See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265052777

A generalized on-line estimation and control of

five-axis contouring Errors of CNC machine
Tools

Article in International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture January 2014

DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2014.08.004

CITATIONS READS

16 308

2 authors:

Jixiang Yang Yusuf Altintas

Huazhong University of Science and Technol University of British Columbia - Vancouver
10 PUBLICATIONS 51 CITATIONS 223 PUBLICATIONS 11,474 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Tool path generation and accuracy improvement of five-axis CNC machining View project

Multi-robot collaborative manufacturing View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Jixiang Yang on 23 January 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. All in-text references underlined in blue are added to the original document
and are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately.
 International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 88 (2015) 923

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmactool

A generalized on-line estimation and control of ve-axis contouring

errors of CNC machine tools
Jixiang Yang a,1, Yusuf Altintas b,n
a
School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
b
Manufacturing Automation Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Nonlinear and conguration-dependent ve-axis kinematics make contouring errors difcult to estimate
Received 5 June 2014 and control in real time. This paper proposes a generalized method for the on-line estimation and
Received in revised form control of ve-axis contouring errors. First, a generalized Jacobian function is derived based on screw
11 August 2014
theory in order to synchronize the motions of linear and rotary drives. The contouring error components
Accepted 14 August 2014
contributed by all active drives are estimated through interpolated position commands and the
Available online 24 August 2014
generalized Jacobian function. The estimated axis components of contouring errors are fed back to the
Keywords: position commands of each closed loop servo drive with a proportional gain. The proposed contouring
Five-axis error estimation and control methods are general, and applicable to arbitrary ve-axis tool paths and any
Control
kinematically admissible ve-axis machine tools. The proposed algorithms are veried experimentally
Contouring errors
on a ve-axis machine controlled by a modular research CNC system built in-house. The contouring
Screw theory
CNC errors are shown to be reduced by half with the proposed method, which is simple to implement in
existing CNC systems.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction a feed-forward fashion. The tracking accuracy of the single drive

A typical ve-axis machine tool has three translational and two
rotary drives. The main advantage of a ve-axis machine tool is its
ability to adjust both positions and orientations of the cutting tools
to follow curved surfaces which widely appear on dies, molds, and
aerospace and biomedical parts. However, tracking errors of both
translational and rotary axes are kinematically transferred to the
tool tip in ve-axis machine tools, resulting in contouring errors
between the commanded and the actual tool paths. Unless they
are compensated by the controller, the excessive contouring errors
can violate the tolerance of the part at high feed speeds.
The minimization of contouring errors has been an active
research area [13], and the proposed methods can be classied
into two major categories: minimization of axis tracking errors by
designing high bandwidth controllers, and/or minimization of
contouring errors directly with control and compensation methods.
Tomizuka [4] presented a zero phase error tracking controller
(ZPETC) by canceling the stable dynamics of servo drives in
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: 1 604 822 5622; fax: 1 604 822 2403.
E-mail addresses: altintas@mech.ubc.ca, altintas@mail.ubc.ca (Y. Altintas).
1
The author is a Ph.D. student of Huazhong University of Science and
Technology, and a visiting student in the University of British Columbia supervised
by Dr. Yusuf Altintas.
is signicantly improved with the ZPETC which minimizes the
phase lag between the reference and the actual positions. How-
ever, ZEPTC is sensitive to the changes in the open loop transfer
function of the drive. Altintas et al. [5] proposed an adaptive
sliding mode controller for accurate tracking control of a single
drive by considering the rigid body dynamics of the ball screw. The
contour errors were compared against the ZPETC method, and
demonstrated that the sliding mode controller is more robust to
parameter changes while achieving high bandwidth. However,
aggressive sliding mode controllers require smooth trajectory
generations. Erkorkmaz and Altintas [6] proposed a systematic
approach to minimize contouring errors by improving a single
drive's tracking accuracy. In their method, the feedback loop was
closed by using a pole placement controller with a disturbance
cancellation, and the overall tracking bandwidth was further
widened by compensating the closed loop dynamics in a feed-
forward manner.
The research in the second category focuses on the minimiza-
tion of contouring errors directly. Although the contouring accu-
racy can be improved to a certain extent with a high bandwidth
controller, high tracking accuracy does not necessarily guarantee
good contouring accuracy, as pointed out by Yang and Li [7]
and Zhang et al. [8]. The uncoupled controller for each drive
is designed independent of motions delivered by other drives,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2014.08.004
0890-6955/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
10 J. Yang, Y. Altintas / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 88 (2015) 923
Nomenclature
P P x ; P y ; P z T tool tip position
O Oi ; Oj ; Ok T tool orientation
x ; y ; z ; a ; c  drive positions in machine coordinates
g wt  forward kinematics transfer matrix
g bw ; g bt transfer matrix of the workpiece and tool frame
relative to the foundation frame
r pt ; r ot cutter position and orientation vectors relative to the
tool frame
x ; y ; z ; a ; c twist coordinates of drives
(vx ; vy ; vz ), (a ; c ) unit vector of translational and
rotary drives
i.e., the controller of one drive will take no action when the
contouring accuracy is deteriorated by the imperfect tracking
performance of other drives. Koren [9] estimated contouring errors
as linear relationships with the drives' tracking errors, and
compensated the contouring control signals to the velocity loop
of each drive with the cross-coupled controller scheme (CCC).
Further enhancements of the CCC mainly focused on developing
an accurate contouring estimation algorithm [1013], or designing
new compensation structures [7,14,15] to improve the contouring
accuracy. Koren and Lo [10] designed a variable gain CCC as an
extension of [9] to improve the estimation accuracy of contouring
errors for nonlinear trajectories. Yeh and Hsu [11] approximately
estimated the contouring error vectors for the CCC by projecting
the tracking error vectors on the normal direction of the trajectory
at the reference points. Erkorkmaz and Altintas [12] estimated the
contouring errors along an arbitrary two-axis tool path by line-
segment approximation of the original contour. Later, Huo et al.
[13] proposed a similar approach as presented in [12] by estimat-
ing the contouring errors from the actual and reference positions
of the machine. In order to simultaneously improve tracking and
contouring performances, Su and Cheng [14] designed a position
error compensator combined with the cross-coupled controller.
Shih et al. [15] and Yang and Li [7] developed new CCC structures
for bi-axis contouring paths. The CCC structures presented in
[15,7] carried out the compensation at the position loop rather
than at the velocity loop.
There have also been alternative methods to CCC systems,
which transfer the contour error to a new coordinate frame, or
estimate the contouring error and decouple it as axis tracking
errors for feedforward compensation. Chiu and Tomizuka [16]
formulated the contouring control problem in the local task
coordinate frame which moved along the trajectory. The controller
was designed to minimize the tangential and normal components
of contouring errors. Hu et al. [17] proposed a global task
coordinate frame-based contouring controller for bi-axial systems,
Contour
Tool pose
Machining Oc
surface
Pc
Zw Yw
Pa
Xw
Ow
Fig. 1. (a) Five-axis contour error illustration; (b) cutting error caused by tool orientation discrepancy.
qa ; qc point on the rotating line of rotary drive
V swt velocity twist of the tool frame relative to the
workpiece frame
Jp Jpx ; Jpy ; Jpz ; Jpa ; Jpc  tool tip position Jacobian function
P P 1 T augmented tool tip position
p ; o tool tip position contour error and tool orientation
contour error
x ; y ; z ; a ; c  drive component of contouring errors




!
H r , hr perpendicular point from Pa to P r  1 P r and ratio
Gcx ; Gcy ; Gcz ; Gca ; Gcc axes controllers
Gpx ; Gpy ; Gpz ; Gpa ; Gpc open loop transfer function of each drive
m contouring error controller gain
where the contouring errors calculation is not affected by the
curvature of the desired contour. Sun and Tong [18] presented
a synchronization control approach to minimize multi-axis con-
touring errors. They dened the synchronization as the differential
errors between each axis and its adjacent axes, and a decentralized
tracking controller was designed to minimize both tracking errors
and synchronization errors. Tang et al. [19] and El Khalick et al.
[20] proposed a contour control methodology which combined
model predictive control and adaptive feed rate regulation for the
bi-axis CNC system. Altintas and Khoshdarregi [21] presented a
vibration-avoidance and contouring error pre-compensation algo-
rithm for feed drives. The excitation of the structural modes was
avoided by applying input shaping lters on the reference axis
commands. Tracking errors were estimated from the closed loop
transfer function of drives, and were used to predict the contour-
ing errors which were mapped to each axis for pre-compensation.
However, two important factors limit the direct application of
past contouring error minimization approaches on a ve-axis
machine tool. First, the ve-axis contouring accuracy is affected
not only by the tool tip position, but also by the tool orientation,
which is illustrated in Fig. 1(a). Furthermore, even though the tool
tip positions may be tracked with high accuracy, the tool orienta-
tion discrepancy may still cause large over-cut or under-cut, as
shown in Fig. 1(b). Consequently, unlike two- or three-axis
machines, tool tip position and tool orientation should be con-
trolled simultaneously to minimize contouring errors in ve-axis
machines [1]. The second factor is that the ve-axis contouring
operations have non-linear, structure-dependent kinematic rela-
tionships with the drives' motions [22]. Lo [23] designed a coupled
PID controller to minimize contouring and tracking errors in the
workpiece coordinate frame, and then transferred the control
signals into the machine coordinate system by using the inverse-
Jacobian matrix. Sencer et al. [24] provided a ve-axis contour
error estimation method for tool tip position spline and tool
orientation spline separately. The tool tip position contour error
Actual Tool pose
Oa
o Oc Oa
Zw Yw o
p
Pc
Ow Xw D de
 J. Yang, Y. Altintas / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 88 (2015) 923 11

was estimated by using the projections of tracking error in a

shifted Frenet frame, while the tool orientation contour error was
Pr , O r
estimated by projecting the tool orientation tracking error to the Desired Referenced pose
tangential direction of the desired orientation spline. Based on the trajectory
contour error estimation model built in [24], Sencer and Altintas z
[25] proposed a multi-input multi-output sliding mode controller ep
to minimize the tool tip contour error and the tool orientation
contour error simultaneously. Based on the research of Sencer Pc , Oc
Oc
et al. [24], El Khalick and Uchiyama [26] presented a new method Contour pose o
to estimate tool orientation contour errors for ve-axis machining,
where the tool tip position and tool orientation errors are
synchronized to the same tool pose on the desired trajectory. Lin Pa , Oa
and Wu [27] proposed a servo dynamics matching approach to p Actual pose
improve contouring accuracy of the tool center point control (TCP)
of ve-axis machines. Zhang et al. [8] presented an off-line
method to predict and compensate contouring errors of spline
tool paths in ve-axis machining. The contouring errors were
y
x
predicted ahead of axis control loops and decoupled into three
linear and two rotary components. The error commands were Fig. 2. Synchronized denition of ve-axis contour error.
compensated before they were sent to servo drives for execution.
The pre-compensation method can improve the contouring accu- drives are then calculated through interpolated motion commands
racy, provided that the drive models are identied accurately and and the derived generalized Jacobian function as follows.
the cutting force disturbance can be neglected.
However, the current contouring error estimation methods
need to use both the trajectory as well as the actual positions of
the drives [2830]. When both the geometric tool paths and the 2.1. Generalized ve-axis Jacobian function
motion trajectory proles are dened by high order splines in
order to avoid discontinuities, the computational complexity and In ve-axis contour machining, the tool motions are generated
load become heavy for real time applications. Furthermore, both in the workpiece coordinate system (P-system) of the CAM
the forward and inverse kinematics of the machine are needed, environment, and transformed to drive motions in the machine
which are dependent on the conguration of the machine. This coordinate system (M-system) by the kinematics module of the
paper presents a new and general approach, which estimates and CNC as shown in Fig. 3.
controls contouring errors for ve-axis machines. The generalized The previously presented, generalized ve-axis kinematics
Jacobian function, which linearly synchronizes the motions of module based on screw theory, which gives an explicit solution
translational and rotary drives, is derived based on screw theory. for both the forward and inverse kinematics model for arbitrary
Rather than using the trajectory curvature information, the con- serial machine congurations [30], is used here to derive the
touring error components on both linear and rotary drives are Jacobian function. The details of the generalized ve-axis module
calculated by utilizing the interpolated motion commands and the and the screw theory can be found in [30,31], respectively. The
generalized Jacobian function. The contouring error is decoupled basic principles of the generalized kinematics module presented in
into its axis components, and injected as additional position [30] are briey summarized here for the purpose of deriving the
commands to corresponding axis controllers. Jacobian function for ve-axis machines. The complimentary
Henceforth, the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 formulations of the kinematics module are listed in the Appendix.
proposes the on-line contour errors estimation algorithm through The tool tip position P P x ; P y ; P z T and tool orientation
the generalized Jacobian function. The design of the contouring O Ox ; Oy ; Oz T in the workpiece frame are evaluated from the
error controller is given in Section 3. The accuracy and the stability displacements 1 ; 2 ; ; 5 of ve drives as:
of the controller are also analyzed and veried. The experimental    
P O r pt r ot
results are given in Section 4 to demonstrate the effectiveness of g wt 1 ; 2 ; 5  U 1
the proposed generalized on-line estimation and control of ve- 1 0 1 0
axis contouring errors. The paper is concluded in Section 5.
where g wt 1 ; 2 ; ; 5  is the forward kinematics transformation
matrix of the machine, with i i 1; 25 being the displacements
2. On-line estimation of contouring errors of the ith drive on the whole kinematics chain counted from the
workpiece towards the cutting tool. r pt and r ot are the cutting tool
The ve-axis contouring error is contributed by the combina- position and orientation vectors relative to the cutter coordinate
tion of tracking errors of translational and rotary drives, whose frame, respectively. The transformation matrix g wt 1 ; 2 ; ; 5  is
motions must be synchronized along the tool path. The referenced constructed as
P r ; Or and the actual tool tip position and tool orientation P a ; Oa 5
are shown in Fig. 2. P c ; Oc are the nearest tool tip position and g wt 1 ; 2 ; 5  g bw 0  1
orientation on the desired trajectory close to the actual tool pose i1

P a ; Oa . The tool tip position contour error p is dened as the (

distance between Pa and Pc, while the tool orientation contour
error o is dened as the angular orientation difference between
Oa and Oc.
A generalized Jacobian function, which synchronizes the dis-
placements of both linear and rotary drives, is derived rst based
on the screw theory. The contouring error components on all
^ si  1 drive is on worktable side
esi i i g bt 0 2
si 1 drive is on spindle side
where i i 1; 2; 5 is the twist coordinates of the drive.
The experimental machine shown in Fig. 4 is modeled to
demonstrate the generalized ve-axis forward kinematics model
12 J. Yang, Y. Altintas / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 88 (2015) 923

T
O Oi , O j , Ok PN

Tool
O 1
PN-1 z
T
c Lac, z
P Px , Py , Pz
Workpiece LTya ,z
P1 P2

Table
P0
a

Zw x
Yw Zm Ym
y
Xw Xm

T
P Px , Py , Pz T
M x, y , z , a, c
T
O Oi , O j , Ok

Fig. 3. Forward and inverse kinematics of ve-axis machines [30].

a b

Fig. 4. Kinematics structure of the experimental machine: (a) kinematics structure model; (b) kinematics chains.

2 3
as follows [30]: 1 0 0 0
2 3 2 3 60 1 0 0 7
P x Oi 0 0 6 7
g bt 0 6 7
6P O 7 60 07 40 0 1 LTa;z 5
6 y j 7 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 6 7
6 7 g bw 0  1 Ue  c c e  a a e  x x e  y y ez z Ug bt 06 7 0 0 0 1
4 P z Ok 5 40 15
1 0 1 0
3 In order to synchronize the movements of translational drives
with and rotary drives that affect contouring accuracy, the generalized
" # " # Jacobian function for ve-axis machines is derived by differentiat-
vx T
vy ing the forward kinematics function given in Eq. (2). According to
x ; vx 1 0 0  ; y ;
031 031 the screw theory [31], the instantaneous spatial velocity of the
" #
vz cutting tool frame as seen from the workpiece frame is:
vy 0 1 0 T ; z ; vz 0 0 1 T ;
031 s
" # V^ wt g_ wt g wt   1 4
 a  qa T T
a ; a 1 0 0  ; qa 0 0 0 ;
a
" # The vector V swt corresponds to the instantaneous spatial velo-
c  qc T city twist of the cutting tool frame related to the workpiece frame.
c ; c 0 0 1 ;
c g_ wt  is the instantaneous time variance of the transfer matrix from
2 3 the workpiece frame to the tool frame. The spatial velocity can be
1 0 0 0
60 evaluated from the chain rule as:
6 1 0 0 7 7
qc 0 0 0 T ; g bw 0 6 7;    
40 0 1 Lac;z 5 s 5 g wt _ 5 g wt
V^ wt i g wt   1 Ug wt   1 _ i 5
0 0 0 1 i1 i i1 i
 J. Yang, Y. Altintas / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 88 (2015) 923 13

 
It must be noted that the tool tip position in the workpiece ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ r pt
Jpy  g bw 0  1 e  c c e  a a e  x x ^ y e  y y ez z g bt 0
frame is 1
   
P  1  ^ c c  ^ a a  ^ x x  ^ y y ^ ^ z z
r pt
P ; Jpz g bw 0 e e e e z e g bt 0
1 1
 
 1  ^ c c ^  ^ a a  ^ x x  ^ y y ^ z z
r pt
where P P x ; P y ; P z T . The tool tip velocity related to the work- Jpa  g bw 0 e a e e e e g bt 0
1
piece coordinate frame is calculated as  
" #   ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ r
Jpc  g bw 0  1 ^ c e  c c e  a a e  x x e  y y ez z g bt 0
pt
P_ 5 g wt 14
P_
s
V^ wt P g wt   1 P _ i Jp _ 6 1
0 i1 i
where r pt 0 0 0 T is the cutting tool position vector relative
where to the cutter coordinate frame.
 
g wt g
Jp g wt   1 P; ; wt g wt   1 P ; _ _ 1 ; _ 2 ; _ 3 ; _ 4 ; _ 5 T 7 2.2. On-line estimation of contouring errors
1 5

Assume that the original user-specied splined tool path has

Combining Eq. (7) with Eq. (2), the differential calculation of been sampled at interpolation periods using a constant or con-
the transfer matrix is tinuous jerk prole while respecting drive's torque, velocity,
g wt esi i i
^ acceleration and jerk limits [32]. The interpolated trajectory
^ ^ ^
g bw 0  1 es1 1 1 Uesi  1 i  1 i  1 U Ues5 5 5 g bt 0 provides the reference tool pose P r ; Or in the workpiece frame
i i
^ ^ ^ ^ for each sampling period, where P r P r;x ; P r;y ; P r;z T and Or Or;i ;
si g 0  1 es1 1 1 Uesi  1 i  1 i  1 ^ i esi i i U U es5 5 5 g 0
bw bt Or;j ; Or;k T are the reference tool tip position and tool axis orienta-
8 tion, respectively. Then the smoothly and densely interpolated tool
poses along the splined paths in the workpiece frame are trans-
Combining Eqs. (1) and (2), formed into axis reference commands (r r;x ; r;y ; r;z ; r;a ; r;c T )
      in the machine frame using the inverse kinematics model of the
P r pt r pt machine by the standard CNCs. The actual drive positions
P g wt  ) g wt   1 P 9
1 1 1 a a;x ; a;y ; a;z ; a;a ; a;c T are obtained from the encoders and
transformed back to the workpiece frame to obtain the actual tool
Substituting Eqs. (8) and (9) into Eq. (7), pose P a ; Oa through the forward kinematics of the machine. The
contour error is estimated by evaluating the shortest distance
Jp Jp1 ; Jp2 ; Jp3 ; Jp4 ; Jp5  10 between the actual and reference tool poses at the vicinity of the
where current reference tool pose P r ; Or as shown in Fig. 5. The
  contouring error is iteratively evaluated by searching the point
^ ^ ^ ^ r pt
Jpi si g bw 0  1 es1 1 1 U esi  1 i  1 i  1 ^ i esi i i U U es5 5 5 g bt 0 Hr which is the projection of actual position Pa on the commanded
1 path constructed by linearly connected reference tool poses Pr. The
11 position of searched point Hr can be evaluated by dening the





!



!
distance ratio hr P r  1 H r =P r  1 P r .
Integrating both sides of Eq. (6) with time leads to, If 0 r hr r 1, Hr lies within a short, interpolated path segment
Z t2 Z t2 and is considered to be the contour error point. If hr o 0, Hr is
_
Pdt _ ) P J
Jp dt 12



!
t1 t1
p located before segment P r  1 P r where the search direction should




!
where P P x ; P y ; P z ; 0T is the tool tip position differential be. If hr 4 1, Hr is after P r  1 P r .
variance, while 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 T is the differential By considering the ratio, hr can be evaluated
variance of the drives' motions. Jp is named here as the tool




!
P r  1 H r H r P r  1
tip position Jacobian function, which synchronizes the drive hr



! -H r P r  1  hr P r  P r  1 15
Pr  1 Pr Pr  Pr  1
motions to linearly affect the tool tip position variance for general-
ized ve-axis machines.


!
The Jacobian function can be expressed directly based on Eqs. By considering the perpendicularity property P a H r T U




!


!
(10) and (11), where the only information needed is the drive's P r  1 P r 0 and P a H r H r  P a P r  1 hr P r  P r  1  P a , the
position and the basic machine conguration. Consequently, the ratio hr can be evaluated from tool poses as:
proposed Jacobian function is general, and does not require
P r  1  P a T P r  P r  1
explicit modeling for different ve-axis congurations. hr  16
The experimental machine shown in Fig. 4 is used to demon- P r  P r  1 T P r  P r  1
strate the derived generalized ve-axis Jacobian function (Eq. (12))
as follows: Splined tool path
2 3 Pa
2 3 x
P x 6 7
6 P y 7 6 y7
6 7 6 7 Pr
6 7 Jp 6 7
6 z 7; with Jp Jpx ; Jpy ; Jpz ; Jpa ; Jpc  13 Pc
Pr
1
4 P z 5 6 7 Zw
4 a5 Pr
Pr H r Pr
0 3
1
c Yw
2

where
  Xw
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ r pt
Jpx  g bw 0  1 e  c c e  a a ^ x e  x x e  y y ez z g bt 0
1 Fig. 5. Illustration of the contouring error estimation method.
14 J. Yang, Y. Altintas / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 88 (2015) 923

The drive motions of the machine can be transferred to the
workpiece frame through the Jacobian function as follows,
P r  1  P a Jp;r  1 r  1  a ; P r  P r  1 Jp;r  1 r  r  1 17
By substituting Eq. (17) into Eq. (16), the ratio hr is evaluated in
the machine frame as:
r  1  a T JTp;r  1 Jp;r  1 r  r  1
hr 
r  r  1 T JTp;r  1 Jp;r  1 r r  1
The tracking errors contributed by each drive on the total
contouring error are estimated for the following ve cases as
follows.
Case 1 (Fig. 6(a)): If 0 r hr r 1, the locally nearest point from
actual position Pa to the reference path lies between P r  1 and
Pr. The relative drive commands c c;x ; c;y ; c;z ; c;a ; c;c T
corresponding to the contour error pose P c ; Oc are expressed
as:
c 1  hr r  1 hr r
Case 2 (Fig. 6(b)): If hr o0, the locally nearest point from Pa to
the referenced trajectory lies before P r  1 , and the perpendi-






!
cular ratio hr  1 from Pa to vector P r  2 P r  1 is
P r  2  P a T P r  1  P r  2
hr  1 
P r  1  P r  2 T P r  1 P r  2
r  2  a T JTp;r  2 Jp;r  2 r  1  r  2
 20
r  1 r  2 T JTp;r  2 Jp;r  2 r  1  r  2
If hr  1 is still smaller than 0, the iterative calculation is
continued until 0 rhr  k r 1, and then the drive commands
corresponding to the contour error pose P c ; Oc are calculated
as
c 1  hr  k r  k  1 hr  k r  k
Case 3 (Fig. 6(c)): If hr 4 1, the locally nearest point from Pa to
the referenced trajectory lies after Pr, and the perpendicular




!
ratio hr 1 from Pa to vector P r P r 1 is:
P r  P a T P r 1  P r r a T JTp;r Jp;r r 1  r
hr 1  T

P r 1  P r P r 1 P r r 1  r T JTp;r Jp;r r 1  r
22
If hr 1 is still larger than 1, the iterative calculation is continued
until one 0 r hr k r 1, then the drive commands corresponding
18
to the contour error pose P c ; Oc are calculated as
c 1  hr k r k  1 hr k r k 23
Case 4 (Fig. 6(d)): If hr o0, while hr  1 4 1, then the nearest
point is taken as P r  1 . The drive commands corresponding to
the contour error pose P c ; Oc are calculated as:
c r  1 24
Case 5 (Fig. 6(e)): If hr 4 1 and hr 1 o0, the nearest point is
assumed as Pr. The drive commands corresponding to the
19 contour error pose P c ; Oc are calculated as
c r 25
Hence, the drive commands corresponding to the contour error
pose are obtained for each case. Consequently, the contribution of
the contour error to each axis x ; y ; z ; a ; c T can be evaluated
easily as:
c  a c;x ; c;y ; c;z ; c;a ; c;c T  a;x ; a;y ; a;z ; a;a ; a;c T 26
The maximum iteration time depends on the magnitude of the
tracking errors along the trajectory in terms of the machines'
sampling intervals along the arc-length, but it is constrained by
the computational power of the CNC's CPU. Suppose that the
maximum limitation of the iterative time is M, if the contour error
cannot be determined after M interpolation samples which means
21
hr  M o 1 or hr M 4 1, then the drive commands corresponding to
the contour error pose P c ; Oc are calculated as c r  M or
c r M . Although the estimated contour error is not exactly
equal to the actual one, it is smaller than the contour error

hr 0 Pr Pr Pr hr 1 Pr
Pr 1 0 hr 1 Pr Pr
1 Pr 1
1
2
Hr

Pa Pa
Pa

Pr 2 Pr 1
Pr 1 Pr Pr Pr 1

hr 0 hr 1 hr 0
1 1 hr 1

Pa Pa
Fig. 6. Different contouring error estimation conditions.
 J. Yang, Y. Altintas / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 88 (2015) 923 15

happens at the reference commands r . More importantly, the
corresponding tool pose after compensation is still guaranteed on
the desired trajectory. The maximum iteration time is constrained
to 15 iterations which are completed within 1 ms servo control
intervals during the experiments reported in the paper.
One explicit advantage of the proposed contouring estimation
model is that it is directly performed in the machine frame as
opposed to the workpiece frame reported by the previous
research, which requires both forward kinematics and inverse
kinematics calculations at each estimation cycle. The requirement
of the inverse kinematics calculation lmits the generality of the
contour error estimation and control model in the sense that it
greatly depends on the machine topology, i.e., the estimation and
control method developed for one machine topology is difcult to
be adapted to another one. However, the proposed method avoids
the non-generality problem by proposing the generalized Jacobian
function to transfer all the calculations to the workpiece frame,
where only the reference drive commands and their actual
positions are needed during the calculation. A detailed comparison
with the workpiece frame method presented in [23] and the
proposed approach is illustrated in Fig. 7, where P aw ; Oaw and
P rw ; Orw are the actual and reference position and orientation
vectors in the workpiece frame, while pw ; ow are the position
and orientation contour errors in the workpiece frame. The
comparison shows that the proposed model is signicantly sim-
plied and shortened with the proposed method. Furthermore,
the Jacobian function required in [23] is not always reversible, and
thus the calculation may face singular points. However, the
proposed model will not face the singular problem since no
inverse calculation is needed.
2.3. Verication of the contour error estimation with simulations
A series of simulations have been performed to contour two
sample trajectories in the Virtual CNC platform [33,34]. The
contouring errors estimated from the Virtual CNC with the
proposed method are compared against the actual contouring
errors evaluated off-line by calculating the minimum distance
between the actual and the desired paths. The rst trajectory is a
spatial helix, and the second trajectory is the fan prole used in
[28]. Both trajectories are generated by using the C3 continuous
non-singular tool path generation algorithm proposed in [30]. The
feed rate optimization method with drive constraints [32] is used
to generate reference position commands to drives with a max-
imum tangential feed rate of 100 mm/s. The drives are controlled
with a lead compensation, closed loop controller presented in
Section 3 without contouring error control.
The rst trajectory and its interpolated drive commands are
shown in Fig. 8. The difference between the estimated and actual
contouring errors is negligibly small as shown in Fig. 9. The fan-
shaped trajectory and its reference drive commands are shown in
Fig. 10, and its estimated contouring errors are also very close to
the real values as shown in Fig. 11. The simulation results show
that the estimated tool tip contouring and tool orientation errors
are within 0.1 mm and 4 mrad of the actual values, respectively. The
discrepancy is within an acceptable range for the real-time
contouring error prediction and compensation in ve-axis CNC
machines.
In order to further analyze the two trajectories, the curvatures
of their tool tip splines are evaluated as shown in Fig. 12. It can be
seen that the curvature for the rst trajectory is low and constant.
However, the curvature for the second trajectory is high and
variable, and the proposed contouring error estimation method
works well for both curvatures. The reason for the robust perfor-
mance of the proposed contour error estimation method is that
the reference drive commands are generated with constrained
chord errors, hence the linear, discrete segments are small enough
to represent the splined path. Since the method uses only the
reference and actual position values at discrete control intervals, it
does not require the evaluation of the contouring errors in the

Machine Workpiece Workpiece Machine

Coordinate Coordinate Coordinate Coordinate
frame frame frame frame
a,x
a, y
a,z Actual c, x

a ,a Position Contour c, y
Forward Paw , Oaw Inverse
a ,c
Error pw , ow Contour c, z
Kinematics Jacobian
r,x
Prw , Orw Estimation Position
c, a
r,y Function Function
Reference Model c,c
r,z
Position
r ,a
r ,c

Machine Machine
Coordinate Coordinate
frame frame
a,x
a, y
a,z Actual c, x

a ,a Position Contour c, y
a ,c Error Contour c, z
r,x Estimation Position
c,a
r, y
Reference Model
r,z c,c
Position
r ,a
r ,c

Fig. 7. Contouring error estimation structures: (a) traditional methods [23], (b) proposed method.
16 J. Yang, Y. Altintas / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 88 (2015) 923

Tool tip position spline Tool orientation spline

1

Z: mm 15

Ok
10 0
5

10 -1
0 10 1
Y:
mm 0 0
-10 1
-10 mm Oj 0
X: -1 -1
Oi

400 1 A axis C axis

X axis Y axis Z axis
Position: mm

Position: rad
200 0

-1
0

-2
0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time: s Time: s
Fig. 8. The helix trajectory and its interpolated motion commands.

Tool tip contour error Tool orientation contour error

2
100 Actual value Actual value
Contour error [micrometer]

Contour error [milliradian]

Online estimation Online estimation

80 1.5

60
1

40
0.5
20

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time [s] Time [s]

Discrepancy: Discrepancy:
Actual value - Estimation value Actual value - Estimation value
0.02 3
Contour error [microradian]
Contour error [micrometer]

0
2
-0.02

-0.04 1

-0.06
0
-0.08

-0.1 -1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time [s] Time [s]
Fig. 9. The estimated contouring errors and their discrepancy with the actual values for the helix trajectory.
 J. Yang, Y. Altintas / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 88 (2015) 923 17

Tool tip position spline Tool orientation spline

1
Z: mm 2
-2

Ok
0 0
40 -1
-20 20
Y: 0
mm -40 mm -1 0
-20 X: -1 Oi
0
Oj 1 1

X axis Y axis Z axis A axis C axis

400 2

Position: rad
Position: mm

200 1

0
0

0 1 2 3 0 1 2
Time: s Time: s
Fig. 10. The fan-shaped trajectory and its interpolated motion commands.

workpiece or frenet frames as proposed in previous articles The axis error i is scaled with a controller gain m and added to
[23,24,26]. Furthermore, the proposed estimation method pro- the position command generated by the trajectory prole and path
vides not only the contour error values, but also their axis interpolator r;i .
components x ; y ; z ; a ; c , that can be directly used to compen- The actual output of the closed loop system with the added
sate contouring errors without computationally costly inverse and contouring error compensator becomes:
forward kinematic transformations at each control interval. In
summary, the proposed contouring error estimation method is m 1Gci Gpi mGci Gpi
a;i  r;i ; i x; y; z; a; c
robust to curvature variance, and is trajectory type independent 1 m 1Gci Gpi r;i 1 m 1Gci Gpi c;i
and machine structure independent. 29

The new axis components of the contouring errors become:

3. Contouring error controller
1 Gci Gpi c;i Gci Gpi r;i
cl;i c;i  a;i ; i x; y; z; a; c 30
The predicted axis components x ; y ; z ; a ; c of the ve-axis 1 m 1Gci Gpi
contouring errors are directly controlled within the position loop
of each drive as follows. Combining with Eqs. (28) and (30) is reduced to

1 Gci Gpi 1
3.1. Structure of the contour error controller cl;i ; i x; y; z; a; c
1 m 1Gci Gpi i 1 mGci Gpi =1 Gci Gpi i

The structure of the proposed ve-axis controller is shown in 31

Fig. 13, where r;i and a;i are the reference and actual positions of
where Gci Gpi =1 Gci Gpi is the closed loop transfer function of the
drive i(i x; y; z; a; c). c;i is the drive command corresponding to
axis controller without contouring error feedback (see (Eq. (27))
the contour error pose. The control law (Gci ) is used to control the
which must have a unity gain within the bandwidth of the drive.
open loop transfer function Gpi of the drive i.
Consequently, the proposed, simple contouring error compensa-
The actual position of a drive without the contour error control is
tion method reduces the errors by 1=m 1 times:
Gci Gpi
a;i ; i x; y; z; a; c 27 1
1 Gci Gpi r;i cl;i  i x; y; z; a; c 32
m1 i
which can be used to evaluate the axis component of the contouring
errors as: It can be seen from Eq. (12) in Section 2 that the contour
Gci Gpi 1 Gci Gpi c;i  Gci Gpi r;i differential variance in the workpiece frame can be linearly
i c;i  a;i c;i  ; estimated through the drives' differential variance. Consequently,
1 Gci Gpi r;i 1 Gci Gpi
the contour errors in the workpiece frame are also approximately
i x; y; z; a; c 28
attenuated by 1=m 1 times the traditional ve-axis controller.
18 J. Yang, Y. Altintas / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 88 (2015) 923

Tool tip contour error Tool orientation contour error

120 4
Actual value Actual value
Contour error [micrometer]

Contour error [milliradian]

100
Online estimation 3 Online estimation
80

60 2

40
1
20

0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Time [s] Time [s]

Discrepancy: Discrepancy:
Actual value - Estimation value Actual value - Estimation value
0.05 4

Contour error [microradian]

Contour error [micrometer]

2
0

-0.05
-2

-0.1 -4
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Time [s] Time [s]
Fig. 11. The estimated contouring errors and their discrepancy with the actual values for the fan-shaped trajectory.

0.4 parameters of the ve-axis, experimental machine are listed in

0.35
Table 1. In order to improve the tracking accuracy of the drives, the
non-linear friction disturbances are identied [36], and compen-
First Second
0.3
trajectory trajectory sated by a feed-forward block as shown in Fig. 14, where Tf is the
real and T^ f is the estimated non-linear friction.
Curvature [1/mm]

0.25
The discrete transfer function of the lead compensation con-
0.2 troller Gc z is given as:
0.15 h1 z h0
Gc z 33
z l0
0.1
Lead compensation controllers [37] are tuned to have the
0.05
desired crossover frequency (c 150) and phase margin
0 (m 601). The resulting lead compensating controllers for all
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
drives are given in Table 2. The zero order hold equivalent of the
Time [s]
drive's open loop transfer function is evaluated at 1 ms control
Fig. 12. Curvature analysis of the two trajectories used in the simulation. intervals as:
 
K a K t Rg 1 Gps q z q0
3.2. Controller design Gp s 2 -Gp z 
Z 2 1 34
Js Bs 1z 1 s z p1 z p0

In order to decrease the steady-state contouring error, it is where

desirable that the error feedback gain m should be as large as q1 K v T s v 1  e  T s =v ; q0 K v v 1  e  T s =v  T s e  T s =v ;
possible without violating the stability and transient response
p1  1 e  T s =v
requirements of the closed loop system.
The block-diagram of a single drive using a lead compensation p0 e  T s =v ; K v K a K t r g =B; v J=B 35
controller is shown in Fig. 14, where Ka is the current amplier
gain and Kt is the torque constant of the motor. The equivalent The closed-loop characteristic equation of the proposed con-
inertia and viscous damping reected at the motor shaft are J and touring error controller is
B, respectively. The ball screw transmission gain from angular to
linear motion is Rg, and Td is the disturbance torque caused by f z z3 m 1h1 q1 p1 l0 z2
cutting force and non-linear friction [35]. The identied m 1h0 q1 h1 q0 p0 p1 l0 z
 J. Yang, Y. Altintas / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 88 (2015) 923 19

a,x
r ,x
Gc x Gp x
x
m
c, x
r, y a, y
Gc y Gp y
y
m
c, y a,z
r,z
Gc z Gp z
z
m
c, z
c, x
Actual
Closed c, y Contour Position
c, z Contour Error
r,x
loop Position Estimation
c, a Reference r,y

c,c
Model Position r,z
r ,a
r ,c
r ,a a ,a
Gca Gpa
a
m
c,a a ,c
r ,c
Gcc G pc
c
m
c,c

Fig. 13. The structure of the proposed ve-axis contouring error controller.

Feedforward Friction
compensation Actual friction
Physical plant

1 z 1 T
Computer

T
R Tz K K u
T
e u T D A T 1
Lead controller K K R
u ZOH Js B

Fig. 14. Block-diagram of the single drive using lead compensation controller.

Table 1 stability of the proposed contouring controller is that the gain m

Drive parameters for single drives. should satisfy
8
Parameters X-axis Y-axis Z-axis A-axis C-axis >
> f 1 4 0
>
>
>
>  13 f 1 40
K a A=V 6.5723 6.2274 6.4841 1.2700 1.2700 >
<
K t Nm=A 0.4769 0.4769 0.4769 0.3333 0.3333 ja jo a 37
>  0  3    
r g mm=rad 1.5915 1.5915 1.2732 0.0056 0.0111 >
>   a0 a3    a0 a1 
>
>       
Jkg m2 7.0028e-3 8.1904e-3 7.6715e-3 8.1068e-5 2.2122e-4 >
> b   4 b  
:  0  a3 a0   2  a3 a2 
Bkg m2 =s 0.023569 0.043009 0.032328 0.001100 0.002900

Combining Eqs. (36) and (37) and the parameters shown in

Tables 1 and 2, the stability limit is found as m 1 o 9:8910 for the
Table 2
Control parameters for single drives.
experimental machine. The gain is selected as m1.5 to ensure a
highly stable and smooth controller to demonstrate the proposed
Parameters X-axis Y-axis Z-axis A-axis C-axis method, which can theoretically reduce the contouring errors by 60%.
Although a simple lead controller is used here for the axis, the
h1 112.8309 136.0291 154.9426 2.4572e3 3.3695e3
proposed method is valid for any type of linear (PI, PID, pole
h0  109.1619  131.4723  149.8360  2.3642e3  3.2427e3
l0  0.5853  0.5927  0.5886  0.6229  0.6214 placement) or nonlinear sliding mode controllers as well.

m 1h0 q0 p0 l0  36 4. Experimental results

which is denoted as f z a3 z3 a2 z2 a1 z1 a0 . According to the The proposed ve-axis contouring error estimation and control
Jury criterion [38,39], the necessary and sufcient criterion for the methods are experimentally veried on a ve-axis experimental
20 J. Yang, Y. Altintas / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 88 (2015) 923

machine tool controlled by an open and modular CNC system Table 3

developed in-house (Fig. 15). Comparison of experimental contour errors with and without the proposed
contouring error controller.
The fan-shaped trajectory shown in Fig. 10 is used in the
experiment with the contouring control gain set to m 1.5. The Tool tip contour error Tool orientation contour error
experimentally measured tool tip position and tool orientation
errors, with and without the proposed contouring error control Max (m) Mean (m) Max (mrad) Mean (mrad)
method, are given in Fig. 16, and summarized in Table 3. Experi-
Uncompensated 166.2719 56.3994 3.3382 1.3585
mental results show that both the maximum and mean contouring Compensated 67.0018 22.7264 1.3919 0.5804
errors are reduced to almost 40% of the uncontrolled errors (i.e., Ratio (Comp/Uncomp) 40.30% 40.30% 40.70% 41.69%
1=m 1 times reduction).

Workstation PC
-Decode NC Program
-Generate Trajectory

PCI Bus (Reference commands)

dSPACE Real Time Controller (1kHz)

-Position Control (PID , Lead Lag etc.)
-Read ADC
-Quadrature Encoder Decoding
-Write DAC

Encoder Feedback

Motor Current Command

Fig. 15. Five-axis machine tool used in experiments.

Tool tip positon contour error

200
Contour error [micron]

Without compensation
150 Compensation gain m+1=2.5

100

50

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time [s]

Tool orientation contour error

5
Contour error [milliradian]

Without compensation
4
Compensation gain m+1=2.5
3

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time [s]
Fig. 16. Contour error experimental results.
 J. Yang, Y. Altintas / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 88 (2015) 923 21

Proposed on-line contour G G

error control
m

G G
m

G G
Contour m
error
pre-
Actual
Compensation Closed Contour Position
[8] Contour Error
loop Position Estimation Reference
Model Position

G G
m

G G
Contour error m
pre-compensation [8]

Tracking error Direct Orientation contour

prediction kinematics error compensation

Tracking error Inverse

O
prediction kinematics
Inverse
P
kinematics

Direct P Tool tip contour

P
kinematics error compensation

Fig. 17. Combination of the proposed on-line contour error control and the pre-compensation algorithm reported in [8].

Tool tip posiiton contour error

Contour error [micrometer]

Without compensation
150
With pre-compensation
Combine pre-compensation with on-line control
100

50

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time [s]

Tool orientation contour error

Contour error [milliradian]

4 Without compensation
With pre-compensation
3
Combine pre-compensation with on-line control
2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time [s]
Fig. 18. Simulation results of tool tip position and tool orientation contour error under different controllers.
22 J. Yang, Y. Altintas / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 88 (2015) 923

Because the proposed contour error control is an on-line exponential evaluation of a rotary twist is
method which uses only the commanded and actual positions of " #
^ e^ i i I 33 e^ i i i  vi
the drives, it can be integrated to look-ahead-based pre- ei i e^ i i I 33
^ i sin i
013 1
compensation algorithms such as those presented in [8,40]. These
algorithms predicted the contouring errors ahead of the axis ^ i 2 1  cos i
A:2
control loops, and decoupled them into three linear and two
rotary components. The error commands were pre-compensated
The operator 4 ' is used to map i A 6 and i A 3 to ^ i A se3
before they were sent to the servo drives for execution. The
and ^ i A so3, while the operator 3 ' performs the opposite
combination of the proposed on-line contour error control and
function as follows:
the pre-compensation algorithm reported in [8] is taken as an " #  
example whose block diagram is shown in Fig. 17, where comp;i are vi ^ i vi

i ) ^ i ;
the pre-compensated drive commands of drive i(i x; y; z; a; c). i 0 0
More details of the pre-compensation algorithm can be found in 2 3
0  i;3 i;2
[8]. The simulations indicated that the contouring error can be 6
^ i 4 i;3
i i;1 ; i;2 ; i;3 T ) 0  i;1 7
5 A:3
further minimized by implementing both pre- and on-line com-
 i;2 i;1 0
pensation methods as shown in Fig. 18, provided that the plant
parameters are identied accurately. If there are uncertainties in
the drive parameters, pre-compensation of contouring errors The opposite mapping is evaluated as:
suffers because the axis errors are estimated from the transfer
function of the drives. However, the proposed method uses the ^ i  3
^ i  3 i
i ; A:4
measured axis positions, and hence it is not affected by the
uncertainties of the drive parameters. Similarly, the mapping is carried out for a translational joint as
follows:
" #  
vi ^ I 33 i vi
5. Conclusions i ; ei i A:5
031 0 1
Five-axis machine tools are widely used because of their ability
where vi A 3 is the unit vector pointing to the positive direction
to contour the complex, sculptured surfaces commonly found in
of the linear axis.
die, mold, aerospace and implant applications. The productivity of
The vectors i , qi and vi are all specied relative to the
such machines is hindered by their low accuracy in contouring
foundation frame, which is located at the intersection of two
complex, splined tool paths while simultaneously positioning ve
rotary axes when the motions of all drives are zero.
drives at high feed speeds. The contouring errors are reduced only
In Eq. (2), g bw 0 and g bt 0 represent the rigid body transfer
if low tangential feeds are used, which leads to lower axis
matrix of the workpiece coordinate and the tool coordinate frames
velocities, hence reducing the productivity of the machines. The
relative to the foundation frame when the motions of all drives are
previously presented contouring error control methods require
zero, i.e.,
both forward and inverse kinematics transformations between the " # " #
machine and workpiece coordinate system. They are computa- I33 wo I33 t o
g bw 0 ; g bt 0 A:6
tionally demanding, and prone to numerical round-off errors in 013 1 013 1
real time applications. This paper presents an on-line contouring
error prediction and compensation method which uses only the where wo wox ; woy ; woz T and t o t ox ; t oy ; t oz T are the offset
commanded and measured positions of the drives, and does not vectors between the workpiece coordinate frame and the tool
require any kinematic transformations. The proposed method can coordinate frame relative to the foundation frame when the
be easily applied in existing CNC systems, and is proven to reduce motions of all drives are zero.
contouring errors by more than 50% with a simple, proportional
error feedback controller. References

Acknowledgments
This research is supported by the NSERC Pratt & Whitney
Canada Research Chair and the National Natural Science Founda-
tion of China under Grant No. 51005086.
Appendix. The Generalized Forward Kinematics Model
Details of the generalized forward kinematics model given in
Eqs. (1) and (2) are given as follows. More details about the
derivation process can be found in [30].
For a revolute joint, the twist i A 6 has the form:
" #
vi
i ; vi  i  qi A:1
i [11] S.S. Yeh, P.L. Hsu, Estimation of the contouring error vector for the cross-
where i A 3 is the unit vector in the positive direction of the
rotary axis, and qi A 3 is any point on the rotary axis. The
[1] L. Tang, R.G. Landers, Multiaxis contour control-the state of the art, IEEE Trans.
Control Syst. Technol. 21 (6) (2013) 19972010.
[2] F. Huo, A.N. Poo, Precision contouring control of machine tools, Int. J. Adv.
Manuf. Technol. 64 (14) (2013) 319333.
[3] R. Ramesh, M.A. Mannan, A.N. Poo, Tracking and contour error control in CNC
servo systems, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 45 (3) (2005) 301326.
[4] M. Tomizuka, Zero phase error tracking algorithm for digital-control, J. Dyn.
Syst. Meas. Control-Trans. ASME 109 (1) (1987) 6568.
[5] Y. Altintas, K. Erkorkmaz, W.H. Zhu, Sliding mode controller design for high
speed feed drives, CIRP Ann. 2000: Manuf. Technol. (2000) 265270.
[6] K. Erkorkmaz, Y. Altintas, High speed CNC system design. Part III: high speed
tracking and contouring control of feed drives, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 41
(11) (2001) 16371658.
[7] J.Z. Yang, Z.X. Li, A novel contour error estimation for position loop-based
cross-coupled control, IEEEASME Trans. Mechatron. 16 (4) (2011) 643655.
[8] K. Zhang, A. Yuen, Y. Altintas, Pre-compensation of contour errors in ve-axis
CNC machine tools, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 74 (2013) 111.
[9] Y. Koren, Cross-coupled biaxial computer control for manufacturing systems,
J. Dyn. Syst. Meas. Control Trans. ASME 102 (4) (1980) 265272.
[10] Y. Koren, C.C. Lo, Variable-gain cross-coupling controller for contouring, CIRP
Ann.Manuf. Technol. 40 (1) (1991) 371374.
coupled control design, IEEEASME Trans. Mechatron. 7 (1) (2002) 4451.
[12] K. Erkorkmaz, Y. Altintas, High speed contouring control algorithm for CNC
machine tools, in Proceedings of the ASME Dynamic Systems and Control
Division, 1998. pp. 463469.
 J. Yang, Y. Altintas / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 88 (2015) 923
[13] F. Huo, A.N. Poo, Improving contouring accuracy by using generalized cross-
coupled control, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 63 (2012) 4957.
[14] K.H. Su, M.Y. Cheng, Contouring accuracy improvement using cross-coupled
control and position error compensator, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 48 (1213)
(2008) 14441453.
[15] Y.T. Shih, C.S. Chen, A.C. Lee, A novel cross-coupling control design for bi-axis
motion, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 42 (14) (2002) 15391548.
[16] G. Chiu, M. Tomizuka, Contouring control of machine tool feed drive systems:
a task coordinate frame approach, IEEE Trans. Control Syst. Technol. 9 (1)
(2001) 130139.
[17] C.X. Hu, B. Yao, Q.F. Wang, Global task coordinate frame-based contouring
control of linear-motor-driven biaxial systems with accurate parameter
estimations, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 58 (11) (2011) 51955205.
[18] D. Sun, M.C. Tong, A synchronization approach for the minimization of
contouring errors of CNC machine tools, IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng. 6 (4)
(2009) 720729.
[19] L. Tang, R.G. Landers, Predictive contour control with adaptive feed rate, IEEE
ASME Trans. Mechatron. 17 (4) (2012) 669679.
[20] A. El Khalick, N. Uchiyama, Discrete-time model predictive contouring control
for biaxial feed drive systems and experimental verication, Mechatronics 21
(6) (2011) 918926.
[21] Y. Altintas, M.R. Khoshdarregi, Contour error control of CNC machine tools
with vibration avoidance, CIRP Ann.Manuf. Technol. 61 (1) (2012) 335338.
[22] T. Moriwaki, Multi-functional machine tool, CIRP AnnalsManufacturing
Technology 57 (2) (2008) 736749.
[23] C.C. Lo, A tool-path control scheme for ve-axis machine tools, Int. J. Mach.
Tools Manuf. 42 (1) (2002) 7988.
[24] B. Sencer, Y. Altintas, E. Croft, Modeling and control of contouring errors for
ve-axis machine tools-part i: modeling, J. Manuf. Sci. Eng.Trans. ASME 131
(2009) 0310063.
[25] B. Sencer, Y. Altintas, Modeling and control of contouring errors for ve-axis
machine tools-part ii: precision contour controller design, J. Manuf. Sci. Eng.
Trans. ASME 131 (2009) 0310073.
[26] A. El Khalick M, N. Uchiyama, Estimation of tool orientation contour errors for
ve-axis machining, Robot. Comput.-Integr. Manuf. (0) .
View publication stats
23
[27] M.T. Lin, S.K. Wu, Modeling and improvement of dynamic contour errors for
ve-axis machine tools under synchronous measuring paths, Int. J. Mach.
Tools Manuf. 72 (2013) 5872.
[28] R.V. Fleisig, A.D. Spence, A constant feed and reduced angular acceleration
interpolation algorithm for multi-axis machining, Comput.-Aided Des. 33 (1)
(2001) 115.
[29] A. Yuen, K. Zhang, Y. Altintas, Smooth trajectory generation for ve-axis
machine tools, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 71 (2013) 1119.
[30] J. Yang, Y. Altintas, Generalized kinematics of ve-axis serial machines with
non-singular tool path generation, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 75 (0) (2013)
119132.
[31] R.M. Murray, Z. Li, S.S. Sastry, A Mathematical Introduction to Robotic
Manipulation, CRC Press, Florida, 1994.
[32] B. Sencer, Y. Altintas, E. Croft, Feed optimization for ve-axis CNC machine
tools with drive constraints, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 48 (78) (2008)
733745.
[33] C.H. Yeung, Y. Altintas, K. Erkorkmaz, Virtual CNC system. Part i. System
architecture, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 46 (10) (2006) 11071123.
[34] K. Erkorkmaz, C.H. Yeung, Y. Altintas, Virtual CNC system. Part ii. High speed
contouring application, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 46 (10) (2006) 11241138.
[35] Y. Altintas, Manufacturing automation: metal cutting mechanics, machine tool
vibrations, and CNC design, 2nd Ed., Cambridge University Press, 2012.
[36] K. Erkorkmaz, Y. Altintas, High speed CNC system design. Part II: modeling and
identication of feed drives, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 41 (10) (2001)
14871509.
[37] R.C. Dorf, R.H. Bishop, Modern control systems, 12th Ed., Pearson, Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey, 2010.
[38] E.I. Jury, Simplied stability criterion for linear discrete systems, Proc. Inst.
Radio Eng. 50 (6) (1962) 14931500.
[39] S.M. Shinners, Advanced modern control system theory and design, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1998.
[40] M.R. Khoshdarregi, S. Tappe, Y.Y. Altintas, Integrated ve-axis trajectory
shaping and contour error compensation for high-speed CNC machine tools
(IEEE/ASME Trans.), Mechatronics (99) (2014) 113 (pp).