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KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES ON PARENTING IN ROMANIA
Bucharest, 2007
Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naionale a Romniei
Knowledge, attitudes and practices on parenting in Romania /

coord.: Carmen Anghelescu, Martha Iliescu. - Buzu :
Alpha MDN, 2007
ISBN 978-973-7871-90-9
I. Anghelescu, Carmen (coord.)

II. Iliescu, Martha (coord.)
37.018.1
Imprimat la Tipografia Alpha MDN S.A.

Buzu, str. Col. Ion Buzoianu nr. 94
Tel./fax: 0238.721 303
E-mail: alpha@buzau.ro
www.alphamdn.ro
KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND
PRACTICES ON PARENTING IN ROMANIA
Coordinators:
Carmen Anghelescu Martha Iliescu
Bucharest
2007
Contributions
Section I
Research regarding knowledge, attitudes and practices on parenting for parents with children in the 0 3 age group was carried out
by the Center for Education and Professional Development Step by step, in partnership with the Institute for Mother and Child
Alfred Rusescu.
Carmen Lic Project Manager for section I

Carmen Anghelescu Project coordinator for section I
Section II
Research regarding knowledge, attitudes and practices on parenting for parents of preschool children (3-7 age group) was carried
out by Fundatia Copiii Nostri (Foundation Our Children) .
Martha Iliescu - Project coordinator for section II
Research Consultants:
Section I: Ecaterina Stativ, Anca Vitcu
Section II: Viorica Preda, Ecaterina Stativ, Anca Vitcu
Andrea Lia financial manager for section I
Adina Ovedenie - financial manager for section II
Authors of the research study:

Section I : Carmen Anghelescu, Ecaterina Stativ, Anca Vitcu.
Section II: Martha Iliescu, Viorica Preda, Ecaterina Stativ, Anca Vitcu, Adina Ovedenie
Creation of the data collection instruments:

Section I : Carmen Anghelescu, Ecaterina Stativ, Domnica Petrovai, Alina Chiriac, Elena Iuliana Mihai, Roxana Avram
Section II: Martha Iliescu, Adina Ovedenie, Mihaela Nicolaescu, Viorica Preda, Ecaterina Stativ, Elisabeta Dragomirescu, Domnica
Petrovai, Alina Chiriac.
Sampling
Section I + Section II: Anca Vitcu
Programming
Section I + Section II: Anca Vitcu
Interviews:
Section I: Georgiana Anastasiu, Mircea Vladimir Anghelescu, Oana Maria Clocotici, Mihaela Ghergheli, Ramona Gocoasa,
Alexandra Hutton, Ioana Marin, Ariana Popa, Gabriela Oproiu, Dan Ovidiu Stativ, Maria Volintiru.
Section II : Nicoleta Dudu, Claudia Drghici, Theodora Mihai, Marilena Munteanu, Nihaela Nicolaescu, Monica Nicolaescu, Adina
Ovedenie, Cristian Soare.
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We wish to convey special thanks to the following persons, for their individual contribution to the carrying out of the
interviews with parents in the selected areas:
Section I : Elena Popescu-Mirceni, Mihaela Ignatovici, Maria Trmbia, Alexandrina Pufulescu, Cristiana Boca
Section II : Elena Balosu, Anioara Ciobanu, Ana Ciutea, Silvia Dan, Lucica Erdei, Mariana Ilie, Irinela Nicolae, Angela Pasca, Clara
Petzingher
Monitoring parents interviews:

Carmen Anghelescu, Martha Iliescu, Ecaterina Stativ
Database operators:
Section I: Oana Raluca Graur, Andreea chiopu
Section II: Claudia Drghici, Nicoleta Dudu, Adina Ovedenie, Mihaela Nicolaescu
Data processing:
Section I: Anca Vitcu, Ecaterina Stativ
Section II: Anca Vitcu, Adina Ovedenie, Ecaterina Stativ
We would like to convey our thanks to:
Mayors in the selected counties, staff in the social work services in Mayors offices, School Inspectorates in the selected counties,
kindergarten teachers in the places were interviews were carried out, community social workers and medical staff who supported the
activity of the interviewing teams, and all persons who supported locally the carrying out of this research.
We would like to thank the managers of the Institute for Mother and Child - prof.dr. Adrian Georgescu, dr.Alin Stanescu, dr.Rodica
Nanu for their support in the carrying out of this research.
We thank Mrs. Viorica Preda, General Inspector, for the consultancy offered and the contribution to the writing of the chapters on
specific aspects regarding parents of preschool children.
We would like to thank Alina Chiriac and Domnica Petrovai for their support and suggestions regarding gender aspects and gender
discrimination.
Our special thanks are addressed to parents and grandparents who were available to collaborate with us and offer the necessary
information for the carrying out of this research.
We would like to thank particularly Mr. Eugen Vasile Crai, coordinator of the education program of UNICEF Romania for his valuable
ideas and constant support offered for the entire period when the research was carried out. We also thank Mrs. Tania Goldner,
coordinator of the nutrition and health program of UNICEF Romania, for the consultancy offered with the development of data
collection instruments, as well as the writing of the chapters on nutrition and health.
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Contents
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................................. 11
METHODOLOGY............................................................................................................................................................ 14
SECTION I. KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES OF PARENTS WITH CHILDREN IN THE BIRTH TO 3
YEARS OLD AGE GROUP
CHAPTER 1
Demographic Data ........................................................................................................................................................ 19
I.1.1 Families dimension................................................................................................................................................. 19
I.1.2 Family type.............................................................................................................................................................. 20
I.1.3 Parents marital status............................................................................................................................................. 20
I.1.4 Parents presence in the family and migration for work purposes ........................................................................... 21
I.1.5 Parents age............................................................................................................................................................ 22
I.1.6 Education level........................................................................................................................................................ 22
I.1.7 Ethnicity................................................................................................................................................................... 23
I.1.8 Parents occupation................................................................................................................................................. 24
I.1.9 Parents socio-economic level................................................................................................................................. 25
CHAPTER I.2
Child nutrition................................................................................................................................................................ 27
I.2.1 General aspects regarding breastfeeding ............................................................................................................... 27
I.2.2 Exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months of life ................................................................................................ 27
I.2.3 Childrens breastfeeding between 6 and 9 months old ........................................................................................... 28
I.2.4 Duration of breastfeeding with children in the 0-1 age group.................................................................................. 28
I.2.5 Breastfeeding upon request .................................................................................................................................... 28
I.2.6 The type of milk used in the case of children who were never breastfed ................................................................ 29
I.2.7 Food diversification ................................................................................................................................................. 29
CHAPTER I.3
Child Health ................................................................................................................................................................... 30
I.3.1 Parents knowledge, attitudes and practices on child health................................................................................... 30
I.3.1.1 Childrens health state................................................................................................................................... 30
I.3.1.2 Parents attitudes and practices in case of child illness ................................................................................ 30
I.3.1.3 Use of treatments without medical advice..................................................................................................... 31
I.3.2 Parents knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding illness prevention .............................................................. 32
I.3.2.1 Immunization................................................................................................................................................. 32
I.3.2.2 Information sources that parents resort to in order to preserve their childs health....................................... 32
I.3.3 Behavior of the pregnant woman ............................................................................................................................ 33
I.3.3.1 Information regarding pregnancy .................................................................................................................. 33
I.3.4 Pregnancy planning ................................................................................................................................................ 34
I.3.5 The mother-child interaction during breastfeeding .................................................................................................. 34
CHAPTER I.4
Child hygiene................................................................................................................................................................. 37
I.4.1 Acquiring hygiene routines...................................................................................................................................... 37
I.4.2 Food hygiene practices ........................................................................................................................................... 37
I.4.3 Childrens corporal hygiene..................................................................................................................................... 38
I.4.4 Safety of the water consumed by children .............................................................................................................. 39
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CHAPTER I.5
The childs physical and psychological state ............................................................................................................ 41
I.5.1 The group of parents with children in the 0-1 age group......................................................................................... 41
I.5.2 The group of parents with children in the 1-3 age group......................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER I.6
Elements of family ecology.......................................................................................................................................... 46
CHAPTER I.7
Traditions....................................................................................................................................................................... 52
I.7.1 Traditions in child rearing ........................................................................................................................................ 52
I.7.2 Baby swaddling....................................................................................................................................................... 52
CHAPTER I.8
Early child education Play activities ........................................................................................................................ 55
I.8.1 The child up to one year old.................................................................................................................................... 55
I.8.2 Children in the 1-3 age group.................................................................................................................................. 57
CHAPTER I.9
I.9.1 Gender identity structure and gender discrimination............................................................................................... 60
I.9.2 Roles and gender.................................................................................................................................................... 60
I.9.3 Parents interaction with their children..................................................................................................................... 63
SECTION II. KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES OF PARENTS WITH CHILDREN IN THE 3 TO 7 YEARS
OLD AGE GROUP
CHAPTER II.1
Parents/ families/ household characteristics for the children in the 3-5 and 6-7 age groups................................ 71
II.1.1. Family size ............................................................................................................................................................ 71
II.1.2. Family type............................................................................................................................................................ 71
II.1.3. Parents marital status........................................................................................................................................... 72
II.1.4. Parents presence in the family ............................................................................................................................. 72
II.1.5. Parents age.......................................................................................................................................................... 73
II.1.6. Education level...................................................................................................................................................... 74
II.1.7. Ethnicity................................................................................................................................................................. 75
II.1.8. Parents occupation............................................................................................................................................... 76
II.1.9. Parents socio-economic level............................................................................................................................... 77
CHAPTER II.2
Knowledge, attitudes and practices on parenting regarding child nutrition........................................................... 78
II.2.1. General aspects regarding breastfeeding ............................................................................................................. 78
II.2.2. Exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months after birth........................................................................................ 78
II.2.3. Meals frequency and regularity ............................................................................................................................. 79
CHAPTER II.3
Knowledge, attitudes and practices on parenting regarding child health............................................................... 80
II.3.1. Assessment of the childs health state. ................................................................................................................. 80
II.3.1.1 Attitude and practices in case of illness ....................................................................................................... 80
II.3.1.2. Provision of treatments at the parents own initiative .................................................................................. 81
II.3.1.3. Incidence of child illnesses.......................................................................................................................... 82
II.3.2 Illness prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 82
II.3.2. 1. Immunization ............................................................................................................................................. 82
II.3.2.2. Food hygiene practices............................................................................................................................... 83
II. 3.3. Sources of information used by parents regarding their childs health................................................................. 83
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CHAPTER II.4
Knowledge, attitudes and practices on parenting regarding child hygiene............................................................ 85
II.4.1. Acquiring hygiene routines.................................................................................................................................... 85
II.4.2. Knowledge regarding the childs private hygiene .................................................................................................. 86
II.4.3. Childrens corporal hygiene................................................................................................................................... 86
II.4.4. Safety of the water consumed by children ............................................................................................................ 87
CHAPTER II.5
Child physical and psychological development ........................................................................................................ 89
II.5.1. Child physical development .................................................................................................................................. 89
II.5.2. Psychological development of the child ................................................................................................................ 90
CHAPTER II.6
Elements of family ecology.......................................................................................................................................... 93
II.6.1. Disputes between parents..................................................................................................................................... 93
II.6.2. Child discipline ...................................................................................................................................................... 95
II.6.2.1. Punishments............................................................................................................................................ 95
II.6.2.2. Types of punishments that parents use with their children...................................................................... 95
II.6.2.3. Who punishes and who carries the authority in front of the child ............................................................ 97
II.6.3. Support of the childs positive actions by praise and encouragement................................................................... 98
II.6.4. Parents involvement in choosing their childs friends ........................................................................................... 99
CHAPTER II.7
Traditions and customs regarding child rearing...................................................................................................... 102
II.7.1. The importance of traditions in child rearing ....................................................................................................... 102
II.7.2. Traditional parenting practices ............................................................................................................................ 103
II.7.2.1 Swaddling............................................................................................................................................... 103
II.7.2.2 Wearing a cap or bonnet in the house.................................................................................................... 105
CHAPTER II.8
PLAY ACTIVITIES ....................................................................................................................................................... 107
II.8.1. The importance of play activities in child development ....................................................................................... 107
II.8.2. How children play and with what......................................................................................................................... 108
II.8.3. Frequency and the way in which parents play with the child............................................................................... 110
II.8.4. What type of toys do parents prefer to buy to girls and boys .............................................................................. 111
II.8.5 Free time activities encouraged by parents.......................................................................................................... 112
CAPITOLUL II.9
Specific information and analyses on preschool age subgroups .......................................................................... 115
A. Specific Information for the 3-5 age group

II.9.1. Parents knowledge regarding child personality formation .................................................................................. 117
II.9.2. Knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding play activities .............................................................................. 119
II.9.3. Routines formation for the child 3-5 years old..................................................................................................... 121
II.9.4. The care for childs safety ................................................................................................................................... 122
II.9.5. Education of the preschool child 3-5 years old.................................................................................................... 122
II.9.6. Involvement of the small preschool child in domestic activities........................................................................... 124
II.9.7. Knowledge, attitudes and practices of parents with children 3-5 years old regarding gender issues.................. 125
II.9.8. Parents knowledge regarding child development............................................................................................... 126
B. Specific information for the 6-7 years old preschool child

II.9.9. The importance that parents attach to the studies of their children..................................................................... 128
II.9.10. Childs preparation for school in the family........................................................................................................ 130
II.9.11. Communication between parent and child ........................................................................................................ 136
II.9.12. Child involvement in domestic activities ............................................................................................................ 138
II.9.13. Parents opinions according to the childs gender ............................................................................................. 139
II.9.14. Parents opinions regarding child development, education and school results ................................................. 141
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CHAPTER II.10
Fathers participation to the preschool childcare and education........................................................................... 144
II.10.1 Fathers implication in childcare and education activities ................................................................................... 144
CHAPTER II.11
The influence of gender differences on parenting knowledge, attitudes and practices for parents having
preschool children 3 to 7 years old........................................................................................................................... 149
II.11.1. Parents knowledge and attitudes regarding the childs needs.......................................................................... 149
II.11.2. Parents attitudes and practices regarding gender differentiated punishments................................................. 150
II.11.3. Ways in which parents explain gender differences to their children.................................................................. 150
II.11.4. Parents attitude regarding gender related child behavior................................................................................. 151
CONCLUSIONS............................................................................................................................................................ 154
RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................................................................................. 158
ANNEXES .................................................................................................................................................................... 163
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INTRODUCTION
This is for the first time that a research regarding parents current knowledge, attitudes and practices or models
for child rearing/childcare and child education in the family is made in Romania, on a representative sample at a national
level.
The study targeted parents with children under 8 years old, in both urban and rural residence areas.
Attention was focused on this period due to the importance of early childhood for the evolution of a person, and of
the first 3 years of life to be more precise, when basic structures are created in the psychological development of the
child, as well as of the preschool period, as an important stage in the childs school and social integration.
Humans have the longest childhood of all. This extension of childhood is in fact related to the evolution stage.
Judged from this point of view, this is the life stage when the cultural heritage, transmitted through society with the help
of language, adds up to the biologic heritage transmitted through the genes.
Language is used as an instrument of social control to various extents. In certain families for example it
has a reduced impact, control in imperative, categorical linguistic forms being preferred.
In families oriented towards the individual, social control is based mainly on personal options, parental discourse
presenting a certain number of alternatives with their reasons and possible consequences to the child. Thus, by means
of the linguistic variant used during primary socialization, the family familiarizes children with different types of social
relations.
Education is the activity facilitating adjustment to all environment conditions, to the general, cultural, scientific,
technical, artistic environment, etc. A parent may consider his behavior justified when asking the child to surrender
completely in front of the adult. But we need to underline that the right of the mighty is a primitive right, on the first
steps of the evolution scale. The child is in this way lacking his play area, the option of a choice, the possibility to freely
exercise his option. Constraint in itself is not moral. As soon as the child becomes aware of his subordination, he will no
longer accept it.
Ianosi (Human Ages, Trei Publishing House, Bucharest, 1998) states that two attitudes are dangerous in life: the
feeling of superiority and arrogance (the wonder child, the small genius) as well as the feeling of inferiority and
insufficiency (the child permanently scolded, criticized). The art of child education consists in not imposing, but letting the
child believe that he consents to cultural requirements by himself. Another damaging attitude for the child is dishonesty;
if you tell lies to your child he will tell lies back to you. The child fights secretly against educational constraints. The art of
education consists of educating the child through love and with love, without letting love itself impose constraints.
In order to develop as the first educators of their children, parents need pertinent information. Information
necessary to parents covers the field of health, nutrition, the childs emotional and intellectual growth and development,
social integration, school readiness etc.
Data obtained from this research will be used in endorsing programs intended for parents, but especially
strategies regarding early child education, programs to be established by governmental as well as nongovernmental
organizations for the purpose of reorganizing and diversifying services in the field of education, health and child
protection, as well as a better information of parents and professionals working with children, on specific aspects of early
child development.
This research intends to present conclusions and suggestions that should lead to the better valuing of the child
and childhood in the Romanian society, where mentalities such as small children, small worries, big children, big
worries still persist.
Scientific studies revealed however that neglect of the emotional and cognitive needs during first years of
childhood lead to serious disturbances, which may leave lifelong traces, even if the human brain is so extraordinarily
adaptable. (Megan Gunnar 1998).
In the course of time, when birth control did not exist, and many women were dying in child birth, being a parent
as well as parental obligations were not regarded as positive experiences. Child mortality was very high and quite usual.
Less than half of the children born were living up to the age of 5 and one quarter of the other half were dying before the
age of 10. Life expectancy was of 30 years and children were forced to start a premature adulthood around the age of 7
9 years old.
In contrast to this reality of the Middle Ages, at the beginning of the XVIth and the XVIIth century, Erasmus (1466 -
1536), Comenius (1592 1670), John Locke (1632 1704) wrote important works which remained in the history of
philosophy and pedagogy, in which they were criticizing violence and terror employed with children during the
educational process and were promoting personalized methods that were respecting the child.
Francoise Dolto made an original analysis of the evolution of the childs position in society as well as of the way in
which the child was seen not only by the family but the family acquaintances as well, analyzing the evolution of the
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childs image in painting from pre-renaissance until the XXth century. The child, dressed as a small adult was regarded
more like an object, a family asset and not as an independent person. Later on, towards the XVIIIth century, the painting
began to show childrens specific body proportions according to their age, and started to present girls in a different way
from boys, dressing them in adequate clothes to their age and gender. (La cause des enfants, Paris, 1985)
But the essential change in the international acknowledgement of the childs rights was made by Jean-Jacques
Rouseau with his novel Emil, a very controversial one at that time. In this novel, Rouseau portrays childhood as a pure
existence, which deserves to be valued and its happiness and play potential to be supported. J.J.Rouseau went even
further and was among the first ones who introduced various reforms in approaching the child, and education as a right
of the child.
During the XIXth century social programs began to improve the situation of the child, but a total change occurred
only in the XXth century, dominated by social preoccupations around the beginning of the First World War. Around the
year 1920, the interest for psychology brought about a change in the attitude towards children and their development.
The cult of the child and childhood became prevalent in society, and childs education became the tendency of the
century, while parenting skills began to be extremely important and appreciated. We assist at the same time at
contradictory tendencies, especially in western European countries: the childs position in the family becomes almighty;
we reach the period of the king-child (lenfant-roi) which brings in its turn important distortions to family balance and
the correct parent-child relationship.
In Romania, the child and childhood followed historically the same tendencies as the ones mentioned above, with
a delay in the respective rhythm due to two important causes: intellectual, cultural and social isolation in which Romania
(actually the Romanian family) was forced to live during communist years, proliferation of communist thinking promoting
the idea that the child belonged to the society and therefore depersonalization of the family, as well as efforts to break
the child from its family in order to be better inoculated in this way with communist ideology and, on the second hand,
slower denial of certain traditions by family and society. As findings of this research are going to show as well, traditions
are still very strongly rooted in the Romanian family, especially in rural areas, a fact having not necessarily a negative
connotation, as long as it promotes positive aspects of the parent-child relationship.
Today in Romania there is a great need for parents to obtain adequate knowledge about childcare and childhood
and identify the best information channels for them. Besides real progress made in considering the child and childhood,
mainly influenced by the signing and endorsement by Romania of the UN Convention for the Childs Rights, worrying
aspects still persist, being pointed out by the studies made during the last years (Mortality of children under 5; Causes of
child abandonment in maternities and childrens hospitals; Reproduction health in Romania; Early child education in
nursery schools).
Parents need to be informed and educated in order for all children to benefit in this way of correct care for their
health and survival, for a nutrition which is adequate to their physical and psychological development, for the evolution of
their intellectual and emotional processes that should lead to the creation of an independent person.
All children have the need and the right to be taken care of and brought up by their parents in a competent way.
Parents competence is visible in the knowledge and practice of breastfeeding, nutrition and eating habits, health
and hygiene, psychological and social care, capability to promote attention for the child, parents affection and
implication for the prevention of child abuse and neglect as well as gender discrimination.
Data obtained in this research study will contribute to the changing of old mentalities and the development of
good childcare and education practices adequate to the childs development needs. The research also offers current
information about specific parenting skills of parents in Romania.
The goal of the research

The goal of this research is to make a complex analysis of parenting skills/abilities, to establish the parents
information needs, and offer to decision makers information based on scientific data, for the purpose of developing
educational policies and strategies for parents, aimed at developing the potential of children in the target groups studied.
General Objective
The obtaining of data regarding parenting skills and practices of families with children under 8 years old in
Romania; understanding practices, models, beliefs and values defining (or through which are defined) childhood
coordinates for the age groups: 0-1 years old, 1-3 years old, 3-6 years old, 6-7 years old; evaluation of gender aspects
that guide education/socializing parenting practices.
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Specific Objectives
Identify demographic and socio-economic characteristics of families with children in the target group.
Evaluate nutrition and general hygiene practices with small children;
Identify the carrying out of various duties by mothers and fathers, regarding daily childcare and education;
Identify fathers participation to child rearing and education at various ages of the child;
Evaluate parents knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding play activities and their importance in child
development at all ages of the child;
Evaluate family ecology behavior in families with children under 8 years old;
Identify child environment characteristics regarding equipment, hygiene and safety aspects;
Identify crisis management behavior models in the parents-child relationship at various ages;
Evaluate parents knowledge and attitudes influencing the (different) socializing process of young boys and girls.
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METHODOLOGY
The sample dimension

The research was performed on 4 representative samples at a national level, estimated at 494 cases for children
0-1 years old, 549 cases for children 1-3 years old, 817 cases for children 3-5 years old and 771 cases for children 6-7
years old. The WHO methodology (Adequacy of sample size in health studies) was used for the calculation of the
sample dimension.
Sample type: stratified, probabilistic, 4-stages; the final selection of units being the cluster of children aged 0-1,
1-3, 3-5 and 6-7 years old.
Stratification criteria: the 8 development regions of Romania and the urban/rural residence area.
Definition of target groups included in the study:

1. The 0-1 age group includes children from birth to the age of 11 months and 29 days;
2. The 1-3 age group includes children between the age of 1 year old and 2 years, 11 months and 29 days;
3. The 3-5 age group includes children between the age of 3 years old and 5 years, 11 months and 29 days;
4. The 6-7 age group includes children between the age of 6 years old and 7 years, 11 months and 29
days.
Selection of the sample units:

Selection was planned so as for a representative sample of children in Romania to be obtained, having the ages
between 0-1, 1-3, 3-5 and 6-7 years old. Samples are probabilistic up to the cluster level. The target population, stratified
on the two residence areas, urban and rural, was identified during the first stage by taking as a reference data published
in the 2003 Statistic Yearbook. Children in each residence area were distributed in the 8 development regions of
Romania. A county was selected at random from each region. Two urban areas (among which one was the county
capital, the other town being chosen arbitrarily) were picked out from each selected county as well as 3 rural areas,
chosen randomly as well.
In urban areas 2 clusters were established in each town: in this case they were streets. All families living on the
respective streets were visited for the identification of the ones with children in the target group. In each family only one
child from the same age group was included in the sample. Parents interviewing was carried out in their own homes.
The sample that has generated results and analyses presented in this report was obtained in the field activity,
without making any value adjustments. This is why it is therefore representative at a national level.
Representative population:
The sample is representative for the population 0-1, 1-3, 3-5 6-7 years old of Romania, presenting a confidence
degree of 95% and a sampling error of +/-6,23,+/-5,92 , +/- 4,85, +/-4,99.
Data sources:
1. Interviews were carried out with mothers and fathers of children in the sample, and only exceptionally with
other persons taking daily care of the child and who therefore knew the childcare history of the respective child.
Interviews were carried out at the childrens domicile.
2. Focus-groups were organized with parents, professionals in nursery schools and kindergartens, school
inspectors and important persons in the local community (mayors, physicians, teachers).
Instruments:
Questionnaires were used (see the annex) in order to collect the data provided by persons included in the sample
as mentioned above, and focus group guides respectively.
The questionnaire used in parents interviewing was based on a similar instrument used in Turkmenistan in
20031. Such a questionnaire was developed and adapted to the objectives of this research.
1
The research carried out in Turkmenistan was performed in only one geographical area on a sample of 196 persons
and focused on a smaller number of issues.
14
Questions in the interview questionnaire covered the following issues:
1. Demographical data number of family members, their age, education, occupation, income source,
etc.
2. Health and child health related practices
3. Nutrition - breastfeeding and child nutrition practices
4. Health and hygiene
5. Traditions regarding child rearing and socialization
6. Cognitive aspects childrens social and psychological development, stimulation, interaction, play
activities.
7. Environment evaluation utilities and domestic facilities, books, toys, safety.
8. Social ecology family responsibilities, gender related conflicts.
Focus group guides were centered especially on gender aspects in childcare, education and childrens
socialization.
All data collection instruments were pre-tested several times, until their final version was reached.
Data collection
Data collection was carried out in teams of 2 persons. Selection of human resources for data collection was made
according to their profession (social worker, psychologist, sociologist etc) and the relevant experience, skills and interest
for the project idea.
Before starting the data collection activity, teams received a two day specific training. The training objective was
the understanding of the project philosophy, and learning the techniques for interviewing mothers of children in the target
group.
The data collection activity was supervised by members of the technical team.
Collection of quantitative and qualitative data was completed during June - September 2005.
Data processing
Data was processed with the SPSS program.
Data presentation
Results are presented in two sections:
Section I regards children in the 0 1 and 1 3 age groups. There are presented knowledge, attitudes,
education and childcare practices of parents with children in these age groups.
Section II presents the same issues for the 3 - 5 and 6 - 7 age groups.
We point out that the 2 sections present in a coherent but at the same time specific way parental skills in parents
relation with children in the target age groups.
Specific aspects in section I refer to pregnancy, breastfeeding, food diversification and knowledge about the child
physical and psychological development.
Specific aspects in section II regard child education, personality development, discipline, preschool child
preparation for school integration, parents expectations regarding the childs studies, after school activities, specific
gender issues and fathers participation to child education.
15
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RESULTS
Section I
PARENTING KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES OF PARENTS

WITH CHILDREN IN THE BIRTH TO 3 YEARS OLD AGE GROUP
SECTION I
CHAPTER 1
Demographic data
Characteristics of parents/ families /households where the children in the 0 3 age group come from
I.1.1. Families dimension
Diagrams no.1a and b contain information about the number of persons that the families of children in the target
group consist of. For the 0-1 age group most of the families consist of 3 persons (43.2%) while for the 1-3 age group
most of the families consist of 4 persons (39.2%), closely followed by families consisting of 3 persons (37.5%). The
residence area urban vs. rural influences the value of this indicator. Thus, if in urban areas both for 0-1 and the 1-3 age
groups the family consisting of 3 members is prevalent (55.3 and 45.3%), in rural areas the family consisting of 4
persons prevails (34%). Besides this, the rate of families consisting of over 4 members is with 25% up to 50% higher in
rural areas as compared to urban ones (diagram 2).
The information collected showed that the family dimension is established up to a rate of at least 90% by the
existence of children in the respective family and less by the presence of members of the extended family such as
grandparents or other relatives (data is not presented). In Romania therefore the nuclear family is prevalent while the
multigenerational family is less present.
19
I.1.2 Family type
Data in table no.1 shows that at least 94% of the children in both age groups live in two parent families, with
parents who are married or living together at the moment of the interview. Two parent families were considered the
ones where both parents were present, including the case of temporary missing parents who were away for work
purposes either in the country or abroad, for health reasons or in prison, but with whom the family still maintained
relations. One parent families were considered the ones consisting of only one parent, such parent being unmarried, a
widower, divorced/separated from the other parent. The data studied revealed that the rate of one parent families is
much higher for children in the 0-1 age group than for the ones in the 1-3 age group. According to the residence area,
variations more or less important can be observed for both age groups. The ratio of one parent families is equal or
higher in rural than in urban areas. The one parent family in Romania develops usually as a consequence of the
breaking of the two parent family (consisting initially of both parents) and less as an initial structure of unmarried parent
(never married or in a relationship never legally recognized). Therefore, at the moment of the study only 2% of the
interviewed parents were unmarried (table 2). On the other hand one parent families usually consist of the mother, the
father being the one to go away or to leave the family (table 3). According to the data collected, there were no mothers
leaving the family, that is separating themselves from the family, as compared to fathers, where the rate of those leaving
the family, transforming it from a two parent into a one parent family, went over 8% for the 0-1 age group and 6% for
the 1-3 age group (table 3). Data obtained regarding the type of family corresponds to the existing data in Romanias
official statistics.
Table no.1: Distribution of families according to their type on residence areas
Total Urban Rural

Family type % % % % % %
0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age
group group group group group group
Two parent family 94 94.3 93.9 91.4 94 96.5
One parent family 5.2 4.8 5.2 6.9 5.2 3.2
Not answering 0.8 0.9 0,9 1.7 0.8 0.3
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(494) (549) (229) (234) (265) (315)
I.1.3 Parents marital status
As shown by the data in table 2, there are differences in the marital status of parents both between the 2 age
groups studied and between the urban and rural residence area. The rate of married parents is lower in the 0-1 age
group as compared to the 1-3 age group. Partners living together and divorced parents were registered at higher rates
with the 0-1 age group as compared to the 1-3 age group, for both residence areas. The low rate of never married
parents (between 2 and 1,3%) does not allow us to draw relevant conclusions on residence areas or compare the
evolution of this indicator in time.
Table no. 2: Parents marital status according to residence area
Total Urban Rural

Parents marital status % % % % % %
Married 71.5 77.6 78.6 77.3 65.3 77.8
Unmarried couple 22.5 16.7 15.3 14.1 28.7 18.7
Divorced/separated 3 3.5 3.5 4.3 2.6 2.9
Widow(er) 0.2 - 0 - 0.4 -
Never married 2 1.3 1.7 2.6 2.2 0.3
Not answering 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.7 0.8 0.3
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(494) (549 (229) (234) (265) (315)
20
I.1.4 Parents presence in the family and migration for work purposes
It has been lately ascertained that the parents status of a married couple is not a guarantee for the presence of
both parents in the family beside their children, because we assist in the Romanian family also to the issue of parents
migration for work purposes either in the country or abroad. The fact that parents are leaving the family for work makes
their presence in the family available only during the weekend, on holidays or even less. There is little available data on
the amplitude of such an issue in the Romanian family and its multiple implications on the family values and child
education. Given this particular context, we considered it necessary to refer to such aspect in this research study as well.
It was found that the incidence of mothers working abroad is of 0.2% for the 0-1 age group and of 1.1% for the 1-3 age
group. The highest incidence was registered in rural areas, for the 1-3 age group (1.95%). The rate of fathers working
abroad is much higher, 3.8% and 4% respectively. The highest rate of fathers going abroad for work (5.7%) was
registered with the 0-1 age group in urban areas ( table 4).
Table no. 3: Mothers presence in the family distribution according to residence are
Total Urban Rural

Mothers situation in the family % % % % % %
Mother is present in the family 98.4 96.3 98.7 97.4 98.1 95.5
Mother is working abroad 0.2 1.1 0 0 0.4 1.9
Mother is working in another town and
1 1.5 0.9 1.8 1.1 1.3
comes home less than every week
Not answering 0,4 1,1 0,4 0.4 0,4 1,3
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(494) (549) (229) (234) (265) (315)
Table no. 4: Fathers presence in the family - distribution according to residence area
Total Urban Rural

Fathers situation in the family % % % % % %
0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age
Father is present in the family 87.3 88.0 85.1 83.8 89.1 91.1
Father works abroad 3.8 4.0 5.7 3.8 2.2 4.2
Father is in a sanatorium 0.2 0 0.4 0 0 0
Father works in another town and
1 0,9 0.9 0 1,1 1,6
comes home less than every week
Father is arrested / convicted 0.6 0,7 0.4 1.7 0,8 0
Father left the family 5.5 4,9 6.6 8.2 4.5 2,5
Deceased 0.2 0 0 0 0.4 0
Other 1.4 1,1 0.9 0,4 1.9 0,6
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(494) (549) (229) (234) (265) (315)
21
I.1.5 Parents age
When analyzing the distribution showed by table 5 we find that most of the mothers are between 25 and 29 years
old, for both age groups studied ( 35,7%).
The rate of young mothers < = 24 years old is higher in rural areas than in urban ones for both age groups
studied. Change in the distribution numbers with the other ages is not very significant between urban and rural areas, for
both target age groups.
The same age characteristics can be observed in the case of fathers (table 6). We need to point out however
that between the average age of mothers and that of fathers a difference of up to 5 years may be observed, fathers
being older. Such difference is a constant characteristic of the marital model in Romania.
Table no. 5: Distribution of mothers on age groups and residence areas
Mothers age Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
years 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age
< = 24 29.8 29.8 24.7 24.7 33.5 33.5
25 29 35.7 35.7 42.8 42.8 30.4 30.4
30 34 20.3 20.3 19.5 19.5 21.0 21.0
35 and over 13.5 13.5 12.1 12.1 14.5 14.5
Not answering 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.6
100 100 100
Total 100 100 100
(541) (231) (310)
Table no. 6: Distribution of fathers on age groups and residence areas
Fathers age Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
years 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age
< = 24 16.9 6.4 16.9 2.5 16.8 9.1
25 29 38.2 33.5 39.1 33.7 37.4 33.4
30 34 28.3 33.5 29.5 38.6 27.3 30.1
35 39 11.7 18.1 11.1 20.2 12.2 16.6
40 and over 4.9 7.9 3.4 4.5 6.3 10.1
Not answering 0.6 0.5 0.7
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(445) (498) (207) (202) (238) (296)
I.1.6 Education level
Data presented in diagrams 3 and 4 shows that there is a great similarity between mothers and fathers
education level. For all education stages rates are very close to one another. The most frequent education level is high
school (at least 29%). Differences can be observed however between the education of mothers and fathers according to
residence area. Thus, higher levels of education, beginning with high school, are characteristic for people in urban
areas. The rate of population having at least high school education is significantly higher in urban areas as compared to
rural areas, and the rate of the population with higher education is three times higher in urban areas as compared to
rural areas, for all categories studied.
22
Diagram no. 3 Mothers' education level
Level of education - mothers under 1 yr

1 - 3 age group
17.1 5.3
Higher education 14.7 5.8
10.1 3.1
Training school 11.3 5.2
34.2 24,4
High school 38.2 17,1
13.6 16,8
Vocational school 17.7 22,3
14.5 28,2
Secodary school 9.5 31,9
* 6.1
5 8 grades * 5.2
* 3.4
Primary school 3 4.5
3.9 10,4
No school 3 6.5
%
40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40
urban rural
Diagram no. 4 Fathers' education level
Level of education - fathers

under 1 yr
1 - 3 age group
19.3 2.9
Higher education 19.1 3.3
8.2 3,8
Training school 8.1 3,8
35.7 23,1
High school 35.9 22,5
19.3 34,5
Vocational school 19.1 34,6
13 18,9
Secodary school 13.4 19,1
5 8 grades * 3.4
* 3.3
Primary school * *
* *
No school 3 10,1
2.9 10
%
40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40
urban rural
I. 1.7 Ethnicity
Ethnicity was recorded as stated by interviewed persons. Between 71.3 and 81% of the parents stated to be
Romanians, between 8 and 16.5%, Hungarians, and between 7.6 and 9.65% stated to be Roma population. Such
distribution corresponds only partially to the data contained by official statistics, because Hungarian and Roma ethnical
groups are slightly over-represented in this research. Data presenting ethnicity of mothers and fathers points to a strong
homogamy, both for each ethnical group separately and for the urban/rural residence areas (tables 7 and 8).
23
Table no. 7: Distribution of mothers regarding ethnicity and residence area
Total Urban Rural

Mothers declared ethnicity % % % % % %
Romanian 73.9 75.4 77.6 81.0 70.6 71.3
Hungarian 10.2 13.3 8 9.1 12.2 16.5
Roma 8.6 8 9.6 8.2 7.6 7.7
Other 7.3 3.3 4.8 1.7 9.6 4.5
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(490) (541) (228) (231) (262) (310)
Table no. 8: Distribution of fathers according to ethnicity and residence area
Total Urban Rural

Fathers declared ethnicity % % % % % %
(living in the family) 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age
Romanian 75.1 79.1 80.2 87.1 70.6 73.6
Hungarian 10.6 12.9 8.2 8.4 12.6 15.9
Roma 8.2 5.6 7.7 3.5 8.8 7.1
Other 6.1 2.4 3.9 1.0 8.0 3.4
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(445) (498) (207) (202) (238) (296)
I.1.8 Parents occupation
Analysis of the occupational status shows that the rate of women who are economically active reaches about
45% and of fathers over 80%. There are also important differences between urban and rural areas for this indicator,
especially in the case of mothers. Thus, women who are active economically in urban areas reach approximately 60%
for each age group, while in rural areas the rate is under 30%. In the case of both mothers and fathers, either in the
urban or rural areas, the status of employee is highly prevalent as compared to any other income generating
occupational status (tables 9 and 10).
Table no. 9: Distribution of mothers according to their occupational status and residence area
Total Urban Rural

Mothers occupation % % % % % %
Employee 42.3 40.9 60.5 58.0 26.3 28.1
Manager 1.2 0.4 0.9 0.0 1.5 0.6
Self employed 1.0 1.1 0.0 0.4 1.9 1.6
Occasional jobs 0.8 1.3 0.9 0.4 0.8 1.9
Unemployed 0.8 0.9 0.4 0.0 1.1 1.6
Housewife 47.3 50.1 33.3 36.4 59.5 60.3
Student 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.4 1.1 0.3
Without occupation 3.1 2.2 0.9 1.3 5.0 3
Other 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.3 0.8 0.6
Not answering 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.8 2 2
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(490) (541) (228) (231) 262) (3100
24
Table no. 10: Distribution of fathers according to their occupational status and residence area
Total Urban Rural

Fathers occupation % % % % % %
Employee 61.7 59.9 77.5 77.1 47.9 48.0
Manager 1.8 2.2 1.9 2.5 1.6 2.0
Self employed 10.7 13.5 6.7 8.4 14.2 16.9
Occasional jobs 9.1 9.0 7.2 4.0 10.8 12.5
Unemployed 1.5 3.0 1 3.0 2.1 3.0
Staying at home 4.7 5.8 1.4 2.0 7.5 8.4
Student 0.7 0.2 0 0.0 1.3 0.3
Without occupation 6.7 3.0 2.4 1.5 10.4 4.1
Retired 1.1 1.0 0.5 0.0 1.6 1.7
Other 1.3 1.0 1.4 0.5 1.3 1.4
Not answering 0.7 1.4 0 1.0 1.3 1.7
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(449) (498) (209) (202) (240) (296)
I.1.9 Parents socio-economic level
For the purpose of finding the families social and economic level, a socio-economic indicator has been created,
being spread out on 3 levels: low, medium and high, to show possession of items such as cooking stove, refrigerator,
washing machine, television set, radio, fix/ mobile phone, car, privately owned house and second house.
The low socio-economic level (showing possession of no more than 3 items) characterizes between 18.2 and
19.9% of the families, the average socio-economic level (showing possession of at least 4 but no more than 6 items),
describes between 47.5 and 49.3 % of the families, while the high socio-economic level (indicating possession of at least 7
and no more than 9 items) describes between 32,5 and 32,6% of the families. The low and the average levels are prevalent
in the rural area, while the high socio-economic level is prevailing in the urban area, but only for the 1-3 age group.
We would like to point out that the rate of families having no such items in their possession is between 0.4 and
6.5%. Such families live mainly in the rural area and reach at least 5%. Less than 2% of the families hold in their
possession all the items mentioned in the research (table 11).
25
Table no. 11: Distribution of families according to the number of assets and residence area
Total Urban Rural

Number of assets held in % % % % % %
possession 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age
0 3.7 3.1 0.4 0.4 6.5 5.1
1 4.7 4.4 3.1 4.3 6.1 4.4
2 3.7 5.3 4.8 3.0 2.7 7.0
3 6.1 7.1 6.1 4.3 6.1 9.2
4 10.0 4.9 5.3 2.6 14.1 6.7
5 12.2 11.1 7.0 7.7 16.8 13.7
6 17.1 15.5 16.7 12.0 17.6 18.1
7 20.0 20.9 24.6 29 16.0 14.8
8 20.8 26.0 29.8 34.6 13.0 19.7
9 1.0 1.5 1.8 1.7 0.4 1.3
Not answering 0.7 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.0
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(490) (549) (228) (234) (262) (315)
Conclusions
A. Families characteristics
Both in urban and rural areas the nuclear family is prevalent. Most of the families in urban areas consist of 3
members and the ones in rural areas consist of 4 members.
The rate of two parent families in which both parents are present is 94%.
One parent families develop from the breaking of two parent families. Such families consist of mother and
children, fathers being the ones to leave the family.
The family based on marriage reaches a rate of over 70%. Couples living together and divorces are present
in both residence areas.
Families in rural areas are less well to do that is they hold in their possession fewer goods than the ones in
urban areas.
B. Parents characteristics
Between the average age of mothers and fathers there is a 5 years difference, fathers being older. Generally
mothers in rural areas are younger than the ones in urban areas. Such difference is less evident in case of
fathers.
The most common education level for both mothers and fathers is high school. Generally, the rate of parents
with low education level is higher in rural areas than in urban areas. The rate of parents having no education
at all reaches at least 6.5% for both residence areas.
The employee occupational status is generally prevalent for both residence areas, being situated at a very
long distance from any other income generating occupational status. Less than half of the mothers are
economically active mainly the ones living urban areas. The rate of economically active fathers is almost
twice higher than the one of mothers.
26
CHAPTER I. 2
Child nutrition
I. 2.1 General aspects regarding breastfeeding
In order to evaluate knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding nutrition, parents were asked a number of
questions referring to breastfeeding and food diversification.
Over 97% of the interviewed parents in both age groups consider that breastfeeding is an essential thing for the
child. Differences between urban and rural areas are not significant for this indicator.
However, only 90.9% of the children in the 0-1 age group and 84.3% in the 1-3 age group were breastfed for
various periods of time (table 12). The rate of breastfed children is higher in urban areas as compared to rural areas for
the 0-1 age group, and lower for the 1-3 age group.
A rate of 8.1% and respectively 12.8% of the children were never breastfed. Such rates reflect a slight
improvement of the breastfeeding indicator in time.
Table no. 12: Breastfeeding situation on residence areas
Total Urban Rural

Has your child been breastfed % % % % % %
Yes 90.9 84.3 91.8 80.3 90.1 87.3
No 8.1 12.8 7.4 15.4 8.7 10.8
I dont know .6 0.7 0.4 0.9 0.8 0.6
Not answering 0.4 2.2 0.4 3.4 0.4 1.3
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(494) (549) (229) (234) (265) (315)
I. 2.2 Exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months of life
WHO and UNICEF recommend breastfeeding as a unique child feeding method during their first 6 months of life.
The exclusive breastfeeding indicator took into account only children up to 6 months old who were exclusively breastfed
at the moment of the research. According to such methodology, only 49.5% of the children in the sample studied were
exclusively breastfed, in their first 6 months of life (total number of children under 6 months old = 234 ; total number of
children exclusively breastfed at the moment of the research = 116). This rate is 3 times higher if we compare it with the
data contained by the Study on the Reproductive Health, published in 2004. (We mention only this research study for
comparing data because the same methodology was used for calculating breastfeeding indicators).
The average duration of childrens exclusive breastfeeding was 9.5 weeks, and the median was 8 weeks (table
13). We may see that, especially in the case of the median, there are important differences between urban and rural
areas (4 weeks).
27
Table no. 13: Average duration and the breastfeeding median for exclusively breastfed children under 6
months old, according to residence area
Average Standard Median

N
(weeks) deviation (weeks)
Urban 10.36 63 5.51 12
Rural 8.80 61 5.77 8
Total 9.59 124 5.67 8
I. 2.3 Childrens breastfeeding between 6 and 9 months old
Even after the first 6 months of life, children should benefit of breastfeeding, (besides other liquid and solid food).
The international indicator is based only on children aged between 6 and 9 months. From among the 149 children in this
age group, only 57 were still breastfed. Their rate is therefore only 38.2%, lower than the one registered in the Study on
the Reproductive Health (41%).
I. 2.4 Duration of breastfeeding with children in the 0-1 age group
Generally, 59.5% of the children under 1 year old were breastfed at the moment of the research.
The average duration of breastfeeding was 23 weeks and the median was 20 weeks. In other words, at least half
of the children were breastfed for 4 months, the median being of 20 weeks in urban areas and 24 weeks in rural areas
(table 14).
Table no. 14: Average duration and the breastfeeding median according to residence area
Average Standard Median

N
(weeks) deviation (weeks)
Urban 22.54 208 12.65 20
Rural 23.36 238 13.59 24
Total 22.98 446 13.15 20
I. 2.5 Breastfeeding upon request
Breastfeeding upon request is recommended for maintaining and stimulating lactation, that is whenever the child
is asking for food, by crying. As mothers stated, over 84% of the children 0-1 years old and 81% of the ones in the 1-3
age group were breastfed upon request. The rate of children breastfed upon request is higher in urban than in rural
areas for the 0-1 age group and lower for the 1-3 age group (table 15). During the last 15 years IOMC and UNICEF
invested a lot in promoting this model and the situation continues to improve.
Table no. 15: Breastfeeding situation - upon request and according to meals time - according to residence areas
Total Urban Rural

How do you breastfeed your child? % % % % % %
Upon request 84.2 81 88.1 78.3 80.8 82.9
According to meals time 12.2 16.6 8.6 19.1 15.5 14.9
I dont know 0.4 0.6 0 0.5 0.8 0.7
Other 0 0.9 0 0.5 0 1.1
Not remembering/Not answering 3.2 0.9 3.3 1.6 2.9 0.4
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(449) (463) (210 (188) (239) (275)
28
I. 2.6 Type of milk used in the case of children who were never breastfed
In cases when children were never breastfed, parents were asked what type of milk they used. For over 86% and
respectively 76% of the children who were never breastfed parents stated that they used infant formula milk, but over
33% of the children were fed also Whole powder milk or cow milk (table 16).
Table no. 16: Type of milk used for feeding children that were never breastfed, according to residence area
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
The type of milk used N = 45 N = 86 N = 19 N = 46 N = 26 N = 40
Infant formula powder milk 86.7 76.7 89.5 91.3 84.6 60
Whole powder milk 2.2 1.2 0 0 3.8 2.5
Cow milk 31.1 30.2 36.8 21.7 26.9 40
I. 2.7 Food diversification introduction of solid/ non-solid food continues to be made very early. The average
diversification age was 3.7 months, close to the values registered by previous studies. The average diversification age is
lower in rural than in urban areas, a fact ascertained by other studies as well.
Table no. 17: Average age and the median for food diversification according to residence area
Confidence
Residence Average Standard Standard interval for the
N Median (weeks)
area (weeks) deviation average error average (95%) -
weeks
Urban 15.18 121 9.77 0.89 (13.42, 16.94) 12
Rural 14.01 137 8.48 0.72 (12.57, 15.44) 12
Total 14.56 258 9.11 0.57 (13.44, 15,68) 12
Conclusions
Parents consider, up to a rate of 97%, that breastfeeding is essential for child growth and development.
Only half of the children were exclusively breastfed during the first 6 months of life.
Breastfeeding median for children under one year old was 20 weeks with important differences according to
residence area (20 weeks in urban areas and 24 in rural areas).
Incidence of children less than one year old breastfed upon request was over 84%, and for children in the 1-3
age group it reached 81%.
Diversification continues to occur early. The average age for food diversification with children under one year
old was globally of 3.7 months, lower in rural areas.
One third of children who were never breastfed were fed from the very beginning whole powder milk or cow
milk.
29
CHAPTER I.3
Child Health
I. 3.1 Parents knowledge, attitudes and practices on child health were assessed by means of a
number of questions regarding: evaluation of the childs general health state, parents behavior in case of child illness,
medication and remedies used for the child, immunization, health information sources, behavior of the pregnant woman,
family planning.
I. 3.1.1 The questionnaire contained questions addressed to the parents, referring to the health state of their
children. It was found that almost all parents could assess their childs health state (99.6%). Parents assessment was
based on both common knowledge and information obtained after a specialists evaluation.
A rate of 93.1 and respectively 62.8% of the parents stated that they had a healthy child, 5.5 and respectively
24.6% appreciated that their child was fairy healthy and 1, respectively 2.9% stated that their child was not healthy
(Table 18). We need to point out that the rate of children that parents included in other categories than healthy is 3 to
5 times higher for the 1-3 age group, as compared to the 0-1 age group, for both residence areas.
Table no. 18: Childrens health state situation according to residence areas
Total Urban Rural

Child health situation under 1 13 under 1 under 1 13 under 1
age group age group age group age group age group age group
% % % % % %
Healthy 93.1 62.8 91.7 70.5 94.3 57.1
Fairly healthy 5.5 24.6 7 23.9 4.2 25.1
Not healthy 1 2.9 0.9 1.7 1.1 3.8
I dont know/Not answering 0.4 9.7 0.4 3.9 0.4 14
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(494) (549) (229) (234) (265) (315)
I. 3.1.2 Parents attitude and practices in case of child illness

In order to find out parents attitude and practices in case of child illness, parents were asked when they take the
child to the physician and if they give any remedies to the child without the doctors advice.
A rate of 85% of the parents stated that they seek medical advice in case their child is running a fever and 68.7%
in case their child is coughing. For other illness signs or symptoms medical advice is not so often requested and there
are no differences between urban and rural areas for this indicator. (Diagram 6).
30
I. 3.1.3 Regarding the use of treatments, between 11.4% and 15.5% of the parents with children under one year
old and 19,7% and respectively 29% of the parents with children in the 1-3 age group, state that they do use treatments
for their child without consulting a doctor, both in urban and rural areas (diagram 7). Such rate would be even higher if
we took into consideration answers such as sometimes, when speaking about self administrated medication.
Remedies used were as follows:
Medicinal syrups (33.6%), fever reducing suppositories (47.4%), pain relievers (21.6%), antibiotic injections
(1.7%), vitamins (3.4%), herbal tea (12.1%), oral antibiotics (0.9%).
31
I.3.2 Parents knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding illness prevention referred to
immunization and health information sources used by parents.
I. 3.2.1 Immunization
Regarding immunization as a way of preventing serious illness, parents were asked if they know the purpose for
child immunization. Only 83.2% and respectively 84.2% of the interviewed parents indicated the purpose of
immunization correctly (against certain illnesses, prevention, immunization). The rate of parents that did not know the
purpose of vaccination is visibly higher in rural areas, as compared to urban ones. (Table 19). The majority of such
parents confused various immunizations with iron products, vitamins or certain specific treatments.
Table no. 19: Distribution of answers to the question: Do you know the purpose of immunizations?
Total Urban Rural

Do you know the purpose of % % % % % %
immunizations? 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age
Yes 83.2 84,2 90 93,6 77.4 77,2
No 6.5 6,6 3.9 3 8.6 9,2
I dont know 9.7 9,1 5.7 3,4 13.2 13,3
Not answering 0.6 0,1 0.4 0 0.8 0,3
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(494) (549) (229) (234) (265) (315)
I. 3.2.2 Information sources that parents resort to in order to preserve their childs health
Among information sources mentioned by the parents, medical staff are best represented both in urban and
rural areas (93% and 87.9% respectively).
Mass-media also occupies an important place among information sources (27.1 and 43.1% respectively).
It is significant that grandparents are mentioned also by parents, at a relatively high rate, for both residence
areas, (21.4% in urban and 29.1% in rural areas), as being an important source of information for their childs health
(diagram 8).
32
I. 3.3 Behavior of the pregnant woman
Mothers behavior during pregnancy has indisputable influences on the health of the child.
Mothers mentioned at a rate of 50.2% in urban and 32.1% in rural areas, that they changed their life style. Such
changes referred especially to nutrition, raising the number of sleep hours and giving up smoking 13% (Diagram 9).
I. 3.3.1 Mothers stated that they obtained information regarding pregnancy mostly from medical staff (family
doctor, another doctor, nurse). The community nurse and the sanitary mediator are mentioned as a source of information
in a very low number of cases (table 20).
Table nr. 20: Distribution of answers to the question: Who provided you with information regarding
pregnancy?
Who provided you with information Total Urban Rural

regarding pregnancy? Number % Number % Number %
of cases N = 494 of cases N = 229 of cases N = 265
A member of the family 171 34.6 72 31.4 99 37.4
A friend 46 9.3 20 8.7 26 9.8
The family doctor 385 77.9 191 83.4 194 73.2
Another doctor 185 37.4 116 50.7 69 26
The nurse 97 19.6 48 21 49 18.5
The community nurse 17 3.4 2 0.9 15 5.7
Sanitary mediator 3 0.6 1 0.4 2 0.8
33
I. 3.4 Pregnancy planning
A planned pregnancy means that the parent role has been assumed after finding out exactly what it implies and
that the couple has been prepared to cope with such role, and face its global implications.
We need to point out that only half of the parents stated that they had planned the birth of their child (49.3% in
urban and 51.7% in rural areas). Surprisingly enough, rural and urban areas are very similar in this respect (table 21).
Pregnancy planning was investigated only with mothers of children in the 0-1 age group. The significance of such data
would be the maintenance of the traditional approach to have children as the Lord wishes as well as a limited use of
specialized family planning services.
Table no. 21: Pregnancy planning situation on residence areas
Did you plan your pregnancy Total Urban Rural

with this child? Number of Number of Number
% % %
cases cases of cases
Yes 210 42.5 101 44.1 109 41.1
No 250 50.6 113 49.3 137 51.7
Not answering 34 6.9 15 6.6 19 7.2
Total 494 100 229 100 265 100
I. 3.5 The mother- child interaction during breastfeeding
Child growth and development depends on the quality of the mother-child interaction. Such interaction conveys to
the child comfort, safety, and stability, which in their turn act as a factor for increasing illness resistance and which may
guarantee a good health condition.
Breastfeeding is not only the best food for the baby, but also the most adequate way of interaction between
mother and child. We need to reiterate that, at his mothers breast, the child is placed at the best possible distance to
visually investigate and observe his mothers face. During breastfeeding, in most of the cases the baby is caressed and
patted by his mother and the tactile stimulation as well as his mothers body warmth become extremely important for the
cognitive and emotional development of the child (B.Brazelton 1985; D.Stern 1994). Caress movements as well as the
dialogue with the baby during breastfeeding are, most of the times, not controlled by the mother. The respective rhythm
is however dictated by the rhythm in which the baby is eating (Daniel Stern 1994 ). In this way a specific and consistent
relationship is built, contributing to the establishment of the childs feeling of safety, which is absolutely essential for his
development. It is well known that the emotional deficit produces severe suffering to the small child, many times ending
in his passing away.
The rate of mothers that have a consistent interactive behavior with the child during breastfeeding is around 90%
(diagram 10).
34
Diagram no. 10 Mother's behavior during breastfeeding
total
caressing the baby 89,3
talking to the baby 86
looking the baby in the eyes 73,3
singing to the baby 64,6
watching television 26,9
%
0 30 60 90
Interactive behavior is more frequent with mothers in urban areas (diagram 11)
Diagram no. 11 Mother's behavior during breastfeeding according to

residence area
urban
rural
92.1
caressing the baby
86.8
87.3
talking to the baby
84.9
looking the baby in 77.3

the eyes 69.8
65.9
singing to the baby
63.4
24.5
watching television
29.1
%
0 20 40 60 80 100
35
Conclusions:
Regarding child health:

Parents were able to assess their childs health state both by current standards as well as by using the ones
employed by professionals (medical staff). The rate of healthy children in the 0-1 age group is 30% higher
than the one for children in the 1-3 age group, irrespective of residence area. Such difference may suggest
the hypothesis of an incorrect assessment of the small childs health, and less that of a real deterioration in
time of the childs health, after the first year of life.
Fever and coughing are the symptoms which most frequently make parents seek the help of a doctor, for
both residence areas.
The rate of parents who use treatments for their child without consulting a doctor is twice higher for the 1-3
age group as compared to the 0-1 age group.
The purpose of immunizations is not known to 17% of the parents.
The source used most frequently by parents for obtaining information regarding their childs health is the
physician (93% in urban and 88% in rural areas). Grandparents continue to remain a source of information
frequently mentioned by parents - 21% in urban and 29% in rural areas.
Regarding customs and practices during pregnancy:

Mothers (50% in urban and 32% in rural areas) stated that they changed their way of life during pregnancy.
Such changes refer mainly to the diet, number of sleep hours and giving up smoking. We point out that
smoking was present before pregnancy with over 50% of the future mothers.
Information about pregnancy and advice regarding womans behavior during pregnancy were obtained up to
a rate of 85% from medical staff.
Importance of an interactive behavior with the baby is acknowledged by only 90% of the mothers.
A rate of 4.50% of the interviewed mothers did not plan their pregnancy, almost equally in urban and rural areas.
36
CHAPTER I. 4
Child hygiene
In this research, hygiene knowledge and practices referred to: formation of childrens hygiene routines, body and
food hygiene practices. This chapter also includes data obtained about the quality of the water consumed by the child.
I. 4.1 Acquiring hygiene routines
More than 50% of the interviewed parents with children under 1 year old and 87% of the ones with children in the
1-3 age group stated that they work towards forming hygiene routines for their child (table 22A).
Parents in rural areas are less preoccupied by forming such routines to children in the 1-3 age group.
Table nr. 22 A: Distribution of answers to the question: do you form hygiene routines to your child?
Total Urban Rural

Do you form hygiene routines % % % % % %
to your child? 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age
Yes 54.3 87,2 52.8 92,3 55.5 83,5
No 29.1 10,2 31 6,8 27.5 12,7
Not answering 16.6 2,6 16.2 0,9 17 3,8
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(494) (549) (229) (234) (265) (315)
Parents were asked what the hygiene routines that their child was using were.
The most frequently used routines were washing hands and face. Washing hands after using the toilet is the
routine less acquired by children both in urban and rural areas (table 22B)
Table no. 22 B: Distribution of the answers to the question What routines does your child habitually use?
Total Urban Rural

What routines does your child % % % % % %
habitually use? 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age
Washes face and hands 22,0 83,1 21.5 83,6 22.4 80,6
Washes teeth 3,0 37,2 1.7 44 4.1 32,1
Takes a bath 36.6 39,2 39.7 42,7 34 36,5
Washes hands before a meal 5.6 52,3 5.8 60,3 5.4 46,3
Washes hands after using the toilet 2.2 27,9 2.5 34,2 2 23,2
I. 4.2 Food hygiene practices
Washing fruit and vegetables before their being consumed is part of the elementary food hygiene practices.
Their correct washing supposes having running water available in the house. In its absence, solutions are more
or less adequate. In urban areas, almost all parents wash such products (83.8%) correctly, due also to the existence of
such facility in the household. In rural areas, only 37.4% of the parents use to wash fruit and vegetables in running
water, most probably due to the lack of running water in the house (diagram 12).
37
I. 4.3 Childrens corporal hygiene
I. 4.3.1 Parents were asked, regarding the hygiene of the childs private parts, if they know and how they perform
the washing of the private parts of boys and girls.
Only 54% and respectively 51.9% of the parents having daughters know the correct way of washing their childs
private parts. The rate of incorrect answers was higher in rural than in urban areas (table 23).
Table nr.23: Distribution of answers to the question: Does it matter how you wash your childs private parts
(in case of girls)?
Total Urban Rural

Girls % % % % % %
Yes/to the back 54 51,9 56.4 52,5 51.8 51,4
To the front 4.8 4,1 4.2 4,1 5.2 4,1
It doesnt matter 13.5 13,8 15.4 14,8 11.9 13,0
I dont know 21 16,0 15.4 18,0 25.9 14,4
Not answering 6.7 14,2 8.6 10,6 5.2 17,1
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(252) (268) (117) (122) (135) (146)
In the case of boys, the rate of incorrect/confuse answers was much higher. Almost half of the parents believe
that correct washing of boys private parts is made by foreskin cleaning. Such practices may be considered incorrect,
because they are excessive (table 24).
38
Table no. 24: Distribution of answers to the question: Does it matter how you wash your childs private parts
(in case of boys)?
Total Urban Rural

Boys % % % % % %
Yes (by foreskin cleaning in warm water
49.6 52,7 57.1 58,0 43.1 49,1
during the bath)
No 8.3 13,5 8,0 13,4 8.5 13,6
I dont know 28.5 24,6 22.3 16,1 33.8 30,2
Not answering 13.6 9,2 12.6 12,5 14.6 7,1
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(242) (281) (112) (112) (130) (169)
I. 4.3.2 Another aspect studied during this research was the frequency of the childs underwear changing. It was
found that only 23.7% of the interviewed parents with children in the 0-1 age group and 43.4% of the ones with children in
the 1-3 age group stated that they do this daily, there being no major differences between urban and rural areas (table 25).
Table no. 25: Frequency of the child underwear changing distribution according to residence area
Total Urban Rural

How often do you change your childs % % % % % %
underwear? 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-1 age 1-3 age
Every day 23.7 43,4 23.6 47 23.8 40,6
Once every week 1.2 1,3 1.3 0,9 1.1 1,6
2-3 times a week 2.6 5,3 0.9 4,3 4.2 6,0
Whenever necessary 70.3 48,6 72.5 45,7 68.2 50,8
I dont know 0.4 0,7 0 1,2 0.8 0,3
Not answering 1.8 0,7 1.7 0,9 1.9 0,7
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(494) (549) (229) (234) (265) (315)
I. 4.4 Safety of the water consumed by children
Parents were asked to identify the source of the water they offer to their child (table 26). It was found, on the whole,
that for 57.1% of the cases studied the water was safe, being taken either from the public system (44.6%) or bottled
(12.5%). In urban areas, unsafe water sources (well, river, lake) are rare (12.1%), while in rural areas they are more
frequent (66%). Almost half of the parents stated that they were boiling the water before giving it to the child to drink.
Table no. 26: Water sources for the childs daily consumption, according to residence area
What kind of water do you give Urban Rural Total

your child to drink?* % % %
From the public system 69,0 26,2 44,6
From a well 10,8 65,0 41,8
From a river 1,0 O,8 0,9
From a lake 0,3 0,2 0,2
Bottled water 18,9 7,8 12,5
100 100 100
Total
(392) (527) (919)
39
Conclusions
Parents knowledge and practices regarding general child hygiene as well as the private hygiene of boys and
girls are far from what they should be. Many parents (over 45%) do not have any information about the
importance of individual hygiene according to the childs gender.
The rate of children drinking water from unsafe sources is high. Over 66% of the children in rural and 12% in
urban areas drink water from unsafe sources.
40
CHAPTER I. 5
The childs physical and psychological state
The childs physical and psychological state describes the childs growth and development. Growth and
development are complementary processes; thus, growth refers to physical changes and especially defines
modifications in the childs dimensions (weight and height).
Development defines change as the passage from simple to complex, from the global reaction to the specialized
one by means of acquisition of knowledge, behaviors and abilities. Development is a specific qualitative process. The
quality of development is correlated with physiological maturity as well as that of the bones, muscles and nervous system.
We shall present results distinctly for the two age groups included in the research, that is the 0-1 and the 1-3 age group.
I. 5.1 The group of parents with children in the 0-1 age group
A rate of 98.2% of the parents were able to assess if their child is or is not well developed from the physical point
of view. Only 1.9% of the parents could not appreciate this (table 27)
Table no.27: Distribution of the answers to the question: Do you consider that your child is well developed
physically?
Total Urban Rural

Number Number Number
% % %
of cases of cases of cases
Yes 471 95.4 223 97.4 248 93.5
No 14 2.8 3 1.3 11 4.2
I dont know 7 1.4 3 1.3 4 1.5
Not answering 2 0.4 0 0 2 0.8
Total 494 100 229 100 265 100
Parents criteria for appreciating their childs physical development were the childs height and weight (table 28).
Table no.28: Parents criteria for assessing the childs physical development were height and weight of
the child
Total Urban Rural

Mention why Number Number Number
% % %
Small height 3 14.3 0 0 3 20
Small weight 14 66.7 5 83.3 9 60
Not answering 4 19 1 16.7 3 20
Total 21 100 6 100 15 100
Regarding the psychological development of the child under 1 year old, more than 90% of the parents could
assess it. According to residence area, the rate of parents that could not assess the psychological state of the child is
higher in rural areas than in urban ones (table 29).
41
Table no. 29: Distribution of the answers to the question: Do you consider that your child is well developed
psychologically?
Do you consider that your child is Total Urban Rural

well developed psychologically? Number Number Number
% % %
Yes 455 92.1 221 96.5 234 88.3
No 4 0.8 0 0 4 1.5
I dont know 35 7.1 8 3.5 27 10.2
Total 494 100 229 100 265 100
Parents who answered yes and no were asked to justify. The analysis of the answers showed that parents
could observe and especially give reasons for certain development problems that children were having (speaks with
difficulty, walks only supported, has no reactions). The other parents simply relied on evident normality (the child is well
developed) or, very seldom, on a doctors confirmation.
Assessment of the childs psychological development was made by interviewed parents by taking into account
the behavior criteria.
The most frequent reasons in favor of the childs psychological normality were the common sense ones (the
child is active, joyful, has a good weight) and less the ones mentioned in environment free development scales (diagram
13). We need to point out the existing confusion between the health state (not being ill) and the criteria for psychological
development.
Within the specific questionnaire for the 2 age groups (0-1 and 1- 3 year old) certain statements by means of
which parents knowledge and attitudes could be evaluated were included with reference to child growth and
development. Statements were created in such a way that only persons holding information about child development
could be able to give correct answers. Such statements are technically formulated and handle in a very subtle way
parenting skills in the field of child growth and development. For each statement interviewed parents had a choice of 5
possibilities (I agree, I disagree, I am not sure, I dont understand, I dont know/ not answering).
42
Table no. 30: Distribution of options for the statement: The child develops more rapidly in the first year of life
than at any later moment. Such process is enhanced by a warm and close attitude of the persons around him
Total Urban Rural

% % %
I agree 377 76.3 187 81.7 190 71.7
I disagree 25 5.1 11 4.8 14 5.3
I am not sure 40 8.1 14 6.1 26 9.8
I dont understand 43 8.7 16 7 27 10.1
not answering / I dont know 9 1.8 1 0.4 8 3.1
Total 494 100 229 100 265 100
The majority of interviewed parents agree with the childs rapid development rhythm during the first year
of life and the fact that it is influenced by the security atmosphere that the child is offered (76.3%). There is a
difference of 10% between opinions of parents in the urban and rural areas regarding this statement. The rate
of 25% of parents having other opinions (obtained by summing up answers: I disagree + I am not sure + I
dont understand + not answering/I dont know) confirms the need of further support for the broadcasting of
information that should lead to a better knowledge of early child development. (tables 29 and 30).
Table no. 31: Distribution of options for the statement: The majority of children stand up and walk before
they are 1 year old, and if this does not happen their mother should be worried
Total Urban Rural

% % %
I agree 198 40.1 100 43.7 98 36.9
I disagree 209 42.3 99 43.2 110 41.5
I am not sure 46 9.3 16 7 30 11.3
I dont understand 33 6.7 14 6.1 19 7.2
not answering / I dont know 8 1.6 0 0 8 3.1
Total 494 100 229 100 265 100
I. 5.2 The group of parents with children in the 1-3 age group
For the 1 3 age group, a number of statements were also included in the specific questionnaire, in
order to reveal the parents educational knowledge and practices as well as knowledge on child development
which is characteristic for this age group.
Regarding the statement Brain development is finished by the age of 2 year old (table 31), only 41.9%
of the interviewed parents agreed with it (38% in urban and 44% in rural areas).
Table no. 31: Distribution of options for the statement: Brain development is finished by the age of
2 year old
Total Urban Rural

Number of Number of Number
% % %
I agree 230 41.9 90 38.5 140 44.4
I disagree 125 22.8 57 24.4 68 21.6
I am not sure 154 28.1 78 33.3 76 24.1
Total 549 100 234 100 315 100
Knowledge about language skills acquisition by the child (table 32) was proved only by 80.7 of the interviewed
43
parents (84.2% in urban and 78% in rural areas)
Table no. 32: Distribution of options for the statement: The first words are uttered by the child during the first
12-18 months of life and they represent names of things that are important and full of meaning for the child
Total Urban Rural

% % %
I agree 443 80.7 197 84.2 246 78.1
I disagree 36 6.6 17 7.3 19 6
I am not sure 39 7.1 14 6 25 8
Total 549 100 234 100 315 100
There are a number of activities that children carry out and which are of a real value in the development of
thinking operations. Exercising in daily activities with children sorting out operations requires them to analyze, compare
and take decisions: these are fundamental operations in the process of thinking and are at the basis of the logical
thought and concepts structuring.
Sorting activities made by children were recognized by parents as very important in the development of childrens
thinking up to a rate of 68.7% (73% in urban and 65.4% in rural areas) (Table 33).
Table nr. 33: Distribution of options for the statement: Activities of sorting and grouping objects according to
their color, form and dimensions are fundamental for the childs subsequent thinking and learning processes.
Total Urban Rural

% % %
I agree 377 68.7 171 73.1 206 65.4
I disagree 26 4.7 12 5.2 14 4.4
I am not sure 52 9.5 23 9.8 29 9.2
Total 549 100 234 100 315 100
Table no.34 shows options for the statement Problem solving is a difficult task, frustrating the child who will
therefore loose interest very soon if he is not helped out. This question establishes how much parents realize their role
as the first educators of their own child. The word problem includes any new situation which needs to be solved.
In this role, the parent plays the game in partnership with the child. The child needs some support from
the adult in order to get the meaning of things, and the adult needs the support of the child, in order for him not
to face failure. Failure leads to the wearing away of the childs self esteem. Self esteem gives the child the
courage to risk in his exploring and experimenting activities. Such activities are at the basis of learning during
small childhood and therefore we point out the importance of the answers shown in table 33 in appreciating
this component of parental skills.
A rate of 40% of the parents in rural areas (obtained by summing up answers: I disagree + I am not
sure + I dont understand + not answering /I dont know) and 36% in urban areas admitted that they are not
conversant with this way of expressing parenthood (table 33).
Table nr. 34: Distribution of options for the statement: Problem solving is a difficult task, frustrating to the
44
child who will therefore loose interest very soon if he is not helped out
Total Urban Rural

% % %
I agree 348 63.4 160 68.4 188 59.7
I disagree 57 10.4 29 12.4 28 8.9
I am not sure 91 16.6 34 14.5 57 18.1
Total 549 100 234 100 315 100
Conclusions
0-1 age group
95.4% of the interviewed parents were able to assess physical development of their child, and only 90% of
them could assess their childs psychological development.
78% of the parents both in urban and rural areas, would not let their baby cry.
25% of the parents do not have adequate knowledge for assessing the babys psychological development.
1-3 age group
Only 42% of the parents know the importance of the first 2 years of life as the period when the childs brain
development is completed.
84% of the parents in urban and 78% in rural areas know the way in which the childs language skills
develop.
40% of the parents in rural areas and 36% of parents in urban areas are not aware of the importance of child
support during the childs problem solving attempts.
All such data proves parents limited knowledge regarding their role as first educators of the child and the
necessity for programs to be created, not only for parents but for professionals working with children as well.
45
CHAPTER 6
Elements of family ecology
The theory of ecological approach was formulated by Super and Harkness(1997) following Bronfenbrenners
ecologic model. The essence of this theory consists in including the micro-system (the child in the family where he
spends his daily existence) in the mezzo-system (the environment for family-community contacts) and including both in
their turn in the macro-system represented by community and social environment, consisting of customs and traditions,
services and institutions. From such integration models for education and childcare will result. The ecologic system was
initially used in the medical field / pediatrics and extended in education and childcare.
Family ecology in this research regards family climate, relations and interaction among family members, that
should favor psychological comfort (mental health), family members solidarity which will guarantee a natural evolution of
all family members, but especially the childs evolution, for its normal development. Family ecology is culturally
determined, being closely related to the environment, parents education and the family socio-economic situation in
relation to the community it belongs to.
In this research, family climate described tension/conflict situations among parents, the child presence during
such situations, as well as setting up discipline rules and punishment measures.
I. 6.1 Families in which disputes have a higher incidence (at least once a week) registered a rate of 15.4%.
However, families stating that they have disputes almost never (48,6%) or no more than once a month (27,1%), were
prevalent. Difference between the two residence areas is made by the number of more frequent disputes (several times
a week) of families in rural areas, which is double as compared to families in urban areas (diagram 14).
About 6% of the parents chose not to answer this question during the interview.
46
I. 6.2 Reasons generating disputes are, in order of their occurrence, money, the child, other relatives, alcohol
consumption, jealousy and family neglect (diagram 15).
47
I.6.3 On the whole, over 42.6% of the parents with children 0-1 and 55.5% of the parents with children in the 1-3 age
group admitted that they have disputes in the presence of the child (table 34), rates varying between urban and rural areas.
Table no. 34: Distribution of answers to the question: Do you have disputes in the presence of the child?
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
Often 17.3 18,9 11.8 15,3 22 21,4
Seldom 25.3 36,6 30.9 37,7 20.7 35,8
Never 52 41,1 47.1 43,3 56.1 39,5
Not answering 5.4 3,4 10.2 3,7 1.2 3,3
Total 45 26.3 16 21.9 29 29.6
I. 6.4 A rate of 3.6% of the parents with children under one year old (representing the summing up of positions
yes + seldom) and 31.2% of the parents with children in the 1-3 age group, stated that they happened to punish the
child, higher incidence being found in rural areas (table 35).
Table no. 35: Distribution of answers to the question: Do you happen to punish your child?
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
(0-1 age (1-3 age (0-1 age (1-3 age (0-1 age (1-3 age
group) group) group) group) group) group)
Yes 2.6 24.6 2.2 23.9 3 25.1
No 92.1 67.6 92.6 67.9 91.7 67.3
Sometimes 1 6.6 0 7.3 1.9 6
Not answering 4.3 1.2 5.2 0.9 3.4 1.6
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(494) (549) (229) (234) (265) (315)
I. 6.5 After the age of 1 year old, parents begin to set up rules for their children, and breaking rules is dealt with
by punishments. There could be found no differentiation of the rules according to gender (data is not presented).
Punishments used by parents were grouped in: verbal ( I shout at him I scold him, I threaten him etc.),
interdictions (interdiction of certain activities) and physical (slapping, hair and ear pulling, shaking, beating etc). (Due to
the fact that there are too few cases of punitive interventions with children in the 0-1 age group, only the 1-3 age group
will be analyzed).
On the whole, the most frequent punishments are the verbal ones ( table 36).
Table no.36: Distribution of answers to the question: How do you punish your child? (multiple answers)
Number
%
of cases
Verbally 110 64.3
Physically 71 41.5
I disallow a certain activity 70 40.9
Both in urban and rural areas, the most frequent punishments were the verbal ones. Physical punishments have a
high incidence in both areas of residence, however higher in rural areas. Interdictions are punishments used more in
urban areas (table 37).
48
Table no. 37: Distribution according to residence areas of the answers to the question: How do you punish
your child? (multiple answers)
% %
urban rural
Verbally 58.9 68.4
Physically 32.9 48
I disallow a certain activity 50.7 33.7
I. 6.6 Mothers are the ones who use punishments more frequently, both in urban and rural areas, rates
reaching over 80% (table 38), and they are also the persons having authority in front of the child most of the times, both
in urban and rural areas (table 39).
Table no.38: Distribution according to residence areas of the answers to the question: Who punishes the
child generally?
Total Urban Rural

Number of % Number % Number %
cases N = 171 of cases N = 73 of cases N = 98
Mother 146 85.4 63 86.3 83 84.7
Father 45 26.3 16 21.9 29 29.6
Table no.39: Whose authority does the child acknowledge more often? - distribution according to residence
areas
The child acknowledges more often Total Urban Rural

the authority of: Number of Number Number
% % %
cases of cases of cases
His mother 415 75.6 169 72.2 246 78.1
His father 100 18.2 52 22.2 48 15.2
Another member of the family 11 2 6 2.6 5 1.6
4 1 0.2 0 0 1 0.3
5 13 2.4 6 2.6 7 2.2
6 1 0.2 0 0 1 0.3
7 1 0.2 0 0 1 0.3
I dont know/Not answering 7 1.2 1 0.4 6 2
Total 549 100 234 100 315 100
From the perspective of gender differences, such situations prove the strong continuation of the tradition
according to which the mother - woman is responsible (almost exclusively) of infants childcare and education. Tradition
is not different in our country in rural as compared to urban areas.
I. 6.7 The childs positive actions are rewarded most of the times verbally (praising), and physically (hugs,
caressing, kissing), both in urban and in rural areas. There are also parents who offer presents in order to reward /
support positive activities of the child. Their rate is similar in urban and rural areas (tables 40 and 41).
49
Table no. 40: Distribution of answers to the question: How do you praise the childs positive actions?
How do you praise the childs More often Less often Never
positive actions?
Total*
Verbally 508 92.5 17 3.1 2 0.4
Physically 407 74.1 125 22.8 6 1.1
With a present 115 21 259 47.2 114 20.8
Table no. 41: Distribution according to residence area of answers to the question: How do you praise the
childs positive actions?
More often Less often Never

How do you praise the childs % % % % % %
positive actions? urban rural urban rural urban rural
N = 234 N = 315 N = 234 N = 315 N = 234 N = 315
Verbally 97 89.2 1.7 4.1 0 0.6
Physically 74.8 73.7 22.6 22.9 0.9 1.3
With a present 20.9 20.9 123 43.2 15.4 24.8
I. 6.8 In this chapter an analysis on parents attitude regarding the small childs crying was also introduced. The
babys crying was often interpreted in a wrong way, as an expression of the child being spoiled. Specialists in child
development showed that crying expresses a certain need or discomfort felt by the baby and parents learn very fast their
babys different types of crying. Parents have a sudden reaction when hearing their babys crying and step in to satisfy
the babys needs (diagram 17). When the parents intervention does not lead to the desired effect, the suspicion of
illness is therefore justified and the help of a pediatrician is requested (table 42)
50
Table no. 42: Distribution according to residence area of answers to the question: What will you do if all
this does not have the desired effect? (multiple answers)
What will you do if all this does not Total Urban Rural
have the desired effect? Number of % Number of % Number %
cases N = 494 cases N = 229 of cases N = 265
I take him to the doctor 216 43.7 107 46.7 109 41.1
I take care of him 128 25.9 65 28.4 63 23.8
I take his temperature 5 1 3 1.3 2 0.8
I rock him 34 6.9 17 7.4 17 6.4
This never occurred to me 46 9.3 17 7.4 29 10.9
Conclusions
Almost 50% of the interviewed parents stated that they never have disputes and, consequently, in such
families there is a comfortable atmosphere and lack of stress.
In the remaining families, 27% of the parents have disputes once a month.
In rural area families more disputes tend to occur, the number of disputes in such families being double as
compared to families in urban areas, and their incidence being weekly.
42% of the parents have disputes in the presence of their children.
Children over 1 year old begin to be punished by their parents for unruliness.
48% of the parents use physical punishment with the child.
Mothers are the ones to punish the child up to a rate of 85% but they are also the ones to praise him.
At the question about parents involvement in choosing their childs friends, the large number of negative
answers indicates the fact that they didnt consider this an important thing yet, their children still having a
limited autonomy due to their small age.
51
CHAPTER I. 7
Traditions
I. 7.1 Romania may be considered a traditional society because over 70% of the families stated that they follow
traditions in child rearing, with small differences between urban and rural areas (table 43).
Table no. 43: Distribution according to residence area of answers to the question: Do you follow traditions
/customs in child rearing?
Urban Rural
Do you follow traditions /customs % % % %
in child rearing? (0-1 age (1-3age (0-1age (1-3age
group) group) group) group)
yes 69 64,1 75,5 69,5
no 27,1 35,5 16,6 27,3
not answering 3,9 0,4 7,9 3,2
total 100% 100% 100% 100%
Among such traditions some would be at the limit of superstition (protection against the evil eye, to avoid showing
the baby to other people within the first 40 days from birth), and others are supposed to mark down events, otherwise
generally observed in all European as well as other cultures. None of these traditions can be entirely hold responsible for
affecting the development of the child. ( table 44).
We need to underline that the frequency with which such customs were referred to varies from one area of the
country to another, another interesting fact being also that there are ethnical groups that are not even aware of the
respective traditions.
Table no. 44: Distribution according to residence area of answers to the question: What customs/traditions
do you follow in child rearing?
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
Avoid showing the baby within the first 40
12.0 25,7 8.9 18 14.6 31,1
days from birth
Protection against the evil eye with the
66.9 52,8 68.4 54 65.6 52,1
help of specific symbols
First haircut for 1 year old children 46.0 58,0 43.0 68 48.4 51,1
Tearing the tart 20.3 36,6 19.6 33,3 20.8 38,8
Ears piercing 39.4 53,7 39.9 52,7 39.1 54,3
National/ traditional holidays 94.3 73,7 92.4 78 95.8 70,8
Celebrating the childs birthday 87.4 91,1 83.5 92 90.6 90,4
I. 7.2 A custom at the limit of tradition in infant care is swaddling, used especially in the childs first months of life.
Swaddling had its special role in order to avoid any risk in societies where sufficient care and comfort could not be
offered to the infant child. In time, knowledge about the childs physical and psychological development demonstrated
that such a practice is not necessary for the child, however small it might be, being on the contrary, useless. New
diapers offer better opportunity for parents to leave freedom of movement to their babys hands and legs and give up
keeping the infant tied up in the swaddling band.
52
The data collected shows that about 60% of the parents with children in both age groups used swaddling with
their children, for various periods of time. Swaddling is a practice more frequent in rural areas where it may reach a rate
of over 70% (table 45 ).
Table nr. 45: Distribution of answers to the question: Has your child been swaddled?
Total Urban Rural

Has your child been swaddled? % % % % % %
Yes 63.4 60,3 54.1 49,1 71.3 68,6
No 35.8 28,6 45.4 38,5 27.5 21,3
I dont know/ Not answering 0.8 11,1 0.5 1,3 1.2 2,2
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(494) (549) (229) (234) (265) (315)
From the total number of parents that swaddle their child, more than 74,8% swaddle the babys entire body with
small differences in this respect between urban and rural areas (table 46).
Table nr.46: Distribution of answers to the question: How was your baby swaddled?
Total Urban Rural

Has your child been swaddled? % % % % % %
The entire body 74.8 43,1 75 34 74.6 48,4
Only the legs 22.3 18,4 19.4 19,4 24.3 17,7
I dont know/Not answering 2.9 38,5 5.6 46,6 1.1 33,9
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(313) (392) (124) (144 (189) (248)
The majority of children were swaddled both during the daytime and during the night (table 47).
Table nr. 47: Distribution of answers to the question: When was your baby swaddled?
Total Urban Rural

When was the baby swaddled % % % % % %
Only at night 23.6 23,5 27.4 30,6 21.2 19,4
Only in the daytime 3.3 5,1 4 5,6 2.6 4,8
Day and night 69.6 38,8 62.2 29,9 74.6 44,0
I dont know /Not answering 3.5 22,6 6.4 33,9 1.6 31,8
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(313) (392) (124) (144) (189) (248)
Over 50% of the interviewed parents believe that swaddling is good for the child. Analysis of the parents
answers showed that the main reasons for that were: the baby sleeps better, is more quiet, is not frightened by its
own hands, in order to have straight legs etc. Prevalence of swaddling supporters in rural areas is much higher than
in urban areas (table 48). Parents stating that swaddling was not adequate for the child did not mention precise reasons
for that, their answers being of the type: it is not good for the child, its a stupid thing to do etc.
53
Table no. 48: Distribution of answers to the question: What is your opinion about the custom to keep the
baby swaddled during the first months of life?
What is your opinion about the custom to Total Urban Rural

keep the baby swaddled during the first % % % % % %
months of life? 0-1 age 1-3 age 0-2 age 1-3 age 0-3 age 1-3 age
It is good for the baby 57,1 54,6 48,5 45,7 64,5 61,1
It is not good for the baby 35,8 32,6 45,9 38,9 26,8 27,9
I dont know 7,1 12,8 5,6 15,4 8,7 11,0
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(494) (549) (279) (234) (215) (315)
Conclusions
Traditions are present in families having small children in all parts of the country but they are however very
different from one geographical area to another
The custom to swaddle the new born baby proves to be very wide spread.
The practice of swaddling the baby is present more in rural areas, where it represents 70% of the cases, as
compared to 60% in urban areas.
The baby swaddling custom is appreciated to be a benefic one by 60% of the interviewed parents.
54
CHAPTER 8
Early child education Play activities
I. 8.1 The up to one year old child
The child is born ready to learn. He learns by interacting with the world and using all his senses.
All children have an inborn impulse to learn.
The childs learning process takes place during play activities. The basic element of early education is therefore play.
Play activities are the childs work and they represent the very essence of his existence by means of which he
finds out how is the world and why it is the way it is (Fromberg 2002)
Infants and toddlers learn during play activities and they find out in this way the most important things about
themselves and their body, about their parents, other children and about things that surround them.
Every baby has its own preferences regarding play activities: in an active, quiet, creative way. It is therefore
necessary for parents to develop all types of play activities (motion, listening to music and fairytales, drawing, playing
with toys etc.) and support in this way their development. Play activities involve toys, and these may be hand-made or
industrially produced.
For the child, the toy may be any object with which he experiments and which he explores.
Play activities and the toy are therefore an essential component of early child education.
Until he is able to hold and manipulate toys (around the age of 6 months old) the infant plays with his entire
body, with his hands, his own feet. Freedom to move his limbs trains him for manipulating various objects during the
immediately subsequent development stage.
We need to highlight the fact that 65.4% of the interviewed parents consider the childs play activities as very
important and 30.8% important. Only a very low rate of parents, 2.1 in urban and 5.3 in rural areas, consider play
activities as being unimportant or ignore their importance. (table 49).
Table no. 49: Distribution of answers to the question: How important are play activities for child development?
How important are play activities for Total Urban Rural

child development Number Number Number
% % %
Very important 323 65.4 154 67.3 169 63.8
Important 152 30.8 70 30.6 82 30.9
Unimportant 1 0.2 0 0 1 0.4
I dont know 13 2.6 4 1.7 9 3.4
Not answering 5 1 1 0.4 4 1.5
Total 494 100 229 100 265 100
A rate of 69% of the children play with toys (71% in urban and 69% in rural areas), 20,6 % play with objects in the
house, among which 19% in urban and 21% in rural areas.
Only 16.8% of the children play with books. (16% in urban and 17% in rural areas).
Specialists consider that reading, as well as books, may be present in parents activities with the child since the
very first days after birth. Reading contributes to a consolidation and diversification of the adult-infant emotional
interaction and supports language development.
55
Table no. 50: Distribution of answers to the question: How does your child play? (multiple answers)
total urban rural

% % %
N = 494 N = 229 N = 265
Drawing /coloring 3.4 3.1 3.8
Looking at picture books 16.8 16.6 17
With toys 69 71.6 66.8
With objects in the house 20.6 19.2 21.9
Games in open air 13 10 15.5
Puzzle, construction games 2.6 2.2 3
Imaginary and group games 1 .9 1.1
Organized games/ sports .8 .9 .8
Table games 1.4 .9 1.9
Participation of the adult in the childs play activities is very important in order to support language development
and mostly for passing the significance of the things around on to the child, as well as the logic of the activities
developed by him. The child is curious and a good investigator by its very nature, but learning only occurs during the
interaction with the grown-up.
From statements made by the interviewed persons, we may infer that parents play with their child very frequently
(table 51). Data in table 52 shows that mothers play more frequently, fathers being less present in the daily play activities
of children less than 1 year old.
Table no.51: Distribution of answers to the question: When did you last play with your child?
Total Urban Rural

When did you last play with your child? Number Number Number
% % %
Today 433 87.7 198 86.5 235 88.7
Yesterday 36 7.3 23 10 13 4.9
Several days ago 9 1.8 3 1.3 6 2.3
Last week 2 0.4 0 0 2 0.8
I dont remember 5 1 1 0.4 4 1.5
Not answering 9 1.8 4 1.8 5 1.8
Total 494 100 229 100 265 100
Table no. 52: Distribution of answers to the question: How did the father play with the child?
Total Urban Rural

% % %
Today 169 34.2 72 31.4 97 36.6
Yesterday 173 35 90 39.3 83 31.3
Several days ago 38 7.7 18 8 20 7.6
During the weekend 12 2.4 5 2.2 7 2.7
Last week 11 2.2 3 1.3 8 3
I dont remember 16 3.3 4 1.7 12 4.5
Not the case 61 12.4 31 13.5 30 11.3
Not answering 14 2.8 6 2.6 8 3
Total 494 100 229 100 265 100
56
I. 8.2 Children in the 1-3 age group
Play activities with the child over 1 year old diversify once the child develops one of the most important
autonomous activities the capacity to walk, and a more coherent and precise hand to eye coordination.
Such acquisitions make it possible for the child to improve his knowledge by learning from the environment and
objects exploration and from various experiments made with objects as well as by acting upon the environment.
The childs play activities are guided by the grown-up, and when an ability is acquired, the child will repeat it by
himself until he manages to improve it. The curiosity to find out as many things as he can about the world surrounding
him leads the child into a perpetual investigation, and therefore it will be difficult for him to focus on only one aspect. The
adult, as a play partner, also assumes the role of helping the child to focus his attention. Another role of the adult is that
of an arbitrator who appreciates the childs performances and gives him his feed-back. Playing becomes in this way an
extremely important learning activity, having an essential education role in the childs development process.
Play activities are considered as very important and important by 98% of the interviewed parents, equal rates
being noticed between urban and rural areas (table 53).
Table no. 53: Distribution of answers to the question: How important are play activities for the development
of your child?
Total Urban Rural

Number of Number Number
% % %
cases of cases of cases
Very important 391 71.2 168 71.8 223 70.8
Important 147 26.8 63 26.9 84 26.7
Unimportant 2 0.4 0 0 2 0.6
I dont know 8 1.5 2 0.9 6 1.9
Total 549 100 234 100 315 100
Both in urban and rural areas, toys are used the most in childrens play activities - 97% in urban and 92% in rural
areas (table 54).
For children over 1 year old the book becomes a frequent resource; 77% of the parents stated that their children
look at picture books, the rate being 87% in urban and only 69% in rural areas. Books are also among the first on the list
of objects proposed to be bought for children, irrespective of their gender.
Manipulation of safe objects in the house by the child represents a real learning process. The child imitates
grown-ups and this is the most frequent form of learning. By imitating activities with instruments in the household he
begins to find out the significance of the respective objects as well as characteristics of the materials and forms,
consolidating coordination between hand and eye. However, 27.8% of the children in urban and 37% in rural areas do
not play with household objects.
Table no. 54: Distribution of answers to the question: What does your child play with? (multiple answers)
total urban rural

% % %
N = 549 N = 234 N = 315
He is drawing/coloring 53.6 61.1 47.9
He looks at picture books 77 87.2 69.5
With toys 94.5 97.4 92.4
With objects in the house 80.9 84.2 78.4
Games in open air 88.7 91.9 86.3
Puzzle, construction games 34.8 40.2 30.8
Imagination and group games 15.8 20.5 12.4
organized games/sports 4.6 4.3 4.8
Table games 8.4 6 10.2
57
We need to point out that with this age group, the father is present much more in the childs play activities, as
compared to the age group of children under 1 year old. There are no differences between the urban and rural areas
regarding fathers presence in childrens play activities (table 55).
Table no. 55: Distribution of answers to the question: Who is playing at home with the child?
Who is playing at home with the Total Urban Rural

child? Number % Number % Number %
Mother 521 94.9 227 97 294 93.3
Father 408 74.3 173 73.9 235 74.6
Brothers 189 34.4 57 24.4 132 41.9
Other adults 193 35.2 86 36.8 107 34
Television is very much present in families current life and it is undoubtedly an important information source. We
need to point out though, that scientists have recently discovered that spending a long time watching television reduces
the childs appetite for other learning activities.
Only 20% of the children in urban and 17.5% in rural areas do not watch television programs, and this happens
because in the respective house there is no television set ( table 56).
26.9% of the mothers watch television shows while they are breastfeeding their children.
The most watched by children TV shows are cartoons and musical shows (table 57).
From the analysis of the answers to the open questions it was found that parents do not select cartoon programs
that their children watch.
Table no. 56: Distribution of answers to the question: How many hours per day does your child spend
watching television?
Total Urban Rural

% % %
1 230 41.9 77 32.9 153 48.6
2 105 19.1 54 23.1 51 16.2
3 39 7.1 26 11.1 13 4.1
4 13 2.3 4 1.7 9 2.9
5 or more 3 0.6 2 0.8 1 0.3
Do not have a television set 29 5.3 11 4.7 18 5.7
Does not watch television 102 18.6 47 20.1 55 17.5
Not answering 28 5.1 13 5.6 15 4.7
Total 549 100 234 100 315 100
Table no. 57: Distribution of answers to the question: What kind of programs does the child usually watch?(
multiple answers)
Total Urban Rural

Cartoons 341 87.4 150 92 191 84.1
TV series 16 4.1 3 1.8 13 5.7
Films, animal shows 37 9.5 25 15.3 12 5.3
Music 150 38.5 71 43.6 79 34.8
58
Conclusions
Parents of children in the 0 1 age group consider the childs play activities very important (65%) and
important (30%).
In rural as well as in urban areas, 5% of the parents do not give importance to their childs play activities.
Most of the children play with toys bought in various shops, both in urban and rural areas.
Books for children are present up to a rate of 17% in families with children under 1 year old.
For children over 1 and up to 3 year old, play activities are thought to be important.
The types of play activities listed show that 97% of the children play with industrially produced toys.
84% play with various objects in the household
61% of the children draw
A rate of 87% of children in urban areas and 70% in rural areas have books.
Only 20% of the children in 1 3 age group do not watch television.

Many babies (30%) learn to watch television, since this is the rate of mothers who are breastfeeding their
children while watching TV.
Children play with their mothers daily and only weekly with their fathers.
59
CHAPTER I. 9
I. 9.1 Gender identity structure and gender discrimination
Besides answering a number of questions referring to gender issues contained in the general questionnaire,
parents were also asked to state their opinion regarding a number of issues from the specific questionnaire according to
age group.
Gender identity is a process by means of which gender roles are developed, in close relation with behaviors
valued by society.
Gender identity begins from the first year of life, in a process combining social demands and cognitive learning
aspects.
At small ages, children respond to the request of the persons around them by imitating gender stereotypes and
gender behavior. Thus they build up and organize through their own experience their personal gender representation.
Once they achieve sex identification, children start selecting adequate behavior according to gender models and
they acquire their own gender perception, the process continuing to guide their behavior according to the individual
gender awareness. (specialists estimate that sex awareness is established around the age of 2 year old and around the
age of 3 year old gender awareness is established, which corresponds to self awareness).
Gender difference consists of a social part, as mentioned above, a genetic part and a neurophysiological one.
This was demonstrated by means of neuromorphology and physiology research studies. There are anatomic differences
in brain hemispheres according to sex and a certain hormonal specificity.
There is also a difference in the bioelectric activity.
The neurophysiological and anatomical aspects generate differences regarding performance types: motor, verbal
expression and spatial perception etc. Such differences were statistically established and were confirmed by
performances obtained through learning for each separate ability, but irrespective of gender.
This scientifically demonstrated fact comes to support the idea of encouraging through education girls to play with
cars and boys to enjoy playing with dolls, for example, in order to stimulate development of as many competences
possible, without gender limitations.
Gender discrimination refers to differences maintained and reinforced socially by means of which roles and the
statute in the family and in society are pre-established according to a persons gender. (Anna Oakley 1970)
There is a historical evolution of gender discrimination that can be traced to our times and which is contested by
international conventions promoting human rights, approved and supported by all democratic states.
The UN Convention regarding the Childs Rights is one of the international documents having as a fundamental
principle nondiscrimination, including gender discrimination.
Discrimination is enforced by limiting roles attributed to women. Thus, we may find educational and school
limitations, or limitations regarding association and social life participation. In exchange, the womans instrumental and
family roles are supported.
I. 9.2 Roles and gender
When referring to children, gender differentiation attitudes are visible in parents choosing clothing for their baby
according to certain color principles, blue being for boys and pink for girls, a fact accepted by 70.2% of the interviewed
parents in rural and 58.1% in urban areas.
Parents statements regarding traditionally accepted features for children follow the same spirit: force and power,
masculinity + independence for boys and sensitivity, fragility and protection for girls.
We need to point out that the traditional division of family roles in which the father is responsible for ensuring the
resources for child rearing and the mother is mainly responsible for education and childcare is very little accepted. This
apparently radical change in traditional mentalities may be due, however, to the fact that the majority of interviewed
parents in this research were women (diagram 18).
60
61
Gender differences were also revealed when parents needed to give answers regarding various toys that they
would buy for girls and boys.
Differences were noticed for the following types of toys: dolls, war games, objects for the kitchen / dolls house
(diagram 20 and 21).
Focus - group 1
Participants - 8 preschool teachers
Issues discussed referred to the identification of gender differentiation elements regarding childcare and education.
Group discussions led to the conclusion that, in what general childcare is concerned, parents do not differentiate
their attitudes and practices according to the childs gender. Affection, attachment, nutrition, childcare in case of
illness as well as parents educational investment are not different according to child gender.
There is a very large range of local customs/traditions/superstitions that influence gender childcare, without such a
thing to affect in any way childrens personal development opportunities due to their gender. Since the origin of such
customs is ancestral, their symbolic significance remains practically unknown.
At the same time, certain practices were also identified, suggesting specialization of adult roles. Buying dolls for girls
and cars for boys are examples of such stereotypes.
It was pointed out that the category of objects destined for boys is quite often experimented by girls as well,
without the reverse being true. It is therefore considered acceptable for a girl to play with toy cars, but it is much
more difficult to accept a boy playing with a doll.
Different appreciation of children according to gender is generally rejected.
However, participants in the focus group accepted the idea that it is considered more disgraceful for a boy to be told
that: < you are like a girl>, <you behave like a girl >, <what are you, a girl?! > , <you cry like a girl > than for a girl to
be told: <you are a tomboy>, <you behave boyish >.
Such built-in values, even though less declarative, guide most of the times secretly, but precisely, gender culture.
62
Focus group
Parents do not formulate in their mind projects for their own children according to the gender of the respective child.
The desire to invest in the childs education is not discriminatory therefore, a fact also shown by the answers to the
question what would you do for your child if you had more money? and it illustrates impartiality, irrespective of
residence area of the interviewed parents, for both 0-1 and 1 3 age group.
I. 9.3 Parents interaction with their children
Parenting skills develop in daily interaction of parents with their own children, a process which is true for mothers
as well as for fathers.
In this respect, the data of this research revealed that mothers of children up to one year old are on the state
provided maternity leave up to a rate of 93.% both in urban and rural areas. Mothers of children in the 1-3 age group up
to a rate of 51% in urban and 28% in rural areas benefited of the full maternity leave provided by the state until the child
reached the age of 2. A rate of 11.3% of the interviewed mothers started work before their child reached the age of 2,
and among these 30% in urban and 33.3% in rural areas work more than 8 hours /day.
In urban areas, over 76.4% of the fathers are employed, 70% of them spending more than 8 hours at work, and in
rural areas from among the 59% employed fathers, 31% spend over 8 hours at work.
We assist at a reduction of the time parents can spend with their children and, in the context already mentioned,
of the tendency of parents emigration for work purposes. A particular situation has been created therefore, in which
grandparents request the 2 years maternity leave for raising their grandchildren, but this happens only in urban areas
(47% of the interviewed parents with children in the 0 -1 age group).
Cases of fathers having the daily childcare responsibility, as main persons, were recorded only as an exceptional
fact: 2 cases for the 0-1 age group and only 1 case for the 1-3 age group.
Implication of most fathers consists in carrying out play activities in open air with their children.
63
Conclusions:
A rate of 10% of mothers return to their professional activity before their child is 1 year old and 50% of them
return when their child is 2 year old.
We assist to a reduction of the time parents spend with their children and, in the context already mentioned,
of the tendency of parents emigration for work purposes. A particular situation has been created therefore, in
which grandparents request the 2 years maternity leave for raising their grandchildren, this happening
however only in urban areas (47% of the interviewed parents with children in the 0 -1 age group).
64
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
On the whole, data in this research shows a coherence of knowledge, practices and parental attitudes from the
perspective of urban vs. rural residence area in all investigated fields: nutrition and food, hygiene and health, early child
education and child development, family ecology as well as gender and gender discrimination.
We need to point out the existence of specific differences however between parents in urban and rural areas
especially regarding early education and development, revealed by childcare knowledge and practices as well as
regarding the childs play activities.
Traditions are not remarkably more present in rural areas, as one might believe at a first sight. We include in the
category of traditions not only customs but also attitudes towards the child and towards the roles of the two parents as
partners.
We may explain this as an outcome of the transition period in which members of the urban population returned to
rural communities, due to socio economic changes in Romania, as well as the moving over to urban areas of many
members of rural communities. This transfer that took place during the last 15 years is different from the one that
occurred in the communist times, when the population transfer took place especially from rural to urban areas, as a
consequence of forced industrialization, which characterized the respective times. This population transfer explains the
relative similarity existing at present on the whole. There are of course many other factors among which we may call the
attention on the access of members in both urban and rural communities to media information, especially television.
Family dimension:
In urban areas families consisting of 3 members are prevalent for both age groups.
In rural areas families consisting of 4 persons are prevalent.
The nuclear type of family is more characteristic for Romania and less the multigenerational type of family.
Family type:
94% of the children live in families where both parents are present.
One parent families consist of mothers, fathers being the ones to go away or leave the family. This is also the
main origin of one parent families, not unmarried mothers. (8% for the 0 1 and 6% for the 1 - 3 age group).
Marital status:
We point out the increase in the number of couples living together, especially in rural areas, reaching 28% for
the 0-1 age group as compared to 19% for the 1-3 age group.
Parents age:
The number of mothers under the age of 24 year old is higher in rural areas, for both age groups studied.
36% of the mothers are between 25 and 29 year old for both age groups and residence areas.
Between the median age of mothers and fathers there is a difference of 5 years more for fathers, which is a
constant difference for the marital model in Romania.
Education level:
We remark the similitude between the mothers and fathers highest incidence instruction level i.e. high
school - (29%).
The increase of the rate of parents for the 0-1 age group having no education is worrying, currently reaching
a rate of 10% in rural and 6,7% in urban areas.
Ethnicity
Between 71 and 81% of the parents stated to belong to the Romanian ethnic population.
Between 8 and 16% stated to belong to the Hungarian ethnic group
Between 7 and 9% stated to be Roma population
Between the mothers and fathers ethnicity there is a strong homogamy.
Parents occupation
The rate of economically active women is around 45%, and for fathers it reaches 80%.
There is an important difference between economically active mothers in rural areas, under 30%, as
compared to urban areas.
In both residence areas the status of employee is highly prevalent, as compared to any other income
generating occupational status.
The socio-economic level
The low socio-economic level (showing possession of no more than 3 items from the selected pool)
characterizes between 18.2 and 19.9% of the families.
The average socio-economic level (showing possession of at least 4 but no more than 6 items), describes
between 47.5 and 49.3 % of the families.
65
The high socio-economic level (indicating possession of at least 7 and no more than 9 items) describes
between 32,5 and 32,6% of the families.
The low and the average levels are prevalent in the rural area, while the high socio-economic level is
prevailing in the urban area, but only for the 1-3 age group.
We point out that the rate of families having no items in their possession is between 0.4 and 6.5%. Such
families live mainly in the rural area and reach at least 5%. Less than 2% of the families hold in their
possession all the items mentioned in the research
Child health
0,4% of the parents could not assess their childs health state
93,1% of the parents considered that their child was healthy, 5,5% fairly healthy, and 1 % stated that their
child was not healthy.
85% of the parents seek the help of a doctor in case their child is running a high fever and 69% in case the
child is coughing
53% of the parents do not go to the doctor in case their child has diarrhoea
24% of the parents for both age groups give medication to their children without a doctors prescription.
17% of the parents are not aware of the purpose of immunization
Parents obtain information regarding their childs health mainly from doctors, 93% in urban and 88% in rural
areas.
Grandparents are still mentioned, in a rate of 21% in urban and 29% in rural areas, as an information source
regarding the childs health.
Customs and practices during pregnancy

Mothers up to a rate of 50% in urban and 32% in rural areas stated that during pregnancy they changed their
life style.
Before pregnancy over 50% of future mothers were smoking.
Information about pregnancy as well as necessary advice regarding womens behavior during pregnancy are
obtained up to a rate of 85% from medical staff.
Importance of an interactive behavior with the baby is realized only by 90% of the mothers.
50% of mothers did not plan their pregnancy, in similar rates for urban and rural areas.
Knowledge about child hygiene is as follows:

54% of the parents having daughters know the correct way of washing a girls private parts.
in the case of boys private hygiene, 28% of the parents did not answer the respective question.
Changing of the childrens underwear is performed daily for 24% of the children, without differences between
urban and rural areas.
Secure water sources are considered to be the public water system and bottled water. 34.4% of the children
drink water from the public water system and 23.5% bottled water.
83% of the parents in urban and 37% in rural areas wash in a correct way fresh fruit and vegetables.
Physical and psychological state of the child
0-1 age group

95.4% of the parents could assess the physical state and only 90% the psychological state of their child.
78% of the parents, both in urban and rural areas, do not let their infant cry.
25% of the parents do not possess the necessary knowledge to assess the psychological development of
their baby.
1-3 age group

Only 42% of the parents know the importance of the first 2 years of life as a period when the babys brain
development is achieved.
84% of parents in urban and 78% in rural areas know the way in which language development occurs.
40% of parents in rural and 36% in urban areas do not possess the necessary information about the
importance of offering support in problem solving situations to the child.
All such data proves limited knowledge of parents about their role as first educators of their child, as well
as the necessity of creating programs for parents and for professionals working with children.
66
Family ecology
Almost 50% of the interviewed parents stated that they never have disputes and, consequently, in such
families there is a comfortable atmosphere and lack of stress.
In the remaining families, 27% of the parents have disputes once a month.
In rural area families more disputes tend to occur, the number of disputes in such families being double as
compared to families in urban areas, and their incidence being weekly.
42% of the parents have disputes in the presence of their children.
Children over 1 year old begin to be punished by their parents for unruliness.
48% of the parents use physical punishment with the child.
Mothers are the ones to punish the child up to a rate of 85% but they are also the ones to praise him.
At the question about parents involvement in choosing their childs friends, the large number of negative
answers indicates the fact that they didnt consider this an important thing yet, their children having still a
limited autonomy due to their small age.
Traditions
Traditions are present in families having small children in all parts of the country but they are however very
different from one geographical area to another
The custom to swaddle the new born baby proves to be very wide spread.
The practice of swaddling the baby is present more in rural areas, where it represents 70% of the cases, as
compared to 60% in urban areas.
The baby swaddling custom is appreciated to be a benefic one by 60% of the interviewed parents.
Early child education play activities

Parents of children in the 0 1 age group consider the childs play activities very important (65%) and
important (30%).
In rural as well as in urban areas, 5% of the parents do not give importance to their childs play activities.
Most of the children play with toys bought in various shops, both in urban and rural areas.
Books for children are present up to a rate of 17% in families with children under 1 year old.
For children over 1 and up to 3 year old, play activities are thought to be important.
The types of play activities listed show that 97% of the children play with industrially produced toys.
84% play with various objects in the household
61% of the children draw
A rate of 87% of children in urban areas and 70% in rural areas have books.
Only 20% of the children in 1 3 age group do not watch television.
Many babies (30%) learn to watch television, since this is the rate of mothers who are breastfeeding their
children while watching TV.
Children are daily accompanied by mothers to play activities and only weekly by fathers.
Children and their parents
A rate of 10% of mothers return to their professional activity before their child is 1 year old and 50% of them
return when their child is 2 year old.
We assist to a reduction of the time parents spend with their children and, in the context already mentioned,
of the tendency of parents emigration for work purposes. A particular situation has been created therefore, in
which grandparents request the 2 years maternity leave for raising their grandchildren, this happening
however only in urban areas (47% of the interviewed parents with children in the 0 -1 age group).
67
68
Section II
KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES OF PARENTS

WITH CHILDREN IN THE 3 TO 7 YEAR OLD AGE GROUP
SECTION II
CHAPTER II.1
Demographic data
Parents/ families/ household characteristics for the children in the 3-5 and 6-7 age group
II. 1.1 Family size
The distribution analysis taking into account the number of family members according to the area of residence
shows that for both groups families consisting of four persons are prevailing on the whole (38.7% and 42.7%), followed
by families consisting of 3 members (Table 58). There are important differences however between the urban and rural
areas for this indicator. Thus, while in the urban areas the family consisting of 3 members is prevalent, in rural areas the
family consisting of 4 members prevails. The rate of families consisting of over 4 persons is also much higher in rural
areas as compared with the urban areas. (Table 58).
Data collected shows that in at least 90% of the cases, the family size is established by the number of children in
the family and less by the presence of members of the extended family such as grandparents or other relatives (data is
not presented). The nuclear family model is thus prevailing for this population segment as well.
Table no. 58: Families distribution according to their size on residence areas
Total Urban Rural

Number of persons % % % % % %
Two 2.8 1.3 3.6 1.9 2 0.8
Three 36.7 33.3 48 42.8 25 24.4
Four 38.7 42.7 33.6 39 44 46.1
Five 12.5 12.5 9.8 10.7 15.2 14.1
Six 5.9 6.2 4.1 3.7 7.7 8.6
Seven and more 3.4 4 0.9 1.9 6.1 6
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(817) (771) (417) (374) (400) (397)
II.1.2. Family type
Table 59 shows that at least 93 % of the children in both age groups live in two parent families, parents being either
married or living together at the moment of the interview. Two parent families were considered the ones where both
parents were present, including the case of temporary missing parents who were away for work purposes either in the
country or abroad, for health reasons or in the prison, but with whom the family still maintained relations. One parent
families were considered the ones consisting of only one parent, such parent being unmarried, a widower,
divorced/separated from the other parent. The data studied showed that the rate of one parent families is higher for the 3-5
age group than for the 6-7 one. According to the residence area, variations more or less important can be observed for both
age groups. The ratio of one parent families is slightly higher in rural areas as compared to urban areas, for the 3-5 age
group, and significantly lower for the 6-7 age group. As a consequence, it seems that the area of residence does not
influence the occurrence of this type of family. The one parent family in Romania develops usually as a consequence of
the breaking of the two parent family (consisting initially of both parents) and less as an initial structure of unmarried parent
(never married or in a relationship never legally recognized). Therefore, at the moment of the study less than 1% of the
interviewed parents were never married (table 60). On the other hand one parent families usually consist of the mother, the
father being the one to go away or to leave the family. According to the data collected, the rate of mothers leaving the family
is under 1% for both age groups, as compared to fathers, where the rate varies between 3.2 and 5.8 % (tables 61 and 62).
71
Table no. 59: Distribution of families on their type, according to residence area
Total Urban Rural

Family type % % % % % %
Two parent family 93.5 94.3 93.8 93.1 93.2 95.5
One parent family 6.5 5.7 6.2 6.9 6.8 4.5
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(817) (771) (417) (374) (400) (397)
II. 1.3. Parents marital status
As showed by the data in table 60, there are small differences in the marital status both between the two age
groups and the urban /rural residence area. In the rural area unofficial relationships are more frequent for both age
groups and divorces are more frequent only for the 3-5 age group. The very small rate of never married parents (0.4%)
does not allow us to draw relevant conclusions according to residence area.
Table no. 60: Parents marital status according to residence area
Total Urban Rural

Parents marital status % % % % % %
Married 86.5 88.3 87.1 88 86 88.7
Unmarried couple 7 6 6.7 5.1 7.2 6.8
Divorced/separated 5.1 4.3 4.6 4.5 5.8 4
Widower 1 0.8 1.4 1.1 0.5 0.5
Never married 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.8 0.5 0
Not answering 0.2 0.5 0
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(817) (771) (417 (374) (400) (394)
II. 1.4. Parents presence in the family
It has been lately ascertained that the parents status of a married couple is not a guarantee of the presence of
both parents in the family beside their children, due to the phenomena of parents migration for work purposes either in
the country or abroad. The fact that parents are often away for work makes them available in the family only for the
weekend, on holidays, or even less. There is little available data on the amplitude of such issue in the Romanian family
and its multiple implications on the family values and child education. Given this particular context, we considered it
necessary to refer to such aspect in this study as well.
Incidence of parents working abroad varies for mothers between 2.2 and 4.3% (table 61) and for fathers between
4.1 and 6.3% (table 62). The rate of parents working abroad is higher in rural areas than in urban areas both in the case
of mothers and in that of fathers.
72
Table no. 61: Mothers presence in the family distribution according to residence area
Total Urban Rural

Mothers presence in the family % % % % % %
3-5 age 6- age 3-5 age 6- age 3-5 age 6- age
Yes 94.8 95.1 95.2 95.2 94.5 95.0
Working abroad 3.2 2.6 2.2 2.2 4.3 2.9
Working in another town and coming home
0.1 0.9 0.2 1.6 - 0.3
less than every weekend
Left the family /married into another family/
0.9 1.2 1.4 0.5 0.2 1.8
another couple
Deceased 1 0.2 1 0.5 1 0
100 100 100 100 100
Total (417)
(817) (7710 (374) (400) (397)
Table no. 62: Fathers presence in the family distribution according to residence area
Total Urban Rural

Fathers presence in the family % % % % % %
Yes 86 88.8 86.1 88.2 86 89.4
Working abroad 5.4 4.8 4.6 4.1 6.3 5.3
Arrested /convicted 0.4 0.1 - 0 0.7 0.3
Working in another town and coming home
1.2 1.4 1.7 1.6 0.7 1.3
less than every weekend
Left the family/married into another family/
5.8 4.4 5.7 5.6 5.8 3.2
another couple
Deceased 1.2 0.5 1.9 0.5 0.5 0.5
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(817) (7710 (417) (374) (400) (397)
II. 1.5. Parents age
When analyzing the data contained by tables 63 and 64 one may see that the rate of young mothers both less
than 24 and between 24 and 29 is higher in rural than in urban areas for both age groups. Mothers over 40 year old are,
as a difference, more frequent in urban than in rural areas.
The same age characteristics can be observed in the case of fathers. We need to point out however that between
the average age of mothers and that of fathers a difference of up to 5 years may be observed, in favor of fathers. Such
difference is a constant characteristic of the marital model in Romania.
Table no. 63: Distribution of mothers according to age group and residence area
Total Urban Rural

Mothers age % % % % % %
(Years) 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age
< = 24 8.5 4.1 6.3 3.8 10.8 4.4
25 29 38.0 33.2 34.4 24.2 41.8 41.6
30 34 33.5 37.6 35.1 39.0 31.8 36.2
35 39 16.9 18.9 20.5 23.9 13.1 14.1
40 and over 3.1 6.2 3.7 9.1 2.5 3.7
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(800) (753) (410) (364) (390) (389)
73
Table no. 64: Distribution of fathers according to age group and residence area
Total Urban Rural

Fathers age % % % % % %
(Years) 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age
< = 24 1.9 0.6 1.6 0.3 2.2 0.8
25 29 18.2 13.6 14.9 9.0 21.6 17.8
30 34 40.7 38.2 41.6 33.5 39.7 42.4
35 39 28.6 33.7 30.9 40 26.2 28.0
40 44 8.2 8.6 8.4 9.9 8.1 7.5
45 and over 2.4 5.3 2.6 7.3 2.2 3.5
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(752) (718) (382) (343) (370) (375)
II. 1.6. Education level
The data presented in tables 64 and 65 shows that there is a great similarity between mothers and fathers in the
case of this indicator. For all school levels rates are very similar. The most frequent education level is high school (at
least 33%).
Differences may be observed according to residence area. Thus, higher education levels, starting with high
school, seem to be characteristic for urban population. The rate of the population having at least high school education is
almost twice higher in urban areas as compared rural ones, for all studied categories.
Table no. 65: Distribution of mothers according to education and residence area
Total Urban Rural

Mothers education % % % % % %
No school 2.5 1.5 0.7 0.3 4.4 2.6
Elementary school 0.9 0.5 0.2 0.5 1.5 0.5
5 8 grades 10.3 9.8 4.4 3.3 16.4 15.9
General school 13.4 13.1 6.8 5.8 20.3 20.1
Vocational school 15.0 20.3 12.4 18.9 17.7 21.6
High school 33.8 36 38.4 40.4 29.2 31.6
Training school 7.8 7.4 10.8 11.0 4.9 4.1
College / Higher education 16.3 11.4 26.3 19.8 5.6 3.6
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(800) (753) (410) (364) (390) (389)
74
Table no. 66: Distribution of fathers according to education and residence area
Total Urban Rural

Fathers education % % % % % %
No school 2.5 1.5 0.3 0.6 4.7 2.4
Elementary school 0.7 1.0 0.3 0.0 1.1 1.9
5 8 grades 7.2 6.5 1.8 2.3 12.4 10.4
General school 6.3 9.6 3.4 5.5 11.3 13.3
Vocational school 25.3 27.6 17.5 21.0 32.5 33.6
High school 34.0 35.1 39.0 39.4 28.2 31.2
Training school 7.2 5.4 10 8.2 4.3 2.9
College / Higher education 16.8 13.3 27.7 23.0 5.5 4.3
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(752) (718) (382) (343) (379) (375)
II. 1.7. Ethnicity
Ethnicity was recorded as stated by interviewed persons. A percentage of 87,6% thereof declared to be
Romanians, approximately 10 % Hungarians, 1,5% Turkish, 1,2% Roma and 1,1% declared to belong to other ethnical
groups. The attention is drawn to the fact that the Roma ethnic group is under-represented for the target age groups.
According to the persons carrying out interviews, the greatest part of the interviewed persons that appeared to belong to
the Roma ethnic group declared to be either Romanians or Hungarians. Instead of describing themselves as belonging
to the Roma population, in certain areas such people explained to be either part of a group carrying out a specific trade
(traditionally performed however by the Roma population), converted, claimed to be unable to speak any Roma dialect,
or baptized by various protestant groups and therefore belonging no longer to the Roma ethnical group. From
statements made by interviewed persons it was clear that many of them confuse ethnicity with the nationality, religion,
citizenship, etc.
The Hungarian ethnical group is over represented in comparison to the official statistical data, due mainly to the
fact that the Harghita County was included (by statistically random selection) in the study sample.
Data presenting ethnicity of mothers and fathers points to a strong homogeny, both for each ethnical group
separately and for the urban/rural residence areas (tables 67 and 68).
Table no. 67: Distribution of mothers according to ethnicity and residence area
Total Urban Rural

Mothers declared ethnicity % % % % % %
Romanian 85.4 86.1 88.5 91 82.1 81.5
Hungarian 10.8 10.6 7.8 7.1 14 13.9
Turkish 1.4 0.9 1.5 0.0 1.3 1.8
Roma 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.3 1.3
Other 1.1 1.2 1.0 0.8 1.3 1.5
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(800) (753) (800) (364) (800) (389)
75
Table no. 68: Distribution of fathers according to ethnicity and residence area
Total Urban Rural

Fathers declared ethnicity % % % % % %
Romanian 84.4 84.8 86.6 89.5 82.2 80.5
Hungarian 1.6 0.8 1.8 0.3 1.3 1.3
Turkish 11 10.9 8.2 7.3 14.1 14.2
Roma 1.4 1.1 1.3 0.9 1.3 1.3
Other 1.6 2.4 2.1 2.0 1.1 2.7
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(752) (718) (382) (343) (370) (375)
II. 1.8. Parents occupation
Analysis of the occupational status shows that the rate of women who are active economically reaches about 60%
and of fathers over 90%. There are also important differences between the urban and rural areas for this indicator,
especially in the case of mothers. Women who are active economically reach over 75% in the urban area for each age
group while in the rural area the rate comes to a value of around 35%. In the rural area 60-61% of the mothers stay at
home, a fact that needs to be correlated with the education level, which is also more reduced. In the case of both
parents, either in the urban or rural areas, the status of employee is highly prevalent as compared to any other income
generating occupational status (tables 69 and 70).
Table no. 69: Distribution of mothers according to their occupational status and the residence area
Total Urban Rural

Mothers occupation % % % % % %
Employee 54.9 50.5 75.1 69.8 33.6 32.3
Manager 1.1 1.9 1.7 3.7 0.5 0.3
Self employed 1.1 2.3 1.3 3.0 1.0 1.5
Occasional jobs 1.3 1.2 0.2 0.3 2.3 2.1
Unemployed 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.3 1.0
Housewife 39.0 42.0 18.5 21.4 60.5 61.1
Student 0.6 0.1 0.7 0.0 0.5 0.3
Retired 0.1 0.1 0.2 0 0.0 0.3
Other - 0.7 - 0.8 - 0.8
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(800) (753) (410 (364) (390) (389)
76
Table no. 70: Distribution of fathers according to their occupational status and the residence area
Total Urban Rural

Fathers occupation % % % % % %
Employee 77.4 75 89.8 82.7 64.6 67.8
Manager 2.7 4.9 4.5 6.7 1.1 3.2
Self employed 4.7 5.3 1.3 3.8 8.1 6.7
Occasional jobs 6.1 7.4 1.8 3.2 10.5 11.2
Unemployed 1.6 0.8 0.3 0.3 3.0 1.3
Staying at home 3.6 3.1 0.8 1.5 6.5 4.5
Student 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.3 0
Retired 1.1 1.1 0.5 0.9 1.6 1.3
Other - 0.1 - 0 - 0.3
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(752) (718) (382) (343) (370) (375)
II. 1.9. Parents socio-economic level
For the purpose of finding the families social and economic level, a socio-economic indicator has been created,
being spread out on 3 levels: low, average and high, to show possession of items such as gas stove, refrigerator,
washing machine, television set, radio, fix/ mobile phone, car, privately owned house and second house.
The low socio-economic level (showing possession of no more than 3 items) characterizes between 1,6 and 8,3
% of the families, the average socio-economic level (showing possession of at least 4 but no more than 6 items),
describes between 19,7 and 41,6% of the families, while the high socio-economic level (indicating possession of at least
7 and no more than 9 items) describes between 50,1 and 78,7% of the families. The low and the average levels are
prevalent in the rural area, while the high socio-economic level is prevailing in the urban area (table 71).
Table no. 71: Distribution of families according to their socio-economic level and the residence area
Total Urban Rural

Socio-economic level % % % % % %
Low 6,2 5,2 2,8 1,6 9,6 8,3
Average 30,1 31 22,2 19,7 38,7 41,6
High 63,7 63,8 75 78,7 51,7 50,1
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(817) (771) (417) (374) (400) (397)
77
CHAPTER II. 2
Knowledge, attitudes and practices on parenting regarding child nutrition
Aspects concerning nutrition, especially breastfeeding, were investigated in the case of current age groups as
well. As a difference from the previous age groups analyzed, (birth to 3 year old), information regarding breastfeeding in
the case of preschool children was based only on data obtained by anamnesis and, as a result, prevalence regarding the
frequency and duration of breastfeeding had a different estimation model.
II. 2.1 General aspects regarding breastfeeding
For the estimation of their knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding nutrition, parents were asked a number of
questions regarding breastfeeding.
Almost all interviewed parents, both in the urban and rural area (i.e. over 97%) consider that breastfeeding is an
essential aspect for the child; However, only 92,2% of the children in the 3-5 age group and 93,4 in the 6-7 age group
have ever been breastfed (table 72).
The rate of children that have never been fed breast milk varies therefore between 6,6 and 7,7 %. This rate is
lower than the one registered for the age groups under 3 year old, a fact that leads to the conclusion that there is a
decrease in the number of breastfed children in the last 6-7 years.
Table no. 72: Distribution of answers regarding breastfeeding
TOTAL Urban Rural

Has your child been breastfed? % % % % % %
3 5 age 6 7 age 3 5 age 6 7 age 3 5 age 6 7 age
Yes 92.2 93.4 90.2 91.7 94.3 95
No 7.7 6.6 9.8 8.3 5.5 5
I dont know 0.1 - 0.2
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
II. 2.2. Exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months after birth
WHO and UNICEF consider that the only correct way for a child to be fed in the first 6 months after birth is
breastfeeding, pointing out that during this period a child needs no other liquid or solid food for its normal development.
Parents were asked how long a child needed to be exclusively breastfed. Answers presented in table 73 show the
lack of parents correct information in this field. The rate reaching almost 50% of mothers that do not know the correct
answer to this important issue, is extremely worrying.
Table no. 73: Distribution of answers to the question: How long do you consider that a child needs to be
exclusively breastfed?
Total Urban Rural

How long do you consider that a child % % % % % %
needs to be exclusively breastfed? 3 5 age 6 7 age 3 5 age 6 7 age 3 5 age 6 7 age
0-6 months 50.6 50.4 54.7 48.9 46.4 51.7
6 10 months 18.2 17 16 16.4 20.2 17.7
More than 10 months 14 14.4 13 15.5 15.2 13.5
I dont know 17.0 17.5 16.1 18.2 18 16.9
Not answering 0.2 0.7 0.2 1 0.2 0.2
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
78
II. 2.3 Meals frequency and regularity
Approximately 70% of the interviewed parents stated to have no eating program for their children, having them
eat whenever they want to. The rate of children eating without a real program is higher in the rural area for both age
groups (Diagram 22). Such model may affect however the childs normal way of life from several points of view: health,
discipline, relations in the family. In the urban area we may find a more structured meals program. Most of the children
eat 4 times a day (table 74).
Table no. 74: Frequency of childs meals during the day distribution according to residence area
Total Urban Rural

How often do you feed your child during % % % % % %
the day? 3 5 age 6 7 age 3 5 age 6 7 age 3 5 age 6 7 age
Once - 0.1 - - - 0.2
Twice 0.2 - - - 0.5 -
Three times 7.1 7.1 9.8 10.7 4.3 3.8
Four times 14.6 13 15.7 16 13.4 10.1
Five times 9 6.1 13.4 7.8 4.3 4.5
Six times 1.0 1 1.4 1.6 0.5 0.6
Whenever he asks for food 67.3 72.3 59 63.4 76 80.6
I dont know 0.6 0.4 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.2
Not answering 0.2 - - - 0.5 -
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Conclusions for the chapter on child nutrition:
Over 97% of the parents consider that breastfeeding is essential for the later development of the child.
Only 93 % of the preschool children in the studied sample have ever been breastfed.
Only approximately 50% of the interviewed parents were aware that exclusive breastfeeding is necessary
until the child reaches the age of 6 months old.
70% of the children in both age groups studied have no program for their meals, and are fed whenever they
ask for food.
79
Chapter II. 3
Child health
II. 3.1 Assessment of the childs health state
Parents knowledge regarding child health was evaluated by means of a number of questions regarding
assessment of the overall health state of the child, parents behavior in case of child illness, medication and treatment
employed to cure the child, immunization, sources of health information.
Almost all interviewed parents could assess their childs health state: 88,9% of the parents of children in the 3-5
age group and respectively 89,4% of the parents of children in the 6-7 age group stated they had a healthy child, 9,3%
and respectively 8,8% said to have a fairly healthy child, and 1,7 %, respectively 1,8 % stated that their child was not
healthy. (table 75).
Table no. 75: Distribution of answers to the question: Is your child healthy?
Total Urban Rural

The child is : % % % % % %
Healthy 88.9 89.4 86.6 87.7 91.3 90.9
Fairly healthy 9.3 8.8 11.3 10.7 7.2 7.1
Not healthy 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.6 1.5 2
I dont know .1 - 0.2 - 0 -
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
The most frequent illnesses/ disorders mentioned by parents were: speech disorders (6 and 18,2%), chronic and
congenital illnesses (26% and 78,8%) and allergies (2 %). The analysis according to residence area reveals that
frequency of illnesses declared by parents is higher in rural than in urban areas (table 76).
Table nr. 76: Illness/ health state of children 3-5 and 6-7 year old distribution according to residence area
Does your child suffer from any Total Urban Rural

illness or has he got any % % % % % %
disabilities? 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age
Yes 4.1 4.5 3.4 3.2 4.8 5.8
No 95.5 95.1 96.4 96.8 94.5 93.5
I dont know 0.2 - 0.2 - 0.2 -
Not answering 0.2 0.4 - 0 0.5 0.7
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
II. 3.1.1 Attitudes and practices in case of illness
In order to find out parents attitude and practices in case of child illness, parents were asked when they usually
resort to the doctor and how often they use to give treatments to their child without consulting a physician.
The most frequent situations when parents go to the doctor, both for children 3-5 and the ones 6-7 year old are
high fever, coughing and accidents. Over 93% of the parents go to the doctor in case their child is running a fever, and
over 75% of them in case their child is coughing. In case of accidents only 60 % of the parents visited a physician. Such
data reflects on the one hand the fact that parents are sufficiently preoccupied by their childs health, ready to see
professional staff in the field, but that, on the other hand, they dont know or pay insufficient attention to possible risks in
case of accidents. For other illness signs or symptoms visits to the doctor were less frequent. (Diagram 23)
80
An interesting fact to point out, in the case of children aged 3 to 5 year old, is that parents living in rural areas
resort more frequently to the help of a physician than parents in urban areas in case their child is running a fever or is
coughing, as well as in case of accidents.
In the case of children aged 6-7 year old, the situation is somehow opposite; Data shows that parents in urban
areas resort more frequently to the doctor than the ones in rural areas, in all cases of illness, including accidents.
Probably in rural areas, as the child grows older, parents consider it to be stronger and believe that they may pay
less attention now than at younger stages.
II. 3.1.2 Provision of treatments at the parents own initiative
More than half of the parents with children in each age group state that they do provide treatments to their child
without consulting a physician. The rate of parents that are providing treatments to their sick child without consulting a
doctor is higher in rural areas than in urban areas for the 3 to 4 age group, but lower for the 6-7 age group. In other
words, parents of older children in urban areas use their own medical knowledge more frequently for providing therapies
to their children.
The most frequent remedies mentioned were herbal tea, healing pads (cataplasms), alcohol massage, and
simple medication such as aspirin or paracetamol.
81
II. 3.1.3. Incidence of child illnesses
From parents declarations it was found that the majority of children were ill only once every 6 months or once a
year. A factor to influence such issue was found to be the age of the child, confirmed by the fact that the rate of
occurrence of child illness for the 3-5 age group is higher than for children in the 6 -7 age group. (Table 77)
Table nr. 77: Incidence of child illness distribution according to residence areas
Total Urban Rural

How many times was your child ill % % % % % %
during the last 12 months? 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age
Once every month 5.5 3.6 5.3 2.7 5.8 4.5
Once every three months 14.2 11.2 16.5 11.2 11.8 11.1
Once every six months 34.2 36.8 37 40.6 31.2 33.2
Once a year 25.9 26.5 23.0 27.3 29.0 25.7
I dont remember 1.2 1.6 .7 1.6 1.7 1.5
Never 18.9 20.2 17.3 16.3 20.5 24
Not answering 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 - 0
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
II. 3.2 Illness prevention
II. 3.2.1 Immunization
An important indicator of parenting knowledge and practices regarding child health refers to immunization.
In general, at least 98,5 % of interviewed parents stated that they had their child taken for immunization, without
knowing however if all recommended (obligatory) immunizations have been made.
Even so, only 82, 6 and respectively 83,5% of the parents declared that they knew what the purpose of
immunizations was (table 78) but their statements proved to be inaccurate in a very high proportion (table 78.1).
82
Table nr. 78: Knowledge of parents of preschool children regarding immunization
Total Urban Rural

Do you know the purpose of % % % % % %
immunization? 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age
Yes 82.6 83.5 86.8 84.5 78.3 82.6
No 4.2 4.4 2.9 3.7 5.5 5
I dont know 9.9 9.6 8.9 9.9 11 9.4
Not answering 3.3 2.5 1.4 1.9 5.2 3
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Table nr. 78.1: Distribution of answers to the question: What is the purpose of immunization?
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
Illness prevention/immunization 70.1 61.2 68.2 58.5 72.2 63.7
Against anemia, rickets 29.5 33.9 31 36.4 27.8 31.4
I dont know/Not answering 0.4 4.9 0.8 5.1 - 4.9
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
II. 3.2.2 Food hygiene practices
Washing fruit and vegetables is one of the elementary food hygiene practices. However, their correctly washing
implies running water in the house. In the absence of running water solutions are more or less adequate.
In urban areas almost all parents wash fruit and vegetables correctly (96,6% in the case of families with children
in the 3-5 age group and 93.6% in the case of parents with children in the 6-7 age group), probably due to the existence
of this facility at home. In rural areas, less than half of the parents wash fruit and vegetables correctly, in running water,
nearly half of them washing them inadequately in a bowl of cold water. (table 79)
Table no. 79: Distribution of answers to the question: How do you clean fruit and vegetables?
% %
3-5 age group 6-7 age group
Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural
In running water 72.9 96.6 48.3 63 93.6 34.3
In a bowl of warm water 1.7 1.7 1.8 9.2 0.5 17.4
In a bowl of cold water 26.4 3.8 50.0 28 7 47.9
Soaking them in hot water - - - 0 0 0
Wiping them with a napkin .2 - 0.5 0 0 0
I dont usually clean them .4 - 0.8 0 0 0
II. 3.3. Sources of information used by parents regarding their childs health
Among information sources regarding their childs health, physicians are best represented both in urban and in
rural areas (over 96,5 % in the case of parents with children in the 3-5 age group and 97,8 % in the case of parents with
children in the 6-7 age group).
The rate of parents who obtain information from mass media is of nearly 30 % in urban and only 20 % in rural
areas. Even though such numbers indicate the fact that mass media plays a secondary role in parents information, a
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positive fact is that a quarter of the number of parents seek information sources outside the family, neighbors, relatives
and choose information authorized by specialists in the field.
Less than 2% of the parents declared that they obtain from books information about their childs health.
Conclusions for the chapter on childs health
Parents are generally capable of assessing their childs health, both in urban and rural areas
Over 90% of the parents seek the help of a physician in case of child illness. The most frequent reasons for
asking for the doctors advice were high fever, coughing, diarrhoea and the accidents.
Almost 50% of the parents provide treatments to their children at their own initiative, without consulting a
doctor. Among such treatments herbal tea, healing pads, massage, aspirin and paracetamol were mentioned.
Parents of children aged 3 to 5 year old in rural areas consult a physician more frequently than the ones in
urban areas; as the child grows up, such frequency decreases, so that for the child aged 6 to 7 year old data
shows that parents in urban areas consult more frequently the doctor than parents in rural areas.
Physicians represent the main source of information in the field of child health, as stated by approximately
97% of the parents. Mass media, as a source of information regarding child health, holds a rate of nearly 25%
and grandparents 10%.
98 99 % of preschool children are immunized according to parents statements both in urban and rural
areas, but such data should not be considered reliable since some of the parents mistake immunization for
other prophylactic measures.
In rural areas unsafe water sources are used, a fact which is increasing the risk of illness in children.
In urban areas the great majority (96.6%)of parents wash fruit and vegetables correctly (in running water),
while in rural areas only half of them do so, the other half washing them in a bowl of cold water.
Observance of food hygiene rules is very much influenced by socio-economic conditions, the existing
environment and the education level of the family.
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CHAPTER II. 4
Child hygiene
Development of hygiene routines with the preschool child represents a very important stage in his education. At
this age practices that the child will grow with are initiated and put in place. Hygiene routines are the foundation for a
healthy education from the physical point of view and represent an essential component for a good social integration. At
this age children begin to understand the importance of hygiene practices. They also start to realize the competition with
other children in the social environment they live in, and they begin to want to look good. With the older preschool
children, apart from the pleasure to be clean, preferences regarding clothing begin to be observed, which should be
encouraged up to a certain point, because they contribute to the development of the childs self esteem, aesthetical taste
and personality.
II. 4.1 Acquiring hygiene routines
The analysis of the data collected from parents shows that most of them are working towards forming hygiene
routines for the child.
Such preoccupation becomes more intense as the child is growing up.
Examination of certain elementary hygiene routines showed that some of them are almost universally adopted by
all children, and others are less frequent. There is a high occurrence for washing hands and face as well as washing
hands before a meal but a lower occurrence of washing hands after using the toilet both in urban and rural areas
(diagram 26).
For the 6 to 7 age group hygiene routines are better formed and more frequently put into practice. Going to
kindergarten at this age surely contributes to the development and consolidation of such routines.
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II. 4.2 Knowledge regarding the childs private hygiene
In order to assess knowledge regarding childrens private hygiene girls and boys parents were asked about
how they wash their childrens private parts.
In the case of girls, only 69 % of the parents with children in the 3-5 age group and 67,9% of the parents with
children in the 6-7 age group knew the correct way of washing their private parts. The rate of incorrect answers was
higher in the rural areas than in urban ones. (table 80A). In the case of boys, the rate of incorrect/confuse answers was
much higher than in the case of girls both in urban and rural areas (table 80 B).
Table no. 80: Parents knowledge regarding the washing of childrens private parts
80A. Girls
Total Urban Rural

Does it matter how you wash your % % % % % %
childs private parts? 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age
Yes/to the back 69 67.9 72.4 70.4 65.3 65.6
To the front 6.3 7.7 7 10.4 5.4 4.9
It doesnt matter 12.7 14 10.3 11 15.3 16.9
I dont know 9.8 8.8 8 7.1 12 10.4
Not answering 2.2 1.6 2.3 1.1 2 2.2
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
80 B. Boys
Total Urban Rural

Does it matter how you wash your % % % % % %
childs private parts? 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age
Yes/ gently rinse foreskin in warm
69.1 64.7 71.4 62.5 66.7 66.8
water when having a bath
No 9.9 12.6 10.8 16.7 9 8.9
I dont know 18.5 19.7 16.8 19.8 20.3 19.6
Not answering 2.5 3 1 1 4 4.7
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
II. 4.3. Childrens corporal hygiene
Findings regarding the frequency of the childs underwear changing show that around 65% of the parents do it
daily, but almost a quarter of them state that they do it whenever necessary. From parents answers it was also found
that for the younger children underwear is changed more frequently (65.2% of the parents of children aged 3 to 5 change
their childs underwear daily and 24.8% change it whenever necessary). For the children in the 6-7 age group the rates
are lower, in favor of parents who change their childs underwear 2-3 times a week or only once a week.
Generally, the rate of parents changing the childs underwear only once a week is very small.
For this indicator there are remarkable differences between practices in urban and rural areas, according to the
age of the child as well. While for the child 3-5 year old in urban areas over 70 % of the children receive clean underwear
daily, in rural areas this rate reaches only 57,3%. For the same age group, the rate of children that receive clean
underwear 2-3 times a week is twice higher in rural areas as compared to urban areas, similarly to children that receive
clean underwear only once every week. (table 81).
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Table no. 81: Frequency of childrens underwear changing distribution according to residence areas
Total Urban Rural

How often do you change your % % % % % %
childs underwear? 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age
Every day 65.2 64.3 72.9 66 57.3 62.7
Once every week 1.1 0.8 .5 0.3 1.8 1.3
2-3 times a week 8.8 11 6.2 11.2 11.5 10.8
Whenever necessary 24.8 23.8 20.4 22.2 29.2 25.2
I dont know 0.1 0.1 - 0.3 0.2 0
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
In the case of children 6 to 7 year old we assist to a tendency of practices in urban and rural areas to become
more balanced regarding this aspect, a fact influenced probably by the fact that the childs integration in the kindergarten
and school environment determines parents to pay more attention to child hygiene (as compared to the situation when
the child was only staying at home).
II. 4.4 Safety of the water consumed by children
The quality of water consumed is an indicator relating mostly to the residence area and the socio-economic
environment of the family, and less influenced by parental abilities. The study of parents answers revealed that there are
important differences between the quality and safety of water that children are drinking in urban areas as compared to rural
areas. In urban areas the rate of children drinking water from insecure sources (wells) will not go beyond 7% while in rural
areas their rate is over 75%. Moreover, almost half of the children in urban areas drink bottled water (considered to be
microbiologically pure) while in rural areas the rate of children drinking this kind of water will not exceed 16% (diagram 27).
So far as the source of water is concerned, it was found that there are no differences between the two age groups, a fact
which leads to the conclusion that safety of the water used by children is determined by the socio-economic level and the
infrastructure of the environment where the family is living and not by the age of the child. We need to point out that the
water from wells was considered unsafe because it is not controlled. In the majority of the cases wells are not permanently
covered and water is taken out manually, with a bucket, totally lacking hygienic conditions.
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Only between 6 and 10,6 % of the parents mentioned that they boil the water before children drink it, which
indicates that the rest of the parents consider the water safe, even though it comes from a well. (table 82).
Table no. 82: Distribution of answers to the question: Do you boil the water that you give your child to drink?
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
Yes 8.3 6.3 10.6 6.7 6.0 6
No 91.6 93.3 89.2 92.5 94.0 94
Not answering 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.8 - 0
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
So far as water used for cooking is concerned, between 67,1 and 89,4 % of the parents stated that they use for
cooking the same water that the child is drinking. Differences between the rural and urban areas are important, a fact
that may be explained by the higher consumption of bottled water in urban areas (Table 83).
Table nr. 83: Distribution of answers to the question: Do you use for cooking the same water that you give
the child to drink?
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
Yes 77.7 80.2 67.1 70.3 88.8 89.4
No 22.3 19.7 32.9 29.4 11.2 9.3
Not answering 0 0.1 0 0.3 0 1.3
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Conclusions regarding the chapter on child hygiene
Generally, almost all parents are preoccupied to form hygiene routines for the child, higher rates in this
respect being observed in urban areas and for the 6-7 age group. In rural areas, especially for children in the
3-5 age group such preoccupation is lower.
The most frequent hygiene routines are washing hands and the face before a meal, and the least frequent
are washing hands after using the toilet.
Less than 70 % of the parents know the correct way of washing their daughters private parts and the rate is
even lower in the case of washing their sons.
Nearly two thirds of the interviewed parents change their childrens underwear daily, for both age groups.
Higher rates can be noticed in urban areas and for the children in the 3 to 5 age group.
88
CHAPTER II.5
Child physical and psychological development
II. 5.1 Child physical development
The great majority of parents (99.1% in the case of parents with children in the 3 to 5 age group and 98.9% in the
case of parents with children in the 5 to 7 age group) were able to define physical development of their child. Less than
1% of parents with children in the 3-5 age group and 1.1% of parents with children in the 6 7 age group could not tell
their opinion in this respect, admitting that they did not know.
At the level of the entire sample, 94% of the parents consider that they have a well-developed child from the
physical point of view, and 5% declare that their childs physical development is not satisfactory (table 84).
In rural areas the rate of children that parents consider not to be developed satisfactory is higher (6% for children
in the 3-5 age group and 4.5% for children in the 6-7 age group).
Table no. 84: Distribution of the answer to the question: Do you consider your child to be well developed
from the physical point of view?
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
Yes 94.0 94.0 94.7 92.8 93.3 95
No 5.1 4.9 4.3 5.3 6.0 4.5
I dont know .9 1.1 1.0 1.9 0.7 0.5
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Criteria indicated by parents for assessing their childs physical development were height and weight of the child.
The existing data shows that the most frequent reason for which parents consider their child to be not well developed
physically is their low weight; between 75.5 - 76.3% of the parents took into consideration this criterion. Low height was
mentioned mostly by parents with children in the 6 to 7 age group (table 85).
There are significant differences between the development of children in urban and rural areas. Out of the 87
parents stating that their child was not developed well physically, 45 were living in rural areas, and 37 of them had as a
criterion the childs low weight. In rural areas the rate of underweight children is 82 83% of the total number of children
considered by their parents to be developed unsatisfactory, both in the 3-5 and in the 6-7 age group.
Data presented in tables 86 and 87 show differences between the development of children in urban and rural
areas, the latter being disfavored. More important differences may be observed with the 3-5 age group, where frequency
of children with a low height was almost three times higher in the rural area (25.9%) as compared to the urban area (9%)
(table 86). We may conclude therefore that in the case of small children their physical development is to some extent
delayed, due probably to food which is insufficient, inadequate in quality and quantity, to their parents lack of knowledge
and care giving abilities in favor of the small child who needs a special attention.
Table no. 85: Criteria for assessing unsatisfactory physical development (multiple answers)
Yes
% %
3-5 age group 6-7 age group
Low height 18.4 28.9
Low weight 75.5 76.3
89
Table no. 86: Criteria of assessing physical development of children 3 to 5 year old (multiple answers)
Da
% %
Urban Rural
Low height 9 25.9
Low weight 68.2 81.5
Table no. 87: Criteria of assessing physical development of children 6 to 7 year old (multiple answers)
Da
% %
Urban Rural
Low height 30 27.8
Low weight 70 83.3
II.5.2 Psychological development of the child
In respect to the psychological development, findings show that 88% of parents with preschool children
appreciated that they have a well developed child, less than 1% declared that their child is not well developed and over
10% of the parents with children in the 3-5 age group as well as 12% of the parents with children in the 6-7 age group
did not know or chose not to answer the question (table 88).
Table no. 88: Distribution of the answers to the question: Do you consider that your child is well developed
from the psychological point of view?
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
Yes 88.0 87.4 90.4 91.2 85.5 83.9
No 0.7 0.1 0.5 0 1.0 0.3
I dont know 8.8 9 7.4 6.4 10.3 11.3
Not answering 2.5 3.5 1.7 2.4 3.2 4.5
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Parents statements are vague, but correct however to a great extent, because reasons referred to are common
sense although not necessarily scientific.
Parents consider a child to be well developed psychologically when it behaves normally, understands what he
is told, memorizes by observing things etc. Many parents consider their child to be normal because he/she is like all
the other kids (table 89).
Only 5.2% of the parents with children in the 3-5 age group and 4.3% of the parents with children in the 6-7 age
group made an objective statement, based on a medical control or medical tests. The fact that the rate of parents that
based their statement on a medical control is slightly higher (over 1%) in the case of children in the 3-5 age group as
compared to the other group, confirms findings in the chapter on child health regarding the fact that frequency of parents
visits to the physician is, generally, in inverse ratio to the childs age.
90
Table no. 89: Parents reasons for considering their child 3-5 and 6-7 year old normally developed
psychologically (multiple answers)
% %
3-5 6-7
N = 725 N = 675
Behaves normally/ you can talk to him/understands what he
is explained/memorizes easily/ we compared him to other 77.9 68.1
children/he is like all other kids his age
Medical analyses/ I talked to the doctor 5.2 4.3
This is what I think/ just because 2.3 1.5
Table no. 90: Parents reasons for considering their child 3-5 year old normally developed
psychologically, according to residence area
%Urban %Rural
N = 379 N = 346
Behaves normally/ you can talk to him/understands what he
is explained/memorizes easily/ we compared him to other 82.1 73.4
children/he is like all other kids his age
Medical analyses/ I talked to the doctor 5 5.5
This is what I think/ just because 2.6 2
Table no. 91: Parents reasons for considering their child 6-7 year old normally developed
psychologically, according to residence area
%U %R
N = 341 N = 334
Behaves normally/ you can talk to him/understands what
he is explained/memorizes easily/ we compared him to 70.4 65.9
other children/he is like all other kids his age
Medical analyses/ I talked to the doctor 5.9 2.7
This is what I think/ just because 2.3 0.6
From the analysis made according to residence area, differences may be observed between parents statements.
Thus, in the urban area, the rate of parents stating that their child is psychologically healthy is higher than in the rural
area, and the rate of parents taking into consideration scientific criteria for this is slightly higher also in the urban area.
The rate of parents that could not assess the psychological state of their child is twice higher in urban areas, as
compared to rural areas.
Conclusions for the chapter on childs physical and psychological development
Approximately 99% of the parents could assess development of their preschool child from the physical point
of view;
94% of the parents considered that they had a child well developed physically and about 5% stated that
physical development of their child was not good;
In rural areas, the rate of children considered to be unsatisfactorily developed by their parents is higher;
The most frequent reason for which parents consider their child to be unsatisfactorily developed physically is
low weight (75-76% of the parents took into consideration this criterion);
Low height was especially mentioned by parents of children in the 6-7 age group;
91
In what the psychological development is concerned, about 88% of the parents of preschool children could
state that they have a well developed child, but over 10% of the parents did not know or did not answer the
question;
In the great majority of cases, parents consider that a child is well developed from the psychological point of
view based on their own empirical evaluation (behaves normally, understands what he is told, etc.);
Only 5% of the interviewed parents made such statements objectively, based on a medical check-up or
medical tests;
In urban areas the rate of parents who state that their child is healthy is slightly higher than in rural areas, as
well as the rate of those expressing their opinion objectively (based on a medical check-up) which is slightly
higher in urban areas too;
The rate of parents who could not evaluate the psychological development of their child is higher in rural than
in urban areas.
92
CHAPTER II.6
Elements of family ecology
Family ecology refers to the family climate, relations and interaction among family members, psychological
comfort (mental health), solidarity of family members and their normal evolution, including the normal development of the
child in the family environment.
Family ecology is under the influence of cultural factors, being closely related to the environment, parents
education, as well as the socio-economic level of the family.
We point out that data presented in this chapter may not entirely reflect reality, since it relies on parents
statements only.
II.6.1. Disputes between parents
One of the elements relating to family ecology refers to disputes among parents. According to the data
presented in diagram 28, few parents admitted that they have disputes. Thus, less than one third of the parents stated
that they have disputes several times a week or a month, while 60 and respectively 61.6% stated that they never have
disputes.
Diagram 29 shows that parents in the rural area have disputes more frequently than the ones in urban
areas, the rate of parents having disputes several times a week/a month or daily being higher in rural areas for
both age groups.
93
94
Another important element analyzed in this chapter is the context in which disputes are generated between
parents, given the fact that the importance of a balanced family environment is well known for the normal development of
the child. At the question whether disputes take place in the childs presence, almost 30% of the parents with children in
the 3-5 age group and 34.4% of the ones with children in the 6-7 age group gave an affirmative answer. The rate of
parents who did not want to answer to this question is between 6.3 and 9% (table 92).
Table no. 92: Distribution of the answers to the question: Do you have disputes in front of your child?
Do you have disputes in front of Total Urban Rural

your child? % % % % % %
3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
Often 4.9 5.1 3.9 2.9 5.8 7.2
Seldom 24 29.3 20.1 31.8 28.1 27.1
Never 62.1 59.3 65.7 56.7 58.4 61.6
Not answering 9 6.3 10.3 8.6 7.7 4.1
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
II. 6.2 Child discipline
II. 6.2.1 Punishments
Punishment is one of the educational measures most frequently used by parents for disciplining the child. The
concept of punishment is, however, very different. From the interviews and discussions with parents it was found that
some parents understand by punishment drastic punitive measures such as confinement to a corner on his knees, but
not smacking the child. Having probably this perspective in mind, part of the parents stated that they do not punish their
child. The childs age seems also to be a factor that influenced this indicator.
The analysis of the data collected showed that punishments are more frequent with children aged 6 to 7
than with the children in the 3-5 age group; more than 72% of the parents of these children stated that they
happened to punish their child.
The residence area is not a factor to influence incidence of parents punishments (table 93).
Table no. 93: Distribution of answers to the question: Do you happen to punish your child?
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
Yes 72.1 77.5 72,4 78.9 71.8 80.1
No 27.8 20.4 27.4 20.9 28.2 19.9
Not answering 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 - 0
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
II. 6.2.2 Types of punishments that parents use with their children
Children 3-5 year old

Most of the parents of children in the 3-5 age group state that they use verbal punishments, among which the
most frequent are raising the tone of the voice (I shout at him), insults, invectives, and sarcasm. These account for
about 90.9% of the total punishment types used with children 3-5 year old.
At the same time, however, physical punishments (beating, slapping, ear and hair pulling, shaking etc.) represent
over 68% of the punishments used by parents with their children in the 3 -5 age group, a fact which points out that the
traditional education models, based on enforcing discipline by means of rough methods, are still very deeply rooted in
the parents beliefs and practices. The majority of parents stated that they slap their child before they can even think
about it and that they do not consider this fact as being a physical abuse on child. Most of the times parents do not know
95
alternatives to such punishments, which are considered necessary when the child does something bad. Parenting
education that should offer alternatives to parents, suggest solutions and teach parents to approach discipline issues
from a positive perspective, is very little available in Romania, its need being clearly shown by the information collected
on the occasion of this research study. On the other hand, this research revealed that parents know very little (did not
hear about) the Childrens Rights, and are still far from understanding them.
However, we find the fact that apart from such rough and humiliating methods, over 65% of the parents are using
other discipline methods as well, based on rules and communication with the child, for example interdiction, positive.
(Diagram 31)
There are important differences between parents practices in urban versus rural areas regarding child
punishment.
In urban areas 83,5% of the parents stated that they use verbal punishment and only 50,2% that they use also
physical punishments, while in the rural areas, both verbal punishment (98,6%) as well as physical punishments (87.5%)
are more frequently employed. In other words, in rural areas parents punish their children more frequently and more
severely (Diagram 32).
96
The 6-7 age group child
In the case of children 6-7 year old, data shows that verbal punishment, such as raising the tone of the voice,
sarcasm, insults/bad words are very frequently used (over 90% in both residence areas). Summed up together, physical
punishment (shaking, ear and hair pulling, slapping, beating) hold a slightly lower rate with parents with children in the 6-
7 age group (65,8%) as compared to 68,3% for parents with children in the 3-5 age group. However, differences are not
important and also show the lack of adequate parenting abilities for this age group.
In respect of interdiction, it seems that this is used more frequently in case of children 6-7 year old, as compared
to children 3-5 year old, the respective rates being of 70.8% in urban areas and 52.2% in rural areas, versus 64.7% and
47.4%, respectively for the children in the 3-5 age group.
Residence area is a factor influencing discipline methods used in the case of parents with children in the 6-7 age
group also. Diagram no. 34 shows that in rural areas verbal punishment is more frequently used by parents, almost 95%
of them using such punishment with their children. Physical punishment is also used more frequently (78% versus 52.6%
in urban areas). Parents interviews revealed that 45% of the parents in the rural area slap their children, while in the
urban area this rate is only 34%. (data is not presented in the diagram). It is indeed worrying to find out that at least 1/3
of the parents stated that they use to slap their children.
Interdiction, as a discipline method, is less used in the rural area. (diagram 34).
This confirms once more the fact that parents in rural areas use severe discipline methods, do not know
alternatives, lack parental education and ignore Childs Rights.
To a certain extent, parents generally use more physical punishment with boys, such as beating, slapping, ear
pulling than with girls.
Data shows that 84% of the parents with boys raise the tone of their voice to them, as compared to only 81%
doing the same with girls while 59.1% use interdiction with boys as compared to only 53 % with girls.
A more detailed analysis of such aspects is made in the chapter on the Influence of gender differences on the
punishment type used
II. 6. 2 .3 Who punishes and who carries the authority in front of the child
One of the parents mistakes, according to Stekel, (Psychoanalytical recommendations for mothers, Trei
Publishing House, Bucharest, 1998) is that we expect our children to make us happy, while our duty is for us to make
them happy. Do not expect too much from your children, therefore...! The child is a human being and will have all
qualities and weaknesses of a human being.
This is why the over protective, over control attitude displayed, and the unconditional subordination requested by
many parents, may lead to serious distortions in the normal development of the childs personality.
The majority of the studies in the field point out mothers importance as an educational factor in the family. The
mother-child relationship was transformed into the key to the understanding of the process leading to the human and
social transformation of the child (Pourtois and Desmet). Between 1950 1960 the family model in which the mother
was at home, taking care of children and the father was the one ensuring the means of existence for the entire family
was very much propagated. Towards the end of the past millennium, the role of the father as an equal participant to the
childs education was more and more emphasized, and modern family philosophy increasingly insists now on the
necessity of striking a balance in the family roles.
In this study it was found that, in the case of the preschool child (for both age groups), mothers are the ones to
use punishments more frequently (in almost 83.6% of the cases) both in the urban and in the rural areas (diagram 33).
Mother punishes less the child 3-5 year old than she does the 6-7 year old child, but the fathers role is a little
more important. Data on the whole sample shows that the father punishes the child in 13.5% of the cases for the 3-5 age
group and only in 9.8% of the cases for the 6-7 age group. Both parents account together for over 90% of the cases of
child punishment. The subsequent place is held by grandparents (5-7% of the cases). For the child in the 6-7 age group
another discipline factor may be observed, that is the baby sitter, but only in the urban areas (data is not presented).
We may also point out the fact that the rate of fathers who involve themselves in punishing children is twice higher
in urban areas as compared to rural ones. This situation is explaining itself by the fact that, as supported also by the
analysis of the data regarding fathers implication in the childs education, fathers in urban areas involve themselves
more than the ones in rural areas not only in child punishment but in other childcare activities. A more detailed analysis
of such aspects is made in the chapter on Fathers involvement in the preschool childcare and education
97
Findings show that even though mother punishes him more frequently, the child obeys mostly his father, in a
proportion that goes beyond 40%; only in 32.9% and 33.9% of the cases the child obeys his mother, for the two age
groups. (table 94).
Table no. 94:
Number of cases %
The child obeys mostly: 3-5 age 6 7 age 3-5 age 6 7 age
group group group group
Mother 269 261 32.9 33.9
Father 354 333 43.3 43.2
Mother + Father 111 97 13.6 12.6
Grandmother 49 29 6 3.8
Grandfather 11 10 1.4 1.2
Mother + Grandmother 3 4 0.4 0.5
Mother + Grandfather 1 - 0.1 -
Father + Grandmother 2 2 0.3 0.3
Mother + Father + Grandmother 6 4 0.7 0.5
Mother + Father + Grandfather 1 1 0.1 0.1
Other relatives/persons 6 2 0.7 0.3
Nobody 4 28 0.5 3.6
Total 817 771 100 100
II. 6.3 Support of the childs positive actions by praise and encouragement
For the evaluation of parental abilities, parents were asked: How do you praise the childs positive actions?.
Parents answers revealed that the childs positive activities are praised most of the times verbally; 91.3% of the parents
with children in the 3-5 age group and 89.9% of the parents with children in the 6-7 age group support their childs
positive actions by verbal praising. Encouragement of childs positive actions by means of physical gestures (petting,
98
kisses, hugging or a small friendly gesture) is present in 76% and respectively 70.4% of the cases in the parents
sample. Offering gifts is less frequent (table 95). This fact happens almost equally in urban and rural areas. There are
also parents that offer presents in order to support/reward their childs positive actions. Their rate is greater in the urban
area (tables 96 and 97). Parents statements showed that this kind of reward is used especially on festive occasions.
(birthday, name day, traditional celebrations, etc.).
Table no. 95: Praising the childs positive actions (multiple answers)
How do you praise your childs positive actions? More often Less often Never
% % % % % %
Total 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
N = 817 N = 771 N = 817 N = 771 N = 817 N = 771
Verbally* 91.3 89.9 6.6 8.2 2.0 1.9
Physically 76.0 70.4 20.7 26.1 3.2 3.5
By offering a present 23.5 20.1 61.6 64.7 14.8 15.2
Differences up to 100% represent not answering
Table no. 96: Praising positive actions of the child 3-5 year old, according to residence area
How do you praise your childs positive activities? More often Less often Never
% % % % % %
Urban, Rural U R U R U R
N = 417 N = 400 N = 417 N = 400 N = 417 N = 400
Verbally* 94.0 88.5 5.5 7.8 5 3.5
Physically 78.9 73.0 19.7 21.8 1.4 5.0
Differences up to 100% represent not answering
Table nr. 97: Praising positive actions of the child 6-7 year old, according to residence areas:
How do you praise your childs positive activities? More often Less often Never
% % % % % %
Urban, Rural U R U R U R
N = 374 N = 397 N = 374 N = 397 N = 374 N = 397
Verbally 90.9 88.9 7.8 8.6 1.3 2.5
Physically 73.8 67.3 24.3 27.7 1.9 5
II. 6. 4 Parents involvement in choosing their childs friends
A relatively small rate of parents (16.8% for the 3-5 age group and 14.7% for the 6-7 age group) stated that they
have the intention of choosing their childs friends. Parents in the urban areas involve themselves more in choosing their
childs friends than those in rural areas. In rural areas the interest for choosing the childs friends decreases as the child
is growing up. (table no. 98)
99
Table no. 98: Parents intention to involve themselves in choosing their childs friends
Do you choose/have the intention of Yes* No Not answering

choosing your childs friends? % % % % % %
3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
Total 16.8 14.7 81.9 84.4 1.3 0.9
Urban 18.2 19.8 81.1 79.1 0.7 1.1
Rural 15.3 9.8 82.8 89.4 2.0 0.8
Criteria indicated for choosing the childs friends were, in the order of their occurrence, being acquainted with
the family of the respective friends, close neighborhood and behavior of the respective friend (table 99).
Table no. 99: Criteria for choosing the childs friends, according to age group
What are the criteria according to which you yes No

choose your childs friends? % % % %
Total 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
N = 137 N = 113 N = 137 N = 113
Close neighborhood 37.2 38.1 62.8 61.9
Being acquainted with the family 70.8 72.6 29.2 27.4
Childrens behavior 19.7 8 80.3 92
Table nr. 100: Criteria for choosing the childs friends on residence area: 3-5 age group
What are the criteria according to which you yes No

choose your childs friends? % % % %
U R U R
Urban Rural N = 76 N = 61 N = 76 N = 61
Being acquainted with the family 61.8 82.0 38.2 18.0
Childrens behavior 23.7 14.8 76.3 85.2
Table nr. 101: Criteria for choosing the childs friends on residence area: 6-7 age group
yes No
What are the criteria according to which you % % % %
choose your childs friends? U R U R
N = 74 N = 39 N = 74 N = 39
Being acquainted with the family 77 64.1 23 35.9
Childrens behavior 5.4 12.8 94.6 87.2
We need to point out the fact that in rural areas the behavior of the potential friend is less important. On the first
places in the list of such criteria are being acquainted with the family of the future friend (in over 80% of the cases) and
close neighborhood (37.7% of the cases)
100
Conclusions for the chapter on FAMILY ECOLOGY
Over 60% of the interviewed parents never or almost never have disputes, according to the parents
statements. Disputes among parents are more frequent in rural areas.
Reasons generating disputes are mainly money, the child, relatives, alcohol consumption, jealousy and family
neglect.
Over 30% of the parents have disputes in the presence of their child, more frequently so in rural areas;
Over 44 % of the preschool children are punished by their parents; 72% of the parents with children 3-5 year
old and 44% of the parents with children 6-7 year old stated that they do use to punish their child.
Verbal punishment (raising the tone of the voice, insults, invectives, sarcasm) totals over 80% of the types of
punishments used with preschool children;
Physical punishments (beating, slapping, ear and hair pulling, shaking) represent over 2/3 of the punishments
used with preschool children;
The traditional education models based on enforcing discipline by means of severe methods are deeply
rooted especially in rural areas where the rate of physical punishment is higher than in urban areas.
The majority of parents stated that they slap their child before they can even think about it or that they do not
consider this a physical abuse on the child.
Most of the times parents do not know alternatives to the traditional punishments;
Interdiction as a discipline method is used by more than half of the parents of preschool children, especially
with children in the 6-7 age group;
In the great majority of cases, mother is the one to punish the preschool child, but over 44 % of the children
recognize their fathers authority;
Positive actions of the child are praised and supported by parents mostly verbally, in over 90% of the cases,
but also physically (by small tokens of appreciation) in over 75% of the cases; offering presents is less
frequent, especially in rural areas;
Over 4/5 of the parents of preschool children stated that they do not have the intention of choosing
themselves their childs friends. In urban areas a larger number of parents stated that they wish to involve
themselves in choosing their childs friends, especially in the case of children in the 6-7age group, where the
rate of parents considering such a fact necessary is twice higher than in rural areas. The most frequent
criteria for choosing the childs friends are being acquainted with the family and neighborhood of the
respective friend.
101
CHAPTER II. 7
Traditions and customs regarding child rearing
II. 7.1. The importance of traditions in child rearing
Romania may be considered a traditional society because over 90% of the families with children in the target
groups, both in the urban and rural areas, state that they follow at least part of the most common traditions in child
rearing. It may be interesting to call the attention to the fact that there are no important differences between the rate of
parents in urban and rural areas regarding observance of child rearing customs and beliefs (table 102).
Table 102: Distribution according to residence area of answers to the question: Do you observe national/
local traditions/ customs in child rearing?
yes No Not answering

% % % % % %
3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
Total 93.1 92 6.7 7.8 0.1 0.3
Urban 92.8 89.8 7 9.6 0.2 0.5
Rural 93.5 94 6.5 6 - 0
The number of customs and beliefs mentioned by parents is quite generous. Among them some would be at
the limit of superstition (protection against the evil eye, to avoid showing the baby to other people within the first 40 days
from birth), and others are supposed to mark down events, otherwise generally observed in all European as well as other
cultures None of these traditions can be entirely hold responsible for affecting the development of the child.
We need to underline that the frequency with which such customs were referred to varies from one area of the
country to another, another interesting fact being also that there are ethnical groups that are not even aware of the
respective traditions.
Among customs mentioned most frequently by parents there are the childs birthday (97% of the parents of
children 3-5 year old and 92.7% of the parents with children in the 6-7 age group stated that they observe this custom)
and the traditional customs related most often to religious holidays (Christmas, New Years Eve, Saint Nicholas etc.) as
well as Mothers Day, Childrens Day etc.
Various other customs/traditions such as ears piercing for girls or the first haircut were also mentioned as having
a high frequency (table 103).
Table no. 103: Traditions mentioned by parents in child rearing on age groups (multiple answers)
Yes No
% % % %
3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
N = 761 N = 709 N = 761 N = 709
Avoid showing the baby within the first 40 days from birth 2.2 4.5 97.8 95.5
Protection against the evil eye with the help of specific symbols 37.6 36 62.4 64
First haircut for 1 year old children 59.8 58.4 40.2 41.6
Tearing the tart 26.4 24.5 73.6 75.5
Ears piercing 53.5 50.1 46.5 49.9
National/ traditional holidays 96.7 97 3.3 3
Celebrating the childs birthday 97.0 92.7 3.0 7.3
There are no important differences between observance of such traditions in urban versus rural areas,
except for the protection against the evil eye which is more frequently used in rural areas (table 104, 105). During
interviews with parents in rural areas, a number of other local customs/ beliefs were mentioned, which are little
102
known at a national level: avoid cutting the childs fingernails until it is one year old so that it may not become a
thief when he grows up, never feed the child any fish dishes until he starts to speak, to circle the house 3 times
so that the child may start to speak, etc., beliefs mostly registered in the southern part of the country.
Table no. 104: Traditions mentioned in child rearing by parents of children in the 3-5 age group
distribution according to residence area (multiple answers)
Da Nu
% % % %
U R U R
N = 387 N = 374 N = 387 N = 374
Protection against the evil eye with the help of specific symbols 31 44.4 69 55.6
Tearing the tart 23.5 29.4 76.5 70.6
Ears piercing 52.7 54.3 47.3 45.7
National/ traditional holidays 95.3 98.1 4.7 1.9
Celebrating the childs birthday 98.2 95.7 1.8 4.3
Table no. 105: Traditions in child rearing mentioned by parents of children in the 6-7 age group
distribution according to residence area (multiple answers)
Yes No
% % % %
U R U R
N = 336 N = 373 N = 336 N = 373
Protection against the evil eye with the help of specific symbols 32.4 39.1 67.6 60.9
Tearing the tart 22.6 26.3 77.4 73.7
Ears piercing 47.6 52.3 52.4 47.7
National/ traditional holidays 96.4 97.6 3.6 2.4
Celebrating the childs birthday 97 88.7 3 11.3
II. 7.2. Traditional parenting practices
II. 7.2.1 Swaddling
A custom at the limit of tradition in infant care is swaddling, used especially in the childs first months of life.
Swaddling had its special role in order to avoid any risk, in societies where sufficient care and comfort could not be
offered to the infant child. In time, knowledge about the childs physical and psychological development demonstrated
that such a practice is not necessary for the child, however small it might be, being on the contrary, useless. New
diapers offered a greater opportunity for parents to leave freedom of movement to their babys hands and legs and give
up keeping the infant tied up in the swaddling band.
The data collected shows that about 60% of the parents with children in both age groups used swaddling with
their children, for various periods of time. Swaddling is a practice more frequent in rural areas where it may reach a rate
of over 70% (table 106).
103
Table no. 106: Distribution on age groups and residence areas of answers to the questions: Has your child
been swaddled?
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
3-5 6-7 3-5 3-5 6-7 3-5
Yes 59.4 63.1 47.5 54 71.8 71.5
No 40.1 36.4 52 44.9 27.7 28.5
I dont know/ Not answering 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.1 0.5 0
Total 100 100 100 100 100.1 100
From the total number of parents that used to swaddle their child, more than 50% swaddled the babys entire body,
such a practice being more frequent in rural areas. Almost half of the parents swaddled only the babys legs. (table 107)
Table no. 107: Distribution on age groups and residence areas of answers to the questions: How has your
child been swaddled?
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
The entire body 50.7 55.4 39.4 50 58.5 59.2
Only the legs 48.5 44 60.1 49 40.4 40.5
I dont know/Not answering 0.8 0.6 0.5 1 1.1 0.3
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
The majority of children were swaddled both during the daytime and during the night (table 108)
Table no. 108: Distribution on age groups and residence areas of answers to the question When was your
child swaddled
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
Day and night 62.7 67.1 59.6 60.4 64.8 71.8
Only in the daytime 4.8 3.3 4 3.5 5.3 3.2
Only at night 30.3 27.2 34.4 31.7 27.6 23.9
Other situations 1.4 1.6 1.5 3.5 1.3 0.4
I dont know /Not answering 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.9 1 0.7
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Over 51% of the preschool children were swaddled in order to have straight legs. Between 45.9 and 49.3% of
the parents swaddled their baby at the recommendation of the family the family advised me to. At least 40% of the
parents consider that when swaddled, the baby is quieter. Frequency of such reasons is not influenced by residence
area, urban or rural, where the respective families live (table 109).
104
Table no. 109: Distribution on age groups and residence areas of answers to the question: Why did you
swaddle your child? (multiple answers)
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
N = 355 N = 355 N = 140 N = 146 N = 215 N = 209
The baby is more quiet 41.4 40 32.9 40.4 47 39.7
In order to have straight legs 51.8 51.5 50 43.2 53 57.4
My family advised me to do so 45.9 49.3 44.3 41.8 47 54.5
The doctor/ nurse advised me 3.4 5.9 5.7 12.3 1.9 1.4
This is what I saw in the hospital 3.1 3.7 5.7 6.2 1.4 1.9
In order to keep the baby warm 3.7 3.4 6.4 3.4 1.9 3.3
We have no money for buying absorbent
2 2.5 1.4 2.7 2.3 2.4
diapers
Over 60% of the parents in the entire sample consider that swaddling is a good practice for the child, mentioning
that the rate of parents who believe that is higher in rural areas. (table 110).
Table no. 110: Distribution on age groups and residence areas of answers to the question: What is your
opinion about the custom to keep the baby swaddled during the first months of life? *
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
N = 355 N = 355 N = 140 N = 146 N = 215 N = 209
It is good for the baby 61.7 60 49.3 54.1 69.8 64.1
It is not good for the baby 7.3 10.1 10.7 13.7 5.1 7.7
It is no longer in fashion 2 3.1 2.9 6.8 1.4 0.5
I dont know /not answering 29,0 26,8 37,1 25,4 31,7 27,7
Regarding the age up to which babies were swaddled, from the data presented in table 111 we may see that
about 45% of the preschool children (both 3-5 and 6-7 year old) were swaddled during the first 6 weeks from birth, and
over one third were swaddled up to 12 weeks.
Table no. 111: The age up to which the child has been swaddled
Age until which the baby was Total Urban Rural

swaddled % % % % % %
- weeks - 3 5 age 6 7 age 3 5 age 6 7 age 3 5 age 6 7 age
0-6 44.95 45.06 51.01 54.95 40.77 38.03
6-12 36.91 34.57 32.32 29.70 40.07 38.03
> 12 16.08 17.70 14.65 7.92 17.07 22.89
I dont know 0.21 1.44 0.51 2.48 0.00 0.70
Not answering 1.86 1.23 1.52 2.48 2.09 0.35
total 100 100 100 100 100 100
II. 7.2.2 Wearing a cap or bonnet in the house is also a custom based on the traditional belief saying that the
child is protected in this way from getting ill, even though it has been demonstrated that this has nothing to do with
childs health. Almost 60 % of parents with children in both age groups observed this custom, at least until children were
one year old. This practice is more frequent with families living in rural areas. (table 112)
105
Table no. 112: Distribution on age groups and residence areas of answers to the question: Did you use to
keep the childs head permanently covered with a bonnet during the first year of life?
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
Yes 58.5 59.2 48 51.4 69.5 66.5
No 32.1 30.7 41.2 39.8 22.5 22.2
I dont know/Not answering 9.4 10.1 10.8 8.8 8 11.3
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Conclusions for the chapter on child rearing traditions and customs
Observance of child rearing customs and traditional practices are strongly rooted in the parents way of
thinking;
Over 90% of the interviewed families of preschool children, both in urban and rural areas, state that they
observe at least part of the child rearing customs;
The most frequent customs, observed by over 95% of the parents, are childs birthday and traditional holidays
celebration;
Other customs such as ear piercing for girls and the first haircut were mentioned with a high frequency also;
The majority of parents (among 75% and 80%) stated that they kept their child swaddled at least until the
baby was 12 weeks, but many of them practiced this after the respective age as well. This routine has been
observed mostly in rural areas;
The most frequent justifications for swaddling the baby were: in order for the child to have straight legs, the
family advised me to do so and the baby is quieter in this way.
Approximately 2/3 of the parents interviewed in rural areas consider that swaddling is good for the child
while in urban areas this opinion is shared by only 49.3% of parents with children in the 3-5 age group and
54% of parents with children in the 6-7 age group;
Approximately half of the families in urban areas and almost 70% of families in rural areas have permanently
kept their babys head covered with a bonnet
The rate of parents who know that traditional practices such as swaddling or covering the childs head with a
bonnet are bad for the childs health is very reduced, reaching only 10 % in urban and 5 % in rural areas.
106
CHAPTER II. 8
PLAY ACTIVITIES
II. 8.1. The importance of play activities in child development
Play activities, either in their incipient forms, specific to the small child, or in their more organized and advanced
forms, as kindergarten integrated activities or as pluri/ inter/ trans-disciplinary activities in school, are regarded as one of
the main development ways, oriented towards the future. What play activities may offer to the child at a certain moment
will remain as a precious acquirement throughout its entire life, because:
Play activities create an atmosphere of trust, a pleasant and encouraging environment;
Play activities remove discomfort generated by the effort to adapt to new requirements and challenges, as well
as the effort generated by the environment, exhaustion, psychological incongruity;
Play activities engage the child intensely, mobilize his psychological learning and creation resources, providing
the necessary psychological grounds for the learning process to him;
Play activities help the child assimilate new information by direct action, develop its aspiration, cognitive and
emotional capacities, assimilate models of interpersonal relations, develop attitudes and behaviors.
Surprise, novelty of the situations and connections created, the delay, action, disjunction moments between the
childrens expectations and the game conclusion enhances and intensifies participation.
Thus, we should be aware of the fact that achievement of a good child encouragement depends on the adults
play disposition, which cannot be the object of rules or norms but which may be the result of repeated exercise. We
should also keep in mind that play activities help the child in his efforts to meet reality and remain the key to any didactic
approach, even if, as the child grows up, their role remains that of helping the child escape from reality.
The data of this research shows that play activities represent a very important activity for child development for
most parents. The rate of parents stating that playing is a very important activity is higher in urban areas as compared to
rural areas for both age groups (diagram 34)
The fact that the great majority of the interviewed parents consider play activities as being very important for child
development is also confirmed by the data regarding the importance that parents attach to their childs studies. Thus, for
the 3-5 age group, 88.7% of the parents state that their children go to kindergarten and that the childs presence is
constant for about 86.9% of them. Parents also consider that the childs personality may be influenced for the good, and
the most common way to do so is rewarding the child with toys ( 65.3% of the cases).
107
II. 8.2. How children play and with what
An analysis regarding such aspect of the answers received from parents with children both in the 3-5 and the 6-7
age group indicates the fact that the first 3 places are held by toys (96.7% for the 3-5 age group and 97.9% for the 6-7
age group), games in open air (95.5% for the 3-5 age group and 93.9% for the 6-7 age group) and drawing/coloring
activities (88.5% for the 3-5 age group and 91.1% for the 6-7 age group). The same order is maintained even when the
analysis takes into consideration the two residence areas studied: urban and rural. (diagram 35)
An alarming fact is that games/sports performed in an organized environment, occupy the last place irrespective
of the childs age, registering a very low level especially in rural areas. At the same time, the last but one place is
occupied by computer games: 23.1% for the 3-5 age group and 27.5% for the 6-7 age group. (table 113)
Table no.113: The play activities of preschool children in the study sample
How does your child play? 3 5 year old 6 7 year old

Total Number of % Number %
cases N = 817 of cases N = 771
Drawing /coloring 723 88.5 702 91.1
Looking at picture books 675 82.6 652 84.6
With toys 790 96.7 739 95.8
With objects in the house 495 60.6 465 60.3
Games in open air 780 95.5 724 93.9
Puzzle, construction games 632 77.4 615 79.8
Imaginary and group games 524 64.1 488 63.3
Organized games/ sports 63 7.7 65 8.4
Table games 137 16.8 176 22.8
Computer games 189 23.1 212 27.5
The respective rate is reduced to half for the 3-5 age group (11.8% from 21.1%) or diminishes considerably for the
6-7 age group (14.6% from 42.2%) when we analyze data according to the two residence areas. This may be explained
on the one hand by the fact that this modern technology equipment has a higher impact in urban areas and, on the other
hand, by the fact that the difference between the urban and rural areas consists in most cases of a difference in family
incomes. (tables 114 and 115)
108
A positive aspect revealed by this study is the fact that toys and games in open air play an important role in the
life of preschool children. Unfortunately, as previously mentioned, the same thing may not be said for organized
games/sports towards which children should be more often oriented, starting with early ages, given their importance for a
childs harmonious physical development, socializing and discipline.
Table 114: The way in which children play in the urban area multiple answers
How does your child play? 3-5 6-7

Urban Number % Number %
of cases N = 417 of cases N = 374
With toys 406 97.4 366 97.9
With objects in the house 246 59.0 199 53.2
Organized games/ sports 48 11.5 49 13.1
Table games 88 21.1 105 28.1
Table 115: The way in which children play in the rural area multiple answers
How does your child play? 3-5 6-7

Rural Number % Number %
of cases N = 400 of cases N = 397
With toys 384 96.0 373 94
With objects in the house 249 62.3 266 67
Organized games/ sports 15 3.8 16 4
Table games 49 12.3 71 17.9
Another positive fact is that in a considerable number of cases, both for the 3-5 and for the 6-7 age group, mother
and father (37.6% and 32.4%) or mother, father and brothers (25.1% and 31%) play with the child. (table 116). This fact
is benefic for the childs development, taking into account the positive and encouraging family atmosphere that is created
in this way in the close environment of the child, which is capable of facilitating the development of positive behavior, self
esteem, etc. However, we need to point out that, in analyzing differences according to residence area, rates are
relatively close together for the 6-7 age group (38.6% in urban and 26.7% in rural areas for the mother and father
position) and more significant for the 3-5 age group (48.4% in urban and 26.3% in rural areas for the same position
mentioned previously). When interpreting this data, we may conclude that in urban areas both mother and father pay a
special attention to play activities, especially with the child 3-5 year old. In rural areas there are no differences on age
groups. (table 116).
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Table nr. 116: Persons in the family playing most frequently with the child (multiple answers)
Total Urban Rural

Who is playing at home with the child? % % % % % %
3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
Mother 8.4 9.1 7.4 8.0 9.5 10.1
Father 1.5 1 1.2 0.5 1.7 1.2
Brothers 4.8 6.2 2.4 4.0 7.3 8.3
Mother + father 37.6 32.4 48.4 38.6 26.3 26.7
Mother + father + brothers 25.1 31.0 20.6 29.4 29.7 32.5
Mother + brothers 4.2 4.3 3.6 3.5 4.7 5.0
Father + brothers 1.1 - 1.2 - 1.0 -
II. 8.3 Frequency and the way in which parents play with the child
The majority of the answers received for the question when did you last play with the child were yesterday /the
previous day, as it was only to be expected, with no significant difference on residence area and age groups. At the top
of the list of play activities carried out we may find playing with toys, as well as in the case of the types of games
preferred by the child (the item: how does the child play), without significant differences according to residence area
(42.2% for the 3-5 age group and 20.7% for the 6-7 age group) and games in open air (36.5% for the 3-5 age group and
55.4% for the 6-7 age group) (Table 117).
Table nr. 117: How do parents play with children multiple answers
Total Urban Rural

How did you play? % % % % % %
3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
With toys 42.4 37.4 39.5 32.4 45.6 42.1
With toys + game in open air 14.1 9.6 16.1 11.5 11.8 7.8
With toys + game in open air + Table games 0.2 0 0 0 0.2 0
With toys + Table games 0.5 0.1 1.0 0.3 0 0
game in open air 36.5 39.7 37.0 44.1 35.9 35.5
game in open air + Table games 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.5 0 0
Table games 2.6 4.2 4.0 5.6 1.1 2.8
Not answering 3.5 8.8 1.9 5.6 5.1 11.8
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
The fact that the family in Romania understands, appreciates the importance of play in child development and
gives a special attention to it in the great majority of cases, is a positive fact. Data interpretation also offers a true
perspective of the parents involvement in playing with the child, according to the childs age. This fact confirms a certain
knowledge of the childs development level according to his age, as well as a certain flexibility of the parents regarding
the needs and requests expressed by the child in this field. Playing with toys holds the first place for children in the 3-5
age group, while games in open air hold the first place for children in the 6 -7 age group. It is surprising indeed and very
pleasant to find out that, in what fathers are concerned, as persons playing with the child, rates are rather similar on the
whole sample, even if as presented at the beginning of the research, the majority of interviewed persons were mothers
(yesterday 31% of the cases for the 3-5 age group and 32.9% of the cases for the 6-7 age group; with toys - 24%
cases for the 3-5 age group and 20.7% for the 6-7 age group; games in open air 57.5% cases for the 3-5 age group
and 55.4% for the 6-7 age group).
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Table no. 118: Distribution of answers to the question: How did the father play with the child?
How did the father play with the Total Urban Rural
child? % % % % % %
3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
With toys 24 20.7 24.1 21.4 23.8 19.9
With toys + game in open air 9.4 5.4 10.6 6.4 8.2 4.4
With toys + Table games 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0 0
game in open air 57.5 55.4 59.3 57.1 55.4 53.9
game in open air + Table games 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0 0.2
Table games 2.1 3.1 3.0 4.6 1.2 1.7
Not answering 6.8 15 2.4 9.9 11.4 19.9
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
An interesting fact, yet probably justified, is that fathers prefer/ encourage games in open air with the child and
this seems to be in agreement with childrens preferences as well, who associate the male parent with games in open
air. There is certainly a further justification to this association that children make, namely that the male parent feels more
comfortable in an activity involving action, especially action in open air, while the female parent usually prefers a more
quiet activity, in the house.
II. 8.4. What type of toys do parents prefer to buy to girls and boys
Data collected shows that parents do usually have preferences regarding the type of toys they buy for their
children, according to the childs gender and age, without special differences for the two residence areas. Thus, dolls are
on top of the list in case the child is a girl (99.4% for children in the 3-5 age group and 95.7% for the 6-7 age group).
(table no. 119) The same may be said about toy-cars in case the child is a boy (98.5% for the 3-5 age group and 97.9%
for the 6-7 age group). (Table 120)
Table no. 119: Toys that parents prefer to buy for girls multiple answers -distribution on age groups and
residence areas
Total Urban Rural

What type of toys or other objects would you prefer % % % % % %
to buy for a girl? 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
N = 817 N = 771 N = 417 N = 374 N = 400 N = 397
Dolls 99.4 95.7 99.5 98.7 99.3 92.9
Cars (1.3% do not know) 28.9 30.9 29.0 29.1 28.8 32.5
Puzzle type games (3.4% do not know) 95.2 94.2 95.9 96.3 94.5 92.2
Construction games (3.3% do not know) 93.3 92.7 94.7 93.3 91.8 92.2
War games (5.8% do not know) 29.3 26.6 28.8 24.3 29.8 28.7
Toys representing objects used in the kitchen or in the
91.4 87.3 91.1 87.7 91.8 86.9
nursery (3.3% do not know)
Make-up kits (4% do not know) 79.1 76.4 78.9 78.6 79.3 74.3
Balls or other sports related toys (1.5% do not know) 96.1 97.1 95.0 96.5 97.3 97.7
Color books (1.1% do not know) 98.3 97.7 99.0 98.1 97.5 97.2
Reading books (1.5% do not know) 97.6 97.4 98.1 98.4 97.0 96.5
Tapes or CDs with music, fairytales (2.3% do not know) 95.3 94.9 96.9 96.5 93.8 93.5
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Table no. 120: Toys that parents prefer to buy for boys multiple answers -distribution on age groups and
residence areas
Total Urban Rural

What type of toys or other objects would you prefer to buy
for a boy? % % % % % %
3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
N = 817 N = 771 N = 417 N = 374 N = 400 N = 397
Dolls (1.2% do not know) 15.1 12.7 14.9 9.9 15.3 15.4
Cars (0.1% do not know) 98.5 97.9 98.1 98.9 99.0 97
Puzzle type games (2.9% do not know) 95.7 95.3 96.9 98.4 94.5 92.4
Construction games (2% do not know) 95.7 93.9 96.9 97.9 94.5 90.2
War games (4% do not know) 57.2 53.4 55.6 49.5 58.8 57.2
Toys representing objects used in the kitchen or in the nursery
42.4 41.4 45.1 35.8 39.5 46.6
(4.4% do not know)
Make-up kits (4% do not know) 10.2 13 10.1 7.2 10.3 18.4
Balls or other sports related toys (0.9% do not know) 98.2 98.1 98.3 99.5 98.0 96.7
Coloring books (0.9% do not know) 98.4 97.8 99.3 98.9 97.5 96.7
Reading books (1.3% do not know) 97.6 97.1 98.1 98.9 97.0 95.5
Tapes or CDs with music, fairytales (2.3% do not know) 95.5 95.3 97.4 97.3 93.5 93.5
A positive fact is that parents prefer to buy coloring books for both boys and girls, at rather close rates,
irrespective of the residence area or age group (98.3% for girls in 3-5 age group and 98.4% for boys in the 3-5 age
group), reading books (97.6% for girls and boys in the 3-5 age group) and CDs containing music or fairytales (95.3% for
girls in 3-5 age group and 95.5% for boys in the 6-7 age group). This fact is due, to a great extent, to the level of
education of interviewed parents, their interest in childrens education as well as family incomes which was situated, in
many of the cases, between 600 and 1000 RON.
We come across a similar situation in case of construction games or puzzle-type games, games supporting fine
muscle building, childrens thinking and which are stimulating development of social relations, patience, capacity to finish
a task, etc.
Regarding war games, even if they occupy the last 3 places on the list, according to the age or gender of the
child, the situation becomes worrying especially with male children in the rural areas (58.8% for the 3-5 age group and
57.2% for the 6-7 age group). This fact may represent the basis for the supposition that violent/aggressive behavior of
the child/young man has its roots also in the education received. In such context, parents are the first ones responsible,
as persons who are in charge with the childs education.
The fact that the highest rates are registered for boys in rural areas leads us to believe that villages are still
dominated by mentalities which reflect local traditions and the troubled history of the Romanian peasant, and that this
might be an issue of interest and a true challenge at the same time for the persons planning the curriculum.
II. 8.5 Free time activities encouraged by parents
In what free time is concerned, irrespective of the childs gender, a dominating tendency of parents may be
observed to encourage children to spend free time in the company of other children (98.1% in case of girls and 98.8% in
case of boys 3-5 year old; 98.6% in case of girls and 98.5% in case of boys 6-7 year old).
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Table no. 121: Free time activities that parents encourage for girls
Total Urban Rural

What are the free time activities that you
encourage for your child? % % % % % %
3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
- the child is a girl - N = 416 N = 365 N = 214 N = 182 N = 202 N = 183
Sports (3.3% do not know) 92.5 93.7 93.9 97.3 91.1 90.2
Artistic (0.5% do not know) 95.4 97.8 95.8 99.5 95 96.2
Household (0.3% do not know) 97.8 97.8 96.3 99.5 97.8 96.2
Spending free time with other children (0.5%
98.1 98.6 99.1 98.9 97 98.4
do not know)
Games played by the child alone at home
91.8 92.1 92.5 89.6 91.8 94.5
(1.9% do not know)
Table no. 122: Free time activities that parents encourage for boys
What are the free time activities that

you encourage for your child? Total Urban Rural
% % % % % %
- the child is a boy - 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
N = 401 N = 406 N = 203 N = 192 N = 198 N = 214
Sports (2.7% do not know) 97.8 96.6 98.5 97.4 97 95.8
Artistic (1.7% do not know) 96.5 97.8 97.5 97.4 95.5 98.1
Household (1.7% do not know) 94.8 93.6 97 92.7 92.4 94.4
Spending free time with other children
98.8 98.5 99.5 98.4 98 98.6
(0.7% do not know)
93.5 90.4 94.1 90.1 92.9 90.7
(2% do not know)
It is interesting to see that there are no major differences between the two residence areas, and that the order of
preference remains very closely related to the childs gender, respectively: for girls sports activities are on the last place,
and for boys household activities are on the last place. Nevertheless, even though we may have expected to find major
differences between encouraging artistic activities and the household ones, either according to residence area or
according to the childs gender, data collected does not confirm this. We find, moreover, almost identical rates in urban
areas for these two types of activities, both for girls and for boys (95.8% - encouragement of artistic activities and 96.3%
- encouragement of household activities for girls, for the 3-5 age group, and 97.5% - encouragement of artistic activities
and 97% - encouragement of household activities for boys belonging to the same age group).
For the 6 -7 age group, the rate of parents encouraging household activities, irrespective of the childs gender,
registers evident differences (2-3 points) on the two residence areas (99.5% in urban and 96.2% in rural areas for girls
and 92.7% in urban and 94.4% in rural areas for boys). This data confirms a greater preoccupation of parents having
boys in rural areas and girls in urban areas for this type of activities, even if they are not a top preoccupation for parents
having boys generally.
Conclusions for the chapter Play Activities
Play represents, for the majority of parents, a very important activity for child development.
The rate of parents stating that play is a very important activity is higher in urban as compared to rural areas
for both preschool age groups
Parents give a special importance to the childs studies, starting even with preschool education: 88.7% of
children in the interviewed families belonging to the 3-5 age group go to kindergarten, (86.9% of them going
regularly), and in the case of children in the 6-7 age group, 76.9 % of them go to school
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A rate of 61.4% of the interviewed parents consider, that it is important for their children to have higher
education as well.
Toys and games in open air are of a primary importance in the life of preschool children.
In a considerable number of cases, both for the 3-5 age group and the 6-7age group, mother and father
(37.6% and 32.4%) or mother, father and brothers (25.1% and 31%) play with the child.
Fathers prefer /encourage games in open air with children and this fact seems to be satisfying for the child,
who associates the male parent with games in the open.
Parents usually have preferences as to the types of toys they buy for their children, according to the childs
gender and age, without major differences between the two residence areas studied: thus dolls would be
selected for girls, and toy-cars for boys.
Parents encourage their children to spend their free time in the company of other children
There are no major differences regarding free time activities according to the residence area, but the order of
preferences remains very closely related to the gender of the child. Thus, sports activities remain on the last
place for girls, while for boys household activities are on the last place.
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CHAPTER II. 9
Specific information and analyses on preschool age subgroups
Child development in the 3- 6/7 age group
Arnold Gessel is an American psychologist who manifested a special interest for child development. As a result
he created sets of tests for the evaluation of child development at various ages and determined, after ample
experiments, the stages of a persons psychological development.
His stages concentrate on developmental progress and consist of seven stages, leaving aside the descending life
span that is the old age:
1. The embryo stage from birth up to 8 weeks;
2. The fetus stage from 8 to 40 weeks;
3. Small child stage from birth up to 2 year old;
4. Preschool age from 2 to 5 year old;
5. Childhood from 5 to 12 year old;
6. Adolescence from 12 to 20-24 year old;
7. Adult maturity.
For the first years of life, (1-5 years of age), Arnold Gessel elaborated portraits of child development, monitoring
four behavior aspects:
motor behavior;
adjustment behavior (intelligent behavior);
communication behavior (language);
social behavior.
We shall now consider 3 portraits, respectively the one of the 3 year old, the 5 year old and the 6/7 year old child.
The 3 year old child, as well as the 2 year old one, finds pleasure in motor activities, but not exclusively, like the
2 year old child. Progress and acquisitions that the child makes now on the motor level are as follows:
- runs much better; slows down or accelerated easily;
- climbs stairs without help, alternating feet;
- learns to ride a bike;
- manages, for a second, to stand on one leg;
- is interested in manipulating pencils and other play materials;
- spontaneous drawing, as well as the imitative one, expresses development of the fixed movements: graphic
lines are clearer, less diffuse and less repetitive;
- Increasing motor coordination showed in the construction of towers which consist of 9 -10 cubes;
- Manages to fold a sheet of paper longitudinally or transversally but not diagonally.
In respect of the adapting behavior of the 3 year old child, the following aspects were pointed out:
- Perception of forms is developing the child manages to pass the test for fitting a circle, square, triangle in a
frame;
- Copies a circle following a model;
- Recognizes an image when he is provided only half of it;
- Reconstructs a figure divided in two parts;
- Understands and executes what he is told;
- A tendency of order in arranging information may be observed in the area of perception and verbal matters
At 3 year old, words become instruments for describing things as perceived, ideas, relations. Here are some of
the most important acquisitions in the field of language that may be observed at this age:
- Vocabulary increases very much, maintaining however an unbalanced development for various categories of
words (some of them are fully and correctly used while others are still in the acquisition stage);
- Plays solitary games in which he is experimenting words, sentences and syntax;
- During drama games the child is actor as well as story teller, and plays certain parts not really for the sake of
playing but for the wish to exercise speech and verbalize thoughts;
- Play with words and songs is now developing;
- Learns to listen and, to a great extent, listens in order to learn.
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The last aspect regarding behavior of the 3 year old child, respectively social behavior, points out to the fact that
an active adjustment becomes present, submission to the environmental requests, and a need to receive approval from
people around him. It is by no means a blind submission, but a desire to understand and integrate himself. The following
can be mentioned among acquisitions made by the child in this field:
- Expresses feelings, wishes as well as problems by means of words;
- Begins to understand that he needs to wait for his turn;
- He is happy to wait and even share toys with someone else;
- Gains autonomy in helping himself, eats alone and quite clean;
- Shows great interest for putting clothes on and taking them off;
- Can sometimes unbutton his clothes;
- Unties shoelaces and takes off his shoes and socks.
The 5 year old child seems like and is even called a small adult. His progress and acquisitions are as follows:
- control over the own body is more precise than in the previous stage, and the body is more agile;
- jumps very steady using only one or both feet;
- the attitude is natural and graceful (movements are easy and sparing energy);
- coordination of fine movements is developing (uses tools and instruments with greater accuracy uses a
pencil with greater precision and can draw a little man which can be recognized as such or may copy a circle,
square and triangle by watching a model);
- can wash his teeth, comb his hair, wash his face without being assisted.
Regarding the adapting behavior, with the 5 year old child we may witness the following:
- solves simple problems implicating geometrical and spatial relations (ex.: is able to restore a cardboard
structure the dimensions of a business card, when diagonally cut, can solve complex fitting in tasks);
- in his drawings one may notice greater attention for details, including for the previous drawing of the little man;
- can count up to ten objects and is able to make additions up to 5, manipulating objects. He is also able to tell
his age;
- the sense of time and duration are more developed (ex.: can follow the action in a story and is able to repeat
correctly long parts of it, can follow achievement of a certain game project over several days, correlated with
a full understanding and verbalization of what happened yesterday or what will happen tomorrow),
- the idea precedes implementation when he is drawing or painting.
At 5 year old sounds are almost all generally acquired, and speech no longer has the infantile pronouncing
characteristics it had before. Here are some of the most important acquisitions in the field of language that can be
noticed at this age:
- answers provided to the questions he is asked are more precise and more direct, and the childs questions
are fewer and more relevant (he listens to the answers with the precise intention to inform himself);
- uses all types of sentences, including the ones making hypothetical or conditional statements;
- uses prepositions and conjunctions correctly;
- uses, during staged games which are in his full control, a continuing dialog, with well shaped roles regarding
situations in every day life.
The last aspect regarding behavior of the 5 year old child, respectively social behavior, points to the fact that
during this period the child gains more autonomy and independence. Thus, among the childs acquisitions in this field we
can notice the following aspects:
- in household activities he is compliant and raises few problems, he even shows interest in helping with the
domestic tasks (sleeps well, hygiene routines are all in place, as well as the ones for clothing, unclothing and
he is performing well daily duties);
- manifests a protective attitude in respect of younger brothers or playmates;
- can tell his name and address and even asks for support when he is lost in the street;
- his socializing ability gains a new dimension (he plays in groups of two up to five members and he definitely
prefers playing in a group than solitarily);
- he likes clothes and he can choose what he wants;
- he is much more aware of cultural and gender differences;
- he is happy and proud of his possessions, of his artistic products;
- in less complex situations, that he can understand and control, he manifests seriousness, he is goal oriented,
patient, persistent generous and friendly;
- he is more self-confident, confident in the others, and socially obedient.
The first 5 years of life are learning years, after which childhood follows (5-10 year old), as a middle period, a
passage towards the two subsequent stages: adolescence and maturity. During this middle period a series of subtle
116
changes occur, many of them hidden, that lead to wrong interpretations whenever they manifest themselves; parents
have a tendency to blame the school, teachers to blame either the child or the parent. Facts are considered from an
external point of view such as success or failure.
Developing between training and achievement, the child is confronted during this period with variations between a
relative balance and a transitional (progress) imbalance. After the preschool period, the child is ready to accept the
separation from the family and adapts to the new world, that of the school, (by joining first grade or the preparatory group
in kindergarten).
In such context, we will present the level of fundamental acquisitions: reading and writing for this age (6/7 year old).
Reading at 6 year old:
- interest for both small and large letters;
- recognizes words and sentences, sometimes paragraphs;
- finds words related to the respective image or story;
- fits in words;
- likes to have materials (books, images) related to his own experience;
- when being able to read a book he will reread it several times;
- substitutes words that bear some resemblance to one another.
Reading at 7 year old:
- is able to read paragraphs now;
- recognizes familiar words easier and with greater speed;
- typical reading errors (changes the order of letters, adds or substitutes words etc.).
Writing at 6 year old:
- Is able to write almost all letters, but with many reversals;
- Writes some words, but mixes up large and small letters, without making a difference as to their dimension;
- Writes letters in one course, with less stops;
- Likes to use a variety of materials: chalk, various types of pencils;
- Writes his full name;
- Is able to write numbers from 1 to 20, but may still reverse position of numbers (31 instead of 13) or may
write the number reversed (usually 3, 7 or 9).
Writing at 7 year old:
- Is able to write words and sentences, using both small and large letters;
- Corrects letters written reversed, but still writes a reverse letter now and again;
- Starts to separate words;
- Likes to copy sentences;
- Likes to write correctly and erases a lot;
- Writes numbers from 1 to 20 and even more without mistake, but still reverses a number every now and again.
A. Specific Information for the 3-5 age group
II. 9.1. Parents knowledge regarding child personality formation
As previously pointed out, this is the age when the childs personality begins to form itself progressively. An
overall view shows that over 70% of the interviewed parents considered that at this age the child personality may be
influenced. In rural areas the rate of parents who gave an affirmative answer to this question was lower. The rate of
parents who did not answer or did not know what to answer to this question was higher in rural areas as compared to
urban ones (table 123).
Table nr. 123: Distribution of answers to the question: Can the childs personality be influenced at this age?
Total Urban Rural

Number of cases % Number of cases % Number of cases %
Yes 582 71.2 316 75.8 266 66.5
No 137 16.8 61 14.6 76 19
I dont know 92 11.3 38 9.1 54 13.5
Total 817 100 417 100 400 100
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When asked how they consider that the childs personality may be influenced in a good way, almost 95 % of the
parents answered that encouragement and praising the childs positive behavior are the most important methods,
followed in order by a sign of affection for the child (91% of the parents) and the offering of privileges (over 85% of the
parents). As a positive fact it should be pointed out that sweets were mentioned on the last place. (table 124).
Table no. 124: Distribution of answers to the question How can you influence in a good way the childs
personality multiple answers
Total Urban Rural

Number of % Number of % Number %
By means of encouragements/ praising
552 94.8 303 95.9 249 93.6
positive behavior
By offering toys as a reward 380 65.3 212 67.1 168 63.2
By offering sweets as a reward 333 57.2 190 60.1 143 53.8
By signs of affection 532 91.4 294 93 238 89.5
By offering privileges 497 85.4 278 88 219 82.3
By establishing rules for the childs behavior 431 74.1 250 79.1 181 68
Such data demonstrates that parents have theoretical and practical knowledge about preschool child education,
confirmed also by the answers to the question How do you praise the childs positive behavior? (chapter 6
Family Ecology). However, if we put together this information and the information obtained in the previously mentioned
chapter, subchapter Punishments we may notice that practically parents resort very frequently to harsh discipline
methods that can influence the childs personality in a negative way.
It is important that the majority of parents, in almost the same proportion in urban and rural areas, stated that the
lack of affection may influence in a negative way the childs personality. Negative examples were mentioned on the
second place, and punishments as well as the fact that the child is not shown positive attention represented the other
causes that may influence childs behavior in a negative way. Few parents knew the importance of establishing clear
rules for the formation of the childs personality. In rural areas less than half of the parents knew the importance of
satisfying the basic needs of the child food, sleep, health, play, communication, etc.( table 125)
Table no. 125: Distribution of the answers to the question: How can you influence in a wrong way the childs
personality?- multiple answers
Total Urban Rural

Number of % Number of % Number %
By not showing sufficient affection 508 87.3 278 88 230 86.5
By not showing positive attention when
441 75.8 247 78.2 194 72.9
necessary
By not taking into consideration the
397 68.2 220 69.6 177 66.5
childs wishes
By punishments 435 74.7 227 71.8 208 78.2
By not establishing clear behavior rules 329 56.5 201 63.6 128 48.1
By means of negative examples 458 78.7 255 80.7 203 76.3
By not satisfying basic needs 308 52.9 184 58.2 124 46.6
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II. 9.2. Knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding play activities
From parents statements we find that over 40% of children 3 to 5 year old (from the analyzed sample) play for 4-6
hours every day. In rural areas children play more than in urban areas, where they play every day less than 4 hours (
table 126). This fact may be explained as an influence of several factors: in urban areas the number of secure play
grounds available for children of this age is relatively low; in general, at this age, children also need to be permanently
supervised by parents or other members of the family who may not be always available. On the other hand, in urban
areas children are offered the possibility to have various other activities adequate with their age: ballet, sports, childrens
shows etc. Involving children in such activities depends, however, to a very great extent on the socio-cultural level of the
family.
Table no. 126: Distribution of answers to the question: How many hours per day is your child generally
playing?
Total Urban Rural

Number of Number of Number of
% % %
cases cases cases
Less than 2 hours 20 2.4 13 3.1 7 1.8
2 4 hours 313 38.3 180 43.2 133 33.3
4 6 hours 351 43 170 40.8 181 45.2
More than 6 hours 129 15.8 53 12.7 76 19
I dont know 4 0.5 1 0.2 3 0.7
Total 817 100 417 100 400 100
Approximately 88% of the parents with children 3-5 year old consider that their child plays sufficiently; 4,7%
consider that their child plays more than he needs. We ought to point out that the rate of parents who stated that their
child plays too much is double in rural as compared to urban areas, and the rate of parents stating that their child does
not play sufficiently is higher in urban areas. ( table 127).
119
Table no. 127: Distribution of answers to the question: How much does your child play?
Total Urban Rural

% % %
cases cases cases
Less than he needs 31 3.8 22 5.3 9 2.2
Sufficiently 722 88.4 370 88.7 352 88
More than he needs 38 4.7 13 3.1 25 6.3
I dont know 26 3.1 12 2.9 14 3.5
Total 817 100 417 100 400 100
Both in urban and in rural areas, more than half of the children 3-5 year old who do not play are watching
television. In urban areas, only 24% of the children who do not play are sleeping, while in rural areas their rate is over
35%. In urban areas also, the rate of children who develop intellectual activities (look at picture books, assist at their
brothers homework, draw, etc.) is twice higher than that of children in rural areas. However, the rate of children who help
with household duties is higher in rural areas than in urban ones (table 128 and diagram 37).
Table no. 128: Distribution of answers to the question: When not playing, what other activity is your child
involved in? - multiple answers
Total Urban Rural

Number % Number % Number %
Sleeping/ resting 241 29.5 98 23.5 143 35.8
Watching TV 447 54.7 240 57.6 207 51.8
Helping with domestic duties in the house/
102 12.5 44 10.6 58 14.5
yard
Doing homework/reading a book /staying with
116 14.2 79 18.9 37 9.3
his brother who is doing homework /drawing
Going to a sports activity/ballet/other organized
19 2.3 12 2.9 7 1.8
activities
Going for a walk 50 6.1 31 7.4 19 4.8
120
II. 9.3. Routines formation for the child 3-5 year old
Formation of various routines, both regarding hygiene and practical ones represents an important stage in
childcare and education, together with the childs preparation for school and social integration.
The majority of parents stated that they formed hygiene routines to their child that he uses regularly (Table 129)
Table no. 129: Formation of hygiene routines
Has your child daily hygiene routines Total Urban Rural

that he uses by himself regularly? Number of Number of Number
% % %
Yes 778 95.3 407 97.6 371 92.8
No 36 4.4 8 1.9 28 7
I dont know 2 0.2 2 0.5 0 0
Not answering 1 0.1 0 0 1 0.2
Total 817 100 417 100 400 100
The most frequent routine proved to be washing hands before eating. A smaller percentage of children wash their
hands after they have used the toilet. Washing teeth daily is present only with about 70% of the children in rural areas
and almost 80% in urban areas ( table 130).
Table no. 130: Hygiene routines formed to children 3-5 year old
Total Urban Rural

If yes, what are such routines? Number % Number % Number %
Washes hands before eating 767 98.6 399 98 368 99.2
Washes hands after using the toilet 581 74.7 320 78.6 261 70.4
Washes teeth daily 699 89.8 379 93.1 320 86.3
Approximately 44% of the preschool children 3-5 year old dress by themselves and an almost equal rate dress
with someones help. However, 10% of the children this age did not form this routine yet (table 131).
Table no. 131: Distribution of answers of parents with children 3-5 year old to the question: Does your
child dress /undress by himself?
Does your child dress /undress by Total Urban Rural

himself? Number Number Number
% % %
Yes 367 44.9 190 45.6 177 44.2
No 82 10 42 10.1 40 10
Partially 367 45 184 44.1 183 45.8
I dont know 1 0.1 1 0.2 0 0
Total 817 100 417 100 400 100
About 88.4% of the children in this age group were taught by their parents to zip/unzip clothes, a slightly smaller
percentage of children were taught to button up their clothes and only few (29.7%) to tie their shoe laces ( table 132).
121
Table no. 132: Other practical abilities formed by parents to children 3-5 year old multiple answers.
Total Urban Rural

Did you teach your child to: Number % Number % Number %
Tie shoelaces 243 29.7 117 28.1 126 31.5
Button up clothes 634 77.6 327 78.4 307 76.8
Zip/unzip clothes 722 88.4 373 89.4 349 87.3
Previously studied aspects show sufficient preoccupation on the part of parents for teaching the child various
skills and hygiene routines, that may support the childs social and school integration.
II. 9.4. The care for childs safety
The care for childs safety was analyzed by asking parents the question if they allow the child to leave home
unaccompanied, and how often they do this. As it was only to be expected, there are important differences between
urban and rural areas for this indicator: while in urban areas over 90% of the interviewed parents stated that they never
let their 3-5 year old child leave home unaccompanied, in rural areas almost 30 % of the children this age are allowed to
leave home always /sometimes without being accompanied by an adult (table 133).
Table no. 133: Distribution of answers to the question: Do you allow your child to leave home without being
accompanied by an adult?
Total Urban Rural

% % %
cases cases cases
Always 18 2.2 1 0.2 17 4.2
Sometimes 134 16.4 38 9.2 96 24
Never 665 81.4 378 90.6 287 71.8
Total 817 100 417 100 400 100
II. 9.5. Education of the preschool child 3-5 year old
The great majority of children 3-5 year old attend kindergarten, both in rural and in urban areas, with the specification
that the rate of children going to kindergarten in urban areas is somewhat higher, reaching over 90% ( table 134).
Table no. 134: Distribution of answers to the question: Has your child joined kindergarten
Is your child going Total Urban Rural

to the kindergarten? Number of Number of Number
% % %
Yes 725 88.7 379 90.9 346 86.5
No 92 11.3 38 9.1 54 13.5
Total 817 100 417 100 400 100
Among children attending kindergarten, over 70% go to a kindergarten with normal program (until noon). Here we
need to point out a significant difference between urban and rural areas, represented by the fact that the great majority
of kindergartens in rural areas have only a normal program (until noon). In urban areas only half of the children 3-5 year
old attend a kindergarten with a normal program (table 135).
122
Table nr. 135: The type of kindergarten attended frequency distribution
What type of kindergarten does Total Urban Rural

your child attend? Number of Number of Number of
% % %
cases cases cases
Normal program (until noon) 513 70.8 192 50.7 321 92.8
Extended program 211 29.1 186 49.1 25 7.2
Weekly program 1 0.1 1 0.2 0 0
Total 725 100 379 100 346 100
Approximately 90% of the children going to kindergarten in urban areas are attending constantly. In rural areas
over 14% of the children enlisted do not have a satisfying attendance (table 136).
Table no. 136: Attendance of kindergarten by children 3-5 year old frequency distribution
Does your child attend kindergarten Total Urban Rural

regularly? Number of Number Number of
% % %
cases of cases cases
Yes 630 86.9 341 90 289 83.5
No 71 9.8 22 5.8 49 14.2
Other* 24 3.3 16 4.2 8 2.3
Total 725 100 379 100 346 100
More than one third of the parents, both in urban and rural areas, stated that they consider their child 3-5 year old to
be too small to join kindergarten. At the same time, 10% of them in urban and 13% in rural areas motivated that there is no
kindergarten near the place where they live. Generally, we may notice that parents realize too little the role of the
kindergarten as an education and social integration factor; 5% of the parents both in urban and rural areas stated that they
do not see the necessity of having their child attend kindergarten; almost 37% of the parents in urban areas do not take
their child to the kindergarten because there is someone who can take care of the child at home, and in rural areas over
5.6% of the parents consider that the child receives a better education at home than in kindergarten. (table 137)
Causes for which children 3-5 year old do not join kindergarten are determined to a great extent by socio-
economic factors. For example, in rural areas, more than one fifth of the children do not join kindergarten because they
do not have adequate footwear/clothing and in urban areas for almost 8% of the children not attending kindergarten
parents stated that they cannot pay the necessary food contribution (table 137).
Table no. 137: Parents reasons for not having their children join kindergarten - multiple answers -
Total Urban Rural

Why is your child not joining kindergarten? Number % Number of % Number %
of cases N = 92 cases N = 38 of cases N = 54
There is no kindergarten in the area 11 12 4 10.5 7 13
There is no one to take the child there 3 3.3 1 2.6 2 3.7
The child is ill /has a handicap 2 2.2 - - 2 3.7
Food is not nourishing - - - - - -
Conditions are not satisfactory 1 1.1 1 2.6 - -
The quality of education is not satisfactory 2 2.2 1 2.6 1 1.9
The child is getting better education at home 4 4.3 1 2.6 3 5.6
We cannot pay the food contribution 4 4.3 3 7.9 1 1.9
The child lacks clothing/ footwear 13 14.1 2 5.3 11 20.4
I dont think it is necessary 5 5.4 2 5.3 3 5.6
He has someone to take care of him at home 18 19.6 14 36.8 4 7.4
The child is too young 34 37 14 36.8 20 37
123
Almost 2/3 (62%) of the interviewed parents stated that their child will join kindergarten the following year, their
number being slightly higher in rural areas (32) than in urban areas (25). However, over 20 % in urban and 25% in rural
areas stated that they dont know, and 14.1% do not have the intention of enlisting their child the following year (table 138).
Table no. 138: Distribution of answers to the question: Do you intend to have your child join kindergarten
during the next school year?
Total Urban Rural

% % %
Yes 57 62 25 65.7 32 59.3
No 13 14.1 5 13.2 8 14.8
I do not know 22 23.9 8 21.1 14 25.9
Total 92 100 38 100 54 100
II. 9.6. Involvement of the small preschool child in domestic activities
More than half of the children 3-5 year old are involved in domestic activities, almost equally in urban and rural
areas (table 139). Over 97% of such children help their parents in the house, mostly together with them, and this is a
way of teaching the child various skills (setting the table, cleaning the table, arranging clothes, cleaning the room, etc.)
Beyond this general aspect there are, however, significant differences between urban and rural areas regarding
involving the child in domestic activities. It may be said that in villages childrens life is more difficult, since they are
involved in more difficult jobs: more than half of the children 3-5 year old in rural areas help in the garden, over 30% take
care of the animals in the yard, over 27% harvest fruit and vegetables, almost 20% take care of pets, and 11% carry
water (table 140 and diagram 38).
Table no. 139: Distribution of answers to the question Do you involve your child in domestic activities?
Do you involve your child in Total Urban Rural

domestic activities? Number Number Number
% % %
Yes 462 56.5 241 57.8 221 55.2
No 355 43.5 176 42.2 179 44.8
Total 817 100 417 100 400 100
Table no. 140: Domestic activities in which the child is involved
Total Urban Rural

If yes, what is he supposed to do? Number Number Number
% % %
Help in the house 451 97.6 237 98.3 214 96.8
Help in the garden 150 32.5 38 15.8 112 50.7
Take care of pets 58 12.6 14 5.8 44 19.9
Take care of animals in the yard 76 16.5 9 3.7 67 30.3
Take care of younger brothers 26 5.6 8 3.3 18 8.1
Take animals on the pasture 7 1.5 1 0.4 6 2.7
Carry water 31 6.7 6 2.5 25 11.3
Harvest fruit / vegetables 78 16.9 17 7.1 61 27.6
Help with the jobs in the field 11 2.4 3 1.2 8 3.6
124
Only approximately 3% of the parents were against involving children in domestic activities, over 2 thirds
presenting as a reason the small age of the child, and 1 third considering this unnecessary ( table 141).
Table no. 141: Reasons why parents do not involve their children in domestic activities multiple answers
Total Urban Rural

% % %
The child is too small 238 67 109 61.9 129 72.1
It is not necessary 115 32.4 64 36.4 51 28.5
I am against involving the child in domestic activities 11 3.1 5 2.8 6 3.4
I have no time to teach the child - - - - - -
The child is not capable 6 1.7 2 1.1 4 2.2
II. 9.7. Knowledge, attitudes and practices of parents with children 3-5 year old regarding gender
issues
Two thirds of the parents with children 3-5 year old consider that there are no specific activities for boys/ girls.
However, 12.9 % gave an affirmative answer and 18% could not answer.
Table no. 142: Parents opinion regarding specific activities for girls and for boys
Are there specific activities for Total Urban Rural

boys/girls? Number Number Number
% % %
Yes 105 12.9 50 12 55 13.8
No 539 66 275 66 264 66
I dont know 151 18.5 79 18.9 72 18
Not answering 22 2.6 13 3.1 9 2.2
Total 817 100 417 100 400 100
125
The greatest part of the parents who stated that there are specific activities according to gender considered that
boys need to perform especially repairing jobs, building activities or working in the field, and as free time activities sports
(football), while for girls they considered to be more adequate household activities, such as cleaning, cooking, etc., and
as free time activities knitting, sewing, etc.
Table no. 143: Activities that parents prefer for boys
If Yes, please give examples Total Urban Rural

Boys Number of % Number of % Number %
Repairing jobs/building /working in the field 66 62.9 30 60 36 65.5
Football/sports 31 29.5 14 28 17 30.9
Different toys /toy cars 25 23.8 14 28 11 20
Table no. 144: Activities that parents prefer for girls
If yes, please give examples Total Urban Rural

Girls Number of % Number of % Number %
cleaning/cooking/housework 64 61 28 56 36 65.5
Modeling/sewing/knitting 24 22.9 15 30 9 16.4
Different toys /dolls 30 28.6 13 26 17 30.9
II. 9.8. Parents knowledge regarding child development
Parents were asked a number of questions on their knowledge regarding child development (see attached
questionnaire).
Over 80% of the parents consider that until 3 year old the child should speak well (table 145). Over 95% of the
interviewed parents knew that each child develops in its own rhythm (table 146) and that, therefore around the age of 3
children can be different one from another (table no. 146). More than 89% of the parents stated that at 4 year old the
child is attracted by new things, people, places and activities. Approximately 87% of the parents agreed that at the age
of 4 childrens games may often include the use in very imaginative way of household objects (table no. 149).
Regarding the childs school success, almost 70% of the parents considered that it is based on repetition of things
already learned, 20% disagreed with this and 10% were not sure (table no. 148).
Generally we may say that both in urban and rural areas parents knowledge was satisfactory.
Table no. 145: Parents distribution according to their opinion regarding the age when the child should be
speaking
Some children learn to speak later, Total Urban Rural

but most of them speak well at 3 Number Number Number
% % %
year old of cases of cases of cases
I agree 671 82.1 352 84.4 319 79.7
I disagree 111 13.6 42 10.1 69 17.3
I am not sure 33 4.1 22 5.3 11 2.8
Total 817 100 417 100 400 100
126
Table no. 146: Distribution of parents answers regarding childrens different development
At the age of 3 children can differ one Total Urban Rural

from another as development, because Number Number Number
% % %
each child develops in its own rhythm of cases of cases of cases
I agree 787 96.4 405 97.1 382 95.5
I disagree 13 1.6 4 1 9 2.2
I am not sure 15 1.8 8 1.9 7 1.8
I dont understand 2 0.2 0 0 2 0.5
Total 817 100 417 100 400 100
Table no. 147: Distribution of parents opinions regarding the childs interest for elements in the
surrounding environment
Some say that at the age of 4 children Total Urban Rural

are attracted by new things, people, Number of Number of Number
% % %
places and activities cases cases of cases
I agree 734 89.8 378 90.6 356 89
I disagree 27 3.3 13 3.2 14 3.5
I am not sure 42 5.2 23 5.5 19 4.8
Total 817 100 417 100 400 100
Table no. 148: Distribution of parents answers regarding the importance of memorizing in achieving
school success
Some say that a childs school success is Total Urban Rural

based on repeating things already learnt Number Number Number
% % %
I agree 564 69 275 66 289 72.3
I disagree 164 20.1 94 22.5 70 17.5
I am not sure 85 10.4 48 11.5 37 9.2
I dont understand 4 0.5 0 0 4 1
Total 817 100 417 100 400 100
Table no. 149: Distribution of parents opinions regarding the play activities of a child 3-5 year old
Some say that the play activities of children Total Urban Rural
4 year old often include the use in a very Number Number Number
% % %
imaginative way of household objects of cases of cases of cases
I agree 708 86.7 360 86.3 348 87
I disagree 48 5.9 24 5.8 24 6
I am not sure 40 4.9 26 6.2 14 3.5
Total 817 100 417 100 400 100
127
Conclusions:
Over 70% of the interviewed parents considered that the child personality may be influenced at 3-5 year old
both in a good and in a bad way.
When asked how they consider that a child personality may be influenced in a good way, almost 95% of the
parents answered that encouragement and praising childs positive behavior is the most important way.
The majority of parents almost equally in urban and rural areas stated that lack of affection may influence in a
negative way the childs personality.
Practically, parents do apply frequently enough harsh discipline methods that may influence in a negative
way the childs personality.
Few parents knew the importance of establishing clear rules in child education.
88% of the parents with children 3-5 year old consider that their child plays sufficiently; the rate of parents
stating that their child plays too much is double in rural areas than in urban ones, and the rate of parents
stating that their child does not play enough is higher in urban areas.
The great majority of children 3-5 year old attend kindergarten, both in urban and in rural areas. Over 70%
from children who joined kindergarten attend a kindergarten with a normal program (until noon).
In urban areas, over 90% of the interviewed parents stated that they never allow their 3-5 year old child to
leave home unaccompanied by an adult.
Almost 30% of the children 3-5 year old in rural areas are allowed by their parents to leave home, sometimes
or anytime, without being accompanied by an adult.
More than half of the children 3-5 year old are involved in domestic activities, almost equally in urban and
rural areas, and among preferred activities, helping in the house is on the first place (over 97% ).
Life can be said to be more difficult for children in rural areas, as they are involved in activities implying
harder work: more than half of the children 3-5 year old in rural areas help their parents in the garden, over
30% of them take care of domestic animals, over 27% harvest fruit and vegetables, almost 20% take care of
pets, and 11% carry water.
Two thirds of the parents with children 3-5 year old consider that there are no specific activities for boys/ girls,
but still about 13% of the parents answered affirmatively, and 18% could not give an answer to this question.
B. Specific information for the 6-7 year old preschool child
II. 9.9. The importance that parents attach to the studies of their children
The importance that parents attach to the education of their child is higher as the child grows older, data collected
reflecting very much this fact. Children 6-7 year old are almost all attending a form of education, either school or
preschool. The rate of children that are not attending any form of school at the age of 7 is very low. In urban areas, from
the sample of 374 interviewed parents, only in 2 cases (0.5%) the child was attending neither school nor kindergarten,
out of which one was that of a child with a severe disability. In rural areas the rate of children attending neither school
nor kindergarten is somewhat higher, without however being important. Only 12 children from the 397 interviewed cases,
3% respectively, were not attending school or kindergarten, the reasons of the respective parents being the same as in
the case of children 3-5 year old, that is the absence of a kindergarten in the area or the lack of clothing / footwear.
However, more children attend school at 6-7 year old in rural areas than in urban areas, both as a share and as total
number of cases (table 150 and 151)
Table no. 150: Distribution of answers regarding kindergarten attendance
Does your child attend Total Urban Rural

kindergarten? Number Number Number
% % %
Yes 593 76.9 304 81.3 289 72.8
No 14 1.8 2 0.5 12 3
Attends school 164 21.3 68 18.2 96 24.2
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
128
Table no. 151: Reasons for which the 6-7 year old children did not join kindergarten multiple answers
Total Urban Rural

Why dont they join kindergarten? Number Number Number
(N = 14) (N = 2) (N = 12)
The child is ill/ handicapped 7 1 6
There is no kindergarten in the area / There is no one who can take him
there /Food is not so nourishing / Conditions are not satisfactory / the 5 1 4
quality of education is not satisfactory
We cannot afford to pay the food contribution / The child has no clothes
/footwear/I do not see the necessity / The child gets a better education at 5 1 4
home
Table no. 152: Distribution of answers regarding the importance that parents attach to school
Do you consider that it is important Total Urban Rural

for your child to attend school? Number of Number of Number
% % %
Yes 756 98.1 365 97.6 391 98.5
No 1 0.1 0 0 1 0.2
Not answering 14 1.8 9 2.4 5 1.3
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
Almost all parents consider that it is important for their child to attend school. (table 152); It is remarkable that in
rural areas more parents have this opinion, even if the level of studies that they would like their child to reach stops at
high school to a greater extent than in urban areas, where over 72% of the interviewed parents hope to be able to give
their child the possibility of a higher education (table 153)
Table no. 153: Parents options regarding childrens studies
How long do you consider that it is Total Urban Rural

important for the child to study? Number of Number of Number
% % %
4 grades 1 0,1 0 0 1 0,2
8 grades 12 1,5 4 1,0 8 2,0
Vocational school 28 3,6 3 0,8 25 6,3
High school 169 21,9 56 15,0 113 28.4
Training school 39 5,0 21 5,6 18 4,5
College/higher education 474 61,5 270 72,3 204 51,4
I dont know 48 6,2 20 5,3 28 7,0
Total 771 100.0 374 100 397 100
When asked if during the following year their child would join school, over 2 thirds of the parents of children 6-7
year old gave an affirmative answer. Parents that gave a negative answer were in a higher number from urban areas,
and the main reason for that was that they consider the child to be too young. (table 154)
129
Table no. 154: Parents options regarding the child joining up school
Will your child join school next Total Urban Rural

year? Number Number Number
% % %
Yes 510 66.1 254 67.9 256 64.5
No 95 12.3 50 13.4 45 11.3
Already attends school 164 21.3 69 18.4 95 23.9
Not answering 2 0.3 1 0.3 1 0.3
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
It is indeed pleasing to see that none of the parents, neither in urban nor in rural areas, is holding the child back from
school in order to have him help with domestic work or for other purposes related to household activities. (table 155)
Table no. 155: Causes for which parents consider that the child cannot join school
Total Urban Rural

Why? Number % Number % Number %
I have no money 7 7.4 2 4 5 11.1
There is no school in the area 1 1.1 0 0 1 2.2
The child has a disability 1 1.1 0 0 1 2.2
The child helps me with the domestic
0 0 0 0 0 0
activities
It is still too young 55 57.9 29 58 26 57.8
Not answering 31 32.6 19 38 12 26.7
II. 9.10 Childs preparation for school in the family
The childs preparation for school is an important element both for the child and for its parents. Joining up school
is for both parties a tryout moment, needing a long both practical and psychological preparation, in order for the child to
integrate well, and for parents to avoid being overwhelmed by their new duties. Sometimes parents regard the childs
joining school as a burden, school bringing in for them a number of new duties: taking the child home at the end of the
school program, doing homework, clearly established bed time hours, without mentioning the high costs that school
involves (books, copybooks, teaching material etc.). However, it is indeed a remarkable fact that almost all school age
children attend school. We consider that this good aspect should be better supported by social protection measures as
well as a better offer for educational services (or related ones) in order for this value of the Romanian society to be
maintained. Additional free of charge after school programs, extension of free transportation services for school children
to and from school, as well as lower prices for school supplies and teaching material may be some important support
issues especially for families with low incomes.
Table no. 156: Distribution of parents answers to the question Do you consider that it is important for your
child to feel good in school?
Do you consider that it is important for the Total Urban Rural

child to feel good in school among other Number Number Number
% % %
children? of cases of cases of cases
Yes 722 93.7 357 95.5 365 91.9
I didnt think about it 28 3.6 13 3.5 15 3.8
I am not concerned about this 1 0.1 0 0 1 0.3
I dont know 20 2.6 4 1 16 4
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
130
Parents are concerned about their childs school integration. Over 95% of the parents in urban and over 90% in
rural areas believe that it is important for their child to feel good in school; several parents stated that they didnt think
about it, others that they didnt know, but only one of the 771 interviewed parents answered that he was not concerned
about this (table 156)
Table no. 157: Distribution of parents answers regarding school readiness
Do you consider your child ready Total Urban Rural

for school? Number Number Number
% % %
Yes 625 81.1 302 80.7 323 81.4
No 72 9.3 39 10.4 33 8.3
I dont know 62 8 27 7.3 35 8.8
Not answering 12 1.6 6 1.6 6 1.5
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
More than 4/5 of the parents consider that their child is ready for school, about 8% do not know but 10.4% in
urban and 8.3% in rural areas believe that their child is insufficiently prepared for joining school. (table 157)
Table no. 158: Skills and abilities for preparing children to join school multiple answers
How did you prepare your child for Total Urban Rural
joining school? Number % Number % Number %
Has independent hygiene routines 700 90.8 338 90.4 362 91.2
Dresses /undresses by himself 692 89.8 333 89 359 90.4
Takes care of his own belongings 650 84.3 315 84.2 335 84.4
Is able to tie his shoelaces 590 76.5 282 75.4 308 77.6
Can button up his clothes 674 87.4 326 87.2 348 87.7
Can zip up/unzip clothes 670 86.9 325 86.9 345 86.9
Understands and memorizes what he
674 87.4 330 88.2 344 86.6
is told
Parents reasons in favor of their childs school readiness are almost identical in the two residence areas. Over
90% consider it a major reason that the child has independent hygiene routines, that he dresses by himself, can button
up his clothes and that he understands what he is told (table 158 and diagram no. 39)
131
Table no. 159: Behavior aspects that parents consider important for their childs school integration
multiple answers
What behavior did you teach your child for Total Urban Rural
a better school integration? Number of % Number % Number of %
cases N = 771 of cases N = 374 cases N = 397
To be polite 713 92.5 346 92.5 367 92.4
To be sociable 656 85.1 319 85.3 337 84.9
To respect the others opinion 558 72.4 273 73 285 71.8
To be independent 494 64.1 250 66.8 244 61.5
To make justice for himself 97 12.6 51 13.6 46 11.6
To react if he is attacked 121 15.7 60 16 61 15.4
To tell the teacher about what is happening 516 66.9 246 65.8 270 68
To avoid talking to naughty children 290 37.6 146 39 144 36.3
To keep his attention under control 561 72.8 273 73 288 72.5
To handle his frustrations 420 54.5 220 58.8 200 50.4
To be able to follow compulsory discipline 563 73 286 76.5 277 69.8
Behavior issues considered by parents to be the most important in order for the child to adapt well in school were
politeness, sociability, attention control, following discipline and respect for the others opinion. (table 159)
Table nr. 160: Parents activities for the purpose of helping the child to become familiar with school
multiple answer
How do you help the child become familiar Total Urban Rural
with the school activity? Number of % Number % Number %
I do homework 562 72.9 279 74.6 283 71.3
I show him the school objects and I teach him
420 54.5 233 62.3 187 47.1
to use them
I dont do anything 65 8.4 23 6.1 42 10.6
I dont know what I need to do 43 5.6 14 3.7 29 7.3
Preoccupations for the childs psychological preparation for joining school are present with 85% of the interviewed
parents, both in urban and rural areas. The majority of parents get the child acquainted to school by doing homework, and
over 50% (more in urban than in rural areas) show the child school supplies and other school-related objects. (table 160)
However, only 54% of the parents know what the necessary school supplies are, and the majority of them
consider that school supplies neednt be bought before school starts. For this indicator there are more significant
differences between urban and rural areas. In rural areas 30.2% of the interviewed parents whose children were not
attending school yet were unaware what the necessary school supplies for the first form were. (table 161)
Table no. 161: Distribution of parents answers regarding school supplies necessary for school
Do you know what school supplies Total Urban Rural

and the other necessary school Number Number Number
% % %
objects are? of cases of cases of cases
Yes 420 54.5 230 61.5 190 47.9
No 203 26.3 83 22.2 120 30.2
Child already going to school 142 18.4 59 15.8 83 20.9
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
132
Table no. 162: Distribution of parents answers to the question: Did you already buy the necessary school
supplies?
Did you already buy school Total Urban Rural

supplies and the other objects Number Number Number
% % %
necessary for school? of cases of cases of cases
Yes 29 3.8 24 6.4 5 1.3
No 573 74.3 276 73.9 297 74.8
Child is already attending school 163 21.1 69 18.4 94 23.7
Not answering 6 0.8 5 1.3 1 0.2
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
The rate of parents who bought school supplies for their children is very low, but data presented in the table
needs to be considered also in relation to the interview moment (generally interviews were taken during June-August,
long enough therefore before the beginning of school) (table 162).
Table no. 163: Reasons for which parents did not buy school supplies multiple answers
Total Urban Rural

If not, why didnt you? Number % Number % Number %
I dont have the money 33 5.7 6 2.1 27 9.1
I have no time 16 2.8 7 2.5 9 3
They need to be bought only when
479 82.7 240 85.4 239 80.2
school starts
They are provided from school 20 3.5 6 2.1 14 4.7
The great majority of parents consider that school supplies need to be bought only when school starts, and from
their comments it was found that many are waiting for school to start precisely in order to know what exactly they need to
buy, or others claim that they want to see what school supplies the child is getting from school. (table 163)
Table no. 164: Distribution of parents answers on the decision regarding where exactly the child will start
school.
Have you decided upon the Total Urban Rural

school where your child will Number Number Number
% % %
start studying? of cases of cases of cases
Yes 532 69 261 69.8 271 68.2
No 70 9.1 42 11.2 28 7.1
Not answering 5 0.6 3 0.8 2 0.5
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
Almost 70% of the parents, both in urban and rural areas already decided the school where their child will start his
studies, and more than half have already shown to the child the school where he will be studying. There are no
significant differences between urban and rural areas for this indicator. (table 164)
133
Table no. 165: Distribution of parents answers regarding presentation of the school to the future school child
Have you been with your child to show Total Urban Rural
him/her the school? Number Number Number
% % %
Yes 394 51.1 193 51.6 201 50.6
No 151 19.6 84 22.5 67 16.9
He/she was with the kindergarten teacher 59 7.7 27 7.2 32 8.1
Not answering 3 0.3 2 0.5 1 0.2
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
The fact that more than half of the interviewed parents stated that they have shown to the child the school where
he will start studying shows a preoccupation for the psychological preparation of the future school child. However, almost
1/5 of the parents havent done so or consider that it is the kindergartens duty to do this. (table 165)
Table no. 166: Preparation of an adequate space for the child to do his homework
Have you prepared a space where Total Urban Rural

the child may do his homework Number Number Number
% % %
and keep school supplies? of cases of cases of cases
Yes 488 63.3 237 63.4 251 63.2
No 91 11.8 40 10.7 51 12.8
Not yet 146 18.9 75 20.1 71 17.9
We are going to 40 5.2 20 5.3 20 5
It is not necessary 3 0.4 0 0 3 0.8
Not answering 3 0.4 2 0.5 1 0.3
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
It is good to find out that over 60% of the parents arranged a space where the child may do his homework,
evidently according to the existing living conditions. We need to point out that parents considering that there is no need
for such a space to be arranged were extremely few (only 0,4%). Data shows that there is full agreement regarding this
aspect between parents in urban and rural areas. (table 166)
Table no. 167: Parents opinions regarding the necessary knowledge in order for a child to be ready for
school multiple answers
List what are in your opinion the most Total Urban Rural
important items in order for a child to be Number % Number % Number %
ready for school? of cases N = 771 of cases N = 374 of cases N = 397
To know the letters 393 51 199 53.2 194 48.9
To be able to read 115 14.9 73 19.5 42 10.6
To manage handwriting 90 11.7 57 15.2 33 8.3
To know the numbers 505 65.5 258 69 247 62.2
To count until 20/50/100 520 67.4 265 70.9 255 64.2
To be able to calculate 187 24.3 108 28.9 79 19.9
To understand a foreign language 67 8.7 40 10.7 27 6.8
To be able to use a computer 128 16.6 79 21.1 49 12.3
To be able to use TV remote control 262 34 128 34.2 134 33.8
To know the colors 612 79.4 305 81.6 307 77.3
To recognize geometrical shapes 575 74.6 290 77.5 285 71.8
To know the days of the week and months of
603 78.2 295 78.9 308 77.6
the year
To know the 4 seasons 597 77.4 292 78.1 305 76.8
134
The most important information necessary to the child in order for him to be ready for school is, in parents
opinion, to know the colors (79%), the days of the week (78%), the four seasons (77%), and to recognize geometrical
shapes (74%). But over half of the parents consider that for the child it is also important to know the letters, the numbers
and to be able to calculate. Parents expectations of their children are higher in urban than in rural areas, going for 10 %
of parents in urban areas so far as to consider that understanding a foreign language is important for their childs school
integration. Over 21% of parents in urban and about 12% in rural areas consider important also for their child to be able
to use a computer.
It is regrettable that over one third of the parents both in urban and rural areas consider that being able to use a
TV remote control is important for their childs school integration (table 167)
Table no. 168: Members of the family involved in the childs school preparation multiple answers
What person in the family is Total Urban Rural

transmitting such knowledge to the Number % Number % Number %
child? of cases N = 771 of cases N = 374 of cases N = 397
Mother 630 81.7 312 83.4 318 80.1
Father 371 48.1 200 53.5 171 43.1
Grandmother 148 19.2 72 19.3 76 19.1
Grandfather 70 9.1 38 10.2 32 8.1
Elder brother or sister 121 15.7 46 12.3 75 18.9
Others (kindergarten staff, another
12 1.6 9 2.4 3 0.8
relative)
No one 10 1.3 3 0.8 7 1.8
In over 80% of the families, the mother is the one who will transmit such knowledge to the child. In urban areas a
greater involvement of fathers could be observed (a fact established throughout the entire research study), and in rural
areas elder brothers /sisters have a more important role in transmitting knowledge (table 168).
Most of the parents stated that they reserve time for teaching the child in the afternoon, when they come back
from work or in the evening. Approximately 5% of parents in urban and about 8% in rural areas stated that they never or
very seldom teach their child (table 169)
Table no. 169: When do parents have time to teach their child multiple answers
When do you have time Total Urban Rural

to teach things to your child? Number % Number % Number %
In the morning 106 13.7 43 11.5 63 15.9
While he is eating 31 4 15 4 16 4
When he is playing 111 14.4 57 15.2 54 13.6
When I come from work 351 45.5 220 58.8 131 33
In the evening, before going to sleep 350 45.4 145 38.8 205 51.6
Never 12 1.6 2 0.5 10 2.5
Very seldom 38 4.9 17 4.5 21 5.3
Other (only during the weekend, when he
6 0.8 2 0.5 4 1.1
comes from school)
135
Table no. 170: Parents opinions regarding the way in which the childs joining school will influence
family life.
What exactly do you think will change at Total Urban Rural

home when the child joins school? Number % Number % Number %
Daily program 407 52.8 209 55.9 198 49.9
Nothing will change 56 7.3 19 5.1 37 9.3
Budget expenses will rise 44 5.7 32 8.6 12 3
Everything 36 4.7 21 5.6 15 3.8
We will change our behavior we will be more
15 1.9 9 2.4 6 1.5
severe, there will be more stress
Other 19 2.5 7 1.9 12 3.1
I dont know 157 20.4 63 16.8 94 23.7
Generally, parents are aware that at the moment of their child joining school certain elements will change in their
family life. We need to mention that parents in rural areas are less aware of such changes, since the rate of those stating
that nothing will change is almost twice higher in rural than in urban areas.
In urban areas almost 56% of the parents referred to the change in the daily program, 8.6% indicated that there
will be more expenses, 5.6% stated that everything will change, and 16.8% in urban as well as 23.7% in rural areas
admitted that they didnt know.(table 170)
II. 9.11. Communication between parent and child
At this age, the childs need of communicating with its parents especially verbally is increasing. The child
starts to ask himself more questions to which he needs answers. He is not happy with any answer, he needs logical,
complete answers that will clarify the issue. This is why parents need to be aware that explanations that they offer to the
child need to be understandable and open a dialog with the child, who is more and more eager for information. The need
for communicating with the child should not remain only in the area of transmitting information but include also chatting
together and participating with the child to his activities.
Almost 30% of the parents stated that they talk daily with their child, without specifying for how long; more than
20% said that they talk with their child for more than 2 hours and approximately the same number talk to the child for
about 2 hours. We may see that in rural areas parents dedicate less time to their child (1 hour). (table 171)
Table no. 171: Answers to the question How many hours do you spend talking to your child?
How many hours a day do you spend Total Urban Rural

talking to your child, explaining things or Number Number Number
% % %
answering his questions? of cases of cases of cases
1 hour 124 16.1 59 15.8 65 16.3
2 hours 154 20 79 21.1 75 18.9
More than 2 hours 167 21.7 81 21.7 86 21.7
Daily 214 27.8 109 29.1 105 26.4
Occasionally 52 6.7 12 3.2 40 10.1
1 hour + daily 17 2.2 5 1.3 12 3
1 hour + occasionally 2 0.2 0 0 2 0.5
2hours + daily 19 2.5 16 4.3 3 .8
2hours + occasionally 2 0.2 0 0 2 0.5
3hours + daily 17 2.2 13 3.5 4 1
I dont know/ Not answering 3 0.4 0 0 3 0.8
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
136
It is remarkable that over 70% of the parents (77% in urban areas) offer explanations to their child while he is
watching television. But over 1/5 of the parents (cumulated rates) stated that they do not do this, that they have no time
and that they do not consider it necessary. There are no differences as to residence area, except for the fact that in rural
areas there were parents who said that they had no television set (table 172).
Table no. 172: Parents answers to the question Do you give your child explanations while he/she is watching
television?
When your child is watching TV Total Urban Rural

do you give him explanations? Number of Number of Number of
% % %
cases cases cases
Yes 571 74.1 289 77.3 282 71.1
No 81 10.5 38 10.2 43 10.8
I do not have time 32 4.2 12 3.2 20 5
The child is not watching TV 6 0.8 2 0.5 4 1
We do not have a TV 12 1.6 0 0 12 3
Not answering 5 0.6 2 0.5 3 0.8
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
Table no. 173: Distribution of answers to the question: How many hours does your child play on the computer?
Does your child play on the Total Urban Rural

computer? Number of Number of Number of
% % %
cases cases cases
Yes 254 33 172 46 82 20.6
No 136 17.6 65 17.4 71 17.9
We dont have one 380 49.3 136 36.4 244 61.5
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
Possession of a computer and making use of it by the 6-7 year old child depends almost entirely on the socio-
economic level of the family, this is why we find great differences between the situation in urban and rural areas. The
rate of children in rural areas that do not have a computer is twice higher than in urban areas, and the rate of children
playing computer games is therefore twice lower. In urban areas 46% of the children play computer games, and over
90% of them play for 1-2 hours a day (tables 173 and174).
Table no. 174: Time spent playing computer games
If yes, how much time? Total Urban Rural

hours Number of % Number of % Number %
1 127 50 87 50.6 40 48.8
2 104 40.9 67 39 37 45.1
3 11 4.3 9 5.1 2 2.4
4 and over 8 3.2 5 2.9 3 3.7
I dont know/ Not answering 4 1.6 4 2.4 0 0
Total 254 100 172 100 82 100
137
Table no. 175: Distribution of answers to the question Do you read stories to your child?
Total Urban Rural

Do you read stories to your child? Number of Number of Number of
% % %
cases cases cases
Yes 600 77.8 307 82.1 293 73.8
No 103 13.4 43 11.5 60 15.1
I dont have time 57 7.4 22 5.9 35 8.8
I cant read 11 1.4 2 0.5 9 2.3
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
Quite a high rate of parents stated that they read stories/fairytales to their child (82.1% in urban and 73.8% in rural
areas). It is well known how important this activity is for the child and it is pleasing to find out that a great part of the
parents carry it out (table 175). It is also pleasing, at the same time, to find that over 60% of the interviewed parents with
children 6-7 year old stated that they teach their child to retell stories using picture books, small differences being
registered in favor of parents in urban areas. Almost 20% of the parents consider that, if children carry out this activity at
kindergarten, they no longer need to think about it (table 176).
Table no. 176: Parents answers to the question Do you teach your child to tell stories using picture books?
Do you teach your child to tell Total Urban Rural

stories using picture books? Number of Number of Number of
% % %
cases cases cases
Yes 465 60.3 236 63.1 229 57.7
He does this in kindergarten 153 19.8 74 19.8 79 19.9
No 113 14.7 45 12 68 17.1
I have no time 20 2.6 7 1.9 13 3.3
Not answering 4 .5 3 .8 1 0.2
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
II. 9.12 Child involvement in domestic activities
Over 80% of the children 6-7 year old are involved in domestic activities. This is, to a certain extent, more frequent
in rural areas (table 177).
Table no. 177: Distribution of answers to the question Do you involve the child in domestic activities?
Do you involve the child in Total Urban Rural

domestic activities? Number of Number of Number of
% % %
cases cases cases
Yes 623 80.8 294 78.6 329 82.9
No 147 19.1 79 21.1 68 17.1
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
Compared to children 3-5 year old, in case of children 6-7 year old we find that the rate of children involved in
domestic activities is slightly lower, an issue explained by the fact that at this age the great majority of children attend
kindergarten or school, having therefore less time available. Over 21% of the children in urban areas are not involved in
domestic activities.
There are significant differences between the two residence areas regarding child involvement in domestic
activities. The main activity for a child this age is to help parents in the house (both in rural and urban areas), but in rural
areas over 60% of the children help in the garden as well, over 30% help with fruit and vegetables harvesting, over 27%
138
take care of animals in the yard and 24% take care of house pets. From parents statements it was found that over 16%
of the children 6-7 year old carry water for their family a difficult activity, involving an effort which is too demanding for a
child and over 5% take the cattle to pasture, an activity involving high risks and responsibilities. Taking care of younger
children in the family is also an activity which is more frequent in rural than in urban areas (diagram 40 and table 178).
Table no. 178: Domestic activities carried out by the child multiple answers
Total Urban Rural

If yes, what does he do? Number % Number % Number %
Help in the house 599 96.1 286 97.3 313 95.1
Help in the garden 251 40.3 52 17.7 199 60.5
Take care of house pets 98 15.7 18 6.1 80 24.3
Take care of animals in the yard 98 15.7 8 2.7 90 27.4
Take care of younger children in the family 88 14.1 32 10.9 56 17
Take cattle to pasture 17 2.7 0 0 17 5.2
Harvest fruit and vegetables 116 18.6 15 5.1 101 30.7
Carry water 60 9.6 7 2.4 53 16.1
Help with work in the field 12 1.9 4 1.4 8 2.4
II. 9.13 Parents opinions according to the childs gender
The great majority of parents consider that differences between boys and girls regarding studies should not exist.
The rate of parents that gave an affirmative answer is higher in rural areas, pointing out that boys need to learn more.
Parents answers and comments in rural areas regarding such aspects still bear the mark of traditional mentalities
according to which boys need to get a training and girls need to keep the house in order (tables 179 and 180).
Table no 179:
Do you think that a difference should Total Urban Rural

be made among boys and girls Number % Number % Number %
regarding their studies? of cases of cases of cases
Yes 18 2.3 7 1.9 11 2.8
No 673 87.3 336 89.8 337 84.9
I dont know 80 10.4 31 8.3 49 12.3
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
139
Table no 180:
Total Urban Rural

If yes, then: Number of cases Number of cases Number of cases
N = 18 from which: N = 7 from which: N = 11 from which:
Boys should learn more 12 5 7
Girls should learn more 6 2 4
Parents in urban areas consider that boys should get training especially in computers, foreign languages, and
read more. Parents in rural areas have approximately the same priorities but consider that it is important for boys to be
able to work the land and raise animals (table 181).
In what girls are concerned, parents priorities are approximately the same, both in urban and rural areas, but over
one third of parents in rural areas consider that girls need to learn about child rearing and over 60% think that they
should learn how to perform domestic activities.
This is a confirmation therefore of the previous assumption that in rural areas there are still very well rooted
conservative mentalities regarding education, with the related gender differences (table 188).
Table no. 181:
What other things do you think that Total Urban Rural

boys should learn? Number % Number % Number %
Computer skills 607 78.7 305 81.6 302 76.1
To read (supplementary reading) 512 66.4 264 70.6 248 62.5
To learn foreign languages 578 75 301 80.5 277 69.8
Household activities 451 58.5 209 55.9 242 61
To work the land 208 27 63 16.8 145 36.5
To raise animals 206 26.7 62 16.6 144 36.3
To take care of children 212 27.5 87 23.3 125 31.5
Other* 17 2.2 12 3.2 5 1.3
Table no 182:
What other things do you think girls Total Urban Rural

should learn? Number of % Number of % Number %
Computer skills 604 78.3 305 81.6 299 75.3
To read (supplementary reading) 508 65.9 264 70.6 244 61.5
To learn foreign languages 580 75.2 301 80.5 279 70.3
Household activities 463 60.1 217 58 246 62
To work the land 194 25.2 56 15 138 34.8
To raise animals 199 25.8 60 16 139 35
To take care of children 244 31.6 103 27.5 141 35.5
Other* 17 2.2 12 3.2 5 1.3
140
II. 9.14 Parents opinions regarding child development, education and school results
Parents were asked a number of questions in order to find out their knowledge regarding child development,
education and school results.
Table no. 183: Distribution of answers given by parents regarding factors that may influence school
results
In order to have good school results, Total Urban Rural

children need frequent meals, rich in Number Number Number
% % %
proteins, fruit and vegetables of cases of cases of cases
I agree 734 95.2 354 94.7 380 95.7
I disagree 6 0.8 3 0.8 3 0.8
I am not sure 31 4 17 4.5 14 3.5
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
Over 95% of the parents, both in urban and rural areas, believe that it is necessary to offer children meals rich in
fruit and vegetables, in order for them to have good school results (table 189). Generally, 82% of the parents agree that
when they sort out, count and fit certain pieces, children learn to count, but over 9% of them are not sure of this and 5%
disagree (table 184).
Table no. 184: Distribution of parents answers regarding various child activities (sorting, counting, etc.)
Children learn about numbers when Total Urban Rural

they sort, number and fit certain Number Number Number
% % %
pieces together of cases of cases of cases
I agree 632 82 307 82.1 325 81.9
I disagree 42 5.4 22 5.9 20 5
I am not sure 71 9.2 36 9.6 35 8.8
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
The majority of parents believe that memorizing is the best way in which a teacher may support learning, but
almost 1/5 of the interviewed parents disagreed with this, mostly in urban areas (table 185).
Table no. 185: Parents opinion regarding memorizing as a learning method
Encouraging memorizing is the Total Urban Rural

best way in which a teacher may Number Number Number
% % %
support learning of cases of cases of cases
I agree 523 67.8 237 63.4 286 72
I disagree 149 19.3 78 20.9 71 17.9
I am not sure 92 11.9 58 15.5 34 8.6
I dont understand 7 1 1 0.2 6 1.5
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
141
Table no. 186: Parents opinions regarding scribbling
Scribbling must be discouraged, Total Urban Rural

because this may create difficulties in Number Number of Number
% % %
learning neat writing of cases cases of cases
I agree 549 71.2 243 65 306 77.1
I disagree 121 15.7 82 21.9 39 9.8
I am not sure 83 10.8 40 10.7 43 10.8
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
Over 71% of the parents, especially in rural areas, consider that scribbling should be discouraged because this
may create difficulties for the child to write in an orderly way (table 186).
Table no. 187: Parents opinions regarding adapting activities to the childs needs
Activities should be adapted to Total Urban Rural

each childs needs, because Number Number Number
% % %
children learn in their own rhythm of cases of cases of cases
I agree 745 96.6 364 97.3 381 96
I disagree 14 1.8 8 2.1 6 1.5
I am not sure 8 1.1 1 0.3 7 1.8
Total 771 100 374 100 397 100
Over 96% of the parents agree that activities need to be adapted to each childs needs because each child is
developing in his own rhythm. The rate of parents that disagreed or who stated that they were not sure are very reduced
(table 187).
Conclusions
Children 6-7 year old are almost all attending a form of school or preschool education; in rural areas more
children are attending school at the age of 6-7 year old.
Almost all parents consider that it is important for their child to attend school.
The majority of parents in urban areas wish for their child to have higher education, while in rural areas the
greatest part of parents indicated as a final option high school education
The majority of parents are preoccupied by the childs school readiness, both from the practical point of view
(knowledge, hygiene routines, creation of a place for the child to do his homework), as well as from the
psychological point of view.
Over 95 % of the parents in urban areas and over 90% in rural areas believe that it is important for the child
to feel good in school.
More than 4/5 of the parents consider that their child is prepared for school.
Over 90% motivate this by the fact that the child has independent hygiene routines, can dress by himself, can
button up his clothes and understands what he is told.
Behaviors that parents considered to be the most important for the child in order for him to adapt well in
school were politeness, sociability, attention control, observance of discipline and respect for the others
opinion.
The most important knowledge considered necessary in order for the child to be prepared for school is, in the
parents opinion, to know the colors (79%), to know the days of the week (78%), to know the four seasons
(77%) and to recognize geometrical shapes (74%). But over half of the parents believe that it is important for
the child to know the letters, the numbers, and to be able to calculate.
Almost 30% of the parents stated that they talk daily with the child; more than 20% stated that they talk to the
child more than 2 hours; in rural areas parents dedicate less time to their child, on the average 1 hour per day
142
Over 70% of the parents (77% in urban areas) offer explanations to their child when he is watching TV, and
over 80% stated that they read stories to their child.
In urban areas 46% of the children play computer games, and 90% of them play 1-2 hours every day.
The rate of children in rural areas that have no computer is twice higher than in urban areas, and the rate of
children who play computer games is twice lower.
Over 80% of the children 6-7 year old are involved in domestic activities, incidence being higher in rural areas
as well as involvement in difficult activities for their age: over 60% of the children help their parents in the
garden, over 30% help with fruit and vegetables harvesting, over 27% take care of animals in the yard, 24%
mind house pets and over 16% of the children 6-7 year old carry water.
The great majority of parents consider that there shouldnt be differences between boys and girls regarding
studies; the rate of parents who gave an affirmative answer, though, is higher in rural areas; over one third of
parents in rural areas consider that girls should learn about child rearing and over 60% consider that they
need to learn about household activities.
143
CHAPTER II 10
Fathers participation to the preschool childcare and education
In order to evaluate fathers participation to the childs care and education parents were asked a number of
specific questions. In general, 87.1% of the parents with children 3-5 year old and respectively 90.1% of the parents with
children 6-7 year old stated that mother bears the daily responsibility of the childs care (table 188). On the second place
is the grandmother (11.3% and 7.5%). Only 1.2 and respectively 1% of the fathers assume responsibility for daily
childcare. This imbalance in assuming responsibilities is characteristic for both residence areas and represents a clear
expression of the traditionalism in assuming family roles by the parents. The most surprising fact is that in urban area
families also where the majority of mothers are employed the model of attributing the childcare responsibilities to
women (mothers, grandmothers), is dominating.
When comparing the two age groups we may find that the rate of fathers who have the responsibility of daily
childcare is slightly higher for the lower age group, in both residence areas. This finding may be the sign of a slight
change with the young generations of fathers, regarding assuming parenting responsibilities.
Table no. 188: The person that has the child care responsibility distribution according to residence area
Total Urban Rural

The person that has the daily % % % % % %
responsibility of child care 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age
Mother 87.1 90.1 86.3 89.5 87.7 90.7
Grandmother 11.3 7.5 11.3 7 11.2 8.1
Father 1.2 1 1.7 1.6 .8 0.2
Another person 0.2 0.6 .5 0.3 - 1
Another relative 0.1 0.4 - 0.8 .3 0
Babysitter 0.1 0.4 .2 0.8 - 0
100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
(817) (771) (417) (374) (400) 397)
II. 10.1. Fathers implication in childcare and education activities:
Even if they are not assuming responsibility for the daily care of their children, fathers involve themselves to a
higher or lower extent in the daily childcare and education activities.
Activities to which fathers do participate in the rearing of the preschool child were grouped in several categories
and refer both to the physical needs of the child (food, bathing, visits to the doctor etc) and to aspects related to
education (play, discussions with the child regarding his activities or the childs problems, etc.)
Frequency with which fathers participate to various activities was also evaluated, in order to have a more precise
image regarding the nature of the participation, whether it is constant or occasional ( table 189).
1. Feeding the child
This is, besides playing, the activity in which most fathers participate daily (approximately 40%) for both age groups.
The rate of fathers that never or almost never participate to this activity reaches almost 10% for both age groups.
The rate of fathers that participate daily to the feeding of the child is higher in urban than in rural areas. The rate
of fathers that never or almost never involve themselves in this activity (once a month + once a year + never) is by
several points higher in rural areas (tables 189,190, 191).
2. Dressing the child
Dressing the child represents one of the activities in which 25.1% and 22.2% of fathers participate daily. Most of
the fathers, almost 40%, involve themselves in this activity 2-3 times a week. On the other hand, over 12% of fathers
never or almost never involve themselves in this activity. Differences between urban and rural areas are important
regarding fathers implication in this activity (tables 189 ,190, 191).
144
3. Bathing the child
We refer here to the cases when the father bathes the child independently from the mother or other person in the
house. Cases when the father assists or helps with bathing the child were not taken into consideration.
This is an activity in which fathers involve themselves less. Generally, the rate of fathers who bathe the child daily
does not surpass 9% (table 189). Data studied according to residence area shows that fathers in rural areas rarely
involve themselves in this activity. Different sanitary conditions between urban and rural areas probably contribute as
well to the low involvement of fathers in child bating in rural areas (tables 190 and 191).
4. Washing teeth
Frequency with which fathers involve themselves in childrens washing teeth is also determined by environmental
factors (inherent sanitary conditions), knowledge about child hygiene, family practices. Data collected shows that in case
of preschool children almost one third of the fathers participate daily in this activity ( table 189).
Differences between urban and rural areas are relevant both for the 3-5 and the 6-7 age group (tables 190 and 191).
5. Going to the doctor
Between 35 and 40% of the fathers never accompanied their child to the doctor or did so no more than once a
year. The age of the child or the residence area influences this indicator less (tables 189, 190, 191).
6. Escorting the children to kindergarten
Almost a quarter of the fathers escort their children daily to kindergarten (table 189). Fathers implication in this
activity is however related to their own work program also. There are important differences between the urban and rural
areas. In urban areas the rate of fathers who participate in this activity being higher for both age groups (tables 190 and
193). Almost 15% of the fathers never escort their child to kindergarten, for both age groups. We need to point out that in
rural areas many preschool children go to kindergarten alone or escorted by an elder brother or sister, a fact which rarely
occurs in urban areas.
7. Playing at home or in open air
Both playing at home or in open air are activities that fathers carry out with their children. The data analyzed
shows that the rate of fathers who participate in this activity lowers as the age of the child increases. In the case of
children 3-6 year old over 40 % of the fathers play daily or 2-3 times a week with the child at home; for the child 6-7 year
old only 30 % of the fathers play with the child daily, and over half of the fathers prefer to play once a week (probably
during the weekend). The majority of fathers play in open air with the child, usually 2-3 times a week, both in urban and
rural areas, for both age groups. The rate of fathers who never play with their preschooler is very low, both in rural and in
urban areas (tables 190 and 191)
Table no 189: Fathers involvement in educating and caring for the 3-7 year old child multiple answers
2 3 times a Once a
Daily Once a week Once a year Never
Fathers involvement in week month
education and childcare % % % % % % % % % % % %
3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
age age age age age age age age age age age age
group group group group group group group group group group group group
Feeding 39.6 40.2 30.8 28.9 19.8 19.5 5.7 5.2 0.7 0.7 3.3 5.4
Clothing 25.1 22.2 39.9 40.2 23.4 22.7 7.4 6.7 0.7 0.7 3.6 7.4
Bathing 8.6 6.2 13.1 13.1 35.1 30.4 17.2 21.2 2.1 1.5 23.9 27.7
Washing teeth 31 34.8 23.4 23 17.4 18.3 10.7 9.1 3.1 1.7 14.3 13.1
Visits to the doctor 4.1 3.2 4.5 3.2 6 6.2 46.5 52.3 16 17.3 22.9 17.8
Escorting to kindergarten 24.8 22.5 33.9 38 16.2 16.3 9.5 8.9 0.7 1 14.8 13.3
Playing at home 40.1 29.6 39.1 50.4 14 14.6 4.8 4.2 0.2 0.2 1.7 1
Playing in open air 37.2 29.1 41.3 51.1 15.5 14.8 5.3 4.4 - 0 0.7 0.5
Discussions regarding the
33.4 31.4 16.9 18 36.8 41.5 10.3 8.4 1 0.2 1.7 0.5
childs daily activities
Buying clothes and toys for
4.3 3 7.2 5.9 9.8 10.4 55.8 59.5 19.8 19 3.1 2.2
the child
Discussions regarding
problems the child is 33.4 27.7 14.6 16.5 37.9 43 10.3 10.1 1.9 1 1.9 1.7
confronted with
145
Table 190: Fathers involvement in education and childcare activities in the case of preschool children, in
urban areas multiple answers
Fathers involvement in 2 3 times a

Daily Once a week Once a month Once a year Never
education and childcare week
3 5 (N = 232) 3-5 6 7 3-5 67 3-5 67 3-5 6 7 3-5 6 7 3-5 6 7
6 7 (N = 211) age age age age age age age age age age age age
Feeding 39.7 44.5 34.1 30.3 19.0 16.1 3.9 3.8 1.3 0.5 2.2 4.7
Clothing 29.3 26.1 41.4 43.1 21.1 19.9 4.7 3.3 1.3 0.5 2.2 7.1
Bathing 13.8 10.4 12.5 11.8 34.9 28 13.8 18 2.2 1.9 22.8 29.9
Washing teeth 33.2 39.3 24.6 24.6 14.2 14.7 9.5 5.7 1.7 1.4 16.8 14.2
Visits to the doctor 5.2 4.3 5.6 5.7 6.0 5.7 47.4 53.1 12.5 13.7 23.3 17.5
Escorting to kindergarten 28.9 29.4 34.5 41.7 13.4 10 9.1 7.1 .4 0 13.8 11.8
Playing at home 43.5 34.1 34.5 49.3 15.5 11.4 4.7 3.3 .4 0.5 1.3 1.4
Playing in open air 39.7 33.2 37.5 47.4 17.7 15.2 4.7 3.3 - 0 .4 0.9
36.6 39.8 19.4 12.8 32.8 37.9 8.6 8.1 1.3 0.5 1.3 0.9
Buying clothes and toys
6.0 4.7 9.5 8.1 9.9 10.4 50.9 51.7 20.3 23.2 3.4 1.9
for the child
problems the child is 36.6 33.6 15.1 13.3 34.1 38.9 11.6 12.8 1.3 0.5 1.3 0.9
confronted with
Table 191: Fathers involvement in education and childcare activities in the case of preschool children, in
rural areas multiple answers
Fathers involvement in 2 3 times a Once a

Daily Once a week Once a year Never
education and childcare week month
3 6 age group (N = 187) 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7 3-5 6-7
6 7 age group (N = 194) age age age age age age age age age age age age
Feeding 39.6 35.6 26.7 27.3 20.9 23.2 8.0 6.7 - 1 4.8 6.2
Clothing 19.8 18 38.0 37.1 26.2 25.8 10.7 10.3 - 1 5.3 7.7
Bathing 2.1 1.5 13.9 14.4 35.3 33 21.4 24.7 2.1 1 25.1 25.3
Washing teeth 28.3 29.9 21.9 21.1 21.4 22.2 12.3 12.9 4.8 2.1 11.2 11.9
Visits to the doctor 2.7 2.1 3.2 0.5 5.9 6.7 45.5 51.5 20.3 21.1 22.5 18
Escorting to kindergarten 19.8 14.9 33.2 34 19.8 23.2 10.2 10.8 1.1 2.1 16.0 14.9
Playing at home 35.8 24.7 44.9 51.5 12.3 18 4.8 5.2 0 2.1 0.5
Playing in open air 34.2 24.7 46.0 55.2 12.8 14.4 5.9 5.7 - 0 1.1 0
29.4 22.2 13.9 23.7 41.7 45.4 12.3 8.8 .5 0 2.1 0
Buying clothes and toys for
2.1 1 4.3 3.6 9.6 10.3 62.0 68 19.3 14.4 2.7 2.6
the child
problems the child is 29.4 21.1 13.9 20.1 42.8 47.4 8.6 7.2 2.7 1.5 2.7 2.6
confronted with
8. Fathers involvement in discussions regarding the childs daily activities or in problems the child is confronted with
According to the findings of the study, fathers of children in both age groups involve themselves frequently in
discussions with the child regarding problems or activities thereof (table 189). Over 60% of the interviewed parents
stated that fathers discuss with their child daily or at least once a week. The rate of fathers involving themselves in such
activities is much lower in rural areas.
146
Fathers involvement in a dialogue with the child about the latters problems grows with the age of the child. In the
case of the 6-7 age group fathers discuss more frequently with the child, especially in urban areas, where 80% of the
fathers discuss daily with the child while in rural areas only 22% of the fathers are daily available for this activity,
reserving time only once a week (tables 190, 191).
9. The maternity/paternity leave
An indicator that may reflect to a certain extent the fathers interest for child rearing is the maternity/paternity
leave. Even if it is most of the times determined by economic reasons, (only the father has the right to take the leave,
the father has a lower salary than the mother who has a job she does not want to loose etc.) fathers participation to child
rearing during the 2 years legal childcare leave is a factor which may lead to the strengthening of the emotional bond
between father and child, as well as to the improvement of the fathers parental skills, with benefic results for the
subsequent development stages of the respective child. Table 192 shows that 11.6 and respectively 14.7% of the fathers
chose to interrupt their job in order to benefit of the childcare leave.
Table no 192: Distribution of answers to the question Who benefited of the maternity/paternity leave until the
age of 2 year old?
% %
3-6 year old 6-7 years old
Mother 70,5 71.3
Father 11,6 14.7
Not answering 17,9 14
Total 100 100
10. Fathers participation in child punishment

Another indicator reflecting fathers involvement in child education is the extent to which he participates in the
childs punishment, though it may depend greatly on a number of other factors such as education and studies of the
parents, family models, number of children, if the respective child is the eldest/youngest brother, the way in which the
father was educated in his turn, and other anthropological considerations.
Punishment in itself may be understood differently by each parent according to its own parental abilities.
Insufficient knowledge regarding child development may lead to the using of inadequate punishment to the childs age
and level of understanding.
The analysis of the data collected showed that the father punished boys more frequently, and his involvement in
this activity is higher in urban areas (17.8%) as compared to the rural areas (9.1%).
Tables 193 and 194 show that the rate of fathers who punish the child is higher for the 3-5 age group (13,5%)
than for the 6-7 age group (9.3%).
Even if mothers punish the child more frequently, fathers are on the first place among persons that the child
obeys. Over 43% of interviewed families for this age group admit that father is the person the child obeys (fears), only
33% obey their mother and about 13% obey both parents (data is not presented).
Table 193: Distribution of answers to the question Who punishes the child? 3-5 age group
Total Urban Rural

Who punishes the child generally? Number Number Number
% % %
Mother 463 78.4 223 73.6 240 83.6
Father 80 13.5 54 17.8 26 9.1
Other members of the family 41 7 21 7 20 7
Babysitter 2 0.4 1 0.3 1 0.3
Not answering 4 0.7 4 1.3 - -
Total 590 100 303 100 287 100
147
Table 194: Distribution of answers to the question Who punishes the child? 6-7 age group
Total Urban Rural

Who punishes the child generally? Number Number Number
% % %
Mother 487 79.4 221 75 266 83.6
Father 57 9.3 37 12.5 20 6.3
Other members of the family 29 4.7 21 7.1 8 2.5
Grandmother 30 5 8 2.7 22 7
Babysitter 8 1.3 6 2 2 0.6
Total 613 100 295 100 318 100
Conclusions:
From the analysis of fathers implication in education and childcare, the following conclusions can be drawn:
The great majority of fathers live with their family
Fathers implication in childcare is relatively low in Romania.
Very few fathers assume the whole responsibility of caring for their child and such cases are determined by
special situations.
In cases when the father participates in child rearing he is doing this thing in collaboration with the mother
(and in fewer cases with the grandmother)
The extent to which father participates to the childs education is influenced by a number of factors such as:
o The residence area of the respective family
o The social and cultural level of the family
o Parents activities: if they work in shifts, if mother is employed or not, if one of the parents works in
another town or abroad, if father has a liberal profession or if he is unemployed etc.
o The childs age
Generally fathers involve themselves equally in childcare and education activities (play, conversation/dialog
with the child etc)
The most frequent activities in child rearing in which fathers involve themselves are feeding, clothing and
playing with the child
Activities in which fathers involve themselves less are the ones related to healthcare (going to the doctor),
where mother is holding the first place.
148
CHAPTER II 11
The influence of gender differences on parenting knowledge, attitudes and

practices for parents with preschool children 3 to 7 year old
Gender equality is a rather new item approached by social views in Romania, and parents still barely realize its
influence in raising and educating children. This is one of the important aspects therefore that parenting courses are
dealing with. The necessity to inform, educate and point out to parents aspects regarding gender equality became a
priority.
Even though the data analysis performed during this research did not reveal gender discrimination with
interviewed families, there are however certain discrimination patterns deeply rooted in parents attitudes and practices,
such as for example the ones regarding toys, games, clothes or certain types of activities.
II. 11.1 Parents knowledge and attitudes regarding the childs needs
At the question Do you consider that your little girl has different needs from the ones of a little boy? 62.3 % of
the parents having daughters answered no ,22.9% answered yes , and 15.3 % did not know or did not answer
(table 197).
Approximately 90 % of the parents considered that girls have different needs from those of boys regarding
education, but 10% considered that needs are different mainly in respect of clothes and toys (data is not presented)
Table no. 197: Distribution of answers to the question: Do you consider that your daughter has different
needs from those of boy? - parents with daughters -
Total Urban Rural

% % %
Yes 93 22.4 49 22.9 44 21.8
No 259 62.3 141 65.9 118 58.4
I dont know 51 12.2 17 7.9 34 16.8
Not answering 13 3.1 7 3.3 6 3.0
Total 416 100 214 100 202 100
In the case of parents having sons, answers were very similar to the ones of parents having daughters, the only
difference in the rate of negative answers which was slightly higher, as well as the rate of parents who answered that
they didnt know (table 199).
Table no. 199: Distribution of answers to the question: Do you consider that your son has different needs
from those of a girl? - parents with sons -
Total Urban Rural

% % %
Yes 92 22.9 51 25.1 41 20.7
No 271 67.6 141 69.5 130 65.7
I dont know 30 7.5 9 4.4 21 10.6
Not answering 8 2.0 2 1.0 6 3.0
Total 401 100 203 100 198 100
149
Table no. 200: Different needs for boys as compared to girls needs
Different needs from a girls needs YES (N = 92) Total

The respective child is a boy Number of cases %
Different toys
Yes 8 8.7
No 84 91.3
Different education
Yes 8 8.7
No 84 91.3
Different clothes
Yes 5 5.4
No 87 94.6
II. 11.2 Parents attitudes and practices regarding gender differentiated punishments
Parents demands regarding child discipline are higher in the case of boys. The rate of parents having sons in the
3-5 age group stating that they punish their children was 45.4% as compared to the rate of parents having daughters,
which was only 39%.
Generally boys receive physical punishments such as smacking, slapping, ear pulling, more frequently than girls.
However, the most frequent punishments are parents raising their voice and interdiction both for boys and girls, but here
too there are differences between girls and boys: 84 % of the parents raise their voice at their sons and only 81% at their
daughters; 59.1 % of the parents use interdiction for boys as compared to only 53 % for girls. Data is not presented.
II. 11.3 Ways in which parents explain gender differences to their children
When asked what arguments they use in order to explain to their child differences between girls and boys, over
two thirds of the parents stated that they resort to biological aspects specific to the two genders. Between 55% and 60%
of the parents mention different behavior, 39.3% to 50.2% explain it through different roles and responsibilities, and 25.7
% to 32.9 % through different abilities (table no. 201).
Table no. 201: Reasons used by parents in order to explain gender differences multiple answers
Yes No
% % % %
3-5 age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age
group group N group group N
N = 817 = 771 N = 817 = 771
Biological aspects specific for the 2 genders 66.1 71.1 33.9 28.9
Different behavior 55.1 60.4 44.9 39.6
Different roles and responsibilities 39.3 50.2 60.7 49.8
Different abilities 25.7 32.9 74.3 67.1
4.9% of parents with children in the 6-7 age group state that they never discussed such aspects; 1.4% of the
interviewed persons stated they didnt know; 0.5% did not answer; Other answers: specific clothing, different games.
In rural areas the rate of parents that support their explanations by different abilities of boys and girls is over 75%,
explanations making reference to different biological aspects being more reduced than in urban areas (55%). In rural
areas also, the rate of parents that mentioned they never discussed such subject with their children is higher (6,8%)
(tables no 202 and 203).
We may therefore draw the conclusion that traditional education models containing even now taboo subjects are
still present in parents practices. Such aspects are nevertheless influenced by the socio-cultural level of the respective
families as well.
150
Table no. 202: Reasons used by parents in urban areas for explaining gender differences multiple answers
Yes No
% % % %
Children * Children ** Children Children
3-5age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age
group group N = group group N =
N = 817 771 N = 817 771
Different behavior 55.2 59.1 44.8 40.9
3-5 age group : * 3.8% of the interviewed parents stated that they never discussed; 1.2% did not know; 1.4%
did not answer; Other: specific clothes, different games.
6-7 age group: ** 3.5% of the interviewed parents stated that they never discussed; 0.8% did not know;
0.3% did not answer; Other: specific clothes, different games
Table no. 203: Reasons used by parents in rural areas for explaining gender differences multiple answers
Yes No
% % % %
Children Children Children Children
3-5age 6-7 age 3-5 age 6-7 age
group group N group group N =
N = 817 = 771 N = 817 771
Different behavior 55 61.7 45 38.3
3 5 age group: 6.8% of the interviewed parents stated that they never discussed; 2.3% did not know; 1%
did not answer; Other: specific clothes, different games
6-7 age group: 6.3% of the interviewed parents stated that they never discussed; 2% did not know; 0.8% did
not answer; Other: specific clothes, different games
II. 11.4 Parents attitudes regarding gender related child behavior
When asked if they consider that it is not manly for boys to weep in public two thirds of the parents stated that
they did not agree, and over a quarter of them stated that they were of the same opinion ( table 204).
Table no. 204: Parents attitudes regarding gender related child behavior
It is not manly for boys Total Urban Rural

to weep in public
% % % % % %
I agree 23.1 27.1 20.9 24.6 25.5 29.5
I do not agree 64.3 66 68.3 67.6 60 64.5
I am not sure 11.5 5.7 10.1 7.3 13 4.2
I dont understand 1.1 1.2 0.7 0.5 1.5 1.8
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
151
More than a quarter of the interviewed persons also consider that boys are more disobedient than girls, even if
almost 60% of them state that such discrimination should not be made (table no. 205)
Table no. 205: Parents attitudes regarding the statement: Boys are much more disobedient/insubordinate
than girls! They need to be disciplined better
Total Urban Rural

% % % % % %
I agree 27.5 28.3 22.1 23.5 33.3 32.7
I do not agree 59.1 63.4 64.5 68.2 53.5 58.9
I am not sure 13.2 8.2 13.2 8.3 13 8.1
I dont understand 0.2 0.1 0.2 0 0.2 0.3
Total 100 100 417 100 100 100
Regarding now certain specific qualities, more than half of the parents consider that girls are more sensitive than
boys and nearly 40% of them are in favor of girls being educated especially for becoming good mothers and wives.
Table no. 206: Parents attitudes regarding cultural values in girls education
Girls need to be educated especially in order Total Urban Rural

to become good mothers and wives % % % % % %
I agree 39.3 40.1 34.8 38.5 44 41.6
I do not agree 50.3 54.9 54 57.8 46.5 52.1
I am not sure 10.3 4.9 11 3.7 9.5 6
I dont understand 0.1 0.1 0.2 0 - 0.3
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Table no. 207: Parents knowledge regarding child personality features according to gender
Girls are more sensitive and more Total Urban Rural

emotional than boys % % % % % %
I agree 50.7 54.7 47.5 51.6 54 57.7
I do not agree 38.3 37.5 41.7 39 34.8 36
I am not sure 10.9 7.7 10.8 9.4 11 6
I dont understand 0.1 0.1 0 0 0.2 0.3
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Other aspects regarding gender differences (games, toys, free time activities, etc) were presented in specific
previous chapters.
Conclusions
Gender equality is a rather new item approached by social views in Romania, and parents still realize its
influence in raising and educating children very little;
The great majority of parents (about 90 %) considered that girls do not have different needs from boys
concerning education, but considered that differences should regard above all clothes and toys;
Parents requirements regarding child discipline are to some extent higher in the case of boys;
Two thirds of the interviewed parents stated that they explain gender differences to their children using
specific biological features of the two genders, but very many still refer to different behavior or different duties
and abilities;
152
In urban areas, the rate of parents who center their explanations on different abilities is much higher than in
rural areas, while explanations based on different biological aspects occupy a less important place; In rural
areas also, the rate of parents who stated that they never discussed such issues with their children is much
higher than in urban areas.
About one quarter of the interviewed parents consider that there are differences between the attitude that
boys and girls should have in public (boys should not weep in public, girls are more sensitive, etc);
About 40% of the parents consider that girls need to be educated in order to become good mothers and
wives, but approximately half of the parents are however in disagreement with this.
153
CONCLUSIONS
This study brought forth a number of aspects, some of them unknown yet, regarding parenting skills, values, as
well as educational plans and activities of parents having in 2005 children under 8 year old.
In view of its objectives, the study surveyed parents s and practices on parenting reflected in the main areas of
child rearing and child development.
Evaluation of such knowledge, attitudes and practices on parenting took as a reference point the Convention for
Childs Rights as well as the most recent information acknowledged by professionals in the field.
1. Socio-demographic characteristics
Due to the fact that the 4 families/parents samples are representative at a national level and represent normal
population segments (i.e. selected following no particular criteria), presentation of their socio-demographic aspects may
update current information regarding certain characteristics and tendencies of Romanian families and explain at the
same time specific evolutions.
1.1 Families characteristics

In respect of family dimensions, findings show that families in rural areas consist of more members than those in
urban areas. Families consisting of 3 persons are prevalent in urban areas, while 4 member families prevail in rural
areas.
In both residence areas the nuclear family prevails, instead of the extended family.
Families based on marriage relations represent various shares in the population segments studied. They are less
frequent with the 0-1 age group.
One parent families represent also different shares of the 4 population segments studied. Variations are
important: from 7% in the 7-6 age group to 22.5% in the 0-1 age group. One parent families derive from two parent
families, not from unmarried parents.
Unmarried couples are more frequent in rural areas for all age groups, the highest incidence being registered for
the 0-1 age group (28.7%). Even if the 4 age groups represent a succession over 7 years, the temptation to consider
such phenomena in progress throughout the 4 age groups is incorrect. We can never tell if families currently having a
legal marital status were not in fact unmarried couples in the first years from the childs birth, and if this is not a common
practice before the couple becoming legally married.
The tendency of workforce migration (both in the country and abroad) is felt at the level of the Romanian family as
well. Its incidence is higher for the 4-7 age group. Fathers are usually the ones to leave, especially in rural areas.
In respect of their socio-economic level, families differentiate themselves according to residence area. While in
families living in urban areas the average and high socio-economic level prevails, in rural areas incidence of the low and
average level is higher.
Generally, families with smaller children (0-1 year old), hold in their possession fewer goods than families having
older children (6-7 year old). We need to point out that the number of assets held in possession was taken as a base for
the socio-economic indicator.
1.2 Parents characteristics

For all age groups studied, mothers in rural areas are much younger than the ones in urban areas. This
characteristic is valid also in case of fathers, with the distinction that differences are much smaller.
The education level most frequently noticed both for mothers and for fathers is high school. However, the rate of
population with higher education is 3 times higher in urban areas as compared to rural areas for all age groups studied.
A more reduced parents education level was remarked therefore in rural areas.
The rate of parents having no school is worrying, since it reaches 6,5%.
Both in urban and rural areas the employee occupational status is prevailing. Generally only half of the mothers
are economically active and participate to the family income. The rate of fathers who are active economically is twice
higher than mothers. The lowest rate of economically active mothers is to be found in rural areas.
154
2. Childrens nutrition
2.1 Breast feeding

Breast feeding is considered by almost all parents as being essential for the childs growing up and development.
Exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months of the babys life is a procedure employed by less than half of the
mothers with children in this age group at the moment of the study.
The average exclusive breastfeeding time was 2.4 months and the median was 2 months. Due to the value of the
median, duration of exclusive breastfeeding is one month higher in urban areas as compared to rural ones.
2.2 Food diversification

Diversification starts early, at the age of 3 months on the average. It was found out that half of the children that
were never breastfed were improperly fed powder milk or cow milk.
2.3 Eating hygiene

Regarding nutrition of children over 3 year old, it was found that the rate of parents who are trying to offer a
healthy lifestyle to their child by organizing a program for his meals is only 30%, the rest not considering an organized
program for the childs meals.
3. Childrens health
3.1 It was found that almost all parents have correct criteria for appreciating their childs health, especially the
physical one, and therefore know when they need to ask for a physicians advice in case of an acute or chronic disease
or for a handicap.
3.2 In case of sickness many parents give remedies to their children (sometimes even antibiotics) without
previously consulting a physician. Incidence of such parents attitude grows as the child gets older, most probably
because of parents having been confronted in time with various similar child sickness situations.
Such inadequate attitude /treatments may however deteriorate the childs health state, may lead to diagnosis
confusions or may reduce the bodys reaction capacity to correct treatments (the case of antibiotics)
3.3 At least 17% of the parents do not know the purpose of immunization and confuse immunization for other
treatments that prevent anemia etc. For this reason, the number of children actually immunized cannot be considered
certain when taking into account only parents statements.
3.4 Physicians were most frequently named by parents as sources of information regarding childrens health,
before other sources. However, the great incidence of incorrect nutrition practices or remedies used gives us no option
but to regard the authenticity of such parents statements with great diffidence.
Parents also resort to insecure information sources, a greater incidence being noticed in rural areas. Among such
sources, grandparents hold an important place in both residence areas. They were mentioned because they sometimes
represent a source of knowledge and useful experience, but there are cases when such experience may be too old to
correspond with current childcare and development models. Perpetuation in this way of unhealthy traditions in child nutrition
(giving up breastfeeding, early food diversification etc.) represents an example in this respect, which explains, in part, why the
model of exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life is regarded with so much diffidence by mothers in Romania.
4.Child hygiene
4.1 Parents knowledge and practice regarding childrens private hygiene are not adequate either in the case of
boys nor in the case of girls, a fact noticed with al age groups studied.
4.2 Observance of certain elementary hygiene routines such as washing food under running water especially
when it is consumed uncooked, is limited by the lack of running water in most rural communities. The same is valid also
for the security of drinking water.
Water coming from insecure sources remains a source of contamination and presents a permanent health risk
especially with small children. As a result, children are exposed to a much higher risk of becoming ill in rural areas.
155
5. Family ecology
5.1 Situations involving tension and conflict among parents are present in almost every family, but in this study no
difficult situations of violence in the family were noticed.
5.2 Parents have an excessive desire to discipline their children.
5.3 Actions of a child are considered to be indiscipline only after the age of one year old.
5.4 In 85% of the cases, for children up to 3 year old mothers are the ones to involve themselves in child
education and discipline.
5.5 With children over 3 year old in the analyzed sample, physical punishment (beating, spanking, slapping, ear
and hair pulling, shaking) represent over 2/3 of the punishments used, and verbal punishment (raising the tone of the
voice, insults, invectives, sarcasm) totals over 80% of the punishment types used. The mother is the one who generally
punishes the child (78.4% for the 3-5 age group, 79.4% for the 6-7 age group). The father is involving himself less in the
childs daily discipline. The child nevertheless acknowledges fathers authority more (43.3% for the 3-5 age group, 43.2
for the 6-7 age group).
5.6 On the other hand, in over 90% of the cases, parents stated that they use various ways of rewarding the
childs positive actions, either verbal or physical (patting, kissing), and presents are saved for festive occasions
(anniversaries, traditional holidays, etc.)
5.7 Practices used for child discipline show a lack of information regarding small child development
characteristics such as: curiosity, desire to explore the environment and investigate the surrounding objects. It also
needs to be pointed out that positive child behavior development and upholding relates to the way in which both mother
and father consistently apply the same discipline methods.
6. Education, play and child development
Parents stated their special interest for childs education and the importance they attach to their childs studies.
6.1 Child education

Approximately 88% of the preschool children attend kindergarten, 77% of the children aged 6 to 7 year old attend
school, and 98% of the parents consider that it is important for their child to attend school. At the same time, over 60% of
the interviewed parents consider that it is important for their own child to graduate higher education schools as well.
6.2 Play activities and early child development

Parents possess information about the importance of play activities for the development of the small child up to a
rate of 95%, for the 0 1 age group.
The great majority of parents (over 70%) consider play activities important for child development and, more than
2/3 of the parents (either mother, father or both), make time to play with the child, especially during week-end, at home
or in the open, according to the season.
The rate of parents who know the importance of play is higher in urban areas.
Parents preferences for various types of toys are influenced rather strongly by their perception of gender
differences. Thus, dolls are preferred in case parents have daughters and toy-cars in case children are boys.
Play activities are considered by parents as being important for child development, especially for their ludic
aspect and are not recognized as an education activity, or as the only way for the child to accumulate knowledge
through its own interaction with the environment. Everything is play up to 6 year old.
With reference to free time, we witness for the age group over 3 year old, irrespective of the childs gender, a
dominant tendency of parents to encourage their children to spend free time in the company of other children (98.1% in
case of girls and 98.8% in case of boys 3 7 year old).
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7.Traditions
7.1 Observance of traditions and traditional practices in child care and child rearing is strongly rooted in parents
mentality. Traditions are present in the families having small children both in urban and rural areas, at a higher rate in the
later.
7.2 We may distinguish observance of traditions such as birthday celebration or other traditional holidays, which
have a benefic influence on the development of internal family relations and indicate important moments in the childs
life, from the observance of harmful childcare customs, especially with the infant and toddler (tight swaddling of the child
until it is at least one month old, covering the childs head with a bonnet to protect him from the draught, piercing girls
ear lobes for earrings etc.). As it was to be expected, incidence of such traditions is much higher in rural areas, where
traditional spirit is more powerful.
7.3 The study also revealed the persistence of a number of local customs, used however on a restricted scale,
which suggest the parents' total ignorance regarding certain child development aspects (for instance speech delays) or
refer to the parents worries regarding the childs future (to be lucky, not to become a thief, etc)
8. Gender aspects and gender discrimination
8.1 When taking into account their declarations, we find that parents claim to have identical attitudes towards girls
and boys in both residence areas.
More than 1 of 2 parents considers that girls do not have different needs from boys. Almost 85% of the parents
consider that girls should not be educated differently from boys. The lack of parents knowledge regarding gender issues
prevent them from offering education based on the childs specific needs (especially regarding gender) affecting in this
way the optimal development of their daughters and sons potential.
Practices studied show, however, that there are clear differences between the type of toys parents buy for girls
and boys as well as in specific gender attributes/qualities that make specific differences between genders. Parents
stereotypical opinions and attitudes regarding girls/women and boys/men roles and responsibilities limit the childrens
development opportunities. Among these we may remind that more than 50% of the parents consider that girls are
much more sensitive and more emotional than boys. Around 40% of the parents believe that girls need to be educated
especially in order to become good mothers and wives. More than 50% of the parents think that the fathers
responsibility is mainly to ensure the necessary resources for child rearing. Over 40% of the parents believe that it is
important for the boy to be encouraged to become more independent and more powerful than the girl (1-3 age group)
8.2 In parents practices, gender differences are emphasized additionally in mothers predominant participation
and presence in small childrens play and daily care giving activities. Mothers involve themselves every day in play
activities with children 0-3 year old, while fathers only weekly.
8.3 Fathers participation to childcare and education. There is a very low preoccupation of fathers for direct
participation in childcare and education, especially for children in the 0-3 age group. Only 2% of the interviewed persons
consider that fathers have the responsibility of daily childcare (0-1 age group). Besides the mother, the grandmother is
the person who involves itself to a great extent in child care (1-3 age group). Approximately 1 of 3 fathers involve
themselves only occasionally in feeding, changing diapers, bathing, clothing and putting the child to sleep (2-3 times per
week). More than 1 of 3 fathers do not read fairytales, poems or sing songs to their child (0-3 age group). This situation
needs to be considered in relation to the fact that the childs development opportunities are directly correlated with the
frequency and quality of the interaction with its father. Studies regarding gender relations showed that the fathers
expectations as to the childs gender influence his involvement in the childs care and education. This type of research
showed that both fathers and mothers in Romania wish to a greater extent to have sons. Fathers wishing to have a son
reach a rate of 42.5%, as compared to only 16.2% who wish to have a daughter. In the case of mothers, 32.2% of them
wish to have a son and 21.8% wish to have a daughter.
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RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommendations regarding public policies and the integrated legislation framework
o A better correlation and mutual collaboration between Ministries and Departments involved in
child protection, health and education, achievement of a coherent policy supported by an
adequate legislation framework.
o Urgent creation of administrative structures and departments necessary for the laws regarding
protection and promotion of childs rights to become functional.
o Establishment of an efficient communication system among decision factors at the central level
and local authorities regarding instructions for the implementation of such legislation measures.
o Creation of inter-sector structures at the local as well as central level, that should provide an
integrated approach of early child development in respect of health, nutrition, education,
protection and environmental security.
o Creation of a national strategy in the field of parenting education which should address all the
abovementioned requirements.
This study points out several important aspects that need to be taken into consideration in elaborating or
coordinating educational or social development strategies and programs.
The situation of disadvantaged families in rural areas.

- The relatively high incidence of instable family types (one parent families, couples living together, families in
which one or both parents do not live with the child permanently, etc)
- Existence of an increasing number of children who are at risk of neglect, abandonment, illiteracy etc. as a result
of the parents migration for work purposes
- Increasing incidence of parents illiteracy
Such findings demand intensive intervention both from central and local authorities in order to inform, educate
and help the parents realize child development needs as well as parents and families role in education and the
protection of childrens rights.
Recommendations regarding the education sector
Develop initiatives/programs related to parents and future parents education, capable to improve parents
attitudes and practices regarding the small child and childhood, by understanding its full value and importance as a
determining period in the formation of a person both regarding the physical health and the creation of intellectual and
emotional psychological structures.
Increase the education level especially in rural areas, by offering certain facilities to children in order for them to
be able to finalize the required school period and, as the case may be, high school or other education forms.
In the education field we propose two main intervention directions:
Measures for professionals

o Increase of the information and formation level of professionals working with parents and who,
through their activity, have the possibility to influence positively parents abilities, knowledge
and practices in raising and educating their child in the family.
o Setting up higher education institutions for the training of teachers specialized in working with
small children, who will become also resource persons in parental skills formation.
o Introduction in the curriculum of students in secondary and high school, at a national level, of
notions related to the minimum knowledge necessary for future parents, with particular
emphasis on their responsibilities towards their potential child.
o Continuous formation of teachers, social workers and other childcare staff categories who need
to collaborate with parents in the field of child education during their activity.
158
Direct measures for parents
o Continuation and increase of programs of parenting education developed in kindergartens and
their extension in primary and secondary schools.
o Elaboration of programs for training parents for their role of first educators of their child. Such
courses need to be presented to parents in a convincing and attractive way.
o Parents encouragement to inform themselves in relation to the childs health and education
issues.
o Facilitating parents access to education by programs that should contain all existing means:
media, brochures, advocacy and information campaigns centered on the child and the
respective issue.
o Setting up of Parents Resource and Information Centers that should become well known information
and advice places for parents in more schools and kindergartens in urban and rural areas.
o Printing information materials for parents about the competences of the small child and
preschooler, containing elements of early child development brochures, folders, publications,
video tapes/CDROMs containing interesting information about the new born and small childs
competences that should incite parents to involve and support the small child in specific
learning activities for his age.
o Organization of information and advocacy campaigns regarding the importance of psychological
aspects in child development and education;
o Support and encouragement of direct information and communication means with parents on
subjects of great interest regarding child education: by implicating the media (special TV and
radio shows, specific websites etc.)
o Organization of services such as: Parents telephone line or Mothers inform other mothers;
o Creation of a specific module, in the National Program for Parenting Education, regarding
childcare and education in rural areas.
o Creation of a specific module, in the National Program for Parenting Education, regarding
gender education;
o Initiation of pilot programs for the encouragement of fathers participation to child education.
Recommendations for the health sector
The same as in the field of education, we suggest that interventions should be addressed to specialists as well as
parents:
o The development of communication abilities for the medical staff working with parents in
general and parents in high risk situations: illiteracy, poverty, chronic illness/severe handicaps
etc. in particular
o Including community social workers and medical assistants in parents information activities as
well as in the following of the way in which information/messages are implemented in child care
practices.
o For better results in exclusive breastfeeding during the first 6 months from the childs birth and
continuation of breastfeeding for a longer period it is necessary to increase physicians
competence in respect of small child development since their education period, by means of
providing such information in the curriculum of higher medical education institutions.
o Encourage such practices in the continuous formation of all categories of professionals in the
sanitary sector who come in contact with mothers and may influence their behavior (midwifes,
medical assistants, community nurses and social workers, obstetricians, neonatology experts,
pediatricians).
o The Committee for the Promotion of Breastfeeding will need to monitor the media for avoiding
and eliminating messages that minimize the importance of breastfeeding and endorse the myth
of powder milk as a sign of the authorities involvement in childcare.
o The National Council for Audio-visual Media will need to establish punishments (subject to the
notification of the Committee) for journalists who promote messages against breastfeeding,
consisting of payment of penalties and the reading by the same journalist of the right to reply
formulated by the Committee. Such measure would increase the responsibility of journalists in
presenting scientific messages that are not in the area of knowledge of the respective person. It
would also increase realization of breastfeeding importance with all the population.
159
o Support for parenting skills formation regarding child health, by means of all methods known:
media, brochures, child health information campaigns, parents training workshops etc.
In order to increase the impact of information materials on the target groups we recommend the following:
o Creation of parents information materials together with communication specialists, in order that
their impact may be greatest.
o Prior to the distribution to professionals of the parenting education information materials, work
meetings, workshops or other activities will need to be organized, in order for the respective
specialists to be motivated for the best utilization of such materials, to exhibit and use them in
their medical practice or in their relation with the parents.
o Evaluation of the impact of parenting education materials on parents themselves.
o Messages of health and education professionals will need to deal with and include all hygiene
aspects (corporal, environmental, food related).
Recommendations for public authorities
o Inform and explain to local authorities the need for parenting education, as an essential element
for community development, for avoiding and limiting cases of school abandonment,
marginalization or lack of social integration.
o Implication of local authorities (Mayors, members of County Councils etc.) in actual parenting
education activities at a local level.
o Local decision taking factors (Mayors, County Councils, etc) should participate to training
courses regarding the importance of parenting education and the implications of marginalization
for the entire community.
o Encourage parents participation to community activities that enhance community cohesion better.
o Initiate and encourage the creation, especially in rural communities, of active groups of parents
that should promote positive examples and modern mentalities in child education.
o Diversify education, health and child protection services that may support families in difficulty:
institutions with flexible program, after-school centers, and holiday programs.
o Organize evening classes for parents in rural areas or in small towns in order to increase their
parenting abilities.
o Permanently inform local and central authorities as well as parents about the risks of insecure
water consumption, for the mobilization of individual and community resources in order to
introduce, in a joint effort, water and sewerage services.
o Initiate resource/advice centers in rural areas for the encouragement of young families (and
young people in general) entrepreneurial initiatives necessary for the changing of the
subsistence agriculture life model.
o Establish quality services for the education of small children and implicitly for the support of the
respective parents (nurseries/kindergartens with a flexible program, adapted to parents needs)
for avoiding the long term separation of children from their parents.
o Establish in as many communities possible parents clubs where they may find play grounds
and toys for children, as well as persons capable to facilitate games with children and parents.
Such clubs may also have spaces where parents could discuss among themselves.
o Organize informal meetings and workshops or debates with experts (physicians, psychologists,
sociologists and education specialists) in order to develop competences and abilities of parents
in rural areas in the field of child rearing and education.
Recommendations for media partners
o Participation of mass-media, especially of television stations, in the promoting of programs such

as talk shows or the presentation of films illustrating aspects about early child development and
child capabilities (for example: Le bebe est une personne; Small children temperament or Child
Development from birth to 6 year old) as well as activities for the information of the Romanian
society about due respect for the child, early childhood and education.
160
o The respective programs will need to be presented in adequate form and language for all
parents, even for the ones with a low social and cultural level, at maximum audience hours and
to be promoted by adequate advertising.
o Carry out campaigns for a better comprehension of the benefits of fathers implication in child
rearing and child education;
o Create talk shows on subjects related to early child development, in order to increase the
publics interest for child and childhood issues, going beyond the festive or catastrophic
framework of events.
Recommendations for partners in the private sector
o Inform them about the importance of involving themselves in various ways (funding, in-kind
contribution, voluntary work etc) in parenting education activities.
o Carry out campaigns for the employees in the private sector in their capacity of parents, in order
to awaken their interest for this topic, and present to them the risk of neglecting their child that
they run because of spending long hours at work.
o Make certain facilities available to parents for the small child rearing, nutrition, education,
protection and health (for example: flexible hours, provision of an early child development
center inside the institution, facilities for breastfeeding or for changing diapers etc.)
o Carry out fundraising campaigns at a local and national level for the publication of parents
information materials.
o Involve publishing houses and journalists in publishing parents information materials
161
162
ANNEXES
Data collection instruments

Questionnaires used for the evaluation of knowledge,
attitudes and practices of parents with children up to 3 year old
Operators code ______________________________ Date_____/_____/_____/

County _____________________________________
Number of the selected family __________________ Place ________________
Chapter 1 DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
Q1. Who is the interviewed person?

1 = mother Q3
2 = father
3 = both parents Q4
4 = grandmother / grandfather
5 = another person (who..)
Q2. Does the mother live together with the child?

1 = yes
2 = she is working abroad
3 = is in a sanatorium
4 = is arrested/ convicted
5 = works in another town and comes home less than every week
6 = left the family/ another marriage/ another partnership
7 = deceased
8 = other (explain.)
Q3. Does the father live together with the child?

1 = yes
2 = he is working abroad
7 = deceased
8 = other (explain.)
Q4. Residence area: 1 = urban 2 = rural
Q5. Marital status 1 = married 2 = living together 3 = divorced/separated

4 = widow(er) 5 = not married 9 = not answering
Q6. How many members does your family consist of?
Please name all members of your family who are living in your household.
Q7. what is the Q.9 Q.10 Q11 Q13 Was

Q8. Age Q12 Gender
kinship to the child Education Ethnicity Occupation selected
165
Codes for Q9 Codes for Q10 Codes for Q11
Education Ethnicity Occupation/profession
1 = no school 1 = Romanian 1 = employee

2 = primary school 2 = Hungarian 2 = manager
3 = unfinished secondary school 3 = Roma 3 = self employed
4 = secondary school 4 = German 4 = occasional jobs
5 = vocational school 5 = Other 5 = unemployed
6 = high school 9 = Not answering 6 = housewife
7 = training school 7 = student
8 = higher education 8 = without occupation
9 = not answering 10 = other
10 = retired 99 = not answering
Q14. Who is the person who has the responsibility of daily childcare for........................ (name of the child)
1 = mother 7 = another relative
2 = father 8 = godmother
3 = grandmother 9 = babysitter
4 = grandfather 10 = neighbor
5 = sister 11 = another person
6 = a brother 12 = nobody
Q15. Who else in the family helps with daily childcare?

1 = mother ....... yes/no 7 = another relativeyes/no 99 = not answering
2 = father.......... yes/no 8 = godmother.........yes/no
3 = grandmotheryes/no 9 = babysitter..........yes/no
4 = grandfather..yes/no 10 = neighbor..........yes/no
5 = sister............yes/no 11 = another personyes/no
6 = a brother......yes/no 12 = nobody
Attention!
If father was mentioned at Q15 continue with Q16, in case it was not mentioned continue with Q18
Q16. State what fathers participation to childcare consists in:

___________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Q16. How often does the father involve himself in the following activities?
2-3 Once a Once a Once a
ACTIVITY / FREQUENCY Daily times a week month year Never
week (average) (average) (average)
Q17 Feeding 1 2 3 4 5 9
Q18 Changing diapers 1 2 3 4 5 9
Q19 Bathing the child 1 2 3 4 5 9
Q20 Dressing 1 2 3 4 5 9
Q21 Putting the child to sleep 1 2 3 4 5 9
Q22 Washing teeth 1 2 3 4 5 9
Q23 When the child is crying (soothing) 1 2 3 4 5 9
Q24Visits to the doctor 1 2 3 4 5 9
Q25 taking the child to the nursery school 1 2 3 4 5 9
Q26 Play activities at home 1 2 3 4 5 9
Q27 Play activities in open air 1 2 3 4 5 9
Q28 Telling stories, songs, poems to the child 1 2 3 4 5 9
Q29 Buying clothes and toys for the child 1 2 3 4 5 9
Q30 Helping child with learning things: walking,
1 2 3 4 5 9
talking etc.
166
Q31. What language do you usually speak in the family?
1 = Romanian 7 = English
2 = Hungarian 8 = French
3 = German 9 = Spanish
4 = Romani 10 = another (which one?)
5 = Turkish 99 = not answering
6 = Russian
Q32. What other languages do you speak in your family (mention them in order of their frequency)
1. ____________________ 88 = no other languages
2. ____________________ 99 = not answering
3. ____________________
Q33. What language do you speak with the child?

6 = Russian
Q34. What other language does the child know?
Q34.1 speaks Q34.2 understands

____________ _________________
____________ _________________
____________ _________________
88 = no other languages 88 = no other languages
99 = not answering 99 = not answering
Q35. What is the average income of your family?

(include all sources: salaries, pensions, allowances, social welfare, agriculture etc)
______________________ lei
9 = not answering
Q36. If you had more money, what would you do for ?

(name of the child)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Q37. is a girl/boy; does or will she/he have different needs than a boy/girl?
(name of the child)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Q38. Did you benefit of a maternity leave for this child?

1 = yes
2 = no Q41
Q39. How many months did your maternity leave last?

88 = she is on maternity leave at present Q46
If she was on maternity leave for less than 24 months continue from Q27
Q40. Why did you interrupt your maternity leave?

_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Q41. Are you working now?

1 = yes
2 = no Q46
167
Q42. How many hours are you working every day?
1 = 7/8 hours
2 = more than 7/8 hours
3 = less than 7/8 hours
4 = other
9 = not answering
Q43. Do you usually work on Saturdays as well?

1 = yes
2 = no
9 = not answering
Q44. Do you usually work on Sundays as well?

1 = yes
2 = no
9 = not answering
Q45. What time do you arrive at home?

1=
88 = depending on the shifts
99 = not answering
Q46. Does the other parent work?

1 = yes
2 = no Q38
9 = not answering Q38
Q47. How many hours does the father of the child work?
1 = 7/8 hours
2 = more than 7/8 hours
3 = less than 7/8 hours
4 = other
9 = not answering
Q48. What time does he usually arrive home?

99 = not answering
Q49. Does he usually work on Saturdays as well?

1 = yes
2 = no
9 = not answering
Q50. Does he usually work on Sundays as well?

1 = yes
2 = no
9 = not answering
168
Chapter 2. CHILDRENS NUTRITION
Q51. Do you think that breastfeeding is an essential thing for a child?

1 = yes
2 = no
3 = I dont know
9 = not answering
Q52. How many months is exclusive breastfeeding necessary?

months
88 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q53. Was your child breastfed?

1 = yes
2 = no Q58
3 = I dont know Q58
Q54. Until what age was your child breastfed?

months
77 = is breastfed at present
88 = I dont know/I dont remember
99 = not answering
Q55. Until what age did you exclusively breastfed your child?
months
77 = is exclusively breastfed at present

88 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q56. How do/did you breastfed your child?

1 = upon request
2 = at pre-established hours
3 = I dont know
9 = I dont remember/ not answering
Q57. At what age did you include another type of milk besides mothers milk?
months
77 = since birth
88 = still breastfeeding Q61
99 = not answering
Q58. What milk did you use?

1 = special infant formula milk
2 = whole powder milk
3 = cow milk
4 = another
88 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q59. From what age did you give the child something else besides milk?
months
77 = at present is fed only milk Q62

88 = I dont know
99 = not answering
169
Q60. From what age did you start giving the child
1 = vegetables/fruit ________________
2 = cereals ________________
3 = milk products ________________
4 = meat/chicken/fish ________________
5 = pastry/cookies _________________
6 = bread products _________________
7 = fresh herbs _________________
88 = I dont know _________________
99 = not answering _________________
Q61. How many times do you feed the child during the day? _____________
77 = whenever the child is hungry
88 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Chapter 3. CHILD HEALTH
Q62. Is your child:

1 = healthy
2 = fairly healthy
3 = not healthy
4 = I dont know
9 = not answering
Q63. Is your child chronically ill or has a handicap?

1 = yes
2 = no Q65
3 = I dont know Q65
Q64. Please give details: ______________________________________________________________________________
Q65. When do you seek doctors help?

Multiple answers. Wait for mothers answers
1 = fever
2 = coughing
3 = diarrhoea
4 = spasms
5 = agitation
6 = traumatisms
7 = accidents
8 = I dont know
9 = not answering
Q66. Do you use treatments without a doctors prescription when the child is ill?
1 = yes
2 = sometimes
3 = no Q68
4 = it was not necessary Q68
4 = I dont know Q68
Q67. Mention what they are _____________________________________________
Q68. Was your child immunized?

1 = yes
2 = no
3 = I dont know
9 = not answering
170
Q69. Do you know the purpose of immunization?
1 = yes (please describe) ..
2 = no
3 = I dont know
9 = not answering
Q70. From what sources do you obtain information about your childs health?
1 = doctor/nurse
2 = mass media
3 = teachers
4 = relatives
5 = grandparents
6 = neighbors/acquaintances
7 = others (describe).
9 = I dont know /not answering
Q71. How many times was your child ill during the last 12 months?
1 = once a month
2 = once every 2 months
4 = once a year
5 = I dont remember
6 = never
9 = not answering
Q72. Do you form to your child hygiene routines?

1 = yes
2 = no
9 = not answering
Q73. What routines does he use habitually?

1 = washes face and hands
2 = washes teeth
3 = takes a bath
4 = washes hands before eating
5 = washes hands after using the toilet
6 = other (please describe)..
7 = it is not the case
9 = not answering
Q74. Does it matter how you wash the private parts of your child?
A. Girls
1 = yes, towards the back
2 = towards the front
3 = it doesnt matter
4 = I dont know
9 = not answering
B. Boys
1 = yes/ by foreskin cleaning in warm water during the bath
2 = no
3 = I dont know
9 = not answering
Q75. How often do you change your childs underwear

1 = every day
2 = once a week
3 = 2-3 times a week
4 = whenever necessary
5 = I dont know
9 = not answering
171
Q76. What kind of water does your child drink?
1 = from the public system
2 = from a well
3 = from a river
4 = from a lake
6 = bottled water
7 = I dont know
9 = not answering
Q77. Do you boil the water that the child drinks directly?
1 = yes
2 = no
3 = I dont know
9 = not answering
Q78. Do you use for cooking the same water that the child is drinking?
1 = yes
2 = no
3 = I dont know
9 = not answering
Q79. How do you wash/ clean fruit and vegetables?

1 = in running water
2 = in a bowl with warm water
3 = in a bowl with cold water
4 = I soak them in boiling water
5 = I wash them with a napkin
6 = I do not usually wash them
7 = other
8 = I dont know
9 = not answering
Chapter 4. THE CHILDS PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL STATE
Q80. Do you think that your child is well developed physically?

1 = yes Q82
2 = no
3 = I dont know
Q81. Describe why:

1 = small height
2 = small weight
3 = other _________________________
Q82. Do you think that your child is well developed psychologically?

1 = yes
2 = no
3 = I dont know
Q83. How do you know that ___________________________________________________________________________
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Chapter 5. ELEMENTS OF FAMILY ECOLOGY
Q84. How often do you have disputes in the family?

1 = every day
2 = several times a week
3 = once a month
4 = almost never
5 = other (describe) _________________________
9 = not answering
Q85. What are the most usual reasons for disputes in your family?
(read the variants below. Multiple answers)
1 = money...yes/no
2 = parents/relatives..yes/no
3 = because of the childyes/no
4 = alcohol consumption.. yes/no
5 = jealousy ...yes/no
6 = family neglectyes/no
7 = other (describe) ____________
9 = not answering
Q86. Do you have disputes in front of the child?

1 = often
2 = seldom
3 = never
9 = not answering
Q87. Do you happen to punish your child?

1 = yes
2 = no Q90
3 = sometimes
9 = not answering
Q88. How do you punish the child?

1 = verbally............yes/no
(sarcasm, insults)
2 = physically............yes/no
3 = I disallow a certain thing yes/no
9 = not answering
Q89. Who is generally punishing the child?

1 = mother
2 = father
3 = other members of the family (describe) _________________
4 = babysitter
9 = not answering
Q90. Whose authority does the child acknowledge more often?

1 = mother
2 = father
3 = another member of the family (describe) _________________
4 = other persons (describe) _____________________________
Q91. How do you praise the childs positive actions?
I dont know /not

answering
1 = verbally 1 2 3 9
2 = physically 1 2 3 9
3 = with a present 1 2 3 9
173
Q92. Do you choose/have the intention of choosing your childs friends?
1 = yes
2 = no Q94
Q93. What are the criteria for choosing them?

(multiple answers)
1 = close neighborhood
2 = being acquainted with the family of the respective friend
3 = other (describe)
9 = not answering
Chapter 6. CHILDRENS PLAY ACTIVITIES / EARLY CHILD EDUCATION
Q94. How important are in your opinion play activities for child development?
1 = very important
2 = important
3 = unimportant
4 = I dont know
9 = not answering
Q95. How does your child play?

(multiple answers)
1 = Drawing /coloring
2 = Looking at picture books
3 = With toys
4 = With objects in the house
5 = Games in open air
6 = Puzzle, construction games
7 = Imaginary and group games
8 = Organized games/ sports
9 = Table games
10 = other (describe).
99 = not answering
Q96. How many hours per day does your child spend watching TV?
66 = do not have a TV Q99

77 = does not watch TV Q99
Q97. What programs does the child watch usually?

_____________________________________________________________________________
Q98. Who selects programs that the child is watching?

(wait for the answers)
1 = mother
2 = father
3 = grandparents
4 = babysitter
5 = someone else
6 = nobody
9 = not answering
Q99. Who is playing at home with the child?

1 = mother
2 = father
3 = brothers
4 = other adults (describe) ________________________
9 = not answering
174
Q100. When did you last play with the child?
1 = today
2 = yesterday
3 = several days ago
4 = during the weekend
5 = last week
6 = I dont remember
9 = not answering
Q101. Which of the following activities would you encourage during free time for boys and girls?
Girl Boy
Free time activities I dont know/ I dont know/ not
yes no yes no
not answering answering
Sports (running, climbing, etc.) 9 9
Arts (dancing, drawing) 9 9
Spending free time with other children 9 9
Games played by the child alone at home 9 9
Q102. When did the father last play with the child?
1 = today
2 = yesterday
5 = last week
6 = I dont remember
7 = it is not the case
9 = not answering
Q103. How did they play?

1 = with toys
2 = games in open air
3 = table games
9 = not answering
Q104. What kind of toys do you buy for.. (name of the child)?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Q105. What type of toys or other objects would you prefer to buy for a girl/boy?
Girls Boys
I dont I dont
Toys
yes no know/ not yes no know/ not
answering answering
1. Dolls
2. Toy cars
3. Puzzle-type games
4. Construction games (cubes, Lego etc)
5. War games (rifle, tank, airplane, soldiers,
robots)
6. Toys for the dolls house, representing
objects in the kitchen, cooking stove, dolls
carriage, bed, cupboard etc.
7. Make-up kits
8. Balls or other sports related toys
9. Coloring books
10. Reading books
11. Tapes or CDs with music, fairytales
Q106. Why?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
175
Chapter 7. NATIONAL TRADITIONS IN CHILD REARING
Q107. Do you usually observe traditions/ customs in child rearing?

1 = yes
2 = no
9 = not answering
Q108. Which of the following customs did you observe:

1 = Avoid showing the baby within the first 40 days from birth
2 = Protection against the evil eye with the help of specific symbols
3 = First haircut for 1 year old children
4 = Tearing the tart
5 = Ears piercing
6 = National/ traditional holidays
7 = Celebrate the childs birthday
8 = Others .
Q109. Has your child been swaddled?

1 = yes
2 = no Q113
3 = I dont know
9 = not answering
Q110. For how many weeks was your child swaddled?
88 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q111. How has your child been swaddled?

1 = The entire body
2 = Only the legs
3 = I dont know
9 = not answering
Q112. When was your child swaddled?

1 = only at night
2 = only in the daytime
3 = day and night
4 = I dont know
9 = not answering
Q113. What is your opinion about the custom to keep the baby swaddled during the first months of life?
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Q114. During the pregnancy did you want the baby to be:
1 = a boy
2 = a girl
3 = it didnt matter
9 = not answering
Q115. What did the father of the child want the baby to be?
1 = a boy
2 = a girl
3 = it didnt matter
9 = not answering
176
QUESTIONNAIRE USED BY THE OBSERVER
Details about the space of the residence
Q1. What is the total surface of your residence (mp)? ____________
Q2. What type of flooring does the house (apartment) have?

1 = parquet
2 = linoleum
3 = wood
4 = floor tiles
5 = inlay
6 = earth
7 = other
Q3. List of the existing rooms:

1 = living...yes/no
2 = kitchen... yes/no
3 = bathroom... yes/no
4 = bedroom yes/no
5 = toilet in the yard yes/no
6 = babys room.. yes/no
7 = other
Q4. Have you got :

1 = cooking stove
2 = refrigerator
3 = washing machine
4 = television set
5 = radio
6 = telephone
7 = car
8 = is the residence privately owned?
9 = do you have a second residence?
Q5. Where is the child sleeping?

1 = alone in his room
2 = alone in his bed in the same room with the parents
3 = in the same bed with his mother
3 = in the same bed with his father
4 = in the same bed with his parents
9 = not answering
Q6. Do you have pets?

1 = yes
2 = no Q7
Q5. Describe _____________________________________________________________________________________
Q6. Does the child play with the pets?

1 = yes
2 = no
Q7. Do you have central heating?

1 = yes
2 = no Q9
Q8. What type of heating is used? ___________________________________________________________________
Q9. Is there a drain system?

1 = yes
2 = no Q11
177
Q10. What type of drain system is used ___________________________________
Q11. Is there running water?

1 = yes = >Q13
2 = no
Q12. What water sources are used? _______________________________________
Q13. Is there a space in the yard for the child to play?

1 = yes
2 = no Q16
What are the characteristics of the respective place?
Q14 Clean Q15 Safe Q16No
1 = porch.. yes/no yes/no.8
2 = closed verandayes/no yes/no8
3 = balcony/terraceyes/no yes/no8
4 = garden. yes/no yes/no8
5 = back yard yes/no yes/no8
6 = central court yes/no yes/no8
7 = street yes/no yes/no8
8 = unused land. yes/no yes/no8
9 = nearby park. yes/no yes/no8
10 = other
Q17. Are there dangerous things within the reach of the child?
1 = yes
2 = no Q19
Q18. Check all objects, as the case may be:

1 = sharp objects (scissors, knives etc.)
2 = poisonous things/substances (pills, cleaning substances etc.)
3 = unprotected high windows
4 = open fire
5 = hot surfaces
6 = unprotected electric sources
7 = other
Q19. Which of the following objects exist in the house?

(read the variants to the interviewed person)
1 = books.... yes/no
2 = childrens books.. yes/no
3 = newspapers/magazines. yes/no
4 = calendar... yes/no
5 = pictures/photographs on the walls. yes/no
6 = drawing paper, pencils... yes/no
7 = toys... yes/no
8 = handmade toys.. yes/no
9 = radio..... yes/no
10 = television set.. yes/no
11 = musical instruments. yes/no
12 = table games... yes/no
Q20. Is there a special place where the child is keeping his toys/things?
1 = yes
2 = no
Q21. How much disorder is in the house?

1 = much
2 = a little
3 = not at all
178
Q22. How bright is the house?
1 = bright
2 = less bright
3 = dark
Q23. What is the quality of the air in the house?

1 = very good (fresh air)
2 = ordinary
3 = lack of air
SPECIFIC INFORMATION FOR THE 0-1 AGE GROUP
Q1. Did you change your habits and practices while you were pregnant?
1 = yes
2 = no Q3
Q2. What exactly did you change?

1. ____________________________________
2. ____________________________________
3. ____________________________________
4. ____________________________________
Q3. Did you change your diet during the pregnancy?

1 = yes
2 = no Q5
Q4. How exactly? _____________________________________________
Q5. Did you change during your pregnancy the daily routine activities?
1 = yes
2 = no Q7
Q6. What exactly? _____________________________________________
Q7. Who gave you information regarding pregnancy?

1 = a family member. yes/no
2 = a friend. yes/no
3 = the family doctor. yes/no
4 = another doctor. yes/no
5 = the nurse.. yes/no
6 = the community nurse.. yes/no
7 = the sanitary mediator.. yes/no
8 = others (describe) _______________
9 = not answering
Q8. How do you behave during breastfeeding?

1 = caressing the child . yes/no
2 = talking to the child... yes/no
3 = singing to the child.. yes/no
4 = looking the child into his eyes yes/no
5 = watching television.. yes/no
9 = not answering... yes/no
Q9. What do you do when the child cries without a clear reason?
1 = I hold him in my arms
2 = I try to calm him
3 = I ignore him
4 = I talk/sing/play with him
179
5 = I try to find out the reason
6 = other
9 = not answering
Q10. What do you do in case all such things have no result? ___________________________________
Q11. How do you know that the child is developing well? ______________________________________
1 = the child is alert. yes/no
2 = is not ill... yes/no
3 = has a good weight. yes/no
4 = is cheerful... yes/no
5 = other ______________________
9 = not answering
Now I will read to you several statements for which you will need to choose one of the following answers:
I agree, I disagree, I am not sure, I dont understand
(Please check the accepted answer)
Q12. Breastfeeding must start immediately after birth.

1.I agree. . 2.I disagree. . 3.I am not sure. . 4.I dont understand. .
Q13. If the mother thinks she hasnt got sufficient milk she should breastfeed less.
Q14. If the childs movements are disorganized and uncontrolled, the mother should be worried.
Q15. The majority of children stand up and walk before they are 1 year old, and if this doesnt happen, the mother
should become worried.
Q16. The child develops more rapidly during the first year of life than at any later moment. This process is supported
by a close and warm attitude of the people around
Q17. Do you think that a parent should approach his child differently, especially regarding the following aspects:
(please indicate the statements that the parent agrees with)
1. I choose clothes according to the childs gender (pink for girls and blue for boys)
2. I consider that it is important for a girl to be caressed and patted more than a boy.
3. I think that it is important for a boy to be encouraged to become stronger and more independent than a girl.
4. The mother is mainly responsible for education and childcare.
5. The fathers responsibility is mainly to ensure the necessary resources for child rearing.
6. Boys are more disobedient/insubordinate than girls. They need to be disciplined better.
7. Girls are more sensitive and more emotional than boys
Q18. Was the pregnancy with this child planned?

1 = yes
2 = no
9 = not answering
180
Q1. Do you let your child touch/play with safe household objects?
1 = yes
2 = no Q5
Q2. Give examples of such objects. ___________________________
Q3. Did your child play with such objects yesterday?

1 = yes
2 = no Q5
Q4. What were the objects the child played with? ________________
Q5. How do you treat your child when he is disobedient?

1 = I do not punish him
2 = I raise my voice
3 = I threaten to tell him to the other parent
4 = I isolate him
5 = I discuss with him/ I explain what he did wrong
6 = I slap him
7 = I pull his ear
8 = I pull his hair
9 = other (describe) __________________________________________
99 = not answering
Q6. Do you set rules for your child?

1 = yes
2 = no Q8
Q7. Give an example __________________________________________
Q8. Do you think that there should be specific rules for boys and girls at this age (1-3 year old)?
1 = yes
2 = no Q10
Q9. Why? _____________________________________________________
Q10. When did the child begin to

1 = dress by himself________________________________
2 = make the difference among colors__________________
3 = be interested by pictures, books, etc. _______________
Now I will read to you several sentences for which you will need to choose one of the following answers:
(Please check the accepted answers)
Q11. Brain development is complete by the time the child is 2 year old.
Q12. The first words are usually uttered by the child during the first 12-18 months of life and they represent names
of things that are important and full of meaning for the child.
Q13. Problem solving is a difficult task, frustrating the child who will therefore loose interest very soon if he is not
helped out.
181
Q14. Activities of sorting and grouping objects according to their color, form and dimensions are fundamental for
the childs subsequent thinking and learning processes.
Q15. Do you think that a parent should approach his child differently, especially regarding the following aspects:
(please indicate the statements that the parent agrees with)
1. I choose clothes according to the childs gender (pink for girls and blue for boys)
2. I consider that it is important for a girl to be caressed and patted more than a boy.
3. I think that it is important for a boy to be encouraged to become stronger and more independent than a girl.
4. The mother is mainly responsible for education and childcare.
5. The fathers responsibility is mainly to ensure the necessary resources for child rearing.
6. Boys are more disobedient/insubordinate than girls. They need to be disciplined better.
7. Girls are more sensitive and more emotional than boys
182
Questionnaires used for the evaluation of knowledge,
attitudes and practices of parents with children in the 3 7 age group
Operators code ______________________________ Date_____/_____/_____/

County _____________________________________
Number of the selected family __________________ Place ________________
Chapter 1. DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

Q1. Who is the interviewed person? 1 = mother
1 = mother Q3 2 = father
2 = father 3 = grandmother
3 = both parents Q4 4 = grandfather
4 = grandmother / grandfather 5 = sister
5 = another person (who?) _______________ 6 = a brother
7 = another relative (cousin, aunt, etc.)
Q2. Does the mother live together with the child?
1 = yes
2 = is working abroad
7 = deceased
8 = other (explain) ________________________
Q3. Does the father live together with the child?

1 = yes
2 = is working abroad
7 = deceased
8 = other (explain) _________________________
Q4. Residence area: 1 = urban 2 = rural
Q5. Marital status 1 = mother

1 = married 2 = living together 3 = divorced/separated 2 = father
4 = widow(er) 5 = not married 9 = not answering 3 = grandmother
4 = grandfather
Q6. How many members does your family consist of? 5 = sister
_________________ 6 = a brother
7 = another relative (cousin, aunt, etc.)
Q7. Please name all members of your family who are living in your household.
Q7. what is the Q8. Age Q.9 Q.10 Q11 Q12 Gender Q13 Was
kinship to the child Education Ethnicity Occupation selected
183
Codes for Q9 Codes for Q10 Codes for Q11
Education Ethnicity Occupation/profession
1 = no school 1 = Romanian 1 = employee
2 = primary school 2 = Hungarian 2 = manager
3 = unfinished secondary school 3 = Roma 3 = self employed
4 = secondary school 4 = German 4 = occasional jobs
5 = vocational school 5 = Other 5 = unemployed
6 = high school 6 = Moldavian 6 = housewife
7 = training school 7 = Serbian 7 = student
8 = higher education 8 = Ukrainian 8 = without occupation
9 = retired
10 = other
99 = not answering 99 = Not answering 99 = not answering
Q14. Who is the person who has the responsibility of daily childcare for ................................ (name of the child)?
(Choose only one option!)
1 = mother 7 = another relative
2 = father 8 = godmother
3 = grandmother 9 = babysitter
4 = grandfather 10 = neighbor
5 = sister 11 = another person
6 = a brother 99 = not answering
Q15. Who else in the family helps with daily childcare?

(several options can be chosen)
1 = mother .........yes/no 7 = another relative..yes/no 99 = not answering
2 = father............yes/no 8 = godmother.........yes/no
3 = grandmotheryes/no 9 = babysitter...........yes/no
4 = grandfather..yes/no 10 = neighbor..........yes/no
5 = sister............yes/no 11 = another personyes/no
6 = a brother......yes/no 12 = nobody
Attention! If father was mentioned at Q15 continue with Q16, in case it was not mentioned continue with Q27
In what childcare and education activities does the father involve himself directly? State how often this occurs for
each activity.
2-3 times a Once a Once a Once a

ACTIVITY / FREQUENCY Daily Never
week week month year
Q16 Feeding 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q17 Dressing 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q18 Bathing the child 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q19 Washing teeth 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q20 Visits to the doctor 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q21 taking the child to the kindergarten 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q22 Play activities at home 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q23 Play activities in open air 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q24 Discussions about daily activities 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q25 Buying clothes and toys for the child 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q26 Discussions regarding issues that the
child is confronted with (ex. Conflicts with 1 2 3 4 5 6
other children)
Q27. What language do you usually speak in the family?

6 = Russian
184
Q28. What other languages do you speak in your family (mention them in order of their frequency)?
1. _____________________ 88 = no other languages
2. _____________________ 99 = not answering
3. _____________________ 1 = Romanian
2 = Hungarian
Q29. What language do you speak with the child? 3 = German
1 = Romanian 7 = English 4 = Romani
2 = Hungarian 8 = French 5 = Turkish
3 = German 9 = Spanish 6 = Russian
4 = Romani 10 = another (which one?) ____________ 7 = English
5 = Turkish 99 = not answering 8 = French
6 = Russian 9 = Spanish
11 = Serbian
12 = Ukrainian
Q30. What other language does the child know? 13 = Japanese
Q30.1 Speaks Q30.2 Understands 14 = Romanian+Romani
_____________ ________________ 15 = Italian
_____________ ________________ 22 = Romanian+Hungarian
_____________ ________________ 23 = Romanian+Serbian
99 = not answering
Q31. What is the average income of your family?

(include all sources: salaries, pensions, allowances, social welfare, agriculture etc.)
___________________ lei
99 = not answering
Q32. If you had more money, what would you do for .................................. (name of the child)?
______________________________________________________________________________
1 = investment in education
2 = clothing, footwear
3 = provisions, better foodstuff
4 = toys
5 = a house/privately owned or bigger house
6 = save it in the bank for later needs
7 = save it in the bank for the child
8 = free time activities
9 = use it for health purposes
11 = the same as we currently use it
12 = everything the child needs
13 = everything that the child wants
99 = I dont know
Q33. (name of the child) is a girl/boy; does or will she/he have different needs than a boy/girl?
1 = yes
2 = no
Q33.1 = different toys
Q33.2 = different education
Q33.3 = different clothes
88 = I do not understand the question
Q34. Did you benefit of a maternity leave for this child?

1 = yes
2 = no Q37
99 = not answering
Q35. How many months did your maternity leave last?

_______ months
88 she is on maternity leave at present Q42
If the person was on maternity leave for less than 24 months continue from Q36
185
Q36. Why did you interrupt your maternity leave?
Q36.1 = for returning to work

Q36.2 = the other parent requested a maternity leave
Q36.3 = I had someone else at home that could offer childcare
Q37. Are you working now?

1 = yes
2 = no Q42
99 = not answering
Q38. How many hours are you working every day?

1 = 7/8 hours
2 = more than 7/8 hours 5 = ocasionally, at home
3 = less than 7/8 hours 6 = working abroad
4 = other ______________ 7 = comes home weekly/monthly
99 = not answering
Q39. Do you usually work on Saturdays as well?

1 = yes
2 = no
99 = not answering
Q40. Do you usually work on Sundays as well?

1 = yes
2 = no
99 = not answering
Q41. What time do you arrive at home?

1 = At ________
99 = not answering
Q42. Does the other parent work?

1 = yes
2 = no Q47
3 = is on paternity leave
99 = not answering
Q43. How many hours does the father of the child work?
1 = 7/8 hours
2 = more than 7/8 hours 5 = ocasionally, at home
3 = less than 7/8 hours 6 = working abroad
4 = other ___________ 7 = comes home weekly/monthly
99 = not answering
Q44. What time does he usually arrive home?

1 = At _________________
99 = not answering
Q45. Does he usually work on Saturdays as well?

1 = yes
2 = no
99 = not answering
Q46. Does he usually work on Sundays as well?

1 = yes
2 = no
99 = not answering
186
Chapter 2. CHILD NUTRITION
Q47. Do you think that breastfeeding is an essential thing for a child?

1 = yes
2 = no
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q48. How many months is exclusive breastfeeding necessary?

_______months
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q49. Was your child breastfed?

1 = yes
2 = no Q51
98 = I dont know Q51
99 = not answering
Q50. Until what age was your child breastfed?

________months
77 = is breastfed at present
98 = I dont know/I dont remember
99 = not answering
Q51. How often do you feed the child during the day? ____________
77 = whenever the child is asking for food
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Chapter 3. CHILD HEALTH

Q52. Is your child:
1 = healthy
2 = fairly healthy
3 = not healthy
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q53. Is your child chronically ill or has a handicap?

1 = yes
2 = no Q55
98 = I dont know Q55 Q54.1 = speech disorders
99 = not answering Q54.2 = specified illness/syndrom
Q54.3 = alergies
98 = I dont know
Q54. Please give details: ____________________________________________________
99 = not answering
Q55. When do you seek doctors help?
1 = fever ....................................... yes/no
2 = coughing.................................. yes/no
3 = diarrhoea....................................yes/no
4 = spasms.....................................yes/no
5 = agitation....................................yes/no
6 = traumatisms..............................yes/no
7 = accidents...................................yes/no
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
187
Q56. Do you use treatments without a doctors prescription when the child is ill?
1 = yes
2 = sometimes
3 = no Q58
4 = it was not necessary Q58
98 = I dont know Q58
99 = not answering Q58 Q57.1 = medication without prescription
Q57.2 = herbal tea, healing pads (cataplasms),
alcohol massage in case of fever, etc
Q57. Mention what they are ______________________________________
Q58. Was your child immunized?

1 = yes
2 = no
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering Possible statements in answering Q59
1= yes shall be encoded as follows:
Q59. Do you know the purpose of immunization? 1= illness prevention/immunization
1 = yes (please describe) ________________________________________ 2= any other answer
2 = no
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q60. From what sources do you obtain information about your childs health?
1 = doctor/nurse.................................yes/no
2 = mass media.................................yes/no
3 = teachers.......................................yes/no
4 = relatives.......................................yes/no
5 = grandparents...............................yes/no
6 = neighbors/acquaintances............yes/no
5 experience with my elder children
7 = others (describe) ________________________ 6 - books
99 = I dont know /not answering
Q61. How many times was your child ill during the last 12 months?
1 = once a month
4 = once a year
5 = I dont remember
6 = never
99 = not answering
Q62. Do you form to your child hygiene routines?

1 = yes
2 = no Q64
99 = not answering
Q63. What routines does he use habitually?

(read the options)
1 = washes face and hands.......................yes/no
2 = washes teeth.......................................yes/no
3 = takes a bath.........................................yes/no
4 = washes hands before eating.yes/no
5 = washes hands after using the toilet.yes/no 6 takes care of his clothes and toys
6 = other (please describe______________________
99 = not answering
Q64. Does it matter how you wash the private parts of your child?
A. Girls
1 = yes, towards the back 3 = it doesnt matter 99 = not answering
2 = towards the front 98 = I dont know
188
B. Boys
1 = yes/ by foreskin cleaning in warm water during the bath 98 = I dont know
2 = no 99 = not answering
Q65. How often do you change your childs underwear

1 = every day
2 = once a week
3 = 2-3 times a week
4 = whenever necessary
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q66. What kind of water does your child drink?

1 = from the public system
2 = from a well
3 = from a river
4 = from a lake
5 = bottled water
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q67. Do you boil the water that the child drinks directly?
1 = yes
2 = no
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q68. Do you use for cooking the same water that the child is drinking?
1 = yes
2 = no
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q69. How do you wash/ clean fruit and vegetables?

1 = in running water
2 = in a bowl with warm water
3 = in a bowl with cold water
4 = I soak them in boiling water
5 = I wash them with a napkin
6 = I do not usually wash them
7 = other_________________
8 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Chapter 4. THE CHILDS PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL STATE
Q70. Do you think that your child is well developed physically?

1 = yes Q72
2 = no
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q71. Describe why:

1 = small height.yes/no
2 = small weight.yes/no
3 = other_________________________
189
Q72. Do you think that your child is well developed psychologically?
1 = yes
2 = no Q73.1 behaves normally/one can talk to him/he
98 = I dont know understands what he is explained/ memorizes easily
99 = not answering by observation/I compared him with other children
his age/ he is the same as other children his age
Q73.2 - medical investigations/ I talked to the doctor
Q73. How do you know that _______________________________________________________________
Q73.3 Thats what I believe/ I just think so
4 (for Q73) he is nervous
Chapter 5. ELEMENTS OF FAMILY ECOLOGY
Q74. How often do you have disputes in the family?

1 = every day
2 = several times a week
3 = once a month 6 twice a month
4 = almost never 7 - never
5 = other (describe) _____________________________________
99 = not answering
Q75. What are the most usual reasons for disputes in your family? (read the variants below. Multiple answers)
1 = money.........................yes/no
2 = parents/relatives..........yes/no
3 = because of the childyes/no
4 = alcohol consumption.. yes/no
5 = jealousy ..................... yes/no
6 = family neglect............. yes/no 8 there are no reasons
7 = other (describe)________________9 stress/ nervousness
99 = not answering 10 trifles/ varying opinions
Q76. Do you have disputes in front of the child?

1 = often
2 = seldom
3 = never
90 = not answering
Q77. Do you happen to punish your child?

1 = yes
2 = no Q80
3 = sometimes
99 = not answering
Q78. How do you punish the child?

1 = verbally, I raise my voice......yes/no
2 = sarcasm (irony) ....................yes/no
3 = insults....................................yes/no
4 = I shake him...........................yes/no
5 = I pull his hair ........................yes/no
6 = I beat him ............................yes/no
7 = I slap him .............................yes/no
8 = I pull his ears .......................yes/no
9 = I disallow a certain thing ......yes/no
99 = not answering
3 = grandmother
Q79. Who is generally punishing the child? 4 = grandfather
5 = sister
1 = mother
6 = a brother
2 = father 7 = another relative
3 = another member of the family (describe) _____________________ 8 = godmother
4 = other persons
99 = not answering
190
Q80. Whose authority does the child acknowledge more often? 3 = grandmother
1 = mother 4 = grandfather
2 = father 5 = sister
3 = another member of the family (describe)____________________________6 = a brother
4 = other persons (describe)________________________________________ 7 = another relative
8 = godmother
Q81. How do you praise the childs positive actions?
I dont know /not
answering
1 = verbally 1 2 3 9
2 = physically 1 2 3 9
3 = with a present 1 2 3 9
Q82. Do you choose/have the intention of choosing your childs friends?

1 = yes
2 = no Q84
Q83. What are the criteria for choosing them?

1 = close neighborhood
2 = being acquainted with the family of the respective friend
3 = other (describe)______________________________
99 = not answering 4 = the respective friends behavior
Chapter 6. CHILDRENS PLAY ACTIVITIES / EARLY CHILD EDUCATION

Q84. How important are in your opinion play activities for child development?
1 = very important
2 = important
3 = unimportant
4 = I dont know
90 = not answering
Q85. How does your child play?

1 = Drawing /coloring...............................yes/no
2 = Looking at picture books...................yes/no
3 = With toys...........................................yes/no
4 = With objects in the house..................yes/no
5 = Games in open air.............................yes/no
6 = Puzzle, construction games..............yes/no
7 = Imaginary and group games.............yes/no
8 = Organized games/ sports..................yes/no
9 = Table games.....................................yes/no
10 = Computer games.............................yes/no
11 = other (describe)_____________________
99 = not answering
Q86. How many hours per day does your child spend watching TV?
________________________
66 = do not have a TV Q89
77 = does not watch TV Q89
99 = not answering Q89 Q87.1 = cartoons
Q87.2 = documentary films/movies
Q87. What programs does the child watch usually? Q87.3 = music/entertainment shows
Q87.4 = advertising
______________________________________________________________
Q88. Who selects programs that the child is watching?

1 = mother.............................yes/no 4 = babysitter........................yes/no 99 = not answering
2 = father..............................yes/no 5 = someone else____________________ Sister/brother 7 another relative
3 = grandparents...................yes/no 6 = nobody Cousin, aunt, unde) 8 - godmother
191
Q89. Who is playing at home with the child?
1 = mother.yes/no
2 = father...yes/no
3 = brothers...yes/no 7 another relative (cousin, aunt, uncle)
8 godmother
4 = other adults (describe)_________________________________
9 - babysitter
99 = not answering
Q90. When did you last play with your child?

1 = today
2 = yesterday
5 = last week
6 = Other________________ (8 = several weeks ago)
7 = I dont remember
99 = not answering
Q91. How did you play?

1 = with toys
2 = games in open air
3 = table games
99 = not answering
Q92. When did the father last play with the child?
1 = today
2 = yesterday
5 = last week
6 = Other____________________(8 = several weeks ago)
7 = I dont remember
8 = it is not the case 94
99 = not answering
Q93. How did they play? If more than one variant was chosen use the following codes:
1 = with toys 12 = with toys+games in open air
2 = games in open air 13 = with toys+table games
3 = table games 123 = with toys+games in open air+table games
99 = not answering 23 = games in open air+table games
Q94. What type of toys or other objects would you prefer to buy for a girl/boy?
(mark down both for boys and for girls the parents option for each type of toy )
Girls Boys
I dont I dont
Toys Yes No Yes No
know know
(1) (0) (1) (0)
(98) (98)
1. Dolls
2. Toy cars
3. Puzzle-type games
4. Construction games (cubes, Lego etc)
5. War games (rifle, tank, airplane, soldiers, robots)
6. Toys for the dolls house, representing objects in the
kitchen, cooking stove, dolls carriage, bed, cupboard etc.
7. Make-up kits
8. Balls or other sports related toys
9. Coloring books
10. Reading books
11. Tapes or CDs with music, fairytales
192
Q95. Which of the following free time activities would you encourage for your child?
Girl Boy
I dont I dont
Free time activities Yes No Yes No
know/ not know
(1) (0) (1) (0)
answering (98)
Sports (football, gymnastics etc.)
Arts (dancing, drawing)
Household activities
(arranging the table, the toys, etc)
Spending free time with other children
Q96. Do you think that both girls and boys should be encouraged to play in mixed-gender groups?
1 = yes 98 = I dont know
2 = no 99 = not answering
Q97. What justification do you use in order to explain to the child differences between boys and girls?
1 = specific biological aspects for the 2 genders ....................................yes/no
2 = different behavior (ex. Preferences for a certain game, etc.).............yes/no
3 = different roles and responsibilities (ex. help mother in the kitchen ..yes/no
4 = different abilities (ex. Parents support) ............................................yes/no 6 = We havent discussed yet
5 = other (describe)__________________________________________________7 = specific clothes (skirt/trousers)
Chapter 7. NATIONAL TRADITIONS IN CHILD REARING

Q98. Do you usually observe traditions/ customs in child rearing?
1 = yes
2 = no Q100
Q99. Which of the following customs did you observe:

1 = Avoid showing the baby within the first 40 days from birth.yes/no
2 = Protection against the evil eye with the help of specific symbols..yes/no
3 = First haircut for 1 year old children..yes/no
4 = Tearing the tart...yes/no
5 = Ears piercing..yes/no
6 = National/ traditional holidays....yes/no
7 = Celebrate the childs birthday...yes/no
8 = Others ___________________________________________________
9 = avoid cutting babys fingernails until it is 1year old
10 = avoid feeding the baby fish meat until it starts speaking
Q100. During the pregnancy did you want the baby to be:
1 = a girl Q101
2 = a boy Q101
3 = it didnt matter 1 = all parents want their first born to be a boy
99 = not answering 2 = the father wanted a boy
3 = we already had a boy/girl
Q101. Why? 4 = girls are more obedient/boys manage easier in life/I like boys(girls) more
_________________________________________________
5 = I had a boy/girl previously and it died.
Q102. What did the father of the child want the baby to be?
1 = a girl
2 = a boy
3 = it didnt matter
99 = not answering
Q103. Has your child been swaddled?

1 = yes
2 = no Q107
99 = I dont know/ not answering
193
Q104. For how many weeks was your child swaddled? ___________________
Q105. How has your child been swaddled?

1 = The entire body
2 = Only the legs
99 = I dont know not answering
Q106. When was your child swaddled?

1 = day and night
2 = only in the daytime
3 = only at night
4 = sometimes in the daytime
5 = sometimes at night
Q107. Why did you swaddle your baby?

1 = the baby is more quiet Q108
2 = in order to have straight legs Q108
3 = my family advised me to do so Q108
4 = the doctor/nurse advised me to Q108
5 = this is what I saw in the maternity Q108
6 = to prevent the child from catching a cold Q108 10 = to have a straight back
7 = I had no money for absorbent diapers Q108 11 = because thats how babies are kept
8 = other (describe)______________________________12 = to avoid the baby being froghtened by its own hands when moving
Q108. What is your opinion about the custom to keep the baby swaddled during the first months of life?
1 = it is good for the child

2 = it is not good for the child
3 = it is no longer in fashion, we have absorbent diapers now
4 = swaddling is cheaper
5 = I have no opinion
6 = it is more traditional
98 = I dont know 99 = not answering
Q109. Did you use to keep the childs head permanently covered with a bonnet during the first year of life?
1 = yes
2 = no
Q110. Why? _________________________________________________________________________

1 = to protect him from the sun/a draught/not to catch a cold
2 = it is not necessary, the child becomes stronger
3 = other
4 = the child would be crying otherwise
5 = to have straight ears
Q111. Now I will read to you several statements for which you will need to choose one of the following answers: I agree,
I disagree, I am not sure, I dont understand
It is not manly for boys to weep in public.
Boys are more disobedient/insubordinate than girls! They need to be disciplined better.
Girls need to be educated especially in order to become good mothers and wives.
Girls are more sensitive and more emotional than boys.
194
QUESTIONNAIRE USED BY THE OBSERVER
Details about the space of the residence
Q1. What is the total surface of your residence (mp)? ______
Q2. What type of flooring does the house (apartment) have?

1 = parquet
2 = linoleum
3 = wood
4 = floor tiles
5 = inlay 8 = concrete
9 = floor covering
6 = earth
10 = carpets
7 = other_____________________________
Q3. List of the existing rooms:

1 = living..yes/no
2 = kitchen yes/no
3 = bathroom yes/no
4 = bedroom yes/no
5 = toilet in the yard.. yes/no
6 = babys room. yes/no
7 = other
Q4. Have you got:

1 = cooking stove
2 = refrigerator
3 = washing machine
4 = television set
5 = radio
6 = telephone
7 = car
8 = is the residence privately owned?
9 = do you have a second residence?
Q5. Where is the child sleeping?

1 = alone in his room
2 = alone in his bed in the same room with the parents
3 = alone in his bed in the same room with the brothers
4 = in the same bed with his mother
5 = in the same bed with his father 8 = in bed with a brother/sister in the same room with the parents
9 = in bed with a brother /sister in their own room
6 = in the same bed with his parents
10 = in bed with grandmother/grandfather
7 = other______________________________________
98 = I dont know 99 = not answering
Q6. Do you have pets?

1 = yes
2 = no Q9
1 = dog 2 = cat 3 = hamster/guinea pig
Q7. Describe ______________________________________
4 = parrot /canary 5 = other
Q8. Does the child play with the pets?

1 = yes
2 = no
Q9. Do you have central heating?

1 = yes Q11
2 = no 1 = central heating using natural gas/wood
2 = stove using natural gas
3 = stove using wood/sawdust
Q10. What type of heating is used? ________________________
195
Q11. Is there a drain system?
1 = yes Q13
1 = septic tank
2 = no
2 = cesspit
3 = no system (open drain)
Q12. What type of drain system is used ____________________
Q13. Is there running water?

1 = yes Q15
2 = no 1 = private well
2 = public well
3 = public system (in front of the house)
Q14. What water sources are used? _______________________________
Q15. Is there a space in the yard for the child to play?

1 = yes
2 = no Q17
What are the characteristics of the respective place?

Q16 Clean Q17 Safe
1 = open balcony/terrace/porch.................... yes/no................................. yes/no
2 = closed balcony/terrace/porch .................yes/no.................................. yes/no
3 = garden/ yard ...........................................yes/no.................................. yes/no
4 = street ..................................................... yes/no.................................. yes/no
5 = unused land .......................................... yes/no.................................. yes/no
6 = nearby park ........................................... yes/no.................................. yes/no
7 = other________________________________________________________
Q18. Are there dangerous things within the reach of the child?
1 = yes
2 = no Q20
Q19. Check all objects, as the case may be:

1 = sharp objects (scissors, knives, etc.)
2 = poisonous things/substances (pills, cleaning substances, etc.)
3 = unprotected high windows
4 = open fire
5 = hot surfaces
6 = unprotected electric sources
8 = agricultural equipment
7 = other (describe) ______________________________________________
Q20. Which of the following objects exist in the house?

1 = books................................................. yes/no
2 = childrens books................................. yes/no
3 = newspapers/magazines..................... yes/no
4 = calendar............................................. yes/no
5 = pictures/photographs on the walls. yes/no
6 = drawing paper, pencils....................... yes/no
7 = toys.................................................... yes/no
8 = handmade toys...................................yes/no
9 = radio................................................... yes/no
10 = television set..................................... yes/no
11 = computer...........................................yes/no
12 = musical instruments......................... yes/no
12 = table games..................................... yes/no
Q21. Is there a special place where the child is keeping his toys/things?
1 = yes
2 = no
Q22. How much disorder is in the house?

1 = much
2 = a little
3 = not at all
196
Q23. How bright is the house?
1 = bright
2 = less bright
3 = dark
Q24. What is the quality of the air in the house?

1 = very good (fresh air)
2 = ordinary
3 = lack of air
Q1. Do you think that at this age the personality of the child may be influenced?
1 = yes
2 = no Q4
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q2. How can you influence in a good way the childs personality?
1 = By means of encouragements/ praising positive behavior...............yes/no
2 = By offering toys as a reward.............................................................yes/no
3 = By offering sweets as a reward........................................................yes/no
4 = By signs of affection.........................................................................yes/no
5 = By offering privileges........................................................................yes/no
6 = By offering positive examples...........................................................yes/no
7 = By establishing rules for the childs behavior....................................yes/no
8 = other ______________________________________________________
99 = not answering
Q3. How can you influence in a wrong way the childs personality?
1 = By not showing sufficient affection....................................................yes/no
2 = By not showing positive attention when necessary ..........................yes/no
3 = By not taking into consideration the childs wishes...........................yes/no
4 = By punishments ...............................................................................yes/no
5 = By not establishing clear behavior rules...........................................yes/no
6 = By means of negative examples........................................................yes/no
7 = By not satisfying basic needs.............................................................yes/no
8 = other_______________________________________________________
99 = not answering
Q4. How many hours per day is your child generally playing?
1 = Less than 2 hours
2 = 2 4 hours
3 = 4 6 hours
4 = More than 6 hours
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q5. How much does your child play? (read the options)
1 = Less than he needs
2 = Sufficiently
3 = More than he needs
98 = I dont know 1 = Sleeping/ resting
99 = not answering 2 = Watching TV
3 = Helping with domestic duties in the house/
Q6. When not playing, what other activity is your child involved in? yard
____________________________________________________________4 = Doing homework/reading a book /staying with
his brother who is doing homework /drawing
5 = Going to a sports activity/ballet/other
organized activities
6 = Going for a walk
197
Q7. Do you allow your child to leave home without being accompanied by an adult?
1 = Always
2 = Sometimes
3 = Never
99 = not answering
Q8. Has your child joined kindergarten?

1 = yes
2 = no Q11
99 = not answering
Q9. What type of kindergarten does your child attend?

1 = Normal program (until noon)
2 = Extended program
3 = Weekly program
4 = Other_____________________________________
99 = not answering
Q10. Does your child attend kindergarten regularly?

1 = yes
2 = no
3 = other _____________________________________
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q11. Why is your child not joining kindergarten?

1 = There is no kindergarten in the area.............................yes/no
2 = There is no one to take the child there.........................yes/no
3 = The child is ill /has a handicap......................................yes/no
4 = Food is not nourishing...................................................yes/no
5 = Conditions are not satisfactory......................................yes/no
6 = The quality of education is not satisfactory...................yes/no
7 = The child is getting better education at home...............yes/no
8 = We cannot pay the food contribution............................yes/no
9 = The child lacks clothing/ footwear................................yes/no
10 = I dont think it is necessary.........................................yes/no
11 = other_________________________________________________ 12 = He has someone to take care of him at home
Q12. Do you intend to have your child join kindergarten during the next school year?
1 = yes
2 = no
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q13. Do you involve your child in domestic activities?

1 = yes
2 = no
99 = not answering
Q14. If yes, what is he is supposed to do?

1 = Help in the house
2 = Help in the garden
3 = Take care of pets
4 = Take care of animals in the yard
5 = Take care of younger brothers
6 = Take animals on the pasture
7 = Carry water
8 = Harvest fruit / vegetables
9 = Help with the jobs in the field
99 = not answering
198
Q15. Why dont you involve your child in domestic activities?
1 = The child is too small
2 = It is not necessary
3 = I am against involving the child in domestic activities
4 = I have no time to teach him
5 = The child is not capable
Q16. Do you think there are specific activities for boys/girls?

1 = yes
2 = no Q18
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q17. Please describe:

Boys Girls
1 = Repairing jobs/building 1 = cleaning/cooking
2 = Football/sports 2 = Modeling/sewing/knitting
3 = Different toys /toy cars 3 = Different toys /dolls
Q18. Has your child daily hygiene routines that he uses by himself on a regular basis?
1 = yes
2 = no Q20
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q19. What are these daily hygiene routines?

1 = washes hands before eatingyes/no
2 = washes hands after using the toilet yes/no
3 = washes teeth every day...yes/no
4 = other________________________________________
99 = not answering
Q20. Is the child dressing/undressing by himself?

1 = yes
2 = no
3 = partially
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q21. Did you teach your child:

1 = to tie his shoelaces..yes/no
2 = to button up his clothes ..yes/no
3 = to zip /unzip his clothes...yes/no
99 = not answering
Q22. Some children learn to speak later, most of them however speak well by the time they are 3 year old.
Q23. At the age of 3 year old children may differ one from another in terms of development, because each child
develops in its own way.
Q24. Some people believe that at the age of 4 year old children are attracted by new things, people, places and
activities.
Q25. Some people believe that a childs good performance in school is based on repeating things already learnt.
199
Q26. Some people believe that play activities of 4 year old children often include the use in an imaginative way of
domestic objects.

A. The importance that parents attach to the studies of their children
Q1. Has your child joined kindergarten?

1 = yes
2 = no
3 = I dont know
4 = he has started school
99 = not answering
Q2. What are the reasons why the child did not join kindergarten?
1 = the child is ill/handicapped

2 = There is no kindergarten in the area / There is no one who can take him there /Food is not so
nourishing / Conditions are not satisfactory / the quality of education is not satisfactory
3 = We cannot afford to pay the food contribution / The child has no clothes /footwear/I do not see the
necessity / The child gets a better education at home.
Q3. Do you consider that it is important for your child to attend school?
1 = yes
2 = no
99 = not answering
Q4. How long do you consider that it is important for the child to study?
1 = 4 grades
2 = 8 grades
3 = Vocational school
4 = High school
5 = Training school
6 = College/higher education
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q5. Will your child join school next year?

1 = yes Q7
2 = no
3 = he has already started school Q7
99 = not answering
Q6. Why?
1 = I have no money
2 = There is no school in the area
3 = The child has a disability
4 = The child helps me with the domestic activities
5 = It is still too young
99 = Not answering
B. The childs preparation for school in the family
Q7. Do you consider that it is important for the child to feel good in school among other children?
1 = yes
2 = no
3 = I dont know
4 = I didnt think about it
5 = It is not one of my concerns
99 = not answering
200
Q8. Do you consider your child ready for school?
1 = yes
2 = no
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q9. How did you prepare your child for joining school?
1 = Has independent hygiene routines.......................yes/no
2 = Dresses /undresses by himself............................yes/no
3 = Takes care of his own belongings........................yes/no
4 = Is able to tie his shoelaces...................................yes/no
5 = Can button up his clothes....................................yes/no
6 = Can zip up/unzip clothes......................................yes/no
7 = Understands and memorizes what he is told..yes/no
8 = other________________________________________________9 only in weekend
99 = not answering
Q10. What behavior did you teach your child for a better school integration?
1 = To be polite.........................................................yes/no
2 = To be sociable....................................................yes/no
3 = To respect the others opinion............................yes/no
4 = To be independent..............................................yes/no
5 = To make justice for himself..................................yes/no
6 = To react if he is attacked......................................yes/no
7 = To tell the teacher about what is happening.........yes/no
8 = To avoid talking to naughty children.....................yes/no
9 = To keep his attention under control......................yes/no
10 = To handle his frustrations...................................yes/no
11 = To be able to follow compulsory discipline.........yes/no
99 = not answering
Q11. How do you help the child become familiar with the school activity?
1 = I do homework
2 = I show him the school objects and I teach him to use them
3 = I dont do anything
4 = I dont know what I need to do
99 = not answering
Q12. Do you know what school supplies and the other necessary school objects are?
1 = Yes
2 = No
3 = The child already going to school
99 = not answering
Q13. Did you already buy school supplies and the other objects necessary for school?
1 = Yes Q15
2 = No
3 = The child is already going to school Q15
99 = not answering
Q14. If not, why didnt you?

1 = I dont have the money
2 = I have no time
3 = They need to be bought only when school starts
4 = They are provided from school
99 = not answering
Q15. Have you decided upon the school where your child will start studying?
1 = Yes
2 = No
3 = The child already going to school Q17
99 = not answering
201
Q16. Have you been with your child to show him/her the school?
1 = Yes
2 = No
3 = He/she was with the kindergarten teacher
4 = The child already going to school = >Q17
99 = not answering
Q17. Have you prepared a space where the child may do his homework and keep school supplies?
1 = Yes
2 = No
3 = not yet
4 = We are going to
5 = It is not necessary
99 = not answering
Q18. List what are in your opinion the most important items in order for a child to be ready for school
(do not read options)
1 = To know the letters.....................................yes/no
2 = To be able to read.......................................yes/no
3 = To manage handwriting...............................yes/no
4 = To know the numbers..................................yes/no
5 = To count until 20/50/100...............................yes/no
6 = To be able to calculate.................................yes/no
7 = To understand a foreign language...............yes/no
8 = To be able to use a computer......................yes/no
9 = To be able to use TV remote control............yes/no
10 = To know the colors.....................................yes/no
11 = To recognize geometrical shapes..............yes/no
12 = To know the days of the week and months of the year
13 = To know the 4 seasons..............................yes/no
14 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q19. What person in the family is transmitting such knowledge to the child?
1 = Mother...................................yes/no
2 = Father...................................yes/no
3 = Grandmother.........................yes/no
4 = Grandfather............................yes/no
5 = Elder brother or sister............yes/no
6 = someone else........................(66 = No one)
99 = not answering
Q20. When do you have time to teach things to your child?

1 = In the morning
2 = While he/she is eating
3 = When he/she is playing
4 = When I come from work
5 = In the evening, before going to sleep
6 = Never
7 = Very seldom
99 = not answering
Q21. How many hours a day do you spend talking to your child, explaining things or answering his questions?
1 = 1 hour
2 = 2 hours
3 = more than 2 hours if several variants are chosen, use the following codes:
4 = daily 14 1hour + daily
5 = occasionally 15 1 hour + occasionally
6 = not at all 24 2 hours + daily
7 = other
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
202
Q22. When your child is watching TV do you give him/her any explanations?
1 = Yes
2 = No
3 = I dont have time
4 = I dont think it is necessary
5 = The child is not watching TV
6 = We do not have a TV
99 = not answering
Q23. Does your child play on the computer?

1 = Yes
2 = No Q25
3 = we dont have one
99 = not answering
Q24. If yes, how much time?

_________ hours
Q25. Do you read stories to your child?

1 = Yes
2 = No
3 = I dont have time
4 = I cannot read
99 = not answering
Q26. Do you teach your child to tell stories using picture books?
1 = Yes
2 = He does this in kindergarten
3 = No
4 = I dont think it is necessary
5 = I have no time
99 = not answering
Q27. What exactly do you think will change at home when the child joins school?
_______________________________________________
1 = Daily program
Q28. Do you involve the child in 2 = Nothing will change
domestic activities? 3 = Budget expenses will rise
4 = Everything
1 = yes
5 = the child is already in school
2 = no = >Q30 6 = We will change our behavior we will be more severe, there will be more stress
99 = not answering 7 = the childs behavior will change (will become more responsible/reliable)
Q29. What is he is supposed to do?

1 = Help in the house
2 = Help in the garden
3 = Take care of pets
4 = Take care of animals in the yard
5 = Take care of younger brothers
6 = Take animals on the pasture
7 = Harvest fruit / vegetables
8 = Carry water
9 = Help with the jobs in the field
99 = not answering
C. Parents opinions according to child gender
Q30. Do you think that a difference should be made between boys and girls regarding their studies?
1 = yes
2 = no Q32
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
203
Q31. Do you think that:
1 = boys should study more.yes/no
2 = girls should study more .yes/no
Q32. What other things do you think that boys/girls should learn?
Boys Girls
1 = computer operation........................................yes/no.....................yes/no
2 = supplementary reading. ................................yes/no......................yes/no
3 = foreign languages.......................................yes/no.....................yes/no
4 = domestic activities .........................................yes/no.....................yes/no
5 = to work the land.............................................yes/no.....................yes/no
10 driving
6 = to grow animals ............................................yes/no......................yes/no 11 sowing/ mending clothes
7 = to offer childcare ...........................................yes/no.....................yes/no 12 to make decisions
8 = other_________________________________________________________ 13 manners / social behavior
98 = I dont know
99 = not answering
Q33. In order to have good results in school, children need frequent meals, rich in proteins, fruit and vegetables
I agree. . 2.I disagree. . 3.I am not sure. . 4.I dont understand. .
Q34. Children learn about numbers when they sort, count and fit certain parts
Q35. The best way for a teacher to support learning is to encourage memorizing
Q36. Scribbling needs to be discouraged, because it may cause difficulties in learning to write orderly
Q37. Activities should be adapted to the needs of the child, because each child is learning at its own pace.
I agree. . 2.I disagree. . 3.I am not sure. . 4.I dont understand.
.
204
205

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KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES ON PARENTING IN ROMANIA

Knowledge, attitudes and practices on parenting in Romania /

I. Anghelescu, Carmen (coord.)

Imprimat la Tipografia Alpha MDN S.A.

Carmen Anghelescu Martha Iliescu

Carmen Lic Project Manager for section I

Martha Iliescu - Project coordinator for section II

Authors of the research study:

Creation of the data collection instruments:

Monitoring parents interviews:

We would like to convey our thanks to:

A. Specific Information for the 3-5 age group

B. Specific information for the 6-7 years old preschool child

ANNEXES .................................................................................................................................................................... 163

The goal of the research

The sample dimension

Definition of target groups included in the study:

Selection of the sample units:

PARENTING KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES OF PARENTS

I.1.1. Families dimension

Table no.1: Distribution of families according to their type on residence areas

Total Urban Rural

I.1.3 Parents marital status

Table no. 2: Parents marital status according to residence area

Total Urban Rural

Total Urban Rural

Total Urban Rural

Table no. 5: Distribution of mothers on age groups and residence areas

Mothers age Total Urban Rural

Table no. 6: Distribution of fathers on age groups and residence areas

Fathers age Total Urban Rural

I.1.6 Education level

Level of education - mothers under 1 yr

Diagram no. 4 Fathers' education level

Level of education - fathers

Total Urban Rural

Table no. 8: Distribution of fathers according to ethnicity and residence area

Total Urban Rural

I.1.8 Parents occupation

Total Urban Rural

Total Urban Rural

I.1.9 Parents socio-economic level

Total Urban Rural

I. 2.1 General aspects regarding breastfeeding

Table no. 12: Breastfeeding situation on residence areas

Total Urban Rural

I. 2.2 Exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months of life

Average Standard Median

I. 2.3 Childrens breastfeeding between 6 and 9 months old

I. 2.4 Duration of breastfeeding with children in the 0-1 age group

Average Standard Median

I. 2.5 Breastfeeding upon request

Total Urban Rural

Total Urban Rural

Total Urban Rural

I. 3.1.2 Parents attitude and practices in case of child illness

Total Urban Rural

Who provided you with information Total Urban Rural

Table no. 21: Pregnancy planning situation on residence areas

Did you plan your pregnancy Total Urban Rural

I. 3.5 The mother- child interaction during breastfeeding

caressing the baby 89,3

talking to the baby 86