQlTPXm. BkRVjRf t J NpXX] E\ TLl
LYNULj Lr\.
BkRVjs BihWNhLs Es[]. CY ofu
T BkRWYn ApX vTom Gum kRYLm
EUu\.

okR BodLVju AUl

okR BodLVm J Y YY
AUlTm. C RXu R[jPu J
LmTp CQdLlThs[.
BodLVjp B sYNf NpL[p
B] iP LjRm Ap ALu\ J
EiP YY YuhPo T m
LiP. J iP LjdLp YV UtT
B s YNf NpLs EiPdu\].
Ljd LpYnd Ut\m Su NpLs TPm 1,37 dV
LQlTu\]. ofd u]o Ljd BkRWYn
LpYs Su Ljd LpYn NpLs
LQlTu\]. BodLVm of APm T UtT NpLs
Rk LWk J lT] T[L Uu\.
93
 Al\jp Es[ TjR
EiPV] AUl JfNodL CZ Np
YuhPo G]lT\.
Lj
CRf rk R AdLp
Bod
B] E\ LQlT\. LVm
YuhPs J YuhPo Ljd
LpYn
LpYn Npm J TV NpLs

AiP Npm Es[]. YiPo

Bo d L V m o f LpYn
Np
APk Ljd LpYn
NpLs AYPm T AiPm
YuhPo LpYn Npm
AYPm. TjR AiPm
Nll YiPo
YuhPs RV T
Lm
PlT\. BodLVju
ClPjRd J BodLVm
ZZlT] Ts Lhm RXu
. Y. Rt\m
EsojRp \p W
Egl Tj AjRm
TPm 1,38 dV - Ti
RYRp NpLs X C]lTdL ElLs
J \l HtTu\. ARu
YV ZZlT] WYm YV okR BkRW YnL[
LYokd\.
LRp RPoT] NVpL[p iPlThP YuhPo NpLs Td
CQlTd TlL[ UtLi Yo NpL[ EiPdu\].
CR]p YuhPWf t C AdLs LiP E\ Ru
LlhWY Rt\du\. CRs Y[m L (Developing embryo)
AUks[.
LRp
dVp LRd o CuVUVR. u YVLY
BkRWYnLs BodLVju Zl TV APu\].
BodLVm of APm T Ljd LpYn NpLm YuhPo
LpYn NpLm LWk ZZlT] T[L Ut\UP\. CTTs
W Egl TlTRp NpLs k J TR HtT\. CRu
Xm BkRW YLs Ljd LpYVd LPk YuhPW APk
AiPju AL Yu\]. J BkRWYn AiPjRj [j

94
LRp Lr\. LPV Bi Ti LhLs CQm uL
HtTh NLh EiPdLlT\. NLhp 2 GidLp
WUNmLs (CUVX) Es[].
vTW@Th NkR
l[ NLh Ru vTW@Th RX\u Rp NpXm.
LRdl u CkR Np A[p TR YuhPu EhTV
Wl\. \ TlT UtLi CNp XV AP\. Ut\f
Np GT^p Np G] rl\f Np aTTNp Np G]m
AZdLlT\.
LlhW
Llu E\

A vTW]v NpLs

LlhW

Llp
Gd^vTVm
vTo GiPvTVm
PhWLs

dVv
B
C

TPm 1,39 dV - vTW@Th

A Y[m vTW@Th B okR vTW@Th C RjR vTW@Th

vTW@Th : GT^p Utm alTT^p Gum Lu

C NpLs Um TlTPk Su Np X APu\]. C Um
TlT UtLi Gh Np X Ruu\.
AjR Xp Lp rdLm C TLs Ruu\].
Yl\ Bm@Vm Utm Eh\ GiPVm GuTYV AY.
CYts Bm@Vm TLll TV UtLs\. GuPVm,

95
vTW]v Np W[ HtTju\. vToRn NpLs
vTW]v NpLk RtdLlTu\]. vTo Rn NpLs
Vd TlT UtLsYRp PhWLs RtdLlTu\]. CqY\L
Su vToLs LiP vTo PhWLs RtdLlTu\].
of APm T vToLs, PhWhLp Ck dLlTu\].
vToLs al[ (J UV) RuU LiPY. RXv AYPm
T vToLs vTW@ThP ApX vTWLVjR h
YVt\lTu\].
vTu AUl
okR vTo 3 AdL[d LiP. Yl\m Es[ hu
LiP Ad G^vTVm Gu YZeLlT\. UV Ad
^vTVm Bm. Es[d GiPvTVm Bm. CRVj
NhP[Nm J al[ dVm AR]f t GiQn
rLs TXm LQlTu\]. vTo [j LhPThPL
U\. al[ vTo Ru LhPThPL U\. al[
vTo Ru LhPTh RX\d LWQLojR Bm.
YrdL YhPm
RX\ Ut\m dVp LQlT\. al[ LhP@Th
RX\m l[ vTW@Th RX\m U U ClT]jp
EiPdLlTu\]. rdLm TPjp dVu YrdL YhPm
LidLlThs[.
al[ RX\ LhPTh Gu\ AZdLlT\. CRtd
LWQm LhPTh Tp C]lTdLjp Te Li Bi, Tu
LhL[ EtTj NnY Ru. LhLs UPv Xm
EiPdLlTu\]. G]Y LhLm al[ Ru. dVu
Bi Ti LhLs CQk l[ NLhP EYdu\].
C AjR RX\V] l[ vTWThP Rtd\.
vTW@Thk Vv Tl Xm vTo PhWLs
RtdLlTu\]. vTo J UV RuU EPVY. CRu LWQUL
al[ X im RtdLlTh LhPTh RX\
EiPdLlTu\. dVp LhP@Th RX\V WR]U].
JeL] LhPTh Utm vTW@Th NkRLdPV NkR
Ut\m SPTYR dVu YrdL YhPjp LQXm. CRu C

96
NkRLm \jRt\jp JW UVL CpXR LWQjRp dVp
LQlTm NkR Ut\m EJqY NkR Ut\m Gu YZeLlT\.

Vegetative
EPX
reproduction
C]lTdLm

dV
Riccia
LhP@Th
(gametophyte,
(n) n)

Sexual
reproduction Sex organs
C.]lTdL (n)
ElLs
Germination (n)
vToLs [jRp
of sporesT]TdLm
antheridium (n)
BkRVm (n) BodLVm (n)
archegonium (n)

spores(n)(n)
vToLs
antherozoid (n)
BkRWNYn egg (n)(n)
AiPm
Gametophytic (n)
LhP@Th NkR
generation fertilization
LRp
Vv vTW@Th Sporophytic
NkR
Meiosis
vTo Rnmother
NpLs generation
spore cells (2n)
(2n) zygote (2n)
NLh (2n)

sporophyte (2n)
vTW@Th
(2n)
TPm 1,40 dV - NkR Ut\m
LiP YrdLf Zp
RuUl
J Uod LsLs
LhP CPeL[ WlL.
1. . vLXo ..................... G]m YZeLlT\.
2. . ..................... J oYr RYWUm.
3. RYW EXu ..................... Gu dV TYL AZdLlT\.
4. dV RXu ................ \jp J hP YhPU] iP YlTs[m
Es[.
5. dV RXu ..................... TWlp NpLs (Scales) LQlTu\].

97
6. vLpLs (NpLs) ..................... \PVY.
7. dVp ................ Utm ............... YLlThP WNLs LQlTu\].
8. RXu ..................... \jp TeLLm LiP ([W@pXv)
NpLs LQlTu\].
9. dVu LRd ..................... CuVUV RYlT\.
J UlTi
NV] PVj RokR
1. dV vLXo CY]m YZeLlT\.
(A) . dVhP (B) . UXVuv
(C) . LxVV (D) . Lg_L
2. . @lnPuv ( ) CjRuU LiP RYWUm.
(A) Rk Ym RYWm (B) Jh Ym RYWm
(C) p r Ym RYWm (D) Xm Yr RYWm
3. rdLm YPjp TmTm dV LQlT\.
(A) Y\iP Zp LiP (B) o WmTl Tt\
(C) DWU] Zp LiP (D) ExQU] YWiP T
4. RYW EXu o Xm YrY] Gu CY AZdLlTu\]
(A) dV (B) S@lWXv
(C) vTWLW (D) NLv
5. LYhd [jRXd LiP dV CkR \m LiP.
(A) BrkR TfN (B) YV TfN
(C) Tl LXkR TfN (D) BrkR Yl
6. dVp LQlTm NpLs CjRuU LiPY.
(A) TX Np LiPY (B) C Np LiPY
(C) J Np LiPY (D) u Np LiPY
7. [ T u \ E s Y [ o f L i P W N L s C l T
AZdLlTu\].
(A) YZYZlT] Y (B) NoWPh Y
(C) hToXh Y (D) XUhPY
8. RXu PoNp T CqYLj Yd Lis[.
(A) Lml[dv (B) Nlj
(C) GiQn LiP (D) JfNodL
9. dV vLXo RYWjp YhPq C]lTdLm rLiPY Xm
SPT\.
(A) ZeLs (B) LkRm
(C) RiPd Ze (D) XUhPd Ze

98
10. dVu okR BodLVm CkR Yp LQlT\.
(A) iPo YYm (B) Y YYm
(C) m YYm (D) NqYL YYm
CWi UlTiLs
1. Ge Sm dVYd LQ CVm ?
2. RYW EXu o Xm YTm RYWm G ? C Hu AqRm
AZdLlTu\ ?
3. dVu CYLlThP YL[d j GL.
4. Ltd LpYnLs Ge LQlTu\] ? AYtu ETVLjRd
lL.
5. dVp LQlTm YhPq C]lTdLjR dLUL RL.
6. dVp C]lTdL ElL[d lL.
7. dVu LhP@Th RYWm - dLU] [dLm RL.
8. dVu vTWTh RYWm - dLU] [dLm RL.
9. dVu RXv - dLU] [dLm RL.
10.vTo PhWh - dLU] [dLm RL.
Ik UlTiLs
1. dV RXu \jRt\jR Y.
2. dVu YhPq C]lTdLjR Y.
3. dVu Tp C]lTdL \V Y.
4. RXu AL AUlT Y.
5. dVu okR BodLVju AUlTm LRp
LrfVm Y.
6. dVu vTW@ThP [dL.
Tj UlTiLs
1. dVu \ AL AUlL[ Y.
2. RdL TPeLPu dVu C]lTdL ElLu AUlT Y.
3. dVp LQlTm C]lTdL \L[d j dLUL
[dL.
4. RdL TPeLPm [dLjPm dVu YrdL YhPjR Y.
5. E JqY NkR Ut\m GuT Gu] ? TjR HRm J ERWQm
Li CR] [dL.

99
 2.6. hh LmkP

C oP, QP Sv P (horsetails)
Gk u[P Ah[S. P hhLmk,
x BskPUS ] Pzvx
GkUPmh u i ( Fossil) BS. Cx Au
S v_UP Eh Pz u u
hhLmkP BS. S u Gk S
v_UP Eh. Aux Phzx v_UP \
Lzu Eh. ] {[P Azx S
u[P iUQLmh G J UPkQ. Cx
LmkUP BPUP Pnk G Phzx
v_UP Ax S v_UP UQzxzu SuP
BS. iUQLmh hhLmP k
Ahu mhLmkP (u E u[P) Csk
EmPS.
S v_UP Lmk u Pnk
v_UPS. Lmk u LmkP P
SQx. PmhLmkz ua \x x. S
v_UP PmhLmkP A LmkP
Euu S u[P Lmkz u
J[QuP Ex. E US u[Ph Jkx
hhLmkP S v_UP ] k Ahu
sP PsiUQ. hhLmkP \zv
iURkP mk E. SP Qhx. Lzv \ha
\P mk E. \hU SP Qhx. S
v_UP Csk UQ oP PQ. uuP A
Phzx v_UPP \mk } En mP u
EhzvS PhzxQ. Cu ]UP Ehz
uQx. CshuP Phzx v_UP J \, U
G uih Ti \P Ehu C AvPi
Ev . G C u[P
Ehz u[SQ.

100
hhLmh ] sP
hhLmkP S v_UPh Ti zu
BS. C uP A. iUQ Lmh z
u[P (S v_UP Ehzu[P) C P
G. hhLmkP uU Pu EP[Q
Pnmhz u[P.
C CS
v P U
oP E. T
Ch Jkx
o Au H
hhLmkP \L C

G s o U P
SP
E. C Pa ]
\iPP E.
\kP
D\ Su, Su
| } SvP
h 1.22 ] CPh Ti
C Q. hhLmk & \
hhLmkP usP
1. Cu UPa _] u miLU u
PnkQx.
2. u Eh Ax Lmk K[Q u BS.
3. Lmi Es , usk CP BQ
Esk.
4. S v_UP Aux \ Pnk.
\zv SP Qhx. B mURkP Esk.
Lzv \hUSP xn \P Qhx.
5. CUP P {h.
6. hhLmkP P Aux
J J P P EUS. ] ][P
mi Aux Csk P P
EUS A. 1. P. 2. ]
U.
101
7. Pzv u \P S SUS S P
EUSQ.
8. P[P Eh CP LP Ax P
C GkQ.
i h
i

A i sh

\ m k
ua\i C u
A

\ m k
C u \
A
\ h P
\\i

h 1.23 oP

9. P zx PmhLmhz uUQ.
PmhLmk J, \P Bx. _x,
u\hx.
10. PmhLmk \P B Pz
uUS. Bs Bui G s
BUQP G AUPkQx.
11. Pa _ mk \P B E Esk.
12. BukP P\Ph Ti. _sh.
13. BUQPzv E Pu |PQx.
14. P vuS Bs Pm PuUPP
BUQPzua \h } A]Qx.
15. P \Pm PP Qx.
] CPh Ti hhLmkPUS GkzxUPmkP
\mh, UPi, \ \mh, DUSmh
BQ.
102
 oP P ] JP EP hhLmkP
BS. C CP Eh. C EP[Q U
PnkQ. PkP P, P SvP C P
\h Q. \unP { PnUTi oPUS
GkzxUPmkP {L JLU Bsh,
h, Aish, ^, A\, \ BQ BS.

mi
] hhLmkP PmhLmkz u u
Lmkz
UP C
ua \u
US
P

x U P P U

CUQx. Cx PP C
u[P Csk UP
Bsu
P P PP u EUSQx
C usk
EshUPkQ. PP
A u S
mi
P G . su
Lmk Ashzu EUSQx
P J J h1.24 mi USh
P P
mk EshUSu AuS P G .
mi u[P Csk P P
EQ. 1. PP 2. ] UP
PP sPmhLm (u)Iz uUQx.
Cx s BUQPzu u[SQx. U
Bs PmhLmh (u) uUQx. Cx Bs
Buizuz u[SQx. Bvizv ES
P (Bu_kP) s u {UQ {PQ.
Bs u s u Csk AP
PUS UPmk. Pa] UP
AvP GsoUP Ezv \mk P
Lmix Qx. Bs u_h Ti
UP Auh Gkzxa \kQx. mi
u E u[P nzv UQ [S QUQx.
103
hhLmkP u UQzx
1. oP A AP CPUPP ASz uP
UPkQx.
2. ih G o \ CUPx
UP x (vermifuge drug) kQx.
3. ^ (} o) G o P ]
Bv]P EsnkQx.

u vk
J vs
Pimh Chzu zv\
1. uz u[P n &&&&&&&&&&& uzxh uh
Ehx.
2. hhLmkP, P
Bg]P K[Q \uvx &&&&&&&&&&&&&&US
x.
Csk vsP
1. iUQLmkP G G?
2. Pn TP. hhLmkP S v_UP, US
u[P S v_UPh Jk x P
u[Qx BS.
3. S v_UP oP ?
4. uz u[P uP HhU Ti AT[P ?
5. hhLmkP Csk u UQzxzu GxP.
Ix vsP
1. hhLmkP ] sP ?
2. mi G G? Au UQzx x?

104
 2.6.1 S@lWv
YLlTh X
: WdV@TP
Ql : WlP
Yl : XlPvTVhP
\ : @XdLpv
mTm : PuvPhV
T]m : S@lWv
S@lWv Gu\ T]m, H\jRZ
30 t]eLs LiP YlTUiPX
TWVm. TmTX] t]eLs X
YPeLp LQlTu\]. X
t]eLs Rt YrVL Es[.
(G.L.). S, Yv Utm S, WUN, CXd
TX t]eLs AZj RYWeL[L Lm
Y[odLlTu\]. CkVp Ik
t]eLs Es[]. CYtp S. AdhP
Utm S. TWN Tu\Y TYLd
LQlTm.

vTW@Thu \ AUl
AXv
vTW@Thp UhPXjRi,
A
YoLs Utm CXLs LQlTu\]. Llp

UhPXj Ri : UhP XjRi NWvLs vPVm

hPVL o Y[o ApX o Y[o vTWgVm
RuU Li i JpV] K
[j RiL[ EYd\. X C
t]eLp Noj AjRlThP Np B
CuVm D
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105
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106
TVm LiP. G[mU
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107
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T E[ YYm LiP.
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108
CRV YY WRXNL Um, okR WRXv 3 .. - 8 ., hPm
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109
 JqY okR BodLVm, 4 sYN NpL[ EPV
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J TV AiPjR EPV.

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LhPTh NkR
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egg (n)(n) BuWYn
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110
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[dL.

111
 2.7 uzu[P (P)

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112
 mi Pa \u. U Gx
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113
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114
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zx

115
 1. S \UPh Lmh
2. S PLLmh
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116
 hhmk(mi ) hhLmk ()
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117
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118
 2.7.1 NLv
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: NdLP@ThP
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119
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- TYZ Yo
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Tu LhPj RuU YnkRRL Es[. C X T\] LhPj
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Ri [jRXt\. B]p X Y[Lp Ri LVlTYRp,

120
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CXLs LiP.
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Tm CX Y
1. Tm CXLs ApX
RuYVUdm CXLs Np CX Y

2. Np CXLs vTX Y
Tm CXLs : TV \
YvXo
hXL[] Tm CXLs
CZLs
Riu Up J Tp
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80 - 100 _ tXLs
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UV AUkdLXm. iP hP YY C[m CX
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(tXLs)

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s Tu\ LQlTPXm. JqY
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121
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122
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CpXUX CdLXm.
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123
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124
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125
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126
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127
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128
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129
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130
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131
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132
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133
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134
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135
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136
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137
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138
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139
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140
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141
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142
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143
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Pmka \P u |UU Psiv.
P G EU Psh. Pmka \P
\ `mh |UU Psh. C EA
PmiU \P h ]UP. Ui[P
\Ui[P PmkP BS. g\P, u[P
[SP PmkP BS.
PmkP
xP Pmka \P \
UPmh \mh\ (cytosol) EhUQ J J A
mk Ex. Ui \P uP UPmh EmP
Qhx G i.G.H. \ zv
Sxx. Azx Pmk \P uPP
P Ax P zv Ax mh i,
uzu, i.G.H UT Axx. CSv Cm
|U Ax |Uk G AUQ. Cx u \
u Ezv [PPU Puk \P \ i.G.H
Cu SvP PnkQx. ] Ui[P \ \
\ Em \\P Gk ] }m]P
EshUSQ. C i.G.H Ezv u Ezv
[PQ. CP Ui \P P E
C G T Cx.
Ui \P, \ \ Au Jmi \ _
J Ex. Cx ih QUP, JP\UPkP

144
uzv B TmkmP BQ B. Ca_
\US izu xP uQx.
G\] P Ui[P \ _US
A\unP J \ PnkQx. Cx \
_ U Ch UPmkx. CP
UiUP Q \zu Hv. G C Q {Pmi P
G PkzukQ. ] Ui[P (G.P
U\) ui \ _ , a \ A PnkQx.
C Q \zu Hu C Q mi P G
AkQx.
Ui Csk u \P `mkx. Csk
\S Ch U Ch Ex. AkUS
EvP Ex. Cx \US xP AUQx. Cx \_
G AkQx. Cu v A ]UPx. \UPkP,
kP u UTP B. G
hk ] P (channels) EshUSQx. Cu
P mP a \i. \ uzu
Bx. _ FhPzvS Cx Gz uhP Ex. ]
UTP, AP BQ Em\u
u Cu \ PmkkzxQx. _\a
\[Q [S {vP Ja\UP Dkk
{vP BQ PmkP \
Ax.
Ui S\ Gkx zv |Uk Sv
Ax mh i, vu, CUPP, _sh i.G.H U T
BS. Cx GUm ~snUQ Pq x, mh\zv
SvP Ex. }mhmh 1 .mh } E
G.P i.G.H AUSz u Azx
uPP EhUQ Ex Gx Su zuS \vS.
Qmhzumh Cshzvx
u[PUP \[PuUSkP Cv Ah[Q.
uzx A. \P u
SvPP UPh. B \ EmmP
~so Ah E. C u \ .

145
zv E S\ Ax i.G.H UT mh
ix. J Chzv \h Cnx PnkQx.
Cn i.G.H. Cmizu x C S\P
EuQx G {kQx.
Cu J S\ u ] Ui[P ], mh i,
S\ Au i.G.H . CuS m G
. Cx Ui[P ~sqU P Gvz vUS
PnQx. kP kQ. Cv
kP ukzumk sk E ~UPkQ.

\ \ P \
\_

\ m h \

| U k
\

h 2.3 PmiU \ ~sn (Uj)

kP P (DNA xskP) \UPmk A

sk ~h[P kzv Ui[P
\zukQ.
i.G.H a _ mh \zv P Sv
Cu u u \ xPP
PnkQ. C u B.G.H B.
u Ezv [PPa \kQ. \P
J \x \P Ax \P G uSPPU
PnkQ. J \ J Sv J
] Sv Pnk. u \ Sv }. u B.G.H&UP

146
C A u J ]zvx
]zvS kQx. J ]zv a] |P
C kQx.
\ Uj \P P u Ja\UP \P
E. C uPkP B. \ Sv
|U\ Ex. Cx CP x Ax oP
A Ehx. Ax Csk A \x Pnk.
\ o EmmP E. \_
Ev AkUSP B. \_US {
E Esk. \ Uj[P BU k
Jsn, JUP uP, {m |kzxu,
mi]m, HPmkP P[P
\P k Ahu BQ sP E.
PmkP
PmkP Azxz u [S EP E[P
EhUQx. Cv J \ g\P (G.P. Dk)
mh\P Azx Ah[S. Pmka \P
Pmka \P a \
`mkx. B Pmk \P
Pmka \P \ `mh ~sqPU
Psh.
J \ ~sq \ a] ]u
zv J UQ [Q QUQx. J \
~sq Smh {vz uSPU Psk u
v P DkkQ.
Pmka \P Pnk P ~sq
|U BS. \ i.G.H. |U Ex.
PmiU \P i.G.H. x 1 u 50 },
S\P G AP QuUPmkx. J
E Azxa \P S\P GsoUP
A \PU Pnk. B E[P C

147
k. J E S\P Pnk zu i.G.H.
(z uPP) Au GUQ. |U u
A{P Pmka \P ~sqP
PnkQ.

mhPsm[P : C \ B a]u [P
|PQ. \\ Gsh\ :
\ P B Cv u[P kP
EUPkQ. Ba\P: C[S P A[P
A A[P ]uUPkQ. _[PoP[P : Ja\UP
{h [PPz vP C u \P, ] J
\ EP mkU Pnk. u \P ] J \
PmkP Pnk USP Fmh mP
Ah[Q v |U PnkQx. ] P mP Cv
\PUPmk ]u |PP {hQ. Pmka
\P \mh\, u CP B J AU
Pskx. CuS \mh\ GUTk (cytoskeleton) G
. \mh\ Gx \mh\zv P SvS. Cx
\ ~sqPUS ChU PnkQx. u \US
\ P B Ev \ _
Ex. Cx \US Ev z u AUQx.
] a] PmkUP
Uj[P, C Uj[P (BUi ^mkP)
\ Uj[P.
] a] PmkP
g\P, u[P [SP.

148
Amhn 2.2. Pmk PmkPUS Ch E kP:

s PmkP PmkP

A Pa ]. ] \P (10
50mm Ih . 100mm).]1 ..&Ih .

x ~sqP. J ] ~sqP.
sP \ B Ax Tmh EP Azx \
Eh. |Uk \ `mh |U Eh.
`miv.
\ mh, Qhx. mh
S CshP zu Ax P \ S {h
mk Au (budding)
Pnk
C P Qhx. A{PP Esk.
UP ] (J Pu Bs, s
mk). [Q \ Cx CskUS \[S Esk.
\US {hQx.
a] Cmh \Pmix J
EUP \P uv. v_ \Pmix Cmh
k uPU Qhx. EshQx. \ EP
u v_ mh
.
P\ ] G Uj P 9+2 P P\ PnkQx.
P P\ Esk. Cx J
~so Bx.
\ _ ih QUP u[P \ B
(UPhk) B. \ _ g\ Pmi
\ Qhx. B \ _ Ex.
~s Gsh\ , P EP Gsh\ , P
EP mhPsi[P, _[P[P EP, mhPsi[P,
USP \ ` _[PoP[P USP
mh ~sqP Qhx. \ `mh
~sqP E.
\P ]. 70S P \P . 80S P.
\P (S Gx mU AS. Cx
Am\iL (ultra centrifuge)
x k \
i Gs BS.
i.G.H mP (i.G.H) Pmhu mP {S, Pmhu
S\P Pnhx. S\P Pnk.

149
u vk
J vs
\ hz uuk
1. G.P Ujzv Pnk S\ Au i.G.H.
C AUPkQx.
A. \\P B. |Uk
C. Cm |U D. m
Pimh Ch[P |P.
1. \ _US J \
Uj[P xP Q .................... P Uj[P.
2. kP, Uj ............ US Pnx.
3. kP ................. x kQx.
4. uSPPU Pnk \U................G
AUPkQ.
Csk vsP
1. Cm |U G G ?
2. kP P ?
3. Pmka \ Pmka \
kzxP.
Ix vsP
1. Pmka \ HUm ~snUQ A .
zx vsP
2. Pmk \PUS Pmka \PUS Ch
E kP AmhnkzxP.

150
 4. J ~snUQ
q ~snUQ

\ A A P
~snUQP Aih Axx. h
, Pz u J ~snUQ kzv,\P
E Aih AS Gu UQ. A u C J
~snUQP, E Ba] P [P QUQ.
q ~snUQP. a] PnP \ P ~so
EUPU Th kzv A v AvPzxx.
u, [S v_UP A Szu v uPP {US Cu
PnP QhUP x. ~snUQ QhUS [P
ux J u, EPkzumh q
~snUQ u \ Ax v_ uUPmh u
BQ Aih Axx.
J ~snUQ
\unP { EQUS Tmk ~snUQ _P
E. C v zu h[S US. J
u _ G h[S UP \Qu A UQ
zu h[S US QhUS. GkzxUPmhP S _
h[S UP (xx 100 x _ kzukQx),
PsnS _ zx h[S UP Ehx G CvP Ps
Ax v B h[PS (100*10).
PsqUS k J kzv J ~snUQ
U Ti kzx v 0.2 mm (200 nm) Aux G h[S
zu UQ Cu ~snUQ EQzx 0.2mm&US
Su Chh Ti mP zx A ix
Gu Cu BS.
J ~snUQ EPkzuk v mP
xP | |zumk (fixed), u xshUPmk

151
(Sectioned) S \ wmhkQx. (stained). xP J
~snUQ k v mP BP, Ax
Lik Ah[Q P\ | |zukQ. H
C u[P |UU A[P ]uUQ. C
L Ax iUQ uUPmk (embedding) Uh
G P kzv J ] U mh ui
xskPPa ^kQ. uSu \[P kzv C
sn kQ.
Fk q & ~snUQ (TEM)
q & ~snUQ J ~snUQ Aih
Axx. zv\ G q & ~snUQ
Pu _P
q ~snUQ
kzukQ. J ~snUQ
LmhQL U
umk
u Ps
Cv (Cv )
JUPvPUS
Ps nS
vP qU

PvP Av Pzv h

\zukQ.
qUP P
E AqUP S

D z x U
q
Pku P
qUPvP J UP
Pu
B U S P h \


Chzvx Cv
J G Um
v Bu Bu

hzv \ h 2.4 J ~snUQ q

P S ~snUQ \k u
AUPmkx.
Fk q ~snUQ qU PP v
Pa \zukQx. h[h B Gv
(cathode) \zu `hUPk x qUP Q.
J q Pv SUQ (condensor lens) CUPvPU Szx
x a \Qx. Cx S ] Pa \
zu v Ax Jhzv a \Qx.

152
 kzx v D JUP A }zu l& zx
Ex. G q ~snUQ AvP m\ kzx v
PnUS P 0.005mm Ax J ~snUQ kzx
vU Pmh {u h[S AvP. {x Pso kzx
vU Pmi Csk h[S AvP. B Es
Cu kzx v 0.1 n.m. BS. Aux J ~snUQU
Pmi Csh h[S AvP kzx v Ehx.
(P[) q ~snUQ (SEM)
Fk q ~snUQ (TEM) U Pmi S
kzx vU Pskx. C~snUQ J
v SvP n[PU Pn. Cv
qUP _P J SUPkQ. Cv
FhP k PvP u PvPz
uUQ. (Csh | qUP) CP uSu J
A J \UPmk
uUPmk
uUPm] mi
Axx. C _m h
GUm
q ~snUQ x UQ
Pk H
~m[P
v
1. Smh
P zx (freeze
S
drying) P ~so US Ps m
A
^P u.
\un
mP P US
x Av _UP[P
Hh sk. B
Cu Smh
A uUPkQ.
2. Lh[UiU A
EUP
kzv Gv
\ (negative h 2.5 GUm ~snUQ

153
 staining) EshUSu. Cu Pi EP[P EUP
kzxu zv u mh (contrast)
EshUP iQx. Cu E A P A
iQx.
u vk
J vs
Pimh Chzu |P.
1. D v ................... kzx v AvPUS.
2. ~snUQ ] kzx v .......... G
SUQ.
3. P[ q ~snUQ Pi EP[P kzv
u ............. I EshUQ mP E A
P A iQx.
4. Tmk ~snUQ ......... _P kzv
uUPkQx.
Csk vsP
1. : ~snUQ kzx v
zx vsP
1. J ~snUQ A Au C[S uzu .
2. Fk q ~snUQ A Au
\ uzu .
3. P[ q ~snUQ Gu Aih Axx
Gu .

154
 5. \ _

Azxz u[P, Uj[P g\P BQ

\S Ev, xP \ _
. \ _ u \P [S \Px
zu EuQx. S v_UP Eh u[P
CUPzxh uhh J ] \P \ _.
Azx \PUS \ _ Esk. \ _ u u U
G 1865 Bsk PU \P Pshu. u \_
Gx mh\zu _UPmh J E G
{mhx. B ux \ _ ]u [Ph
C[SQx. \Qx. PPmhzvx
mh\zuU Pskx G uxx.
\_ EUP
mh jL | LUhmkP
(phragmoplast) AP i Q. \
Sv \ umk, \ mh\[PUS Ch B u
z uUQx.
\ umk u SvP LUmkP CP
x \ umha _ mk ukQ. \umk Pz
uh LUmkP P xkQ.
Cu \zv \ umi C zv \ mh\zv
UP EshQ. \umk iiP
Ahx zumk (middle lamella) G \ Ch
EUSQx.
\_ A
\unP J u \ RPsh P[PU
Pskx.(1) zumk (2) u _ (3) Csh |a _.
vzu
E ESP \_ vzu
kQx. Uj[P \_ ihQUP Bx.

155
g\ Cx Pmi G Bx. u \
_P \ B. \ u \,
Ui, U, Qmi, _ ]UP BQ
\_ x ix Pnh.
zumk
Cx Csk APP E \PUS Ch E ]sm
AkUPS. \mh\ S (cytokinesis) x u
u u AkUS AkUPS Cx I\iU (isotropic)
s Ehx. Cx P] U] UhmkP
Bx. Cx u u[P Pnk.
ua _
AkUSUS EmP uUPk u AkUP \_
ua _S. Cx x, }m] Ah u Ehx. Cx
A\iU s Ehx (anisotropic) Cx HP E
_mPUS Ch x _ mP iu Qx.
CzuP a] Cha\P (intussusception) GkQx. P
\P BUS v_UP BQ ua _ mk
. u ux Pnk
\ ~s CP (microfibrils), ua _ P uP
Ax EUSQx. Jz u Pshx
(optically active) _ i uiUSz uUPi Cu ~s CP
v\ Ax. ~s CP ux Pnk
u }, \, Ui QUP
u[P Bx. Ui, u | P Ex.
\ uh ~s CP nUQx.
QU Pu[P ~s CP A wUQx.
Csh |a_
\ va] Ahuh ui Csh |a_
ua _US E EUPkQx. Cx Sum\
AkUSP Ehx. Cx \U QP S1, S2 S3 BS. Cx
v _ mP HP E \ _mP x
iu ui AvPUQx. CuS hu (apposition or
accretion) G . AkUS (s2) AvP ui x. ]
\P US mh AkUSP Pnh. Csh |
_ Eu Azx \P J vP Av. Cu
156
PnP P, PP, RP, {P
iURkP G
\P k
AhQ.
Csh |a
_ ~s CP
vUSP
AkUSPP P
{UPP Ax
Ui
\ B 1 2 3 4 5 6
u 1. zui 3. Ho i ui 5. G SP
2. _ ui 4. 6. SP
uxx. U, ui
_, ux mP, h 2.6 \_P Pnk
S, hP, P uiP
]P, P P] Pmk P] BUmk
P EUP, ]UP Csh |a _ ix
Pnk. Csh |a_ SP AI\iU sU
Psksx. AkUSPz uPU Pn i.
Csh |a_ A k US

~so A u _

Ba] P wP S u A k US 1
C s h | a_
Pmkx. {, S C s h A k U S
2

S A k U S
PQu 3

\
u\P Csh
|a _US
UQzx, Cu
Ba]
yskQx. \_ P
~so CP B.
C PPP
nx. Csh
|a_ Pnk
h 2.7 \P US \_P
AkUSP (layering) Cu ~s GUm ~snUQ A

CP Ahzv mh HkQx. Csh |a_

JUP Ch Fka \ Csk AP E.

157
J \ B ~s CP uhx E
~sx ChP (microcapillary spaces) Cu ChP
U, Qmi, _, \ ] P
mP ] \[P ] uiP[P |.
J
\ ~so P
Csh | \_
PP
U T AkUS Ph Ti \

CnUPmh {k AkUS
SUP iP
A S P ~so P
PP u _
(residues) B
E kUS
} kUS Csh | _

\[QP Csk \
B. Cu AS P

\ [ Q
UTP
PPP
~so P
Ax. \
UT
J
P uhUP C

\
(micellae)
GkQx. h 2.8 \_ ~sn UP h
{P (Nageli)
G \ A u u Pzx uzu
B. L ][ (Frey - Wyssling) u (Muhlethaler)
G AbP C \ UTP PPP
Axx G TP. uhUP C (elementary fibril)
GUPk J P Qmhzumh 36 \
UTP Ehx. CzuhUP C iPP Ex.
h mh
\a _ \_ P iv
B[P[P SQ xP E. AzxP
\mh\ CP Fka \Q. C \P E
E mP CnUQ. CPUS
hmh G . C J uha]
158
mh\ ]m (symplast)I uUQ. Cv
\ `mh SQ P Ex. Av
hm GUPk Qzu Ax G S
Ex. CUS Gsh\ }m]S.
hmh P mP \US
\Qx. ysh (stimuli) Phzxv hmh [S
QUQx G {kQx.
SP (Pits)
SP Gkx \_ Csh |a_ ihu
SvPS. APP E \P SP JUP
GvGvP E. J SUS J S A (pit chamber)
Sa\ (pit membrane) E. Sa\ AkUS ua
_ E. Sa\ ~so xP Eu C
mP Gv Fka \ i. SP Csk
Pk 1. G SP (simple G S G S S
pits) 2. SP (bodered pits) iP iP
S AP J A AP
Eh. Csh |a_ u _ Csh | _
Qhx. Ti
SP Csh |a_
S ]u iUS AQ Szx

E \PUQh S \
mPU Phzxv SP
SA
EuQ. J SUS
AP E \ _
CnP J S Pnk.
CuS CnUS (complementary pit) h 2.9 SP A
G . C Csk \ A S i
EUSQ.
\ _ oP
1. \US J Smh izu AUQx.
2. \US E E mh\zu xPUQx.
3. \US AUQx.
4. Gsh B PnP AvP } \US E \
Au \ izx ku ukUQx.
159
5. \ SP, URkP \hUSP \ _P
mP AvP yzxUS Phzxv xn Q.
6. \[P \ _ uUP (offense) PUP (defence)
kQx.
u vk
J vs
\ hz uuk
1. HP E _mP Ch v _ mP
iu C AUPkQx.
A. hu B. Cha \P
C. Rhu D. iu
Pimh Chzu zv \
1. Uj \ _ .................. Bx
2. u \ _ .................. Bx
3. g\ \ _ ................ Bx
4. HP E _ mP x v _mP iu
........... GkQx
Csk vs
1. \ _ UQ P[PU T
2. AkUS Gx x
3. Cha \P a] Gx x ?
4. \ Gkx x ?
5. Csh |a _ Pnk JUP Ch
Fka \ C AP ?
6. Sa\ Gx x?
7. S G G ?
8. ]mk & P.
9. hm Gx x ?
Ix vs
1. hmh Gx x ?
2. SP G G ? Au PP .
3. \_ oP .
zx vs
1. \ _ ~so A .

160
 6. \ \
Pmk Pmk \P Azx J
, u \ `mk. Cx J
u Phzx \S. H Smh ] mP mk
\US E A. Cx u Azx

\
Gs h\
\

|U \ ()

|U \ (E )
u P k \
u P k Qh
mU Ch
_[Po \ (E )
mhPsm \ (E )
mhPsm \ ()
h Ch
\ Ch
_[Po \ ()
BU\ Ja \

\ Ch
GU U P \ A Q
Csk Ak US
\m h\U P

h 2.10 \ C UP [ P

PmiU \P \ ~sqP
USPa _ \P PnkQ. C zuP
\mh\ \z uS GkQx. \
\US Pnk Azx \P \zx
EP \P (biological membranes) GkQ.
\ \ ~s A
\ \ 75oA uihx. ~snUQ C 3
AkUSPU PshPU Pm] AUQ.
1. E Ah AkUS _ 20oA ui Ex.
2. Em E q Ah AkUS _ 20oA ui Ex.
3. {k E AkUS & _ 35oA ui Ex.
AkUS Em AkUS u UTP B. {k
AkUS Csk AkUSP Eh L \ AS
UTP Bx. Cx kUS AUS ""AS \''
161
(unit membrane) G Azx \PUS Cx AihP
Ex.
Lm \U v (fluid mosic model)
\ UT A USuS G vP
UPmk. ][P |UP\ (Singer and Nicholson
1972) GP UPmh Lm\U v A
HU Pmhx. Cu vi \ \ vzu (Quasi fluid)
A Ehx. Azx \P hmh APa
`x. J \S J \mh\U UP J
GUU UP E. \P Azx k
u[P B. Cu v i J \
LkP u[P B Cn A
Eh.

u
\GpX

u
CWhP
Ad

EsWRm

aW@Td
EhWReLs Yl
Yp T
WReLs
aW@d
RXlT

TPm. 2.11 NpNqu @lh UNd U (Fluid-mosaic model)

kP
k UTP uha] Cmh AkUP
EUSQ. k Cmh AkUSP x u
162
UTP E u[PP (extrinsic proteins) E E
u[PP (intrimsic proteins) PnkQ. E E u[P
k Cmh AkUP P Ax SvP Fka
\. k Cmh AkUS Csk k AkUS
B. C BLvU (amphipathic) UTP GkQ.
Aux J } (hydrophilic) Sv J } US
(hydrophobic) Sv Eh. kP A }z
ukUS J AkUPP (water resistant barier) Ex. Cu PnP
kP PU Ti mP mk E \i. }
PUTi mP E \ ix. Cu Lk
Cmh AkUS Azx E \S Aih AP Ex.
Cx u C u[P, QUPu[P, Pm,
jkP QUPkP BQ E. J
\S J Smh oP Eu J \ Smh
\ u[P uS oP DkkQ.
u[P
u[P Csk u AP E.
1. GUi ]U Ax E u[P
A k Cmh AkUSP Csk UP[P
P Ax. C Gv C P }UP
i.
2. Ci]U Ax E E u[P
Cu[P k AkUP P Ax SvP
Fka \. CUP nP C nUPmk
E. C }UPsk \ ]uUP sk
Cu u[P u i[P E. oP DkkQ.
\ oP
Azx \P \ UQ oP
DkkQx. EnmP \US E, ]u
[P E P mP \US A
u mP \US ~uz ukUQx. _UPPU
T \PUS Ch \PUS E mPU
Phzxv UQ [S QUQ. \mh\ AP
A (pH~7.2) BmiU Azuzu |kzxQx.
\P ] Smh Phzv u[PU Psh. C
J ] ] UTP mk Phzx. HPU Phzux.
163
 u[P AP \US E \
(concentration gradient) S Chzvx AvP ChzxUS
Az u B ATP } S Qx.
_ ] ATP UTP A A[P
\mh\ Gv i. B A \z
usi \ ~ ix. U Tmh
Azx \PUS Ezu x oPz u ]
oP \PUS Esk. \h nUPmk
{vP P FUSUQ. CP \unP }
` C{vP C {h ix. P
PmiU \P \P h (receptor)
u[PU Psk. C P, a]U PoP
{ En PhzvP ] Smh ]U
UTPh (signaling molecules) Cnx u \
P DkkQ.
J \ J \ ~sq \
AP `mk Au C \mkUS u
u[P PnkQx.
\ Phzx o
\ Phzx vU Psk Au RPsh
AUQ.
1 . Phzxzv Eh : Cu P mP Gv
PhzukQ.
2. Phzxv A : Cu P mP Gv Phzuh
iv.
3. uPhzxv Eh : Cu P J ] mP mk
\i H mP \ ix. J \ Phzx
s RUPsh Aih Axx.
1. \ E xP A
2. UTP A
3. UTP E _
Azx E[P \P u Phzx v Eh.
Cu Phzx v PnP SUP, A A[P
kP Cu UTP \US Gv
~Q. ]u [P x E ChmP
\US CUQ. u P mP \US

164
 \Q. _[PU T \US J |
\| | \ \ EuQx.
\ \ mP R T Hu J
PhzukQx.
1. B u Phzu 2. B u Phzu
B u Phzu
C \P
mP \ C Phzukx
AuS Guu B uv. Phzv u[P
Cv [S Pv. \US mP RU Tmk
C |PU]P PhzukQ. 1. 2. \k

UTP \ AvP Chzvx \ S

ChzxUS \P u GQ. C|Pa]
UTP CUP \U PnP |PQx. u RU
TmkUS { Quzv Ex.
1. mP \
2. FhPzv |
3.
u RU TmkUS Gv Quzv Ex.
1. UTP A
2. UTP UT Gh
3. UTP si y
E \P (bio-membranes) {hUS
] UTP H } US UTP
Lk Cmh AkUS P {hP Qx. C
u Ax } iP P uzu zx Ex.
UTP \ AvP Chzvx \ S
ChzxUS (along the concentration gradient) |PQx. B
ukx. \UPkx. C|Pa]
R C[SuUS (down hill transport) JP TkQx. \P
u RPsh Csk P {hQx.
1. P PU Ti mP GuP k Cmh AkUQ
Px \ P Qx.
165
2. } PU Ti mP AP \ E ]
xP P Q.
_Ph Ti mP
} PUTi mP, K+, Cl-, HCO3P-- AP
\ E xP Q. Gu UPzv Au
_P Eh AP AvPP Eu Au UPzvx
AP AvPP E UPzvS Qx. Csk
UP[PUS Ch Pnk _P mh _
k (electric gradient) G AUQ.
\ Pnk E E u[P \ FhPa \
u PPa \kQ. UTP Cha]
Azu mi (pressure gradient) {hUQx.
\k
Cx J ] |Pa]S. Cv } Ax P
UTP Au \ AvP Chzvx Au \ S
ChzxUS u Phzx \ Qx.
\k [S
1. zyP } sox C Eg_Q.
2. J \x \US } Phzxv \k
UQ [S QUQx.
3. \k zu Hh Pnx.
Czu CzxP h vUP Pn.
(\k A h V.4 I PsP).
mh Phzu (Uniporter catalyzed Transpofrt)
A{P \P (u [S) \P
mhPU Psk. C A A[P,
|U\kP, \UP ] UTP Ah AvP
Chzvx Ah S ChzxUS \ SUQ.
{vP Cu mhP CUP (thermodynamic)
PmkPUP P xukzxQ. Cu Phzu
] \[P GuUPmh Phzu (facilitated transport) Ax
GuUPmh (facilitated diffusion) G AUPkQx.

166
 mh Phzu RUPsh u[P B u
kQx. 1. Cv Phzu u Gvh
P AvP. 2. Phzu P vmhmhx. 3. k
Cmh AkUSP P Phzu |P Smh Phzv
u[P P |PQx.
B u Phzu
CuS B ukQx. Cv UTP Ax AP
\ miS
GvP PhzukQ. AvP \
Aux \ S B B
US US
Chzvx \ R C[Su u u Hu
Phzu () Phzu
AvP ChzxUS
UTP Ax
AP {PQ. Cx S \
HuUS h 2.12 B u E Phzu & h
(up hill movement) JPU
PukQx.
\ Gvzx \ B ukQx. Cu
B AU H Lm \ QhUS ATP u
Ax AP \ miu kQx.
UTP Ax AP u Phzx \ P \
Su Chzvx \ AvP ChzxUS B Euh
Phzuku B u Phzu G UP.
B u Phzu \P E Phzv u[P
(carrier proteins) Euh {hQx. \P

ATP x
B
P &
ihm
& Tmh

u Phzv
A
u
\
\ EmSv
Sv

\
CmhkUS
h 2.13 B u Phzu Phzv uzv [S
167
P Ax iUPP Gk Phzv u[P
E. J Smh PUS Smh Phzv u
Esk. Cx Csk n SvP x. J Gkzxa
\ si UPx. (transportant) ATP
UTUPx. Phzv u Gkzxa \ si
\ zv nUQx. Phzv u Gkzua
\ si & Tmh (carrier - transportant complex)
EshQx. ATP UT uzv n Sv
nx } SUPmk B kQx. C Cu
Tmh A zu (confirmational change) HkzxQx.
Cu x \ UPzxUS Gkzxa \kQx.
Phzv u i Au |US v Akzu UT
Gkzxa \ uQx.
AP u Phzx \ P Phzu ku Csk
\P PmkkzuQ. 1. \ _ B 2. Aa \
k. Aa \ k ATP B \zuk A
(ion pump) uUPkQx.
Gsh \mh GU\mh
mP AvP A \ P \US E (Gsh
\mh) Ax \US (GU\mh) B
\h Phzuku Gsh\mh Ax
GU\mh GkQx. Gh\mh x
\ J i Ax }m] uu J ]UQ
Ax US EUSQx. Cx Csk Pk.
1. LP\mh (\ [Su)
Cv mP vhzv EmPkQ. Cv Dkk
\P LP\mkP GkQ. (G.P.) Czu
AqUP & EmPk x LP\miU US
uQx.
2. L\mh (\ Axu)
Cv mP v zv AukQ. Ax x
]g ] ]UQP uQ. Ak
mh\UP, ] ]}P \P (v zv Dkk
\P) ] \[P ] u \P \mh
{h. GU\mh |Pa] Gsh\mh
|Pa]US { P {hQx. En USP E
\UPhu En u[P Cu \US
ukQx.
168
u vk
J vs
\ hz uuk.
1. B u Phzu C {hQx.
A. \ AvP Chzvx \ S ChzxUS
B. _ AvP Chzvx S ChzxUS
C. Azu AvP Chzvx S ChzxUS
D. \ Su Chzvx \ AvP ChzxUS
2. LPmhUS
A. \ [Su B. \ \
C. \ Axu D. \ A
Pimh Chzu |
1. Azx E \P &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
2. B u Phzu UTP \ &&&&&&&&&&
Chzvx \ &&&&&&&&&&&&&& ChzxUS Gkzu\kQx.
Csk vsP
1. : E \
2. BLvU \P G G?
3. GUi]U u[P G G?
4. Cm ]U u[P G G?
5. : u Phzx \
6. : B u / B u Phzu
7. : / \
8. \ Phzx v vUS Csk PoP GxP?
9. u[P \k [S x?
10. GuUPmh Phzu G G?
11. m PhzuUS US mh GxP?
12. : LP\mh / \mh /
GU\mh.
Ix vsP
1. \ oP \ kzxP
2. : . uzu Pmkkzx PoP ?
3. mh Phzu ?
4. B u Phzu ?
zx vsP
1. \ \ Lm \U v .

169
 7. \ ~sqP

\ E a]u P |U
Azx u[P, [SP J \ PmkP (G.P
Dmk) Azv J vP E. Azx Pmk
\P \ `mh ~sqP BQ
\mh\ Psk. J ~sq Au
E Au \P E Smh u[P
A~sq vmhmh oPz wUQ.
J u \ RUPsh ~sqP P[P
x.
1. mhPsm[P
C Csk \P `mk. E E \ AvP
iPh PnkQx. C\ zv E
u E {vP, kP \UP Cv
BU H |P FUSzx ATP EUSQ.
2. _[PoP[P
C Ja\UP [PS. C u \P mk
E. C , E \P .
uPkP B ]UP \ A E .
J B Dzx ATP EUS |P {vP
PnkQ.
3. |U
Cua _ a \, Ema \ BQ
PnkQx. C xPh Ti. EmPS
\mh\S Ch mP CzxP P
\zukQ. EmP a \ \\
Gsh\ h uha]P Ex. Cx \
oP JzvUQx. |U i.G.H. } AP
S\P Axx.

170
4. Gsh\
C JUP uhh \ B
BS. Csk P Gsh\ P Amk.
1. \\x 2. x
\\ Gsh\
Cu P Gsh\ Au x \P
PnkQ. \ u EzvUS Gsh\
Pnx. \Pu A A[P \UPmk
u[P EQ. Gsh\ a\P
iPhU Pnk ChP h (Cisternae) G
AUQ.
Gsh\
CP \P Pnkx C
5. PP E (iUi\P)
C AP B Qsn . C P
_siUS. \P Esh u[P C[P
^UPkQ. CvP Cu[P Q.
Ca\[P PP EPx ] S _US
]UQP (secretory vesicles) uQ. C \ \ {UQ
{Px u[P \ voUQ. Ax \US
ukQ.
6. USP
u \P USP 70% \ |US.
USP FmhmP {a_zu |u P
mP BQ Csh \zx US. USP
Azu AvPzu \ A AvPUS. Cu PnP \
E, Azu C AvP \ A {k.
7. \P
Czua ]qUP vu x \P }[PP
Azx Pmk Pmk \P
\P Pnk. PmiU \P C
\mh\zv uzu Ax \\ Gsh\

171
P P Cnu Pnh.
\Pu u Ezv [PS.
|U
Pmk \P Pnk P ~sq
|U BS. Cx Csk \ `mkx. J
\ u[P Eh k Cmh AkUQ
B. E\
|Ua _
|U
G US \ ()
uP Ex. A{P
\P |U |U
\ (E)
a\ \
\ Gsh\ |U
x
h uha]P
Ex. a\S Smi

Em\S Ch
|U
E Ch
\ \
Gsh\ h 2.14 |U A
ChSvh
(lumen) uha]P Ex.
|U Csk \P |UP SvP
CnQ. Cmh izxP ] Smh u[P
B. C |US \mh\US Ch
mP AvUS PPa \kQ.
Ax k Ah \P EmP, a]u
[P Dkmk B.G.H. Ax i.G.H. Ezv \x
PsiUS. B.G.H. xP P \mh\zvS
Amk A[P u Ezv [PS. ""KkUS''
\P |U \ v Pnk. PU Su A
i.G.H. Ax B.G.H. Ezv \k.
|U Shu | CUSx S\P
PU Pnk. A J ~snUQ zx A
iui E. S\P zv C Aih
BS. P zv v Aih BS. P
172
S\P }\ Ax. |U E
E |U J ~snUQ {S uP
Pn. \ B.G.H. |U u
Ezv BQx. Ax v \P
SvP |U xP P \mh\US \Q.
|U |U Au Sv |U\
GUPkQx. Cx i.G.H. \x Pnk. EmP
Em\ E, P (lamins) G {u[P J
uha] Csk n EUQ EmPS
Jizu uQx. i.G.H. nUQx. \S
BUSx Cu Qx.
|U oP
1. u {vP Ezv Pmkkzxu \
Azx ]u [P PmkkzxQx.
2. Phx \ uUS sP
Phzuku |U PmkkzxQx.
3. \ S Pmkkzxx |U u
mhPsmP
mhPsm \ B
ADP+PI
G AUPkQx. ATP
H \ B \zx
kx mhPsm En CO2
BS. hmh B H.i.. H2O
(Ai] iLm) h 2.15 \ B
EUPzv kQx. P [PP mhPsi[P
_\zv Dkk Azx \P mhPsmPu
u Hi EUP [PS.
PmiU \P |
mhPsP Eh. \mh\ zu P 25
\uu mh PsiP Axx. Cu ]UP
~sq P A Ehx. A Cu h
|U, USP _[PoP[P mku. xP
C } S i Eh. ] \[P C xP, C,
P, mh Ax izv E.
173
 mhPsmPa _ J \, E J
\,CskUS Ch Ch BQ E. a\
vk v Qh DNA
F1 x P
uzu Bx. E \ (E ) mU \ ( )

\ Phzx v x P
a \ h
S. Em\ 20
\uu h 80
\uu uzu
B. Em\
Qh h 2.16 mhPs ~sn
G k
GsoUP E{UQ }m]P h[S AvPUPmkx.
Qh u E }miU PsiUS.
Qh \ E Gsn Ph xPP
hmk. C F1 xPP, uhUP | xPP Ax xn
ASP G AUPkQ. C u }miU
PsiUS. J F1 xP 3 P[P Eh. uSv,
PSv AiSv F1 xPP E Qh\ u _\a
\[Q Axx. GUm Phzx A (Electron Transport
System) EUS {vP Tmk {vP Cu _\a \[Q
Ex. P _\zv ETS E {vP Tmk {vP
GUm HPPa \kQ. (BU H Lm
\).
Ja\UP u \P, ATP EzvUS, P
A[P SUP_ u BuP E. SUP UT
P BU H \mk (O 2 P H 2 O BP
]uUPmh Auh \x 36 ATP UTP Ezv
\kQ. PmiU \P SUP BU
Hzv u | \mh \ {hQx. J SUP
UTUS Csk ATP UTP u Ax EQ.
BU Hzxh Ti mk \ Emh Cv |P
mhPsm u Qh E
{vP {hQ. J SUP UTUS
Qmhzumh 34 ATP UTP EQ. mh Psm
BU Hzu Esh B EPzxUS

174
kzuku (GkzxUPmhP Ezv, AP
Phzxu) Cu v h. H ATP EzvUS
Cuh Su A B QhUQx. Cu P A
BU Hzv zu ATP UT Ezv
mhPsm u |PQ. Cu PnP
mhPsmP \ B [PPU PukQ.
mhPsiP & v _ ~sq (Semi autonomous
organelles)
mhPsiP uzu UQU P v
_ ~sqP. HP E mhPsiP
Shx v mhPsiP uQ.
mhPsiP \US Jmkso
PmkP G \h C JmksoP Tmk
E |{mi G PxP Esk.
mhPsi u mhi DNA UT, 70S
P \P, RNA mhPsi P
\kuP {vP E.
ikP
ikP P \mh\ ~sqP. C
Cmha \ `mh Azx u \P
] Ja\UP mikP PnkQ.
PmkP [S \P Qhx. ikP
Pk. A : SkP,
SkP UPkP.
SkP _| Au H | ikP.
C P CuP, PP u u P[P
PnkQ.
UPmkP | ikP. C
Pimk, P, Gsn mP u[P
BQ \ [S PQ. Pimh \US
ikP AkP G AUPkQ. P
Gsn mPa \US ikP C
kP GkQ. uzua \US ikP
mi kP GkQ.

175
_[PoP
Hzu 10 m.m } 0.5 u 2 m.m. ui Eh C
i A \US \ kQ. SP
BPUP AvP kQ. mhPsmP
_[PoP[P , Em \P .
Cx u _[PoP[P E JU P CnUPmk
wn \ `mh AP E. C
uPkP GkQ. 20 u 50 uPkP
J JP AkUPmk Q G A
EUSQ. C h G u vx E.

Em _
u Pk
a\

h 2.1 7 _[ P oP zv ~sn
h

| T DNA, RNA \P
{vP PnkQ. _[PoP[P i.G.H. mh ix.
\P 70S Pa \u. E u[P E
_[PoP[P u u\zu \ PU
Psk. _[PoP E Em\ uPkP
Cnx Pnh.
J _[PoPzv 40 u 100 QUP E.
QUP uPk \P \ B S
h UP nUQ. uPk \P
Ja\UP |P Ax.
uPk \P a\ |P H |P
{vP PnkQ. C J Dzx Ja\UP x

176
ATP EUSQ. C E ATP J Sv
hUP Ax {vP, CO 2 3 P
ChP kzvU PQ. Cu Ch
P \mh\US Gkzx \mk \UPP
AhQ.
mhPsm G ATP EQ Au
uzv _[PoP[ EQ. u[P
_[PoP[P mhPsmP Jzx E. Csk
\US J Chzvx ChzxUS {PQ. Csk
DNA U PsiUQ. Auu ~sqUS u[P
u \x PQ. Cu[P Auu ~sqP
\P Ezv \kQ. C Cu
~sqP u[P |U DNA
\[PuU SkP (code) wUPmk \mh\ Ezv
BQ. Cu[P ~sqPa \ AhQ.
\P Pmi Pmi
\ \
AUP xP 40S Sv
A Pa 30S Sv
] ~sqP
\P. C _, 50S Sv

\ Qhx. C 60S Sv

|U u[PU
Psk. C u
Ezv [PPa h 2.18 \
\kQ.
\P AvP GsoUP PnkQ. J
\ 150&250A mh Ehx. Csk ] SvP
Ehx. Sv AUP ix ] Sv mh
i Ex. ] 40S Sv yx RNA
Sv Sv
u
Cnxx. Cu
Csk SvP
60S Sv
\mh\zv
uzx PnkQ. h 2.19 \

177
 h AUl TLs
CWhPf Nq]p B] E\ Es[. vPp Bdu Ht\ TvTh
mhPsi
mU E
Es E\ vP Gu\ UlLPu Nolm GXdhWu LPjRm Lr\.
V. R[lTp WTNmLs R[lTp Wl Zt
Qh
Es[]. YhP YY DNA m Es[. ]Ls SPTu\].
DNA (mh i )

CWhPf Nq]p B] E\ Es[. Cp JfNodL SP

DNA _[Po P _p Tu\ vPWU TVm T\. p J Bt\p Y
(mh i ) E
Q NqL[p B] W]m Es[]. Bt\XL Ut\lT\.
vPWUp YhP YY DNA m
WTNmLm Es[].
mU
178

CWhPf Nq]p B] E\ Es[. Np CWhlTRd AlTP

|U |U E Ap [Ls Es[]. dVXm dVu TlRu. G]Y
|U WUhm EPVY. C]lTdLjtm C BRWm B\.
x WUNmLp Es[ DNA
|U S mi TWmTVjd LWQU\.

Gs h\ Nq]p ZlThP T Tu\ YZYZlT] GiP[NYX l

] h
vPo] AUlT EPV]. EtTj UVUm. NW NWlT]
GiP[NYX WTNmLs EtTj
\ P
NnR WReL[ vPo] YVLd
LPj\.
 P P E vPo] G]lTm RhPV], WjRp DT\.
P P
]UQ P Nq]p ZlThP T Tu\
i U i \
AUlL[p B]Y.

YdYpLs P][vh Ll ThLs EsTP TX

U S P G]lTm JW NqYp ZlThs[. ThL[ Nj Yd\.
NpN\ EPV. Npu BvUhd
TiLd LWQUs[.
TV Utm V TL[ LiP. CY WR EtTj
\ P WRm Utm RNA Yp B]. UVeL[m.
Sv
WTNmLs TeLLeLs Uhm
UhPLihVuLp Es[.
] Sv RNAp TNmLs G]lTm
WTNmLs RlT EiPdm.
CWi l AdLs CWi Ro LPj NqYLf
179

\ u WR AdLd CPV SdLUL NVpTh Npdm ARu

k YdLlThs[]. Zdm CPV ThLu
C m h A k U S
TUt\jt ER\.
u

Jt\f Nq]p ZlThP YhP RYWeLu [ Bd^Xh

U il. Zt CpRu SPT\.
E P

aNpXv Utm Td]p YYm TLlTm

\ _
B] R[lTp NpXv Adu\].
h mh i CZLs AUks[]. X
NpLp CWiPm Xj Rlm
\ A kUS LQlT\.
u Ezv x mk Cnx \P
EUSQ. u Ezv x A{P \P
\P mRNA \[Qh Cnx Smh hkP
{PP GkUQ. Cx \ uSP
\P G AUQ.
\P \mh\zv ] ~sqP
PnkQ. Au Aih C \mh\
\P Ax ~sq \P GkQ.
~sq \P ikP
mhPsmP PnkQ. \mh\
\P \mh\z u uzu Ax
Gsh\ P Cnu E. C Cnx
\P A u[P Gsh\ P E
]hUPUS Q. AP \US E
E P[PUS Psk \kQ.
i Ax i uzv Aih \P
Csk PkzukQ. 70S 80S P 70S P
\P Azx PmiU \P 80S P
PmiU \P E. 'S' Gx mU AS Cx
Gu Ah xP \iL x i BQx GuS.
PmiU \P \P Ezv |U
{h. \ u[P \mh\zv Ezv
\mk |Ua \ AhQ. A[P rRNAh
Cnx \ P[P EUSQ. CP[P,
|U xP P \mh\zxUS \Q.
PmiU \P \ RNA u[P
\mh\zv EzvQ. CP \P
\ u u\PP \kQ.
u vk
\ hz uuk
1. Gsh\ a \P iUP Ch Pnk
Ch.
A. uPkP B. h
C. \\P D. Ch

180
2. C | ikP
A. SkP B. SkP
C. CkP D. UPmkP
3. _[PoPzv E Pnk Jh uhh
\ `mh AP
A. Q B. h C. uPkP D. h
Pimh Chzu zv \P
1. DNA, } .................. P PnkQx
2. \ Gsh\ ......... US PnQx.
3. ............. u Ezv [PS.
4. ............. G sP C Aih BS.
zxP
1. \ B S\P
2. u Ezv P
3. \ Azx ]u mhPsm
[P PmkkzxQx
4. sP \P
C Aih
5. sP |U
v Aih
Csk vsP
1. |U oP x ?
2. Pn T : mhPsmP v u\ Eh.
3. ikP PP .
4. _[PoP, mhPsm C x sPU
TP.
5. \ Gkx x ?
6. PmiU \P PmiU \Px
kzx.
Ix vsP
1. u \ h x P[PU S.
2. _[PoPzv ~sn .

181
 8. \ S

\ _]
{ HP T h[P zui \_]
zuS sn J Smh vmhmh P |ni
{hQx. A{P Pmka \P EUS E
J PiPzv i \ku , uha] |P
Eh \ _]
D k k Q .
Ca_] Ezv
| (S Phase)
i.G.H. CmiQx.
mhiU |
(MPhase) i.G.H M
G
{PP \a 1

\ P U S
QuUPkQx. G 2
G
u 0

[S \P
Cmih 10 u 20 S

o { GkzxU
PQ. ] \P
x P h 2.20 P iU \_]
G
Ch| M - m hm iU |
1

CmihQ. S
G G - S hu |
0
2

xP J
\ E Au UPa _] J \ | (\Pm)
BUQx. Cu J \ Au u \P
\x E a] EUPzu wUQ. Cx \
S P \zvQx. \ S J ]UP |Pa].
Cv \ mP \ \PUS \P QuUPkQ.
E[P \S Pk.
1. H mh 2. mh 3.

182
mh
Cx P G S Cv |U Emh \
mP, \ zv u E{UQ .
PnP Csk \ P[PP Qx. Cx S \unP
PmkP {hQx.
mhmiU \ _]
Cv DNA Cmizu {hQx. Auz uhx
|U S (PP) Auz uhx

B Cv
Ch| | | mh |

B A| Cv A| j|

h 2.21 mh] {P u \S

\mh\zv S (\mhP) {hQx W.

[ G 1882 u u mh \ S
zu. Au Bsi mP G u[P
mh |P uzu zu.
u[P usk ~P mh \ S
P \ vh {hQx. k Ahu [SP
mh \ S Eh Azx SvP P
{hQx. mhmiU \ _] J }sh Ch |
(Interphase) (Cx G1, S, G2 |PP Ehx). SQ M |
(mhmiU | & Cv | mh |, A |

183
j| BQ E), \mhP Ehx.
Ch| M | BQ {h { u
\P kQx.
Ch|
Csk Akzukzu \ SPUQh Ch E {
Ch| GkQx. Ch| v |UU A[P,
u[P BQ Ezv \ \ Bzu \x PQx.
S\P Smi P Qx. Ch|
RUPsh xn |PU Pskx.
1 . G1 Ax Ch & 1 |
\ SS S EhiPz uh | Cx. \ A
uQx. u a]u [PUSz u x
u[P RNAUP Ezv \kQ. S Ahu
\P G1 | usi \v. k Ah \P
G0 | E.
ii). S - Ax Ezv |
C| DNA CmiQx J S\
Cx Csk \Pu SmikPU Pskx.
iii) G2 Ax Ch & 2 |
Pv CPUSz u u[P C|
EzvQ.
mh
mh RUPsh {S xn |P Ehx.
1. | 2. mh | 3. A | 4. j |
1. |
Smi _[P BUQx. J
S\ uzx J Pm] AUQ. J
S\ Cx Csk SmikP Eh. A
JUP APP E. AP \m JP
nUQx. |U xP BUQx. |U
E BUQx.

184
2. mh |
|U E |U Bx mh
| BzuU SUS. S\P C _[Q
uiQx. CvP S\P Tmk ~snUQ
uP uQ. S\P \ Sv
AQ. \mP \ Sv x Ax
mh | umk Ax z umh uUQ.
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185
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186
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187
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188
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189
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190
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191
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192
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193
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194
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195
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196
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197
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198
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199
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200
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201
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202
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203
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204
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205
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206
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u C Tmi
u C : Czu Ax C P Cu Ax u
C Gk. Cx Ph Ax P A Pnk.
(G.P.) .

Tmi : Cv C hP ] CPP
miUS. Ca] CP ]P GkQ.
]P x J Aa] Ax. C
Pnzv Pnmk Qhx.

C P TmiP : 1. ]S iU TmiP 2. A[P iU

TmiP

208
]S iU TmiP
]S iU Tmi ]P UQ Gk J
Aa] Ax. ]P UP G AUPkQ.
]S iU TmiP RUPsh Hu J Pa \uP
CUS. 1. Ja ]SU Tmi (unipinnately compound leaf) 2. Cmha
]SU Tmi (bipinnately compound leaf) 3. h[SU ]S Tmi
(tripinnately compound leaf) 4. h[S ]S Tmi (decompound leaf)

Cmh ]S h[S ]S
J ]S Tmi J ]S Tmi Tmi Tmi
(m) (Cm)

h 3.19 P ]S Tmi

Amhn 3.1 u C, TmiUS Ch E kP

uC Tmi

1. u C Pnzv Pn Tmi Pnzv

mk PnkQx Pnmk Pnk
B ]P
Pnzv Pnmk
Qhx.
2. u AiSv ]P AiSv
Cia \vP E. Cia \vP
Qhx
3. u CP P TmiP BP
Pnh. B C UPmk ]PP
CPa ]PP E.
US AUS B C

209
1. Ja ]SU Tmi : UP Cv {hP UQ
CnUPmk. ~ J ] mk Pnmh
AuS Cm C (imparipinnate) G (G.P. ) ~
C ]P i AuS m C (G.P. )
G .
2. Cmha ]SU Tmi : CPU Tmi u UQ
Qzx Csh | UQ EshUSQx. Cv ]P
CnUPmk. (G.P.) AP.
3. h[Sa ]SU Tmi : CP Csh | UQ
Qzx | UQ EshUSQx. ]P
| UQ CnUPmk. (G.P.) [P (Moringa)
4. h[Sa ]SU Tmi : Tmi uhUS P
Qzvu Au h[S ]SU Tmi GQ. (G.P.)
Pzu (Coriander)
A[P iU Tmi
Azx ]P CUP ~ J
CnUPmiu Au A[P iU Tmi GQ.
CnUPmk ]P GsoUP Aih
CUTmiP PkQ.
1. J J ] Eh A[PU Tmi (unifoliate) (G.P.
Ga\)
2. C ]P Eh A[PU TmiP (bifoliate)
(G.P.) \ hL (Zornia diphylla)

A [P i & C
J J ] E h
P i & P A [PU Tmi &
i

h 3.20 A[P i Tmi PP

210
3. ]P Eh A[PU TmiP (trifoliate) (G.P)
BU
4. Ix ]P Eh A[PU TmiP (quadrifoliate)
(G.P.) ^
5. ]P Eh A[PU TmiP (multifoliate) (G.P.)
C C (Bombax)
C UP
C UQ oP Ja\UP }US BS.
u[P Tku oPa \uPP CP UP
. C C UP GUPkQ.
C ] UP:
1. CU PP (leaf
C
tendrils) (G.P.) mho (Wild mho U
pea).
2. CU PUQP (leaf
Cia
hooks) (G.P.) U \vP
(Bignonia)
3. C mP (Leaf spines) U P
U (Cia \v)
(G.P.) Cu (Zizyphus) P (C)
U
4. Cz u
CUP (phyllode) (G.P.)
AP (Acacia) PUQP
5. Sk (pitcher) (GP.)
{u (Nepenthes)
6. (bladder) (G.P.)
mS (Utricularia)
1. CUPP :
C usk P h 3.21 CU PP
u. G C CU PUQP
Buzu U P
] EP . UP Gkx P {u,
_ P x H Eu J A BS. C
mho (zu) C U PP k

211
Ahxx. U Cia \vP U PPP
k Ahx.
2. CUPUQP : Cv CP PUQPP k Ahx
H u[PUS EuQ. U E[QPmi& (Bignonia
unguiscati) Tmi Cv CP x, EvP
{P PUQPP k Ahx.
3. C mP : CP CP P Ax J
Sv P T mPP . CP mi
}U UPx SUPkQx. P {hP a\
uUPkQx. uzv Gu Sv mPP k
Ah. (G.P.) Cu.
]]
4. Cz u CUP (Lk) :
AP CUP Ax UQ
Hu J Sv umhP ]S J
C _ |zxh Pm]
Cia
AUQx. Cu umh CS i \v
CUP Ax UQS Cz u
CUP (Lk) G . ]S i h 3.22 CmP
TmiP B \un CP u
CP CUS x uQx. Eh Evx
kQ. S Lk C Azx oP
PQx. Li
]S Sv ` JUS AUP
\[SzuP Cu {hP
` J Au x x. Au
} US
PmkkzukQx. Qmhzumh
Bv APa
][P L k
Aa .
Lk ]
5. Sk : Skz uzv usk
({u) Cx Sk
izv k Ahxx. h 3.23 Lk
CUP Sv U (Czu CUP)
P Sk
\[SzuPz u[Q |Qx. CU P AiSv AP
212
C Ex.
S k
{u
Sv J i
A i
kQx. Sk
o a]P
S k
ix Aa S v
\x u.
C SkP
Au
A P
sn[Ph
\ Au u
_ P h
PnkQx. Czu h 3.24 a]sq u
_P a]PU
Px DUQ.
Sk EmSv
vzv _US _P m S
z u Q
E. RSv
R {UQ }miU PsiUS
E[P E. Cx
A
SkUS Su a]P
ua \u sn u zu
ukUPkQ. Sk A

E vzv Q
Ca]P {vP { P

\UPmkkQ.
CP Czu[P

u[PUSz u
{m \zu Q. h 3.25 h u
6. (Bladder) : mS
uzv P mh CP ] APP
Q. CP } Czu[P uUP Eu
AUPP a]P iUP kQ.

213
u vk
J vs
\ hz uuk
1. GUSa \i Pnk C A
A. B. SUS US
C. JUQ Au Gv CP D.
Pimh Ch[P zv \P
1. UP E[QPmi ........................... Ev,
{P[P PUQPP AhQ.
2. ................... UQ[SP Smh Gu J i C
PnkQ.
zxP
1. [P |mhLP
2. Ga\ h[S ]SU Tmi
3. AP
4. mS Lk
5. zv J ] Eh A[PU
Tmi
6. A] UP
Csk vsP
1. z uP / APzuP G ?
2. US u[P Csk EhP / CUP EP
P GxP.
3. /usk C ] sP Hu Csi GxP.
4. : h P / i / BUSzv_ Sv /
mk/
5. GL mk G G ?
6. mh |zusi AT[P ?
7. |mh LP G ?
Ix vsP
1. UQ P[P
2. Csk P z uSPz uSu GkzxU Pmkh
?
3. oP ?
4. Lk / LQk ?
5. Skz uzu ?
6. u Cx Tmk C kzvUPmk.
zx vsP
1. Bo / h P / usk / C UP ?
2. P { / C A .
214
 2. g\

US u[P CUP EP P BS. u

]x P u Eh a]US S P EshUSQx.
P uzuP, PzxUPP EshUPkQ.
(G.P) \zv (P \\)

g\
PzuP P x J Aa] x uUPmh
AuS g\ G . x Aa_ g\ usk Ax g\ Aa_
Gk. Gsn u P g\ Aa] x
CnUPmiUS. u R usk Eh u[P g\usk
{hP uR usi Cx EshQx. CzuP usk P
Gk. u P J u z uUS. [P
u[P g\ uUS.

uzv g\P CUS Chzu zx PPP

UPmk. (1) ~ g\ (2) zusk g\ (3)
PnUQ g\. Pj u[P uskUS Ch
g\ PnkQx. Cx Chg\ GkQx. xP g\P
E P A, A AvUS u, g\z usi
A BQ Aih g\P PPP
UP. xP {S PP E.

g\

] \ P ]

215
C RPsh Pkzu.

] g\

zusk zusk zusk zusk

}shx Smhx P umhx
1. u ^ ix
1. P 1. ]g\ /
2. Tmk ^
1. A Pk
3. Pv g\
2. Tmk A 2. Tmk ]g\
4. TmkU Pv
5. h Pv
6. Tmk h Pv

\ g\

u Tmk J u u
u \
hUP hUP Qzu Qzu

Pk Pk
\ \

P P g\

v\ P
mi]h
iU

] P
g\

\zv ui ^v

216
] g\
CP g\ g\zusk a] Ehx.
Gsn P Ai u ~ {UQ \ AvUS.
g\z usk \ iv. g\ AiSv
vu P ~ Sv C P Pnk. P
\ zv Cx {UQ Ex. g\z usk
Qzvzu, }u, Svzu, P PhP,
P AP Czu BQ Aih ^ P
g\P Pk.
Aa_ }sizu
Cv Aa_ P }sk PnkQx. P P
Eh Ax P AP CUP. C[S PP
PnkQ.
u ^
Cx P G g\ PS. Cu Aa_
a] Ehx. Cu x Ph P Ai u ~ {UQ
\ Ax. J ia \v Pnzv J
Axx. (G.P) Smh mi\, Q P\.
Tmk ^ Ax UQ
CP g\ g\ Aa_ Qzxx. J Q
P u ^ ~ {UQ \ Ax. (G.P)
g]L
Pv g\ (Spike)
CP g\ ^ }sh usk Ehx. B P
P. C Ai u ~ {UQ \ Pnk (G.P)
AUQu ({) [P (S)
Tmk Pv g\
g\zusk Qzux. J Q ]Pv Gk.
J ] Pv ] P Pnk. g\ Ai UPzv
S G AUPk C ia \vP Pnk. J

217
 G ia \v G UPa \v
Ehx. (G.P) { (J\ \mh).

GV Wm
G -
^WhPXV
& Smh
T m k ^ & g]L
h Wm - Ug@TW

Lo
P v UgN -
g \ & AUQu
T mh
k h PUPp Lo -
v & PUP
AdWkRv hUPp P v &Lo
B -
BWm
A a_ }s i z u
LdLv
h 3 .2 6 ] P g \ P
TPm 3.26 WUv YL UgNLs

h Pv
Cv g\zusk uizx \u Ehx. Cu x Gsn
P P Ai u ~ {UQ \ Ax CUS.
g\ x (spathe) h Gk ia\v i
xPUPmiUS. g\usi RSv s P,
AuS P, Bs P E. g\zusi
~ P Pnkv. (G.P) B (Arum), PUP
(Colocasia)
Tmk h Pv
\u UP g\zusk Qzx Pnk. Au x
P P AvUS z Gk uizu hS
218
ia \v g\ u i xPUS (G.P) PUP
(Cocos).

Aa_ Smhx (Main axis shortened)

g\ usk S a] Psk SmhUPmkx .
P
Cu g\ Aa_ ^ }sk v.
UPP }h. vu P }sh
PP, C P Smh PP PsiUS.
Cu P Azx J mhzv AvUS (G.P.)
^\

Lml - Np V
P & ^\
h 3 . 2 7 A a _ S m h x
TPm 3.27 UV Af hPV]
zusk P ix (Main axis ending in flowers)
A
CP g\ zusk uzu Ax Qzu
Pnh. B g\z usi \[Szu a] vj uh
\mk, ~ Pzu ia \vP uQ. C
mhia \vP (Involucre of bracts) Gk. C Pn[P
Cx, J } Ph P Ai u ~ {UQ
\ uQ. Cu P Azx J mhzv
AvUS (G.P) A ^ ([P).
Tmk A
A g\ zusk Qzx, J Q
~ J A g\ Pnmh Ax Tmk A
Gk. J Q Pv G AUPk. Pv J
mh ] ia \vP (Involucel of bracts) E. C

219
Pn[P P uQ. J ] A Am
G AUPk (G.P) hUP Pmh (Pm).
zusk umhx (Main axis flattenned)
C[S zusk umhUPmk i[P . Au x
]P AvUS.
]g\ (Ax) Pk
g\ zusk umhQ zuP \kQx. Au
x ]P {UQ \ Ax. g\a _
mh ia \vP PnkQ. C _ | Psk C
P P xPUQ.
g\ E ]P P C Pv ], umka
] G CPk. g\ Pnk ]P
Aih ]g\, P P, miP P G
CPk.
P P
Cv Pnk ]P Azx J Pa \u.
C Pv ]PP (G.P ) Ax umk ]PP
(G.P ) CUP.
miP P
Cv Pnk ]P CPP \u. umk
]P g\ zv, Pv ]P g\zusi
x }miU Psk CUS. (G.P) ihU, u
(`Pv).
Tmk ]g\
PP G uzv g\zusk Qzx J
Q J ]g\ PnkQx.
\ P g\
zusk a]hx. zusk, ~ J
EshUQ Au a] | kQx. UPmi C
UPa \vP uQ. Cx C
zuskP u A ~ P uQ.

220
C P ~ u Ai {UQ \ E. ~ P
vu. P zvx {UQ (Centrifugal)
xP Cu g\ E P GsnUTi A CUS.

BmTp-ApVm lT

BmTp-PdLv LWhP

UV Af UXoLp Y

UXo

jR[m

CuYdL

UV Af RhPVdLlThP
TPm 3.28 WUv YL UgNLs

\ P g\ PP E
1. u\
uzv ~, CU Pnzv J J Pnk.
UP K Cn Pnk CuS ~ u \ (G.P.

221
P) G Pn u \ (G.P \L) G
.
2. u hUP (Simple dichasium)
Cx P Ah[Q PzuS. zusk J
ih. Cu C UP[P Aizv C UPa \vP
u. C Pn[P P uQ. C
EshUQ UP Psh Pzv vux. (G.P)
.
3. Tmk hUP
g\ Aa_ J ih. Cu UP
\vP Cx UPmi C P u. Cu P
UPmk a\vP Cx sk P u. Cu
\a^ (Symmetrical) Au [PzxUP u (G.P.)
Q hm. JTRd [jR vLoVn-
JTRd [jR VhWlVm
R PdLVm-_u]m adLn-aV

h PdLVm - WPuWu

TXTRd [jR Nm-Vm

TPm. 3.29 NUv YL UgNLs

222
4. J uU Qzu
g\zusk J
iQx.
Cu UPmk a\v
Csk UP
EshUP J UP
mk UP YohpXvPo-dLv
EshUPkx J UXoLs UPp
uU Qzu Gk. UPp
Cv C PP Esk Af
(A) UPk \
(B) Pk
\. Rt\m sYh
UPk \ LXl UPp Lo-N
g \
oNv-BUm
zusk ~
TPm. 3.30 LXl YL UgN
EshUQ
| k. Cvx u Akzukzu UPmkU
QP, J UPP _ i Ax. (G.P)
mh.
Pk \ aTuRVm-@TdLv
g\ zusk SXV] UXo
~ EshUQ
| k.
Cvx u Akzukzu
UPmkU QP , ChP
u. (G.P) Ti UXo BiUXo
m . UgNu NVjVm -
sYh @ToV
5. uU Qzu (Polychasial
cyme)
zusk J
ih Cvx u
UPmk QP
QzxU Psh
CUS. (G.P) } jRt\m sYh

TPm 3.31 \l YL UgNLs

223
P P g\
CP g\P g\zusk ] , uhx
\ Qzxx. Cv PP E.
1. v\ (Thyrsus)
g\ Aa] u hUP \P ]
Ax. J Pzv vu ~ , C
UPmk P PnkQ (G.P) B] (x]).
2. mi]h (Verticillaster)
Csk Gv CU Pn[P Cx C hUP \ P
g\P u. C J u Pk \PP
x, uhx Qzu PnP ush _ Pnk (G.P.)
UP A (x).
3. P h Pv (Mixed spadix)
(\) \ g\P uizu g\UP Ai
u ~ {UQ \ Ax. J \
g\ z G ia \v hmkx.
] P g\P
C ] P Ax \ P \UP
iu. G ] P g\P Gk. Cv PP
Esk.
1. \zv
Cx L G zv Pnk g\ P S
u Pnk. ia \vP Cnx J P
Ax Qsn i A EUS. Cv E Su
zuzv x S J P Pnk. zuzv
{k J J s }sh P x AvUS. Cx
uP Ax. `P mk US. Cua _
BsP J u Pk \PP Ix PzxUP
Pnk. BsP J Puzu mk Pnk. C
ia \vP Pn[P u. g\ Ea]
AP u _P E. (G.P.) L \zuL.
2. ui
Cv zu \uh Qsn Sx Pnk.
Au Bi G ] x Pnk. Cx

224
\vP xPUPmkx. zuzxUS P
P E. BsP Qsnzv zv, sP
Aizv Pnk. P ({k| P) C
CsiS Ch Pnk (G.P.) LUP [P
(B).
3. ^v
Cv zu \uh mh umk Pnk. Cu
{k sP Au _ BsP Pnk. (G.P.)
hj.
u vk
\ h uukUP
1) U Gx J P
A. ] g\ B. \ g\
C. P P g\ D. ] P g\
2) hj CuS GkzxUPmhP [S
A. ^ B UQ C. iU D. ^v
3) Pv ]P Psh P ]g\
A. B. ihU C. D. u
4) \ CuS GkzxU PmhP Ex.
A. iU B.P iU
C. Tmk iU D. E Hx C.
(5) J P Cv E.
A. \zv B. v\ C. mi]h D. \
Csk vsP
(1) UP: Pv ] / ui / P /
CUP/ Am.
Ix vsP
1) P P g\P GkzxU PmkPh USP.
2) ] g\ S P.
3) \ g\P Pkzv, G Csi
USP.
4) ] P g\P UP.
zx vsP
1) ] P g\P Pmi P.
2) ] P g\P J Pmk GxP.
3) \ P g\P USP.

225
 3. P, PP uP

A, PP
E u[P CUPzu P A
SUPhu uskz uSv Gk. C QP
, ] C izu i \v
Pnzvx uQ. Aa] ~Sv G
EP u[PUTix. (mh, Amh, Puu
mh, `P mh). Cx zu G AUPk. (u (A) h).
zu {UPP Au PqUP, Ch Su
PqhSvP Pshx. z-u - z-v-S R Pn-k- Q-
Pq- - h S-v U-P- G-k
- . -ia \v x--P U-
P-S R Pn--k. ] \- ]- C-- -A---P
P Ch- Pn-k - . C U-P- \v-P G-k - .
-- Ah-u us-k
G-x- C---U-Pz-v-P
- -P K --k Ah-u A-x - -
- Ps- h us- k z uS- v G- - x , K - - - T- - S .
CUTx, Ph- u P[- P - S- - P - - - h- x A{- P
-z-u- B---P
- H-U P- - -m-k-x. C-u Pzv
--, A-x- -\L m-h--P (1751) G- ""Eh
E-'' GU S-mk. P EL - - iP-h G--
-P CuP, Ahu \un CPS G
PP UQ.
""u CUPP'' x AP uPUS
Emmh v, C u {P
PhiUPkQx.
x J Psh usk Gx J USmmh
UPS. Cu CuP UP o
Ja\UPUS v CUP oa \uPP k
Ahu Gx uQx.

226
 J E usk Gu UP
1. mkP usi, mkP ~ Ax
CU Pnzv AvUS.
2. ] u[P, mk, Eh mkP Ax P
Ex (G.P) AP, B u.
3. ] u[P zu uhx x, CPk Ti
usk uS, Ax EshUSQx.
(G.P) .
4. A, CuP Cx A CuP, A
CuP Cx Puz uP, Ch|
kPk u.

& }m] zu }m] zu Psh

P m
Puz u
`P
}m] PL
zu BsmL
A A

zu

E P[P & }L
A
Pu
Pu
E Pu

h 3.32 zu K P sh
u sk Gu |zu

5. Pm] P zu }sk, } Pqh

SvP EPh uUQx.
6. CuP \un CP Ex.
7. i, PuzuP u C , `P
`usk, `i G k A h[Q CP
uQ.

227
8. zu, UP usk BQ E AP
JPU Pskx. EP \un
CP Pnk S v_ A Aih J
uP Ax.
Ah
P CU Pnzv Ax usk
Au QP ~ Pnk. AuP
CUPn Ax ~ G AUQ.
P u PP Cu, g\ Pni,
xP J Smh PU Psk CUS. Cu
UP G AUQ. ] \[P P Pnkx
C. , P Psk Cu Au Ph G,
P C G Au P P G SkQ.
EP
xP EP PsiUS
1. ia \vP, UPa \vP
2. zu
3. mh[P
A. mh
B. Amh
C. Puu mh
D. `P mh
UQ P[P, xn P[P
{S P[P, Puzu mh, `P mh
Cu P[PS. H, A {hP CUP
\ DkkQx. x P, uP uuS
iPP A |Pa]P Pua \UP, Pu
C {h Cx C |Pa]P, mh,
Amh, {hP [S Pv. G C
xn P[P G AUQ.
ia \vP, UPa \vP
ia \vP, C Jzu ] EPS. C
Pnzv Cxu P uQ. Gu C
Pnzv Cx uQu, Au C A ia

228
\vS. G P ia \v Psk Cv.
ia \v Eu, C Gu zx, ia \vh
P ; ia \v P GQ. ia \v C A,
mhP CUS x Au i xPUS o
PQ. ] P US,ia \vUS Ch,
UP x ], ia \v Jzu EP
Pnk. C UPa \vP GQ. UPa \vP
J Ax Csk CUP. UPa \vP Eu, C
Gu zx P, UPa \vh, UPa \v
GQ.
zu
zu, Pq, PqhSvP Psh PU SQ Aa_.
Au CP Ax.
zuzv k
] u[P PqhSv }sk, uP PnkQx.
Cu Pqh }m] mhzvS, A mhzvS Ch
Pnmh. AuS BuL G . Cx
P] PnkQx.
A mhzvS, Puzu mhzvS Ch Pqh
}m] Pni AuS BsmL G . (G.P) L
(Sk & L]).
Pqh }m], Puzu mhzvS, `P mhzvS
Ch Pnmh AuS PL G . Cx P
(Ph]) PnkQx. BsmL PL
Csk Pnmh A PmL Ax
BsmPL Gk (G.P) Psm]. zu,
`z usi }sk Pni AuS PL G .
G.P. Psh LS.
zuzv uP AvUS
P P (`P )
zu, \ }sh Ax Su Cu, `P Au
Pnk. ~ `Pzv, AuSU RP, , A,
Puzu mh[P mh `h
P P P GkQ. (G.P) ] ,
A] u.

229
 `P `P R
A
Puz
u Puz u
A
`

zu `
`Pg ` zu

Puz u

`

zu

h 3.33 uP AvUS

GP (`P R )
zu P i Psk, `a _k Cnx
Pnk. Cu P P[P `US
Ax CUS Cu AS GP G . CP
GP G, ` R mh ` G AUPk
(G.P) Bm], SUPmh], ] u.
P (`Pg` )
CP `Pzv, ` umh, EmS zuzv
zv Ax CUS x, P[P `
Ax CUS. CP AUS P G,
CzuP P G AUPk. (G.P) L],
u. CP `, v Rmha ` Gk.
uP
J zv u[P mh, A
mh i Av A uP Gk J
zv u[P CuP AQ sn Psk C,
A A Cu Jzu (G.P) S\ `. ] C zv

230
u[P, A Cu Jzu uP PnkQ. (G.P)
P].
uP, E EP i xPUS o
\Qx. AQ sn[ Psk C, Pu \UPUPP
a]P PQx.
mh
mh, AkUPS. CuP Bx.
P xP a\ |zxh CUS ; ] {[P
snzxh Pnmh, A A Jzu Gk. (G.P)
^\. \sh Lsh\ J uP,
g\ Ax |zxh C izv Pnk.
mhzv u o xPzu. Cx E
EP C| CUPz w[S, , ` a\, Eu,
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231
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232
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233
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Bi.
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Cu
mk zv, CuP, A CuP
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234
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235
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236
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237
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Ax PuPU PsiUS.
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238
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239
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240
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.
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Sk
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J Au G {S AkUSP x
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Pnku) Gk.
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Gk
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J Psh P GQ.
B. C E Psh
C kUSP xP mh, Amh G
k Psk Pnk. C C AkUSPU
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u[P P mh, Amh Csk
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AUPkQ.

241
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UQ P[P Pu u mh, `P mh
Csh Psh P C PS.
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P J PS. C C Pk
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zv P Gu } UQ mi C \ SvPP
. (G.P) P, \ u.

242
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C UPa \a^h P[P A, A J
^PU Pnkv. CP U Smh J UQ
mk C \ SvPP UP i (G.P) \.
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Aa\ _ P P[P Smh mh AkUSPP
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P[P mh AkUSP A _a] ,
AvUS (G.P) U.
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] P[P mh A ] _] A
AvUS (G.P) , S .
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J mh, Jzu GsoUP Au
P AuS Jzu A[P G . ]
\[P J mh GsoUP
P AuS mh A[P G . Jzu
A[P P PPP UP.
1. D[P
P[P Csk Ax Csi h[Q Pnk.
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P[P Ax h[PP Pnk.
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P[P {S Ax {Q h[PP Pnk.
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P[P Ix Ax Iv h[PP Pnk.
C zv u P xP, {P[P Ax Iu[P
PP Pnk. B J zv u P [P Ax
h[SPU Pnk.
243
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P Gx P a]hu ` G UP. P
uP P Cx EQ. Cx Pu \UP
Pu G Csk |Pa]P iu S u P
PP uP EQ. P S ` PP
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P A
P, u Pzu (P) G Csk UQ
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PP Gv kzu Cx.
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244
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u \uUP

m i

u {ku
u Eu
{ku
u u
Eu

u
`Jmk v_
u
P
zu zu

h 3.40 u \uUP

CUPP US x, Cu PP Pzu (P)

xP Ax Pzu J Sv \uh
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UP. UPm PP G \u. Cv uP
u Gu Pi Sv Pnkv. u PU
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245
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Cx uP Psh PS. Cv P zu
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246
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A. iP
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h 3.41. E iU PP
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247
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248
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249
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v
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250
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P P

u UP v P T m k UP
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1 .
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x u Pnk. ][P C[P A
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mho, Psh Ph, A BnUS

251
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Czv u AUS Psh Ph J
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mhP CUS. uP C iP Pnk
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G P P E JmiU Pnk.

PshPh u zu

uz x
Szx

zv

h 3.46 Czv u A

P E Cx kmh vx u, LS
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u Azx x, uzx P } .
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252
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Pa \ux. Cv u E, Pzu Cnx
Pnk. UPa\ zv g\ |zxh,
HUS UPn ih Pnk. uzv, ], }
Esh u s Sv P Pnk.
u }mkz uzv A

\UPv uzv }..u

A AkUS
u Gsh

Smh
Szx E

P

P
E

h 3.47 UP a\ u zvA

1. u
uzu _, AkUQ u E Pnk. Cu
AkUS u E P E Bx.
2. Gsh
UPa\ E uzu Gw G AkUS C
\ SvPP UQx. u Sv Ax

253
Gsh BS. Cx g\ Ax |zxh, En
\US v_Q, AvP \UQx. Cu
AkUS uzu A AkUPS. Gsh, T
u P Pnk.
3. P
u[P P P\ Pnk zvUS
Smh G . Cv P Aa_ vUPx. Aa_
Szx G Pzu, G RSv
Ehx. USzx Eh Pnk.
USzu _ E EUS USzx G
_ E EUS E G [Pk. u
US x, T i Szx E xh
P, u En uUS C Qx.
u PP
Ps v_UP A uP
uizu, \u zvP, Ph, mho, A
PnkQx. Cv PS u EnmP
\zx UPmkx. CzuP uPUS Ps
v_UP G .
Ps v_UP Eh
\ zvP BnUS, UPa\
u uP Pnk. CP uP En, Ps
v_UP \zx UPk zvP Eg_ EP
\k Ps v_ E En, zvP Eg]
PSU PkUQx. CzuP uP Psv_ Eh
Gk.
u vk
J vs
\ hz uukUP
1. Bg]P Pnk u ShzuUP A
(A) (B) u (C) P (D) C
2. C Pnk AkUP GsoUP
(A) J(B) (C) Csk (D) {S

254
3. AkUSP GsoUP
(A) J(B) (C) Csk (D) {S
4. [P P Cv PnkQx.
(A) Czv (B) |zu[P
(C) Jzv (D)
5. vu Ev mhzv, P Ev |
(A) mk u (C) mk zv
(B) PuUS (D) T Azx
6. C APU Psh Pu
(A) D (B) D (C) CP (D) CP
7. Cnu `PU Psh `P
(A) Cn `P (B) ` `P
(C) Cnu `P (D) Cv Gx C
8. Pnk ` Jmk
(A) Ai (B) _ (C) Aa_ (D)
9. uP GPzv Cx EshQx ?
(A) ` (B) `P (C) `P (D) `
10. uP vm\
(A) u E P (B) TmkUP
(C) vP (D) zvPU P
11. Esq Sv
(A) E (B) E E
(C) E (D) T Azx
12. u[P GUP Pa \ux ?
(A) m (B) \P
(C) Um (D) vP
13. Pnk P P
(A) TmkUP (B) \P
(C) \] (D) vP

255
Pimh Ch[P |P.
1. &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C Jzu ] EPS C
Pnzv Cxu P uQ.
2. zuzv &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
3. Pu u mh, `P mh Csh Psh P
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
4. Azx P[P GsoUP, J ^P Pni
A &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& Gk.
5. UP[P &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
6. PuUS ` &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& BP .
7. C iP &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& Skz u[P
Pnk.
8. Esq Sv &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
1 . zxP
`P & ] AP
vS & mh `
]g] & A Jmi PuzuP
A Jmi & Pu P Cnx
Pu PP uozx
Ai` Jmk & Bmh
II. P & P E
P ` & {
`a _ & EsUP
P ` & vP
Cna `a `P & PUP
Csk vsP
1. Kz u[P G G ?
2. Cu &
3. C P G G ?
4. C UPa \a^h P G G ?
5. D Pu J Pu Cx kzx.

256
6. J P Puz uP G G ?
7. Cn `\a ` Cnu `a ` Cx
kzx.
8. P &
9. PP PP ?
10. uUP & .
11. E i PP G G ?
12. P EuS u C |Pa]P ?
13. v P &
14. C iP G G ?
15. \u PP GP E P Cx
kQx ?
Ix vsP
1. `P , `P R C Eunzxh USP.
2. mhzv PP USP.
3. \a^ G Psh ? P \a^
_UPP .
4. v P uSu GkzxUPmkh UP
5. TmkUPz uSu GkzxUPmkh UP.
6. Czv, Jzv, uPUS Ch E UQ
kP P[P SUPmh h[Ph uP.
zx vsP
1. ` Jmk G G ? Au PP Eunzxh
.
2. Cu PP Eunzxh USP.
3. Cu P[P UP.
4. \uUPP Eunzxh UP.
5. E iUPP uSu Eunzxh UP.
6. UPa \ u u A hzxh UP. Cx G
PshUPh u Cx kQx ?

257
 IV.
1. z uh k
SuP Ax U PxP P ,
P P ]u Jzx E. Cu J
\uvP uUS Ph AP
kQ. APh E ] ]P AP J
Skzu \uP Gu x P. J ]zv
E JPUS kPUS Pn \P
B A (Genetics) Gk. Phx
sP \uvPUS k \P Ah[Q J P
E AS. (Genetics) G \ ""]'' G
QUPa \ Cx GkUPmhx. CuS "u' Ax
"Eu' G .
G A, kP
kzv, zv u JP, P
x Psk A u, EUPzu Ax P
EuQx.
z uh Ax Gx J \uvx Akzu
\uvUS sP, JP P PhzukuU
SUS. J Skzv E _P (P)
Jzvu USQx.
k Gx, J ]zv E u EPUQh
J \uvUQh (Eh u) E
P SUS. J PP Cu H
kQP Gu USQx. CP J CUP
B JQh mhP.
Cu JP, P u\P |PU Ti
A._UPP \, Gx
kP Ax Px BS.
k (Variation)
J t]ju R EoLdPVm, J _ Tt\oLu
NkR]dPVm LQlTm YtUL[ YTLs Gu AZlTo.
GpX EV]eLm Um rXdLtT ReL[ Ut AZjd
Ls[Y, RLYUjdLs[Y VtlTRp YTLs Ruu\].

258
 (Heredity)
J \uvx Akzu \uvUS
sP Phukx Gk.
shUP u P
AP u C[P,
[Q[P kzxu \x
u, sP J \uvx
\uvUS G PhzukQ Gx
Ax u.
] BP PzxUP
shUS , sP Akzu
uUS Phzuku UP
PzxUP UPmk. TPm. 4.2 u
EYdLd LsLT
1) D B Pmk (Moist Vapour Theory) aUuXv AUl
zuP G QUP uzxb
CuU Pmmh zu. C, J [QzvEh
EP BzxPP EsksqQ. G
EP JP Cnx J v Ezu EUSQ G
{.
2) {Q Pmk
Cu zu Ahmi G Ab Pzxi Bs,
s C u EshUSQ, C P x,
y s x P EshUS u P, Bs
x PS izu E| PkuP Ex.
3) UPU PmkP
Bsh U u u x \P Psk
Bu. _h G Ab 1679 B Bsi, \ Pzxi
x Ax Ash G C \P E ]
PnkQx. CuS S G . EUP Gx Cu
] A uu BS. Cu Pmmi
(1673), h (1694) U (1800) BQ AbP
BuzuP.
4) xP u Pmk
i G g_ E Ab Cu Pmmi,
J Eh ] xPP uUPk. C
Csk Jmk z uP EUSQ.

259
(5)
Cu Pmmh zu Ahmi (Q..384 & 322)
G Pzxi [Q Eh G SvP P
Ax P G ] Eh[P uUPmk, C
Czuzv P C EP Ah. C[S C
P P, CshU Px v Ezu
EUS. Cu Pzx skPUS HU Pz uUPuP
Cx, \ h (1809 & 1882) P BuUPmhx.
CshU Pzu PmmkUS Gv \P
shUS uU PU PzxUP i J u E C
P sP PS. Cx CshU Pzu
Pmk BS. Cui J P [QzxUS
Ch P {h x, [Q | \P CUP
sk. J Csh Pu sP sk uu
P \ x \ | E[P u. B Ah
, P | P SuP
PP, P, CsiS Chmh |P
CUP. Au CP SuP PP,
P CUP.
uu s mi (atavism) E [Px
CshU Pzu zxUS GvP Ex. uu s
mi, USuP u u Pnmh
B P Cu ] sP US. J
E[P Bs C s C sP CshU
Pv.
u Aih CP
P G _h {mk Ab, Pmh
Pmi G {mk AbP, u[P \PP
A Pu \UP {h \x, PP
EshUQP. kzumh sP CshU Pv
GuS Pmh \P [Q Ch iP,
h iP Jzvu C \P kzu
i.
CshU Pzu Pmmh, xP u Pmmi,
k \uu sh P [P BS. sh ux
PskiP 1865 & B Bsk mh. B A Ax
HU Ph G AhuP h[P
Pu. 1900 & B Bsk v i, P P
260
 Bi U BQ AbP uzuP sh
PskiP Pski \x, { Bzx
zuP.
u ] UQ sP
1) J sS C |P E.
2) J | h xP kzukQx.
3) Hu J | h[PUS h CUP.
4) UPmh s i | sk u.
5) sP Ax uP u xP uh
mP kzuku CshU Pu,
hu Pnkv.
u vk
\ h uukUP
(1) D Pmmi zu
(A) Ahmi (B) zuP
(C) h (D) h
(2) CshU Pzu Pmmh Cx xP u Pmk
k \ux.
(A) Pmh (B) Pmi
(C) sh (D) h
(3) h Pnhu u u Pnmh s
USuh Pnkx.
(A) S (B)
(C) uu s k (D) CshU Pzu
Csk vsP
(1) UP & u / k / S / zu
/
Ix vsP
(1) kP UQzxzu USP.
(2) u BU PzxUP ?
(3) u Aih CP ?
zx vsP
(1) u kP Pmk GxP.

261
 2. sh u vP

QP sh G Bi x, sP
hx \uvPUS Phzuk ~mzu u u
UQ. A PoP Gk xPP sP Akzu
uUS Gkzxa \Q G PzuU Psiu CuU
Pzx C xu, {P US C
iP Cuu, C uu G AUPkQ.
sh UP
QP sh, 1822 B Bsk, \hL G
F E ]] G Qzv J H \ Skzv
u. E | i izx mk, vmh v

262
 G F E APv x hzv xP ~u.
C[Qx C, Pou CP A ]
PU PPzxUS \. C[S L E[P (u
Ab) Qi h (h U
Pskizu C Ab) BQ AbP v C
P \uP \v B Psh.
1854 & B Bsi sh hzxUS v vP E
|U B]P o. K {zv, umh
mhoa \i (\ \mh) P UP ]h
Ah \uP \
Bzu. Cu \u hzxz
umhzv 1856 u 1865
Jx h[P \u.
sh Psk iP
Ah vP
CP \[Pzv Bsk ULWkRj Rs
{hiUP Smi XLm
hmh. Cu BU
Pmk, ""u P \uP''
G uhmhx. B
RUPsh Pn[PUPP Ax TPm 4.3 TNm NhPYm
Ah PskiP A UXu sYhj Rt\m
AbP A[QPUPh,
mhh C.
(1) zvP Ahu JP Cux.
(2) Ah Pmk AuU Pzu h P uP
Cux.
(3) h ][P u Pmmi Hmh skP
Psk __P Bx PsiuP.
(4) sh uh iP u {UP Ahuu,
zv \.
1900 & B Bsk, P P, v
P i, Bi U BQ AbP
sh vP uzuP sk Pski sh
xz v ESUS a\ CmkU PmiP. Ah
PskiUS AhP, AvP sh
vP sh\ G mh.

263
sh \uP
s h ,
umhmhoa \i Kel Ti Je Ti
(\ \mh) SUSU
P \uP
\u.
C mh s
|P Psh
mho u[P P
\u. J \u
J s C|P
Bu. Cu hPjRi
u PP
Jh P
ShPjRi
\mh.
PP QhUPmh
UgNs L
\vP xPU
dLeLPu
Psk iP PP
TfNd L Ys[
Sumh.
ElV L R E\
sh UP
NmTp Ri
Pn[P R E\ UXo
A v h ,
wUPu\
Pouzv Psiu
{mh BQ
sh US
UQ Pn[PP
E. TfN eV
u UgNs jX R
jX
\u P EiP
A mhoz uzu R
uukUP PnP TPm 4.4 UiPp RokRjR YThP
Ti XLs
Cux, Cuz u
RUPq sP
uu BS.
1. Cx CPP u Phx. G y C EP
zu Ax UP \x Gx.

264
2. Ksk uP Cu SQ UP _] Pshx.
G uP Gv B.
3. mho uzu A Pu \UP \x Gx.
4. BP UPmh mh sP E.
5. C P PnkQ.
BP, sh \uUS mhozu J EPu
uP vPux.

\
1. y C P (Gzu uPUS u P
\u J u z uP EUS u EP)
P \uP \u.
2. H i mh s |P Bu. J {zxUS
J i sP GkzxU Psh.
3. A u \uP Cshx x u
uhu.
4. A \uP x vmi o.
P \ u~m
umhmho u Pu \UP \U Tiuu
Pzv P si:
i. uPu \UP ukUP BshUP \u.
ii. uu uzv Cx Pu[P Gkzx u uzv x
y, ` i h sk.
iii. C EshS u uzuP Shmh
miP \PUP sk.
iv. U P (u uu u[P x)
P u vUPkv
GuU Pmi. Aux QhUP \ \uv Qu
Cux.
P k u[P \uv G AUPmk
P G Smh SUPmh. Cx P \u
u \P, u L \uv (First Filial generation) G
AUPmk F 1 G SUPmh. C u Pu \UP
265
\ mk Au u \P Csh L \uv
(Second filial generation) AUPmk, F2 G Shmh.
J i mh sP zv \umh P
J s P G, Csk i mh
sPzv \umh P Cs P G
AUPmhx.
Amhn 4.1 sh uukzu mh s|P
.Gs s K[Ss Jk[Ss

1. u i Esh _[Qx

2. u | g\ a\
3. u | \
4. P i Ex _UP[P Ehx

5. P | a\ g\
6. P Ah CUPn usk ~

7. \i E {mh Smh

J s P
(J i mh sPUS umhmho \u)
P TT X tt
{mh Smh
PmkP T t
F1 Tt (Js P)
{mh (u P)
PmkP T t
F2 T t
T TT Tt
t Tt tt
TT - 1 P {mh (JzuU PoP Pshx)
Tt &- 2 P {mh (mh PoP Pshx)
tt &- 1 Smh
{mh : Smh = 3:1

266
J s PS sh UP
\uv
P Ax y C (pure breeding) {mhz u J,
Au Smhzu J sh \uvP
uukzu. (\P)
F1 \uv
P P \x, A Qhzu uPU
Psk F1 \uv G. Czu[P Azx {mh u
Eh. J s PP (monohybrids) G AUPmh.
F2 \uv
F 1 \uv J sU PP u Pua \UP
\mk, {mh Smhz u[P 3:1 G Quzv
. sh {mh Smh u[P
Es GsoUP 787 {mh 277 Smh BS. 3:1 G
Qu \uvP zuzv Aih Cu CuS
zu Qu (Phenotypic ratio) G .
F3 \uv
F 2 \uvP u Pua \UP \mk, F 3 \uvP
. Cv A Pshx.
1. F 2 \uv u Smhzu[P Azx AS
Gzu uPUS A Pua \UP {hu, u
Pu \UP {hu y P E[PP
\mh.
2. F 2 \uv u {mhz u[P J [S
P {mh u Psiu. u C[S
{mh u[P, {mh Smhz u[P, 3:1 G
Quzv uzu. Aux F 2 \uv u
u[P Pnmh.
(i) P {mh (\P) & 25%
(JzuU PoP Eh)
(ii) P {mh (mi\P) & 50%
(C PoP Eh)
(iii) P Smh (\P) & 25%
BP PsiUS PoP Aih, J sU P
Qu 1:2:1 BS. Cx UP Qu (genotypic ratio) Gk.

267
sh kzxu UP
sh Pzv ] / S S [P,
S\P A Ah. BP sP
ASP (heriditary units) Ax PoP (factors)
Gk xPP P |PQx G iUS u.
J sU P iP ] P[P UQ.
(i) {mh, Smh BQ sP, mh J i PoP
|nUP kQ (Cx A P GkQ)
{mhz uzv J i |nP (determiners) E.
(K[Ss u GzuU Psk C "T'' GU
SUPkQ) Smhzuzv Smh sUP
|nP E. (C t GU SUPkQ) Cu
|nP iPU Pnk, P {mh (TT)
Smh (tt) u[P Ex J Pa
\uP Cu \P Gk. J sU
P (Tt) Ex Pa \uP
Cu mi\P Gk.
(ii) J i mh sPUS PnP E C PoP
AP Ax ALP Gk. i E
Csk PoP C hx kQ.
(iii) J s C |PUP PoP, Pu
J \ x, J s kQx ({mh)
UQx (Smh) k s K[Ss (dominant) G,
UPk s Jk[Ss (recessive) G AUPkQx.
(iv) PoP Gx y u Eh. PmkP ES
x u ASPP E PoP, uzx x, C mh
s |PUP PoP J mk J PmkUS
QhUS A. Aux {mh (T) Smh (t)
uUS PoP u APP E. J Pmi T
A x t mk Ex. F1 PP u Pu \UP \
x, C AP x , \ Cnx {mh
Smhz u[P EUSQ.
C s P (Dihybrid Cross) (C i mh sP
EhUQ P)
J \zv J i sP uzx u, Phzx
u sh \u Bu. Cx C s P (Dihybrid
Cross) Ax C Po P (Two-factor Cross) Gmhx.

268
u E _[Q u, uP g\
a\ |zu GkzxU Psh.
E u g\ uP Psh uzu
_[Q u a\ uP Psh uzuk P
\u, F 1 \uv E u g\ uP
Psh u[P u. C u Pu \UP
CUP \u, F2 \uv {S u u[P RUPsh
Quzv u. C Csk P (Parental types)
\u Csk v P PP (New combinations).
C
g\ E 9 & P
g\ _[Qx 3 & v P PP
a\ E 3 & v P PP
a\ _[Qx 1 & P
BP CsU P F2 u \uvP 9:3:3:1 G
Quzv u. CuS CsUP Qu (Dihybrid ratio) G
.
F 2 u, 4 sP Jh \ x
u, J i mh s |P, ih
\ \Q G. Aux u | u
uUS \ \. PmkP EUPk x, F 1
Cs P Pnk E Ax _[Q
sPUP P, u g\ a\ |zvP
Ph \ uzx Jx[SQ. Cu P {S
u PmkP uQ. C Csk CnP
Csk v CnP Aux RY, Ry, rY ry. Cu {P
PmkP S Cnu v P \uvP 9:3:3:1
G Quzv EUQ. shUS Qhzu u EP
\ GsoUP
(A) 315 g\ Esh uP (B) 108 a\ _[Q uP
(C) 101 g\ _[Q uP (D) 32 a\ _[Q uP.
sh, u Ezu R G _[Qzu r
G, g\ |zu Y G a\ |zu y G Szu. G
RRyy x rryy G Po Cn Eh PUQh
CsUP \mhx Cu RPsh SzxU Pmh.

269
 g\ Esh a\ _[Qx
P RRyy X rryy
PmkP Ry ry
F1 RrYy (C sU P)
g\ Esh (u P)
PmkP Ry Ry rY ry

RY Ry rY ry

RY RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy

g\ g\ g\ g\
Esh Esh Esh Esh

Ry RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy

g\ a\ g\ a\
Esh Esh Esh Esh

rY RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy

g\ g\ g\ g\
Esh Esh _[Qx _[Qx

ry RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy

g\ a\ g\ a\
Esh Esh _[Qx _[Qx

sh vP
J sUP CsUP \uP
Aih sh UQ vP zu. A
Cx sh u vP G AUPkQ.
(i) K[Szu Jk[Szu v (Law of Dominance and
Recessiveness)
(ii) uzx u Ax PmkP P u v (Law
of Segregation or Law of Purity of Gametes)
(iii) \ Jx[Su v (Law of Independent Assortment)
(i) K[Szu v
K[Szu Jk[Szu v Tux

270
 J Ax AuS AvP i mh sP Psh
\P u EP P \mh, F 1 P
Pnk s K[Ss G, Pnhu s Jk[S s
G AUPk.
(ii) uzx u v Ax PmkP Pz u v
uzx u v Tux, ""mh J i PoP,
P Ax A LP, P Cnzx Psk
k x A C A[P[P Ph JP
Cx,PmkP EUPzv x, uzx x \ J
J A[P mk J PmkUS \Q.''
Bzv, Cu v sh UPmhU PzuP
Cu, Cx \ BP Ev \mkx.
K[S u Cu, Cmh uzxz u Gx G
|P x.
(iii) \ Jx[Su v
\ Jx[Su v Tux, ""J \zv Csk
Ax AuS mh mh i sP S x,
C Pmkkzx P Ax PoP, J i
ih \ Jx[SQ.''
C s P Aih sh Cu v Pkzu.
C[S F2 \uv zu v u EP u. C 9:3:3:1
G Quzv CUS. C Csk PP, Csk
v CnP EUPk.
P \u P (Back Cross and Test Cross)
sh u |Pa] F2 \uvP, F1 \uvP
u P (selfing) uQ. B F1 \uv Hu J
P Ph P \mh AuS P G
. F 1 P P K[S sh h P
\mh, u \uvP Azx K[S s EhP
CUS.
F 1 P, P Jk[S sh h P
\mh, K[S s Jk[S s u[P
\Quzv u. CuS \uU P G .

271
J s P (Monohybrid Back cross)

F1 Tt X TT (P)
PmkP T t T

F2 T t
T TT Tt (Azx {mhzu[P)

J s \uUP (Monohybrid test cross)

F1 Tt X tt
PmkP T t t

F2 T t
t TT tt
{mh : Smh = 1:1
C s \uU P (Dihybrid Testcross)
C s \uU P {S P z u[P
RPshu \ Qu[P uQ. uzx u
{hvu Ax P P \P uu
mi \P uu Gu Ax P \uU P
EuQx.
F1 RrYy x rryy
Pmk RY Ry rY ry xy

F2 RY Ry rY ry
ry RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
g\ a\ g\ a\
Esh Esh _[Qx _[Qx
RrYy : Rryy : rrYy : rryy
g\ : a\ : g\ : a\
Esh Esh _[Qx _[Qx
1 : 1 : 1 : 1

272
u vk
J vs
\ h uukUP
(1) sh u Q Cx
(A) \hL (B) ]]
(C) (D) Bi
(2) u u vUPx Gu Ev \x
(A) P (B) \uU P
(C) U P (D) J sU P
(3) u |zvPP Jk[S s
(A) a\ (B) \ (C) g\ (D)
Pimh Ch[P |P
(1) sh mh i s |P
________________G AUPmh.
(2) C s P Qu _______________________ BS.
zxP
(1) \i E && _[Qx
(2) Ah && _UP[P Pshx
(3) P | && usk ~
(4) u i && Smh
(5) P i && g\
Csk vsP
(1) sh Pski sk Pskizu AbP
?
(2) sh UP Pn[P USP.
(3) J s P USP.
zx vsP
(1) sh CsUP Pmk GxP.
(2) sh vP GxP.

273
 3. uUS S\
Aih

sh PoP, A \ u,
A Au \ G Ab 1909& B Bsk
P G AUPmh.
Pmk
\mh G Pmmh APkzv. P,
m BQ B Ax
UPmhx.
Pmmi UQ TP
(i). \ |U_US E P J Ezv C
\ sP hx \uvPUS Phzu
PnP E.
(ii). P S\ x Ax.
(iii). P zu GsoUP, S\P GsoUP
h h[S AvPu, J S\ P E.
u, zu Hzu 40,000 P E.
(iv). S\ P, |h (Locus) Gk J Smh
Ahzv Pnk.
(v). P S\ x o E oP
} \ Ax.
(vi). J US JS mh \k |P Ax
AP E. Cu \k |P AP Gk.
(vii). AP K[Szu Ax Jk[Sz u Eh. ]
\[P Cn K[S u (Codominance) Ax u
K[Szu Pnh.
(viii). C v PoP yshmk P
S vj [P (Mutations) Ah.

274
(ix) \kv zu J Csk mh |PUS vP
CsiS mh |P UP. CS Tmk
AP (Multiple Alleles) G .
(x). Cmiu G |Pa] P CmihQ.
(xi). P, {vP G u[P EshUS. Cx P
\ kzx.
(xii). DNA C J Sv P Ex. J hk \[Q
Ax J {v uUP si \v Pskx.
\vx \[Pu (Genetic code) G AUPk.
|UhkP uh\P Ah[Qx J A
AzuU SUS |UhkP Psh uh
\ Ph G AUPk.
UT A
J Gx DNA Bx BS. \ G Pzxi
UP (Recon), mh (Muton), ]m (Cistron)
J (Operon) G ASPP UP.
UP
SUPv Cn {h Pa] Sv
UP BS. Cx J |Uhk i AUS Pa]uP
CUP.
mh
vj AhUTi Pa] APS. Cx J i
|Uhk AUS Pa ]uP CUP.
]m
J hh EUS \ APS.
J
Amh, A P uh \
Psk P uS J APP \kQ.
GU\P (Exons) CmP (Introns)
xP PmkP, P uha] DNA
uSPP {Pmi Chzuk PnkQ. B,
PmkP DNA C E P, Azu
SkP GUP CS ChzukPP Azu

275
SkP CmP Psk. Cx Chzuk
P (Interrupted genes) Ax uha] P (discontinuous genes)
PmmiS AihP Cux. CzuP P yx RNA &
EUSx u J u| Gzxi (Primary Transcript)
EUS. Cv Cx CmP xsiUPmk \k
yx RNA ES CuS n (Splicing) G .
zv S\ Aih
zxUP S\ Aih uzu \mh
BQ AbP 1902 B Bsk zuP.
W.S.\mh vh S\PUS PUS
Ch E Cn UP kzx a\
GvPsk wzx zuP.
C P S\P E G i
\xP. APP E P, mi\P
Ezv, \ uzx Jx[SQ. CuS Pn C
Pnk S\P C \P EUPzvx \
uzx Jx[SQ. \mh Cu i,
BP P \P
\UPmhx.
Cu i HUP, { S\P
J[S sh Pzv a\zv x P
sk.
(i). S\P uzu: J E |
S\ GsoUP Pshx. C\P
(PmkP) |U J (haploid) GsoUP (n)
\Pmi |U Ch[S Ax Cmh (Diploid)
GsoUP (2n) S\P PnkQ.
(ii). ] (S S): C \P EUPzvx
{h ] |Pa] iPP E Cmh
S\ AP iQ.
(iii). J i E S\P PmkUS
\x iPUS \ Jx[SQ. Cx
PoP Jx[Su US sh \ Jx[Su
v JzvUQx.
(iv). J PmkP Cnx, C P
Jzv\ S\P JP Psk mk Cmh
\Pm EQx. CuS H, \uvP u
uu sP JPU PUQ G sh T.
276
(v). Pn iu, imh S\P A
A uzu J u E UP
xPUQ. J Smh u ] sP
h G A ux v Gu
sh |zxU Pmi.
Cu A\[P Cx, sh PoPUS
S\PUS Ch Cnzu PnkQx G,
sh u vP ] |Pa] x
S\P J[SUS J Ev Aih Ex
G uu u S\ Pmk
UPmhx.
u S\U Pmmi AiUPP
1. u Es C ASP G,
sh PoP G AUPmh P BS.
2. S\P P { Pmi \P Ax.
3. J E | S\ GsoUPU
Pshx. C C uSvPP Ax Cmh (2n)
GsoUP CUS. Csk Jzu S\P Ji
Jzv\U S\P EUS.
4. Cv J uS Bs hx (uu )
s hx (u ) QhUP Qx.
5. u uu S\P \Pm Eu
x Ash\, x \ DkQ.
B x |U mk \umku,
S\P |U_US E Gx EvQx.
6. S\P Bu P sh uzxu
v i, \ Jx[Su v i, Pmk
EUPzv x, uzx x \ Jx[SQ.
u C v Aih
C Aih (Physical Basis): 1866& B Bsk QP
sh G C ASP Ax PoP Gk xPP
u PmhkzxQ G Pzu zu. C Eh
\P, C\P PnkQ. Cu xPP
Es UP imh A sP
u UQ. PmkP u CuU PoP

277
Akzu uUS Gkzxa \Q. G PmkP
u C AihP E.
v Aih (Chemical Basis): Cx P u
PmkkzxQ G, P DNA UPmh
SvPP Eu, xP u u G uuu. J
ux uUS sP GkzxUPsk
P oUQ. C DNA uzu. G DNA
Sv u v AihP Ex.
u vk
J vs
1. J A AzuU SUS Pa ] AS.
A) ]m B) mh C) UP D) Ph
2. J hk uUS \k AQ
A) Ph B) ]m C) mh D) UP
3. S\ Pnk J Smh Ah
A) UP B) |Uh C) |Uhk D) A
4. u SU PP zuP
A) h () B) \mh ()
C) ][P () |UP\ D) P () m
Csk vsP
1. UP : GU / Cm / Cn / Ph
Ix vsP
1. UT A UP.
2. u S \U PP AiUPP
?
zx vsP
1. Pmmi UQ TP mikP.
2. sh PoPUS S\PUS Ch E
Cn u Pmi, u S\U
Pmmh USP.

278
 4. Chmh
(K[Szu)

sh \uP P C
PPx Csk AP Pskk x, J
P K[Szu Psk P
kQx, Gx Ev \mhx. B E[P
K[Szu C Gx P C P
sPUS Chmh s x Gx
Ba]P Bx u ux. H,
ALU i E C AP v
mh PmkQ.
BP K[Szu (Incomplete dominance) Ax v
K[Szu (Partial dominance) Ax Chmh (Indemediate
Interitance) Ax P (Blending inheritance) G |Pa],
F1 P, P Jzvv. CuS ]u GkzxUPmk
Avu Gk u, P G
1906&B Bsk BmhuS. Cu | Bi
G uzv PnkQx.
C u |[P
PnkQ. ] . Csk PP
P. J P ] Psh uzu J P
Psh uzuk P \u, F 1 PP
Azx C ] (Pink) | Psk, uUS
Chmh u Psiu. H ] | zu,
|zu P K[Sz u
v. F 1 PP u Pua \UP \k
x, F2 \uv, ], Cg] | P
Eh u[P 1:2:1 G Quzv u. Cx zu
QuP. C[S UP Qu 1:2:1 BP. Cv 1 P
], 2 Ph Cg] 1 P G
u[P EUPkQ. ] | P

279
Eh F 1 u[P u Pua \UP x y C[PP
\kQ. sk C 1:2:1 G zu Quzu
Pku, PmkP P u v |UPkQx.
u[P Csk JP K[Sz u
UPuu, ] P Psh u r1r 1 G
P Psh u r2r2 G SUPkQ. G P
r1r2 G SkQx.
PkUPmh Cu GkzxUPmi, zu[P
PhP Cu, UP[P Phv. P
uzu xPPP \mk F 1 \uv PhP
uu, F2 \uv x \Q.
u K[Szu Gx P G
AUPkuS Pn, P sP PPx
mh Chmh s uu BS. B sP mk
P E. AP A. uzv r 1r 1 u
] P, r2r2 u P, C Cn
x u P, r 1 r 2 C ] P EUS.
Cu Cx P Gmhx.
]
P r1 r1 X r2 r2
PmkP r1 r2
F1 r1 r2 (u P)
C ]
PmkP r1 r2
F2
r1 r2
r1 r 1r 1 r 1r 2
r2 r 1r 2 r 2r 2

] : C ] :
1 : 2 : 1
r 1r 1 : r 1r 2 : r 2r 2

280
u vk
J vs
\ h uukUP
1. u K[Szu Ci AUPkQx
A. Chmh B. P
C. Sv K[Szu D. Tmh Azx
2. Chmh G |Pa] Pnk u
A. zu B. Bmi
C. SUPmh D. \
3. u K[Szu zu Qu
A. 1:2:1 B. 3:1 C. 9:3:3:1 D. 1:1
Csk vsP
1. UP : u K[Szu
Ix vsP
1. Chmh P G AUP kuS
Pn G?
zx vsP
1. Avu uzv E Chmh zu USP.

281
 5. zu

QP sh B BP, J s J J
Po Ax |n |nUPkQx G
GkzxUPmi. Aux J i P J s vUQ
Gu PmkuP E. u P BP, J
s A]P J i P \ mk,
P \ CUP G \US Pmi. Cu
ASP Ax PoP Cx P G
AUPkQ.
Cha\
Cha\ x J s vUS P,
S\P Avu, JUP Ch UP
\ Jx[S u Pmk. J i P i
P , zu kP Hkzv JkUP,
uRP \ | P Cha\ G
AUPk.
PP
Cha\ CPk
1. AU Ax US Cha\
Cx J i APUS |P Cha\S.
u K[S u, (incomplete dominance), Cn K[Szu (co
dominance) Tmk AP (multiple alleles) BQ |PP
Pnk
2. A Au Ax h Cha\
CP Cha\, J S\ Ax
S\P Pnk PUQh |Px,
\un zu Qx. | Cha\,
US Cha\, |Pzu PoP uh
\ PoP BQ h Cha\PUS
GkzxUPmkPS.

282
zu
J s, AP Au Csk i P vUQ.
S\ K Ahzv (Locus) E
Ahzv E AhUSx/ x zu Ax
Gh (Epistasis) Gk. Gh Gx |x G
k. UPk hiU G US
GhiU Ax JkUS G AUPk.
Gh RPsh PPU Pskx.
1. Jk[S Hkx "a" G Jk[S K[S "A"
\ US
2. K[S Hkx "A" G K[S , "B" G K[S
\ US Ax Gh Cu u zu Gx
G A Au Cha\P Hkzx C i
PUS x. Cu zu G |Pa]
mh C sUP Qu[P Hkzx A
1. |Pzu Cmh Jk[S zu (9:7)
2. K[S zu (12:3:1)
3. Jk[S zu (9:3:4)
4. K[S Jk[S zu (13:3)
5. |Pzu Cmh K[S zu (15:1)
|Pzu Cmh Jk[S zu
CP , | Cha\ G AUPk.
m\ m BQ AbP zu Khmh (C
mho) uzv PshP. |zv B
\mhx.
C y C h C mhoz u[P
P \ x, F 1 PP Azx Fu P
Psiu. F 1 PP u Pua \UPUS Emkzv
x F2 \uv Fu | P Psh u[P
9 :7 G Quzv u.
UP
C[S C P G Csk K[S P Cha\ x
Fu |zu EshUS. C Hux J Jk[S |
Cu, | Eshv. G, Csk P Jk[S
| | Eshu uh \u Cx |Pzu Cmh Jk[S
zu G AUPk.

283
 | EshuP E v UP
C&G K[S , S Gk | i
Eu Pmkkzx. P&G K[S , S
Bu\ G |P Q {v Eshu
PmkkzxQx. Bu\, Fu | EshP P
Ex.
C G Cu x S EUP kv. P
G Cu x S Bu\ BP
kv. BP Csk P K[S | Cx
Fu | P EP u |S.
P P
P CCpp X ccPP
PmkP Cp cP
CcPp (u P)
F1 Fu P
CcPp X CcPp
PmkP CP Cp cP cp

F2 CP Cp cP cp

CP CCPP CCPp CcPP CcPp

Fu Fu Fu Fu

Cp CCPp CCpp CcPp Ccpp

Fu Fu

cP CcPP CcPp ccPP ccPp

Fu Fu

cp CcPp Ccpp ccPp ccpp

Fu

Fu :
9 : 7

284
K[S zu 12 : 3 : 1
CP Cha\, ]m G (SUPmh
) \i Pshu.
SUPmh xP , g\, a\ G
|U PP E. W - G K[S |UPP
uU PnP Ex. Y G K[S g\ |U PP
EUS. Csk P Jk[S | Cu a\ |U
PP uQ. K[S Y W G K[S
UQx. W G K[S UQx. W G K[S US
P Cu, CuS K[S zu G .

a\
P WWYY X wwyy
PmkP WY wy
WwYy (u P)
F1
WwYy X WwYy
PmkP WY Wy wY wy

F2 WY Wy wY wy

WY WWYY WWYy WwYY WwYy

Wy WWYy WWyy WwYy Wwyy

wY WwYY WwYy wwYY wwYy

g\ g\

wy WwYy Wwyy wwYy wwyy

g\ a\

: g\ : a\
12 : 3 : 1

285
 y C UPP Psh u, Cmh Jk[S
Psh a\ PP Eh uzuk P \ x,
\uv u PP Azx U Ph F1
P u Pua \UPUS Emkzv x , g\
a\ Ph u[P 12:3:1 G Quzv
u.
Jk[S zu 9 : 3 : 4
\P (\) uzv K[S (P) Fu |zvS PnP
Ex. Cx |zv (q) x K[S sP Ex.
P Q BQ Csk K[S P P |
P | JP Psk k x, Fu | ]
|P .
Fu
P PPqq X ppQQ
PmkP Pq pQ
PpQq (u P)
F1 ]
PpQq X PpQq
PmkP PQ Pq pQ pq

F2 PQ Pq pQ pq

PQ PPQQ PPQq PpQQ PpQq

] ] ] ]

Pq PPQq PPqq PqQq Ppqq

] Fu ] Fu

pQ PpQQ PpQq ppQQ ppQq

] ]

pq PpQq Ppqq ppQq ppqq

] Fu

] : Fu :
9 : 3 : 4

286
 Fu | (PPqq) | (ppQQ) Psh u[P
P F1 PP ] |hP PnkQ. F1
PP u u P \ x u zu[P
9 : 3 : 4 G Quzv u
(9 ] 3 Fu 4 ) BP Cu GkzxUPmi ''p'' |
PUS US PoP Ex.

\P u pp BP Cu UP[P Cu,
| Pskx. | P k pp Cu
UPkQx.

Jk[S zuUP P Dk \ PoP G

AUPkQ. H P | Eshu |nUS,
AP Q q |zv u |nUS.

P_Q_ G P Cu S ] | u
p_ qq G UP Cu, S | FuP CUS. Au
pp UP Cu S | P CUS.
Amhn 4.1 zu K[SzuUS Ch E
zv\[P
zu K[Sz u
(i) CP Cha \ J i P mk
C i AP Au [Pu Cha
P [PS. \ C.
(ii) J i P J i P J A
i P \ US A \ / US.
(iii) US , K[S Jk[S Jk[S A K[S A
AP UP US.
(iv) F2 u u F2 u zu PP
zu PP GsoUP Sv.
GsoUP SQx.

287
u vk:
J vs
\ h uukUP

1. zu Jhmh |zv zu
BuP.
(A) P () m (B) m\ () m
(C) \mh () (D) h ()
2. SUPmh P |zv zv u
Qu
(A) 13:3 (B) 12:3:1 (C) 9:7 (D) 9:3:4
3. 15:1 G Qu Cv uQx
(A) C mho (B) SUPmh
(C) { (D) \P
Csk vsP
1. UP: Cha\/zu/|P Jzu PoP
Ix vsP
(1) |P Jzu Jk[S zu USP.
(2) \P uzv S< |zv zu UP.
(3) { E |P Jzu Po x?
(4) { C| zv E K[S Jk[S zu
USP.
(5) SUPmh P |zv zu USP.
(6) K[Sz u zu kzxP.
zx vsP
(1) } izu Cha\P J Pmk P.
________

288


( 2016)
2. -------------- ghOaf tsF CO2 mtakhwJ.
3. ntbghUf riPfsh fG ghOa ef ---------- vW
miHfgLwJ.
4. ghOa xnrif nghJ --------- btlgLtiy.

uL kbgf

1. fkrf vwh vd?

2. nt jrh f vdgLgit ahit?
3. a khw vwh vd?
4. ghOafsh jhtufSF/kjfSF VgL nehf eh bgafis
TWf.
5. ghOafis aif f f vd V miHnwh?
6. ghOafUJ bgwgL EQ bfhf bgafis vGJf.
IJ kbgf
1. ghOaf gyjkhd totf ahit? vLJfhL jUf.
2. ghOaf gy tifahd firiH mikfis t.
3. bjhrhiyf ghOah gid t.
4. kts ghOaf gid sFf.
gJ kbgf
1. ghOah fhzgL gh dbgUf Kiwid t.
2. ghOah bghUshjhu KaJtij t.
3. ghOaf ClKiw FJ xU fLiu tiuf.

31
j kL
rahd ilia njbjL
1. vnlhshr tiy rf kof ilna fhzgL ilbt
m. ijyfhLf M. lnd
. nrhnrhf <. bgsh[ ilbt
2. it wkw shoLf
m. FnuhnkhshLf M. FnshnuhshLf
. iynahshLf <. nfhshLf
3. gRff cns fhzgL xnwhblhW bjhlila rdh
NHgl ig mikf
m. uhdh M. nlhnuhkh . ijyfhLf <. lnd

nfhol lij brf.

1. DNA, skhd ..............f fhzgLwJ
2. br vnlhshr tiy ...............F fhuzkhwJ
3. .......... uj cg ikafshF.
4. ........... vgit ghuga gf aa mogil MF.

bghUJf
1. br Mw ika - Fnuhnkhnrhf
2. uj cg ika - f
3. br midJ tsij - iknlhfhah
khwfis fLgLJwJ
4. ghuga gf aa - iunghnrhf
mogil
5. ghuga gf - a
nt mogil

uL kbgf
1. a gf ahJ?
2. fhuz TW: iknlhfhaf gh jrh cilait.
3. shoLf _W tiff ahit.
4. gRff, iknlhfhah t bghJthd gfis TWf.
5. ghnrh vdgLtJ ahJ?
6. nuhnfnaho brfis nfnaho brfUJ ntWgLJf.

IJ kbgf
1. gRff Ezikig t.

138
ry. j ehtif nfLf Fgw izj _y gdhW tifahd rjfis
9:3:3:1 vw j cUthd. bklYF ilj j cf rahd
vif tUkhW

(m) 315 cUil kr ijf (M) 108 cUil gir ijf

() 101 RUa kr ijf (<) 32 RUa gir ijf

bkl, ij cUisjikia R vW RUa jikia r vW, kr

wij Y vW gir wij y vW Fjh. vdnt RRYY x rryy vw fhu iz
cila bgnwhfSilna Ugfy braglJ. ij flthW
FJ fhlyh.

cUil kr RUaJ gir

P RRYY rryy

nfLf RY ry
F1 RrYy (U g fy)
cUil kr (j fy)

nfLf RY Ry rY ry

RY Ry rY ry
RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
RY cUil cUil cUil cUil
kr kr kr kr
RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy
Ry cUil cUil cUil cUil
kr gir kr gir
RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy
rY cUil cUil RUaJ RUaJ
kr kr kr kr
RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
ry cUil cUil RUaJ RUaJ
kr gir kr gir

bkl f
xU gfy kW Ugfy nrhjidf mogil bkl _W
Kakhd fis K itjh. mit nghJ bkl ghugakhj
f vd miHfgLwd.
(i) XFjik kW xLFjik (Law of Dominance and Recessiveness)
(ii) jJ j myJ nfLf fygw jik ( Law of Segregation or
Law of Purity of Gametes)
(iii) rh xJFj (Law of Independent Assortment)
205
xU g nrhjid fy (Monohybrid test cross)

F1 Tt X tt

nfLf T t t
F2
T t

t TT tt
beil : Fil = 1:1

U g nrhjid fy (Dihybrid Test cross)

U g nrhjid fy ehF tifahd w njhwfS flij nghy

rk jf njhWwd. jJ j elUgij mJ bfhs fy
nAhnkhirf jikajh bAonuh irf jikajh vgij mJ bfhs
nrhjid fy cjwJ.

F1 RrYy x rryy

nfLf RY Ry rY ry ry

F2 RY Ry rY ry
RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
ry cUil cUil RUaJ RUaJ
kr gir kr gir

RrYy : Rryy : rrYy : rryy

cUil cUil RUaJ RUaJ
kr gir kr gir
1 1 1 1

j kL
xU kbg
rahd ilia njbjLf
(1) bkl wj uhk J
(m) bA brlh~ (M) a () u (<) Moah
(2) gh jik ghugakhjiy ghfhJ vgij cW brtJ
(m) fy (M) nrhjid fy () gkhw fy (<) xU g fy
(3) ijiw wfhf xLF g
(m) gir (M) rhg () kr (<) btis

207