8/30/2017

How to write an article

Outline Agenda
Information
What is an article?
What is scientific writing?
Why it is important to disseminate your research (Why do
researchers publish?)
Essential Parts of a Scientific paper

***Remember.

ProfCOAigbavboa 1
 8/30/2017

Housekeeping

Fire procedures

Toilets

Focus : mobiles- Please switch your cell pone

to Silent for the duration of the seminar
presentation.

ProfCOAigbavboa 2
 8/30/2017

How to write an article

Overview:
This workshop introduces you to the common
philosophy of writing scientific papers and how
to get published.

Focuses on the WHY and HOW

Use of Case studies_ if/ where possible_

How to write an article

Aim :
To raise awareness, in a balanced way, on:
how to write an article;
why we have to do it; and
How to do it.

Having done this, it is up to you whether you

want to learn more and / or publish.

ProfCOAigbavboa 3
 8/30/2017

TO PUBLISH OR NOT TO PUBLISH

ProfCOAigbavboa 4
 8/30/2017

What is an article?

An article:
is a piece of writing usually intended for publication in a
conference, magazine or journal, etc.
is written for a wide audience, so it is essential to
attract and retain the readers attention
may include amusing stories, reported speech and
descriptions
Is formal, depending on the target audience
should be written in an interesting or entertaining
manner***
should give opinions and thoughts, as well as facts

What is an article?

An article can
describe an experience, event, person or
place
present an opinion or balanced argument
compare and contrast
provide information
offer suggestions
offer advice

ProfCOAigbavboa 5
 8/30/2017

What is an article?

A realistic article should consist of:

an eye-catching title which attracts the readers attention
and suggests the theme of the article. (Think about why
you read a magazine or newspaper article recently - what
made you read it?) Articles can also have subheadings
before each paragraph.
an introduction which clearly defines the topic to be
covered and keeps the readers attention.
the main body of two to five paragraphs in which the
topic is further developed in detail.
the conclusion - summarising the topic or a final opinion,
recommendation or comment.

ProfCOAigbavboa 6
 8/30/2017

What is scientific writing

The purpose of scientific writing is to communicate new

scientific findings (knowledgee.g. Your research project)

Thus it has to be clear, simple and well ordered

communication to transmit new scientific findings

Scientific writing must use proper English which gives

the sense in the fewest short words

What is scientific writing

A scientific research is not complete until

the results have been published and
understood.

A scientific paper is a written and published

report describing original research results.

ProfCOAigbavboa 7
 8/30/2017

What is your personal reason for publishing?

However, editors, reviewers, and the

research community DO NOT care about
these reasons.

ProfCOAigbavboa 8
 8/30/2017

Why do researchers publish?

Researchers publish to share with the

research COMMUNITY something that
advances (i.e. not repeats) knowledge and
understanding in a certain field.

Why it is important to disseminate your

research

No matter how good your research study is, it will, like

any other project, perish unless you can disseminate it
as widely as possible.

Harsh realities of academe apply even more these

days: Publish or Perish

It is important to always follow the principles of rigour,

peer review and esteem of publication

ProfCOAigbavboa 9
 8/30/2017

Your paper is worthless if no one reads, uses, or

cites it

A research study is meaningful only if

it is clearly described, so
someone else can use it in his/her studies

it arouses other scientists interest and

allows others to reproduce the results.

By submitting a manuscript you are basically trying to sell

your work to your community

Common methods of dissemination

Depends on your goals and focus i.e.

Who do you want to influence?
Colleagues,
Your subject team,
Policy makers at your institution?

What level are you aiming at?

Institutional,
National
International?

ProfCOAigbavboa 10
 8/30/2017

Reporting beyond your institution

What are the main avenues?

Conferences and conference proceedings
Newsletters, on-line dissemination
Books (monographs)
Edited vs. single-authored
Chapters in books
Journals (Academic & Practice)

What are the advantages of presenting at

conferences?
Valuable peer feedback to help you develop a
journal paper or book chapter

Imposes a deadline!

Enables networking, inspiration and

encouragement (writing up research can be a
lonely experience)

Many conferences give you the opportunity to

publish in their conference proceedings

ProfCOAigbavboa 11
 8/30/2017

A article (conference or journal etc.) is the

gateway to a COMMUNITY of researchers
with a common interest.

Articles are a core part of the process of scholarly

communication, and are an integral part of scientific
research itself.

Article Editors + Reviewers + Authors + Readers

A community of scientists

You paper is your passport

to your community

ProfCOAigbavboa 12
 8/30/2017

Some important Language points:

Poor research cannot be masked by brilliant writing;

however, poor writing can mask brilliant research

Avoid complex sentence structure

Use simple and clear English

Always keep in mind that the paragraph is the essential

unit of thought

Before Starting to Write the Paper

Record your readings (results)
Make tables
Draw graphs
Keep file to record summaries of results and
any observation however insignificant
Date the files
Revise your readings, you may need to repeat
an experiment/ procedure/ research while you
still have the materials.
Write ideas when ever they come to you

ProfCOAigbavboa 13
 8/30/2017

Why a Scientific Format?

It is a means of efficiently communicating scientific

findings to the broad community of scientists (research)
in a uniform manner.

This format allows the paper to be read at different

levels.

The Sections of the Paper

Title
Authors and Affiliation
Abstract
Introduction
Literature review***
Methods
Results
Discussion
Acknowledgments and
References

ProfCOAigbavboa 14
 8/30/2017

Essential Parts of a Research paper

Title: Describe concisely the core contents of the paper
Abstract: Summarise the major elements of the paper
Introduction: provide context and rationale for the study
Materials: Describe the research design so it is
reproducible
Methods: Describe the research procedures
Results: Summarise the findings without interpretation
Discussion: Interpret the findings of the study
Conclusion: Summarise the findings
Acknowledgement: Give credit to those who helped you
References: List all scientific papers, books and websites
that you cited

The sections appear in a journal style paper in the following prescribed order:

Research process Section of Paper

What did I do in a nutshell? Abstract

What is the problem? Introduction
How did I solve the problem? Materials and Methods
What did I find out? Results
What does it mean? Discussion
Who helped me out? Acknowledgments (optional)
Whose work did I refer to? References
Extra Information Appendices (optional)

ProfCOAigbavboa 15
 8/30/2017

IMRAD Format
(Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion)

I = Introduction, what question (problem) was studied

M = Methods, how was the problem studied

R = Results, what are the findings

A = and

D = Discussion, what do these findings mean

Why do papers get turned down?

ProfCOAigbavboa 16
 8/30/2017

Why Papers Get Rejected

Badly written Focusing on a

Poorly constructed deadissue
Focusing on a
Re-invents the wheel currently over-
The message is fine exposed issue
but too much Everything generally
contextual material ok but comes in after
another paper on the
same topic!
Then, presentation
is important

The Editor Decides

Editors decisions tend to fall into one of

these categories:
(a) Accept the manuscript as is;
(b) Accept it pending the completion of specific
revisions;
(c) invite a revision and re- submission; or
(d) reject.

ProfCOAigbavboa 17
 8/30/2017

How to Deal with Rejection

Consider reworking and

resubmitting maybe
elsewhere if you have
been rejected
Writing is one thing you
cannot get worse at the
more you do it!

If rejected, make updates (as per reviews) and select

another publisher, .. do not be discouraged.

ProfCOAigbavboa 18
 8/30/2017

Conference participation - 2018

The University of Johannesburg (Faculty of

Engineering and the Built Environment) will be
hosting a joint research conference with the
International Foundation for Research and
Development (IFRD)

Date: 16-17 August 2018.

Conference participation - 2018

See web links for scheduled submission dates and

other relevant information.

https://www.ifrnd.org/main/conference/15th-icess/
https://www.ifrnd.org/main/conference/13th-icmfe/
https://www.ifrnd.org/main/conference/1st-icbeds/

ProfCOAigbavboa 19
 8/30/2017

The Abstract
An abstract can be defined as a summary of the information
in a document
It is of fundamental importance that the abstract be written
clearly and simply, as it is the first and sometimes the only
part of the manuscript read.
It should provide a brief summary of each of the main
sections (IMRAD) of the paper:
State the principal objective and scope of the
investigation
Describe the methods used
Summarise the results, and
State the principal conclusions

It is easier to write the abstract after completion of the paper

ProfCOAigbavboa 20
 8/30/2017

ABSTRACT tell the prospective readers what you

did and what were the important findings.

This is the advertisement of your article. Make it

interesting, and easy to be understood without
reading the whole article (Avoid using jargon and
uncommon abbreviations if possible.)
You must be accurate! Use words which reflect the
precise meaning
A clear abstract will strongly influence whether or
not your work is further considered;
Keep it as BRIEF as possible!!!
No comparisons;

The Abstract helps readers to decide whether

they want to read the rest of the paper, or it
may be the only part they can obtain via
electronic literature searches or in published
abstracts.

ProfCOAigbavboa 21
 8/30/2017

Check your work:

Once you have the completed abstract, check to

make sure that the information in the abstract
completely agrees with what is written in the
paper.

Confirm that all the information appearing the

abstract actually appears in the body of the
paper.

Criteria of the Abstract

It should not exceed 250 words
It should be written in one paragraph.
It should be written in the past tense as it refers to work
done.
Long words should be followed by its abbreviation which
would be used through out the abstract and paper.
It should not cite any references (except in rare cases)
It should never give any information or conclusion that is not
stated in the paper
Must be accurate with respect to figures quoted in the main
text.

ProfCOAigbavboa 22
 8/30/2017

KEYWORDS mainly used for indexing and

searching
It is the label of your manuscript.
Avoid words with a broad meaning, but do neither use too
narrow terms (get into the Google groove)

Only abbreviations firmly established in the field are

eligible
e.g. DNA

Check the Guide for Authors!

Number, label, definition, thesaurus, range, and other
special requests

ProfCOAigbavboa 23
 8/30/2017

INTRODUCTION to convince readers that you

clearly know why your work is useful

Function:
It establish the context of the work being reported. This
is accomplished by discussing the relevant primary
research literature (with citations) and summarising our
current understanding of the problem you are
investigating;

State the purpose of the work in the form of the

hypothesis, question, or problem you investigated; and,

Briefly explain your rationale and approach and,

whenever possible, the possible outcomes your study
can reveal.

The Introduction must answer the questions

What was I studying?

Why was it an important question?

What did we know about it before I did this study?

How will this study advance our knowledge?

ProfCOAigbavboa 24
 8/30/2017

General Rules:
Use the present tense when referring to work that has
already been published, but past tense when referring to
your own study.
Use the active voice as much as possible
Avoid lengthy or unfocused reviews of previous
research.
Cite peer-reviewed scientific literature or scholarly
reviews. Avoid general reference works such as
textbooks***.
Define any specialised terms or abbreviations

Structure:

The structure of the Introduction can be thought of as an

inverted triangle - the broadest part at the top
representing the most general information and
focusing down to the specific problem you studied.

Organise the information to present the more general

aspects of the topic early in the Introduction, then
narrow toward the more specific topical information
that provides context, finally arriving at your
statement of purpose and rationale.

ProfCOAigbavboa 25
 8/30/2017

A good way to get on track is to sketch out the

Introduction backwards; start with the specific purpose
and then decide what is the research context in which
you are asking the question (s) your study addresses.

Once the research context is decided, then youll have a

good sense of what level and type of general information
with which the Introduction should begin.

Here is the information should flow in your

Introduction:

Begin your Introduction by clearly identifying the

subject area of interest.

Establish the context by providing a brief and

balanced review of the pertinent published literature
that is available on the subject.

ProfCOAigbavboa 26
 8/30/2017

What literature should you look for in your review of

what we know about the problem?

Be sure to clearly state the purpose and /or

hypothesis that you investigated.

Provide a clear statement of the rationale for your

approach to the problem studied.

ProfCOAigbavboa 27
 8/30/2017

METHODS how was the problem studied

This section is variously called Methods or Methods and

Materials.

Function:
In this section you explain clearly how you carried out
your study in the following general structure and
organisation

METHODS how was the problem studied

Include detailed information, so that a

knowledgeable reader can reproduce the research.

However, use references and Supporting Materials to

indicate the previously published procedures. Do not
repeat the details of established methods. Broad
summaries are sufficient.

Reviewers will criticise incomplete or incorrect

descriptions (and may recommend rejection).

ProfCOAigbavboa 28
 8/30/2017

How to write the Materials and Methods section

Provide full details so that the research are reproducible

If the peer reviewer has doubts that the research could
be repeated, the manuscript will be rejected.
Organise the methods under subheadings, with related
methods described together.
Describe the research design in detail
Do not mix some of the Results in this section
Write in the past tense

Materials

Must identify accurately experimental animals, plants, and

microorganisms used by genus, species and strain
The source of subjects studied, number of individuals in
each group used, their sex, age, and weight must be
clearly stated
If human subjects are used, the criteria for selection
should be described, and consent
For chemicals used, include exact technical specifications
and source or method of preparation.
Avoid the use of trade names of chemicals, generic or
chemical names are preferred.

ProfCOAigbavboa 29
 8/30/2017

Methods
This part of the manuscript must be clear, precise and
concise so that it can be reproducible

If the method is new, all details must be provided

If the method has been previously published in a scientific

journal, only the reference should be given with some
identification:

Questions such as how or how much must be answered

and not left to be puzzled over

If a field study, a description of the study site,

including the significant physical and biological
features, and precise location (latitude and
longitude, map, etc.)

How the data were analyzed (qualitative

analyses and/or statistical procedures used).

ProfCOAigbavboa 30
 8/30/2017

statistical tests used with reference to the particular

questions they address, e.g.,
A Paired t-test was used to compare mean flight
duration before and after applying stabilisers to the
gliders wings.
One way ANOVA was used to compare mean weight
gain in weight-matched calves fed the three different
rations.
any other numerical or graphical techniques used to
analyze the data

ProfCOAigbavboa 31
 8/30/2017

RESULTS What have you found?

Function:
The function of the Results section is to objectively
present your key results, without interpretation, in an
orderly and logical sequence using both illustrative
materials (Tables and Figures) and text.

Summaries of the statistical analyses may appear either

in the text (usually parenthetically) or in the relevant
Tables or Figures (in the legend or as footnotes to the
Table or Figure).

The Results section should be organized around a series

of Tables and/or Figures sequenced to present your key
findings in a logical order.

How to write the Results

Results section is written in the past tense
It is the core or heart of the paper
It needs to be clearly and simply stated since it
constitutes the new knowledge contributed to the
world
The purpose of this section is to summarise and illustrate
the findings in an orderly and logical sequence, without
interpretation
The text should guide the reader through the findings,
stressing the major points
Do not describe methods that have already been
described in the M&M section or that have been
inadvertently omitted

ProfCOAigbavboa 32
 8/30/2017

The text of the Results section follows this sequence and

highlights the answers to the questions/hypotheses
you investigated.

Important negative results should be reported, too.

Authors usually write the text of the results section based

upon the sequence of Tables and Figures.

Methods of presenting the data

Directly in the text

In a table
In a figure
All figures and tables must be accompanied by a
textual presentation of the key findings

Never have a table or figure that is not mentioned in

the text

ProfCOAigbavboa 33
 8/30/2017

Tables and figures

Tables are appropriate for large or complicated data sets
that would be difficult to explain clearly in text.

Figures are appropriate for data sets that exhibit trends,

patterns, or relationships that are best conveyed visually.

Any table or figure must be sufficiently described by its

title and caption or legend, to be understandable without
reading the main text of the results section.

Do not include both a table and a figure showing the

same information

RESULTS

Use sub-headings to keep results of the same type

together easier to review and read.

Number these sub-sections for the convenience of

internal cross-referencing.

Decide on a logical order of the data that tells a clear

and easy to understand story.

ProfCOAigbavboa 34
 8/30/2017

Some things to avoid:

Do not reiterate each value from a Figure or Table - only

the key result or trends that each conveys.

Do not present the same data in both a Table and

Figure. Decide which format best shows the result and
go with it.

Do not report raw data values when they can be

summarized as means, percents, etc.

ProfCOAigbavboa 35
 8/30/2017

DISCUSSION What the results mean

It is the most important section of your article. Here you

get the chance to SELL your data!
A huge numbers of manuscripts are rejected because the
Discussion is weak

Make the Discussion corresponding to the Results.

But do not reiterate the results

You need to compare the published results with yours.

DO NOT ignore work in disagreement with yours confront it
and convince the reader that you are correct or better.

DISCUSSION What the results mean

Function:
The function of the Discussion is to interpret your results
in light of what was already known about the subject of
the investigation, and to explain our new
understanding of the problem after taking your
results into consideration.

The Discussion will always connect to the Introduction by

way of the question(s) or hypotheses you posed and the
literature you cited, but it does not simply repeat or
rearrange the Introduction.

Instead, it tells how your study has moved us

forward from the place you left us at the end of the
Introduction.

ProfCOAigbavboa 36
 8/30/2017

Fundamental questions to answer here

include:
Do your results provide answers to your testable hypotheses?
If so, how do you interpret your findings?

Do your findings agree with what others have shown? If not,

do they suggest an alternative explanation or perhaps a
unforeseen design flaw in your research design (or theirs?)

Given your conclusions, what is our new understanding of the

problem you investigated and outlined in the Introduction?

If warranted, what would be the next step in your study, e.g.,

what research would you do next?

Approach:

Organize the Discussion to address each of the research

or studies for which you presented results; discuss each
in the same sequence as presented in the Results,
providing your interpretation of what they mean in the
larger context of the problem.

Do not waste entire sentences restating your results; if

you need to remind the reader of the result to be
discussed, use bridge sentences that relate the result
to the interpretation:
The slow response of the lead-exposed neurons
relative to controls suggests that...[interpretation].

ProfCOAigbavboa 37
 8/30/2017

You must relate your work to the findings of other

studies - including previous studies you may have
done and those of other investigators.

Do not introduce new results in the Discussion.

ProfCOAigbavboa 38
 8/30/2017

CONCLUSIONS How the work advances the field

from the present state of knowledge
Without a clear conclusion section reviewers and readers will
find it difficult to judge the work, and whether or not it merits
publication in the conference proceedings, journal etc.

DONT REPEAT THE ABSTRACT, or just list research results.

Trivial statements of your results are unacceptable in this
section.

You should provide a clear scientific justification for your work

in this section, and indicate uses and extensions if appropriate.
Moreover, you can suggest future results and point out those
that are underway.

ProfCOAigbavboa 39
 8/30/2017

How to State the Acknowledgments

You should acknowledge:
Any significant technical help that you have received
from any individual in your lab or elsewhere
The source of special equipment, cultures, or any
other material
Any outside financial assistance, such as grants,
contracts or fellowships

Do not use the word wish, simply write I thank ..

and not I wish to thank

Show the proposed wording of the Acknowledgement to

the person whose help you are acknowledging

References
What is referencing?
Referencing is a standardised way of acknowledging the
sources of information and ideas that you have used in
your document.

A list of ALL the references used in the text must be

written.

Reference format varies widely:

Harvard format (the name and year system) is the
most widely used
Alphabet-Number system is a modification of name
and year system
Citation order system
IEEE

ProfCOAigbavboa 40
 8/30/2017

References

Function:
The References section gives a numerical listing
of the references that you actually cited in the
body of your paper.

When citing information from anothers publication, be

sure to report the relevant aspects of the work clearly IN
YOUR OWN WORDS.

Provide a reference to the work as soon as possible after

giving the information.

ProfCOAigbavboa 41
 8/30/2017

NOTE:
Do not label this section as Bibliography.
A bibliography contains references that you may have
read but have not specifically cited in the text.
Bibliography sections are found in books and other
literary writing, but not scientific journal-style papers.

DO NOT DO THE FOLLOWING:

DO NOT USE FOOTNOTES

DO NOT USE DIRECT QUOTES From Published

Material. Take the information and put it into your own
words.

ProfCOAigbavboa 42
 8/30/2017

List of References in the Reference Section

List the references chronologically as appear in the text.

Each reference includes: reference number, authors

name, article title, journal title, year of publication,
volume number, issue number and page number.

Ethics, Rights and Permissions

Beware of originality and copyrights of others.

Do not copy anything without giving the credit to the

owner by referencing it.

In some cases permissions are needed

Repetitive publication of the same data is

considered plagiarism

Always check for plagiarism before

submission

ProfCOAigbavboa 43
 8/30/2017

Remember !!!
Title informative, concise, attractive;
Abstract accurate, clear, brief, no comparisons;
Keywords label of the manuscript;
Introduction define briefly the problem;
Methods detailed information, organized;
Results
Tables = experimental results;
Graphs = comparison experimental data/ other data;
Illustrations shouldnt duplicate information;
Discussion corresponding to the results; compare published results/ yours;
Conclusions simple, scientific results; uses; future directions
References main publications; check correspondence;

ProfCOAigbavboa 44
 8/30/2017

ProfCOAigbavboa 45