Evolution

Evolution is God made.

The Christian Bible says that Adam & Eve were both created here on Earth 6,000 years
ago. The Quran does not say when Adam & Eve were created, however it says that
they were created in Paradise, not on Earth. This is the same Paradise that believers
will go to in the afterlife. But believers will not go to that Paradise with these bodies;
instead their souls will be mated to different bodies (with bigger size, stronger bodies...).
So when Adam & Eve disobeyed God He expelled them from Paradise down to Earth;
but the Quran does not say whether Adam & Eve were physically transported from
Paradise to Earth (same body-soul), or whether their souls were put into our smaller
and weaker bodies (or into the bodies of evolved Homo sapiens).

When Adam and Eve were still in Paradise someone on Earth was already shedding
blood and causing mischief:

Quran 2:30 And your Lord said to the angels "I will make a successor on Earth", They
said "How can You make [a successor] someone who corrupts and sheds blood while
we praise and sanctify You?" He said "I know what you don't know."

Adam and Eve were not the first to live on Earth, those Homo sapiens were already
living on Earth however they didn't worship God. So God chose Adam and Eve from
Paradise to become their successors on Earth.

1400 years ago the Quran said that God is able to recreate humans from their own
semen in forms that they are unable to envisage:

(Quran 56.58-62) Do you see your own semen? Do you create it or Do We [Allah]
create it? We decreed the death among you and nobody beat Us to alter your form and
raise you in forms that you do not perceive. And you have figured out your first form
then why do you not take heed?

Change of form is evolution. Change of form from our own semen is evolution indeed.
The Arabic words "Ghair Masbookeen" means nobody beat us to it. Since God is saying
that nobody beat Him to evolving man from his own semen this means that evolution is
God made (not non-existing as some Muslims claim). There is nothing in the Quran that
tells us whether Adam & Eve looked like us or looked like Homo sapiens.

The Quran also says that if God wishes He can make our descendants nonhuman just
like our ancestors:

(Quran 6.133) Your Lord, the Rich and Merciful, if He wishes, can discard you and
succeed you with "WHATEVER" He wishes; Just like He created you from the seed of
another clan.
The Quran specifically uses the word "Whatever" or "What" ("ma" in Arabic ). This
Arabic word "ma" cannot refer to humans; this word is strictly reserved for nonhumans
(the Arabic word that does refer to humans is "men ", meaning "who" or "whoever" but
it was not used here).
This verse says that if God wishes He can make our descendants nonhuman just like
our ancestors. So our ancestors were nonhuman (Homo sapiens).

In conclusion, God created Adam & Eve in Paradise from clay however He brought
them down to Earth to succeed those who didn't worship Him (Homo sapiens).

Ever since man evolved into a conscious being, he had constantly wondered about his
origin. In his intellectual childhood, the question was answered by biblical teachings.
In the west, uptil 19th century, Christian theology formed the basis of Theory of
Creationism which states:

(1) that the World is of short duration, at the most 5757 years old.

(2) that the World is fixed and not changing.

(3) that the created species are constant, and do not evolve into other species.

(4) that the Perfect world is explicable only by omnipotent and beneficent creator.

(5) that the creation of man was special and apart from other created things.

This was the view held in the west till 1859 when the modern theory of evolution was
introduced by Charles Darwin, in his work, titled On The Origin Of Species. There are
two basic points to this theory i.e. (a) evolution is taking place on earth (b) and it is
driven by natural selection.

How did he arrive at these two components of evolution? is interesting to know. From
1835-36, Darwin went on a voyage in south Atlantic and Pacific, which provided
ample opportunity for him, to observe various species on land. He was struck by
variety within each specie at a particular geographical area. This gave him the idea of
lack of fixity of species; rather species are changing into one another. Then he
observed humans cross breeding various animals selectively to improve species. He
understood that in environment, controlled by man, selection is provided my man; but
who provides the selection process, in the natural environment of species?

In 1838, Darwin was influenced by the essay on the Principle of

population, anonymously published by Malthus, in which he stated the poors
law; Only those able to produce, deserve to survive, those who lived of rich and
produced nothing, all assistance to them must stop. This gave Darwin the idea of
selection of the fittest by Nature, or survival of the fittest. This evolutionary work
shocked people, who so far knew only the Creationism. Darwin was joined by Ernest
Heckle and T. H. Huxley, in his atheist theory and in declared that man must have
evolved from ape like ancestor, thus putting man in the phyllogenetic tree of animal
kingdom. This was the end of anthropocentrism of bible and rise of atheism in
England. Prior to this Germany and France had already rejected religion. Later on
Karl Marx also used Darwins work, to promote communism and Lenin created
scientific museum on Darwinism, to completely eliminate Christianity from Peoples
life.

Further work by Paleontologists, Molecular Biologists and Geneticists lead us to

believe that every aspect of Phenotype is controlled by Genotype. At the cellular
level the genes control every metabolic activity. The biochemical basis of the gene is
Deoxyribonucleic Acid, in short DNA, which is confined in the nucleus and convey
its orders through messenger RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) to the site of protein
synthesis. Hundreds of biochemical reaction are taking place simultaneously, in the
cytoplasm promoted by hundreds of enzymes in the same cytoplasm, and the beauty
of the system is that one metabolic reaction does not interfere with other, all under
control of DNA. There is a perfect order maintained by DNA, which is just four
nucleotides chain, arranged in a special sequence. Scientists pondered for years, as to
where did these four nucleotides come from for the first time? In an attempt to
answer this question, Dr. Miller in 1955 did an experiment in his lab. He took a
mixture of methane, hydrogen, ammonia, steam and water, and passed the electric
spark through this mixture and was able to demonstrate the formation of nucleotides
in the water. He postulates that in the primitive atmosphere of earth, these gases were
present and when atmospheric gases were charged with thunderbolt, basic nucleotides
were produced in water, which by chance got arranged in sequence of DNA and
1st genetic code was born, and life started in the form of unicellular structure. Over
billions of years, the unicellular structure changed into multi-cellular structures, plant
kingdom, then animal kingdom evolved into invertebrates, vertebrates, insects, fishes,
reptiles, birds, mammals and finally man.

As you can see, there are some serious flaws and gaps, in this theory of
evolution. First of all no body for sure knows if those gases were present in the
atmosphere. Secondly, how could mere chance and accident, initiate such intricate,
complex, sophisticated process of life, with perfect order in function and structure of
the cell? Nay it can not be, in the words of Maurice Bucaille, It tantamount to saying
that the spontaneously forming steel particles from Iron ore and coal at high
temperature, could have lead to the construction of Eiffel Tower, through a series of
happy coincidences, that assembled the material in proper order. Further, no body
has ever demonstrated the conversion of one species into the other; and what is the
proof that man is the descendant of big apes? It is purely a conjecture and
theorization based on anatomical and physiological similarities between species. This
is purely an attempt to humanize the animals and animalize the humans. Look at the
order of evolution, first plants, why? Because every living being consumes Oxygen
and releases CO2 and plants do the opposite, therefore Allah, according to His plan,
first made arrangement for O2 by creating plant kingdom first.

Transformation of Man:

According to Science Mankind has undergone four transformation as listed below.

A. Australopithecus: These are the earliest ancestors who resembles todays human
beings, 1.5 meter in size, smaller than todays average man. Cranial capacity is
about 500 cubic centimeters, capable of thought and using tolls designed by himself,
the quality that is not seen in apes. Time wise about 3.5 million years
ago. Subsequently replaced by;
B. Pithecanthropines: This is the second wave of hominids, estimated to have lived
about 500,000 years ago, survived for about 350,000 years. Their size had grown
between 1.58 cm to 1.78 meter. Cranial capacity had grown to 900 Cu. Cm. And
intellectual power had grown, invention, creation, and reasoning have
developed. Again replaced by;
C. Neanderthals (Paleanthropians): is third wave of hominids appeared about
100,000 years ago and lived for 60,000 years. They were medium sized, perfectly
bipedal, low forehead, rudimentary chin, cranial capacity reached 1300 cc. Lived in
caves. They used to bury their dead with horns antlers and tools indicating some
spirituality, replaced by;
D. Homo Sapiens: is todays man; started about 40,000 years ago. Height increased
to 1.80 cms, cranial capacity reached 1350 cc, skull became more spherical, ridge
above the orbits disappeared, psychic activity much superior than predecessor.

These are the four stages of human evolutions, where one group of people were
replaced by subsequent group with progressive increase in the size of brain and
increase in the intellectual capacity. The size of the brain of man 40, 000 year ago
was as large as it is today, while mankind was primitive and did not even need that
sized brain. Think about, why? Robert Ornstein raises this question in his book
Evolution of consciousness. There is some purpose behind it, it is not created in
vain. Why do we have a highly evolved visual system? Why creator gave us
sophisticated hearing mechanism? Does nature have a future plan for us?

Quran and Evolution:

Origin of Life:
Science tells us now that the life on earth originated from water. Even today while
we are exploring the galaxies and actively searching for life on other planets, the
1st question we ask; is there any water on that planet to sustain life, because without
water life is impossible. Quran 1400 years ago, before the discovery of science, said
the same thing in 21/30:

Do not the unbeliever see that the heaven and the earth were joined together, then
we set them asunder and we got every living thing out of water. Will they then not
believe?

First living thing was algae in plant kingdom then animal kingdom started. Quran
makes reference to plant kingdom in verse 20/53

(God is the one who) sent down the water from the sky and thereby brought forth
pairs of plants, each separate from the other.

The Aya also points out the sexual reproduction in plant kingdom, much before
science discovered it. In 13/3 male and female fruit plants are described.

Similarly reference is made to the water origin of animals in verse 24/45.

(God) created every animal from water.

The mythology of creationism, about the origin of life, that circulated at the time of
revelation of Quran, is not mentioned in Quran.

Creation of Man:
You just read Aya, that every living thing came out of water as a matter of fact 60%
of humans body is water. There are number of verses in Quran that refer to the earthly
origin of man, which the Science found later. Let us go through verses.

He caused you to grow from earth 11/61

We fashioned you from soil. 22/5

God is the one who fashioned you from clay. 6/2

God began the creation of man from clay. 32/7

We fashioned them from sticky clay. 37/11

(God) fashioned man from a clay, like pottery. 55/14

We fashioned man from the quintessence of clay 23/12

Quintessence means gist or extract of some thing. All the chemical components of
human body can also be found in earth as well, that is what the aya implies. So, long
before the science discovered earthly origin of man, Quran said it before.

Transformation of Man:
We have seen four waves of humans, transformed over a period of time, accepted in
Science. Is there any thing in Quran about these transformations. Following verses refer to
that:

We created you and thereupon We gave you from; thereupon We told the angles;
bow down to Adam 7/11

God is the one who created you, then fashioned you harmoniously and in due
proportion; into whatsoever from He willed. 82/7-8

We fashioned man according to the best organizational plan 95/4

The word taqwiym means to organize something in planned way, implying therefore
an order of progress that has been strictly defined in advance. Evolutionists use
exactly the same expression while describing the transformation of man in
evolution. Further evidence of transformation comes from 71/14

(God) fashioned you in stages or phases

 Verse 76/28, Allah refers to men as a group, and how groups of people were
replaced.

Verily, We created them and strengthened them, and when we willed, We replaced
them completely by people who were not of the same kind.

Same thing is repeated in verse 6/133, about the groups of men.

If (God) wills He destroys you and in your place appoints whom He wills, as your
successor, just as He brought your forth, from the descendants of other people.

These two aya talk about the disappearance of certain comminutes and their
replacement with others, according to the plan of Allah. Todays human could very
well be the result of these phenomena and events.

Have you ever wondered why so many verses are in Quran about origin of life in
general and man is particular, while it is not even a book of Science? The reason for
that is, the Quran had condemned the existing wrong opinion, at the time of its
revelation, and then dictates the right opinion. Bible also had the description of origin
of life and man, which is not only rejected by Science but also rejected by the second
Vatican council in 1960s:

Saying that there are many things in bible which are proved wrong by the Science

I will end this paper with the statement, that Quran is the word of God and creation
around us, is the work of God. If the source of both is same, then there can not be any
discrepancy in the two, one has to confirm the other. One is theory and other is the
practical, therefore nothing in Science is against Quran. As we have seen today
science actually confirms what Quran had already said. Scientists are only
discovering the laws of the creator, because everything in nature is caused, by
secondary causes, regulated by the primary cause, the creator. To serve best his
creator, man must study His (Allahs) laws and their working. It is regretable that the
task that was asigned to the Muslims that is being done by non Muslims, why
Muslims are not on the fore-front, while they have the guidance of Quran in their
hand. Earlier Muslims made scientific discoveries, as a matter of fact they are the
pioneers of todays Science. Karen Armstrong, the author of Holy War, says, This
fact has never been acknowledged in the west that all the scientific and technological
development that we have today, we owe it to the Arabs and Muslims. Therefore let
the Muslim youth today, persevere to regain the lost position, and work for the
betterment of mankind, which is the greatest Ibadat.

Darwin's general theory presumes the development of life from non-life and stresses a purely
naturalistic (undirected) "descent with modification". That is, complex creatures evolve from more
simplistic ancestors naturally over time. In a nutshell, as random genetic mutations occur within an
organism's genetic code, the beneficial mutations are preserved because they aid survival -- a
process known as "natural selection." These beneficial mutations are passed on to the next
generation. Over time, beneficial mutations accumulate and the result is an entirely different
organism (not just a variation of the original, but an entirely different creature).

Theory of Evolution[edit]
The Qur'an does not agree with Darwin's theory of natural selection. Ancient fossils have proved,
that many plants and animals millions of years old, have more or less preserved there original form.
Although animals do become more visually appealing and powerful over time because "survival of
the fittest" is a basic fact in every living things life. Human beings also show preference on the basis
of attractive physical attributes, that's why today's human form is much more visually appealing than
what it was a century ago. If an animal is born with six legs, rather than the normal four, that would
not be evolving, but a genetic anomaly. And it also doesn't mean that its coming generations will be
born with six legs from now on.

Charles Robert Darwin[edit]

His 1859 book On the Origin of Species established evolutionary descent with modification as the
dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature. He examined human evolution and sexual
selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of
the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in
his final book, he examined earthworms and their effect on soil.[1]
Charles Darwin in his theory of evolution presented a fish fossil (Axelrodichthys araripensis)[2][3] as
an example and presented the theory that the land dwelling animals are an evolved form of that fish.
This fish is extinct today. And its descendants are structurally different. This theory contradicts the
version presented by the Holy Qur'an. However, fishermen in Indonesia and Africa have caught
members of this particular family of fish (Coelacanth), though of a different genus and species
(Latimeria chalumnae)[4] alive. While the modern genera show some morphological change, they still
display sufficient similarities to ancient genera to be taxonomically classified in the same family. L.
Chalumnae are a deep water species, and is never seen in the shallow waters.

History of Humans on Planet Earth[edit]

Archaeologists study humans and human behaviors, and the data they produce help us to
understand the past, present and future. The time lines they study begin with the hominin called
Australopithecus and continue down to the present day. Here you'll find resources on archaeological
information gathered about all of these time periods.

Stone Age (2.5 million-20,000 years ago)[edit]

This is the school of thought presented by the archaeologists but the Holy Qur'an disagrees with it.
The Stone Age or Paleolithic Period is the name archaeologists have given to the beginning of
archaeology--that part of the earth's history that includes the genus Homo and our immediate
ancestor Australopithecus. It began approximately 2.5 million years ago, in Africa, when
Australopithecus began making stone tools, and ended about 20,000 years ago, with big-brained
and talented modern humans spread all over the world. Traditionally, the Paleolithic period is broken
into three parts, the Lower, Middle and Upper Paleolithic periods.

Hunters and Gatherers (20,000-12,000 years ago)[edit]

This is also the school of thought presented by the archaeologists but the Holy Qur'an disagrees with
it. For a good a long time after modern humans had evolved and won out over all of our cousins
everywhere on the planet, we humans relied on hunting and gathering as a way to live. This ersatz
category of mine lumps the more formalized periods in the Near East called the Epi-paleolithic and
Natufian, the American Paleoindian and Archaic, the European Mesolithic, and the Asian Hoabinhian
and Jomon.

Qur'an[edit]
Another example that Charles Darwin presented in support of his theory of evolution was that of the
apes evolving over time in to modern day human beings. The Holy Qur'an on the other hand says
that all humans came from Adum (Adam). If Darwin's theory was correct than all apes should have
evolved into humans, but after all this time on Earth there are still apes present along with humans.
Science itself negates Darwin's theory of evolution,because studying human DNA has proved that all
humans come from a common "human" ancestor. A fact that The Holy Quran presented 1500 years
ago.
Human Age,from the beginning to present day:

From Adam to the Holy Prophet Mohammed (pbuh) _ 6133 years

From the birth of Holy Prophet(pbuh) to the declaration of Prophethood _ 40 years
Life in Makka after declaration of Prophethood _ 13 years
From migration to Madina till present day _ 1427 years
Total time of Human beings on Earth _ 7613 years

Last ice age[edit]

The Last ice age[5] (ca. 35,000 to 10,000 years ago). The Qur'an supports the presence of the last
ice age in the sense that according to it , Human life on this Earth began 7,613 years ago,after the
last ice age due to favorable conditions for life.

Africa
Africa is our human home--the place where the first humans, called Australopithecenes, evolved
some two million years ago; and it is also where the first modern humans evolved. Africa is the site
of some of the most heartbreakingly ephemeral architecture--the Butabu adobes of West Africa--and
some of the most permanent--the pyramids of Egypt and Sudan.[6]
Our family tree[edit]
The idea that were all related, all mixed and richly intermingled, is no platitude. Genetic
science solidly supports it. Shake our family tree, and all kinds of hidden connections fall out.
The big one is that were all out of Africa.
Dr Spencer Wells, author of The Journey of Man and producer of the documentary of that name,
and director of the Genographic Project, has said that All humans share some common bits of
DNA, passed down to us from our African ancestors. Geneticist Spencer Wells talks about how
his Genographic Project will use this shared DNA to figure out how we are in all our diversity
truly connected.
Humanity, which springs from a single common source, has become so astonishingly diverse and
widespread.

Early Civilizations (3000-1500 BC)[edit]

Evidence for fairly sophisticated political and social organization has been identified in Meso.
First Farming potamia as long ago as 4700 BC; but most of the post-Neolithic societies that we
consider 'civilizations' are dated beginning just about 3000 BC.
Al-Baqara[edit]
In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful
And when We said unto the angels: Prostrate yourselves before Adam, they fell prostrate, all save Iblis.
He demurred through pride, and so became a disbeliever. (34) And We said: O Adam! Dwell thou and
thy wife in the Garden, and eat ye freely (of the fruits) thereof where ye will; but come not nigh this tree
lest ye become wrong-doers. (35) But Satan caused them to deflect therefrom and expelled them from
the (happy) state in which they were; and We said: Fall down, one of you a foe unto the other! There
shall be for you on earth a habitation and provision for a time. (36) Then Adam received from his Lord
words (of revelation), and He relented toward him. Lo! He is the relenting, the Merciful. (37)

Qur'an 2:34-37 &Qur'an Text/Transliteration 2:34

An-Nisa[edit]
In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful
In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful
O mankind! Be careful of your duty to your Lord Who created you from a single soul and from it
created its mate and from them twain hath spread abroad a multitude of men and women. Be careful
of your duty toward Allah in Whom ye claim (your rights) of one another, and toward the wombs (that
bare you). Lo! Allah hath been a watcher over you. (1)

The Creation of the Universe

By: A. Muhammad
One of the oldest questions to be asked about the universe was "How did it begin?" That
question always puzzled mankind. The answer to such question depended on the faith and
civilisation current to the scientist.

In the early days of the Greek philosophers the universe was the making of gods and
goddesses, but how they actually performed the act of creation was not to be inquired
into, for such matters were considered divine and, thus, laid outside man's
comprehension. The Greek plan incorporated a marvellous scientific picture of the
universe, for whilst they described the motions of the planets with mathematical
precision, they believed them to be, like the stars, made of some celestial material that
never decayed.

In ancient China, the whole universe, everything on earth and in the sky, was considered
part of a giant organism. However, they envisaged a universe that was many millions of
years old and, in this respect, they were close to today's view.

Western civilisation has grown up under the influence of Greek ideas and also that of
Chinese teachings, which insist on a single God who is creator and sustainer of the
universe; a God, who is also the single God of the Muslim faith. The Bible states that
God created the universe but does not contain detailed scientific information about the
process of the creation of the universe. Galileo used to be fond of saying that the Bible
teaches the way to go to heaven, not the way heavens go. The Church, in its constant
attempts to keep the masses under its control, permitted no speculation into these divine
matters. The misfortune of Copernicus, as a result of his statement, that it was the sun and
not the earth to be the centre of the spherical universe, is well known.

Even after the beginning of the modern scientific period, when Newton had worked out
the motions of planets in great detail and also invented the idea of universal gravitation,
people still considered the creation of the universe to be a divine act, that lies above
speculation.

With the vast amount of information collected by observation of deep space in the last
century, as well as the development of relativity and quantum theory, scientists are at last
in a position to work out how the universe began.

Today, speculation and scientific research into cosmology lies outside the realm of
religion, to the extent that some scientists today do not consider the creation of the
universe to be a divine act altogether. However, these scientists are forgetting that when
they trace the origin of the universe to its origin, or to that moment that sparked the
beginning, they too concede that science becomes unable to function, for at that initial
moment all the laws of physics seem to break down.
The failure of some scientists to contribute this initial moment of creation to a divine
creator stems from the fact that they regard this initial moment as the moment when all
the laws of physics break down, rather than being the moment when all the laws of
physics came to be.

The creation of the universe is a subject that is given great attention in the Quran. The
huge and varied amount of information contained in the Quran about almost every stage
and aspect of the creation continues to astound scientists today because of its very
accurate agreement with current knowledge. How can a book written in the 7th century
contain such a rich amount of scientific information that was to be attained 14 centuries
later? Much of this information was discovered only in the last sixty years! Neutral and
unbiased observers do consider this to be valid evidence that such a book could never
have been the product of any human being for the simple reason that, at the time, no
human possessed such knowledge.

---------------------

All the evidence available today suggests an explosive origin to the universe that brought
both space, time and matter into existence. This is what is referred to as the Big Bang.
The theory of the Big Bang which has successfully replaced the "Steady state" theory was
worked out in the 1920"s by two scientists quite independently of each other, the Russian
meteorologist Alexksandr Friedmann and the Belgian mathematician Georges Lemaitre. (
Deep Space, Colin A. Ronan, p. 156)

The Big Bang itself resulted from an extremely dense singularity. The creation of the
universe is one of matter, space and time that are intimately linked together. Matter and
space were joined as one and then were separated in the explosion. This is very
accurately described in the Quran:

"Do not the unbelievers see that the skies (space) and the earth (matter) were joined
together (as one unit of creation) and we ripped them apart?" 21:30

The subsequent history of the Big Bang saw the Americans George Gamow, Ralph
Alpher and Robert Horman indicate that the whole event took place at a very high
temperature; it was a hot Big Bang. This view has been confirmed by the later discovery
of the background microwave radiation. The eventual formation of galaxies resulted as a
condensation, under gravitational pull, of hot gases which were mainly Hydrogen, but
may also have contained Helium and a few other light elements as well. With the passing
of time, and with the formation of galaxies, the gas has gradually condensed into
individual stars. The universe in its very early stages was, thus, still in the form of hot
gases. This is confirmed in the Quran in the following verse:

"Then He took hold of the sky when it was smoke." 41:11

Note that the verse did not say clouds or gas, but smoke, which is a very accurate
description as smoke is hot gas, whilst clouds and gas could be hot or cold.

Once these stars were formed a system had to be devised to govern their motion. The
kinetic energy stored in the foreword movement of these bodies could not be relied upon
on its own, otherwise stars and also planets would have shot off in straight lines
dispersing into space. No planet would ever revolve around its mother star, which also
applies to earth and, thus, life would not have evolved on earth, because the whole of life
on earth is so dependent on the sun.

Gravity was the brilliant divine invention, working as an equating factor to the centrifugal
force to induce precise orbits for all heavenly bodies. The speed, mass and distance of
two bodies have to be worked out very precisely to induce an orbit.

If you were to throw a tennis ball upwards towards the sky, it would travel upwards as a
result of the kinetic energy stored in the throw but, eventually, the gravity of the earth
will take over and the ball will fall back to the ground. But, if you were to throw the ball
at a very high speed (say 10km per second) it would escape the gravity of the earth and
leave the earth altogether. This is what is known as the escape velocity. It is the speed
required for a moving body to enable it to escape the gravity of a planet or star.

When an artificial satellite is placed in orbit around the earth, what happens is that at a
required distance, while the satellite is shooting out of the earth's gravitational field, its
speed is reduced which reduces its kinetic energy and with some directional adjustments
its kinetic energy can be equated with the earth's gravity. All these adjustments must be
very precisely executed at a precise distance and speed otherwise a correct orbit cannot
be obtained.

When one looks at the endless intricate orbits and mathematical precision in the universe
one can only gasp in awe. All the planets that circulate around stars, which in turn
revolve round the centre of gravity of their own galaxies.

These very accurate balances are mentioned in the following verses:

"The sun and the moon follow courses precisely computed" 55:5

(the previous paragraph explains how very precise adjustments have to be affected in
order to obtain an orbit of an orbiting satellite).

"And the sky He raised and set the balance" 55:7

(balance between what? once again refer to previous paragraph).

The orbits of the heavenly bodies are mentioned in the verse:

"and the sun and the moon, all travelling in orbits." 21:33

Note that the last verse said "all" and not "both" which indicates that the reference to the
sun and the moon is symbolic, that is, of all other heavenly bodies that obey the same
rules.

The next stage sees these massive newly formed stars start to shrink under their own
gravitational pull. As a result, their central regions become denser and, thus, hot. When
the material in the centre of the star has heated up sufficiently, to be exact, at least seven
million degrees K., nuclear reactions begin. These reactions, which are similar to those
which take place in a hydrogen bomb, continue throughout the life of the star. These
reactions are distinctly different from ordinary combustion (as in burning wood). What
actually takes place inside a star is that hydrogen is converted to helium with the
emission of huge energy.

This is precisely what the Quran speaks of with the words:

"as if it were a brilliant star..whose oil (fuel) is well lit, even no fire touches
it." 24:35

The verse mentions a star, it's fuel, and a reaction which is not combustion (fire). Short of
saying "nuclear reactions" the verse is a very accurate description of what goes on inside
a star.

These nuclear reactions cause the stars to radiate all types of radiation into space, from x-
rays and gamma rays in the short waves all the way to the longer radio waves. The visible
section of those waves which are found between the ultra-violet and the infra-red is what
we call sunlight.

On the other hand, the planets do not emit any light of their own, but only reflect light.
This differentiation between natural light and reflected light is pointed out with the
words:

"Blessed is He who made constellations in the sky and placed there in a lamp, and a
moon giving light." 25:61

And also:

"It is He who made the sun to light up (the sky) and the moon that is lit." 10:5

In 1965, a very important discovery was made, and that was the background radiation
which confirmed the Big Bang theory. But, the Big Bang theory, together with the
detection of the red shift in the spectrum of far away galaxies, gave birth to yet a new
concept which stated that the universe is expanding.
Further confirmation of the theory of the expanding universe was obtained from the
spectrum analysis of far away galaxies. When you hear a police car or ambulance
approaching you and then moving away, you will notice a change in sound of its siren.
As the vehicle approaches, the siren wails at a higher pitch than when it moves away.
Yet, in reality the siren is wailing at the same pitch all the time. To the driver of the
vehicle the sound of the siren never changes. Why does this happen? The reason is that
the waves of sound emitted by the siren change in frequency, which causes a change in
pitch. This principle, which is called the Doppler effect after its discoverer, applies to any
waves and not only that of sound. When applied to light waves it was found that if the
source of light is approaching its light would be shifted towards the blue end of the
spectrum, while as light from a receding source would be shifted towards the red end of
the spectrum. When analysing the light we receive from distant galaxies it was found that
they all had a red shift meaning that they were flying away from us. This contribution of
the red shift analysis meant that the universe is indeed expanding.

This conclusion is literally mentioned in the Quran:

"and the heavens we created with might (power) and we are expanding it." 51:47

Note that the word "expanding" is used in the present tense and not in the past which
again is in agreement with the fact that the expansion of the universe is a continuous
process.

At the time of the Quran (7th century), it was still believed that all the stars in the sky,
including our sun, were eternal and are made of a material that never fades or decays. No
one was really aware of the nature of the reactions that took place inside stars for that was
to be 20th century atomic theory territory but that (as mentioned before) was mentioned
in the Quran. These atomic reactions would take place inside a star for a finite time and
then the star would eventually run out of energy when it has used up all its resources.
When that stage is reached, a star like our sun will undergo a series of drastic changes.
First, it will expand to become a red giant. The nearest planet, Mercury, would be
swallowed up and the intense heat given off by the sun in this red giant stage would cause
all the seas and oceans on earth to boil over and evaporate, signalling the end of life on
earth. Eventually, the star would start to collapse and lose its lustre and end up as a white
dwarf. Here, the Quran uses the very accurate scientific words:

"when stars lose their lustre" 77:8

The finite life of stars is also referred to:

"He has ordained the sun and the moon, each one runs (it's course) for an appointed
time." 13:2
Sura, 81 in its opening verses, describes the end of time as follows:

"When the sun is rounded (swelling like a ball), when the stars have collapsed" 81:1-2

"When the oceans boil over in a swell" 81:6

It is very significant how the verse said "when the stars have collapsed" and not "when
the sun has collapsed", because the boiling of the oceans will be a result of the expansion
of the sun (red giant stage) and not it's collapse, that is, the ocean will boil over long
before the sun starts to collapse. Also, the term "collapse", as used in the Quran, is the
precise term used by today's astronomers to describe that stage of a star's life.

The age of the Universe

Whilst the Big Bang provided an explanation as to the origin of the universe, it still
remained necessary to calculate its age.

To do so, astronomers once again rely on red shift to calculate the speeds and distance of
the furthest galaxies and quasars. These distances give us indications to the age of the
universe. The most distant quasars, which have velocities of some 240,000 km/sec. (80%
the speed of light), are at distances of up to 14 billion light years (a light year being the
distance travelled by light in one year). When we look into depth of space, we are
actually looking back far into the past. When we look at that distant quasar, we are not
seeing it as it is now, but as it was 14 billion years ago.

The calculation of the age of the universe during the last 70 years or so has fluctuated
between 10 and 20 billion years.

It is interesting to knwo that the age of the universe has been mentioned in the Quran?

For that we look at two verses:

1) "the angels and the spirit ascend unto Him in a day, the measure of which was fifty
thousand years." 70:4

This verse refers to the ascent of angels and the spirit (meant to be Gabriel) back to
heaven after settling all matters of life in the universe.

The verse clearly said a day that "was" and not a day that "is", which clearly indicates
that that day was in the past (50,000 years ago).

2) "a day relative to your God is equivalent to a thousand years of your count." 22:47

With a few simple equations:

If 1 day (for God) = 1000 years (for man)

1 year (for God) = 1000 x 365 (for man)

= 365,000 years

50,000 years (for God) = 365,000 x 50,000 (for man)

= 18.25 billion!

The 50,000 years mentioned in verse 1 are meant to be of God's years and not of man.
This is because man was not mentioned at all in that verse, and more importantly because
the subject of the verse (creation of the universe) is obviously a matter executed by God
and not by man and, so, its description must also be as related to God and not to man.

This becomes evident when we compare this verse to other verses that clearly speak of
years as related to man's count, like the verse:

"on a day, the measure of which was a thousand years of your count." 32:5

As we can see, the age of the universe given in the Quran (18:25 billion years) is older
than the age agreed upon by scientists today which is 13.8 billion years.

However, when we look into the methods by which scientists arrived at the age of 13.8
billion years, we can understand why this age is no more than an estimated
age. Astronomers estimate the age of the universe in two ways:

1- By looking for the oldest stars.

2- By measuring the rate of expansion of the universe and extrapolating back to the Big
Bang.
Both of these methods are based on assumptions.

1- The oldest stars: This method is based on the already detected stars in the observable
universe. We can only detect what our instruments allow us to observe and detect. The
observable universe has been consistently getter bigger with the advance in technology
and instrumentation. There is no reason to think that this trend will stop in the future. A
bigger universe, with farther stars and galaxies means an older universe.
2- The rate of expansion: Even though the rate of expansion of the universe is
accelerating, yet the rate of expansion is dependent on what is called the Hubble constant,
whose estimation has been increased a number of times. The Hubble constant is
dependent on how much matter is in the universe, as well as the amount of dark energy in
the universe. Both of these values are estimations at best.
Multiple Universes

When astronomers discuss the universe, they are always thinking about the universe
which they see and observe. If we go back to the days of the ancient Egyptians five
thousand years ago, we find that the size of the universe seemed to be no more than the
dome of the sky, covering the earth like the dome in a planetarium. The stars seemed, at
the most, some thousands of kilometres away. The Greek astronomers, some two
thousand and more years ago, thought of the universe as a sphere but still approximately
of the same size.

Copernicus, who believed the sun and not the earth to be the centre of the spherical
universe, thought it was much bigger than this, but not until about 170 years ago did
anyone really know the distance of even the nearest stars.

Then they found that they should be measured in millions of millions of kilometres. But,
still, it was a very small universe, with all the stars together in one large star island.

Not until the 1920's did astronomers discover that our galaxy was only one of millions of
others. Only then did astronomers start to appreciate the actual size of the universe.

Astronomers are today debating the issue whether our universe is the only one in
existence.

The idea of multiple universes is closely linked with the Black Hole concept. Certainly,
the squashing of matter into an infinitely small area inside a Black Hole is in sharp
disagreement with the Law of conservation of matter which was referred to in Part One.
It has been suggested that all the matter falling into a Black Hole could be ejected into
another time-space universe in what is referred to as a "White Hole". Mathematical
studies of space and time do show that this is possible in theory. Does it happen in
practice? We do not know, but there certainly seems to be regions in deep space from
which material is pouring out into our universe.

The jet of material from the active elliptical galaxy M 87 is a case in point. Has it come
from a White Hole connected to a Black Hole somewhere else?

An alternate analysis that could also provide an equally valid justification for the
existence of multiple universes is associated with the speed of light.

Between the years 1905-15, and in his theory of relativity, Albert Einstein stated that the
speed of light is a limiting velocity in the universe; nothing can travel faster than light.
His theory also took the speed of light to be constant, unaffected by the movement of its
source and independent of all observers. Quasars, which are the most distant objects in
the universe travel at speeds approaching 80% of the speed of light but nothing travels
faster than the speed of light.

Could it be that the speed of light acts as a gate, a valve or a barrier between our universe
and other universes? Perhaps a different time-space universe where matter, if it can still
be called so, exists and is travelling at speeds higher than that of light? We cannot cross
that barrier ourselves nor can any physical matter, but there is strong indications that
there is some kind of existence on the other side.

A mention should be given here to some speculation concerning some new particles
called "tachyons" which occur in some nuclear reactions. These particles are believed to
travel faster than light. They can never travel at the speed of light, only faster. That also
supports the idea of the speed of light being a barrier. In short "tachyons" behave in just
the opposite way from matter, but as no one has actually observed a "tachyon", could the
reason be because they exist in a different dimension of time-space?

When we examine the verses in the Quran that relate to this subject, not only do we find
incredible information concerning the creation and existence of multiple universes, but
also regarding the barriers that lie between them. All that 1400 years ago at a time when
the size of the whole universe was estimated to be not more than a few thousand
kilometres!

Multiple universes are mentioned in more than one verse in the Quran as in:

"Have you not seen how God has created seven skies (universes) one above the
other?" 71:15

The barriers that exist between these universes are mentioned in the following verse:

" if you can penetrate through the zones of the skies and the earth, then penetrate, you
will not do so without authority."55:33

The word "penetrate" implies the existence of some kind of barriers between the zones of
the skies (universes).

Our universe, as we know it today, includes within it all the stars and galaxies that we
have detected in the sky so far. If multiple universes exist, they lie outside and beyond all
these galaxies. This too seems to be in harmony with the information given in the Quran:

"And we have decorated the lowest heaven (universe) with lanterns (stars)." 41:12

It is worth mentioning here the suggestion put forward by some interpreters concerning
the boundaries that lie between the multiple universes and that are spoken of in the
Quran. What they suggested is that the region beyond the Earth's atmosphere up till the
moon forms the second universe, while the solar system constitutes the third universe and
so on. They add that when man landed on the moon, he has actually moved into a higher
universe. However, and if we quote the previous verse which clearly states that all the
lanterns (stars) are to be found in the lowest universe, we can quickly dismiss this
interpretation. If the lowest universe includes within it all the stars and galaxies that we
know, then the next universe must lie outside the comprehension of mankind. If anything,
this speaks much more favourably of the capacity of God's creation than if the different
universes where all too tangible.

From the dawn of our species to the present day, stone-made

artefacts are the dominant form of material remains that have
survived to today concerning human technology.

The term Stone Age was coined in the late 19th century CE by the
Danish scholar Christian J. Thomsen, who came up with a framework
for the study of the human past, known as the Three Age System.
The basis of this framework is technological: it revolves around the
notion of three successive periods or ages: Stone Age, Bronze Age,
and Iron Age, each age being technologically more complex than the
one before it. Thomsen came up with this idea after noticing that the
artefacts found in archaeological sites displayed regularity in terms of
the material that they were made with: stone-made tools were always
found in the deepest layers, bronze artefacts in layers on top of the
deepest layers, and finally iron-made artefacts were found closest to
the surface. This suggested that metal technology developed later than
stone-made tools.

This Three Age System has received some criticism. There are
scholars who believe that this approach is too technologically oriented.
Others say that this stone-bronze-iron pattern has hardly any meaning
when applied outside Europe. Despite the critics, this system is still
largely used today and, although it has limitations, it can be helpful as
long as we remember that it is a simplified framework.

CHRONOLOGY OF THE STONE AGE

The Stone Age begins with the first production of stone implements
and ends with the first use of bronze. Since the chronological limits of
the Stone Age are based on technological development rather than
actual date ranges, its length varies in different areas of the world.
The earliest global date for the beginning of the Stone Age is 2.5
million years ago in Africa, and the earliest end date is about 3300
BCE, which is the beginning of Bronze Age in the Near East.

TOOLS AND WEAPONS DURING THE STONE

AGE WERE NOT MADE EXCLUSIVELY OF
STONE: ORGANIC MATERIALS SUCH AS
ANTLER, BONE, FIBRE, LEATHER, AND WOOD
WERE ALSO EMPLOYED.
There is evidence suggesting that the 2.5 million year limit for stone
tool manufacture might be pushed further back. The reason is that the
capacity of tool use and even its manufacture is not exclusive of our
species: there are studies indicating that bonobos are capable of
flaking and using stone tools in order to gain access to food in an
experimental setting. Nevertheless, there are differences between the
tools produced by modern apes and those produced by the early
toolmakers, who had better biomechanical and cognitive skills and
produced more efficient tools. The difference, however, is of degree,
not of nature. In fact, the earliest tools pre-date the emergence of the
Homo genus, and it is believed that some of the
Australopithecines were the first tool makers.

In addition, some researchers have claimed that the earliest stone

tools might even have an earlier origin: 3.4 million years ago.
Although no stone tools that old have been found, some bones
showing signs of striations and gouges have been found in Ethiopia,
which might represent cut marks made with stone tools. This view,
however, is not widely accepted: the marks have also been interpreted
to be the result of crocodile predation or animal trampling.

The Stone Age is also divided into three different periods.

1. Paleolithic or Old Stone Age: from the first production of

stone artefacts, about 2.5 million years ago, to the end of the
last Ice Age, about 9,600 BCE. This is the longest Stone Age
period.
 The main types of evidence are fossilized human remains and
stone tools, which show a gradual increase in their complexity.
On the basis of the techniques employed and the quality of the
tools, there are several stone industries (sometimes referred to
as lithic industries). The earliest of these (2.5 million years
ago) is called Oldowan, which are very simple choppers and
flakes. About 1.7 million years ago, we find another type of lithic
industry called Acheulean, producing more complex and
symmetrical shapes with sharp edges. There are several other
types of lithic industries until finally towards the end of the
Paleolithic, about 40,000 years ago, we see a revolution of
lithic industries where many different types coexisted and
developed rapidly. Around this same time, we also have the first
recorded expressions of the artistic life: personal ornaments,
cave paintings, and mobilary art.

2. Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age: In purely scientific terms, the

Mesolithic begins at the end of a period known in geology as the
Younger Dryas stadial, the last cold snap, which marks the end of
Ice Age, about 9,600 BCE. The Mesolithic period ends when
agriculture starts. This is the time of the late hunter-gatherers.

Because agriculture developed at different times in different

regions of the world, there is no single date for the end of the
Mesolithic period. Even within a specific region, agriculture
developed during different times. For example, agriculture first
developed in Southeast Europe about 7,000 BCE, in Central
Europe about 5,500 BCE, and Northern Europe about 4,000 BCE.
All these factors make the chronological limits of the Mesolithic
somehow fuzzy. Moreover, some regions do not have a Mesolithic
period. An example is the Near East, where agriculture was
developed around 9,000 BCE, right after the end of the Ice Age.

During the Mesolithic period, important large-scale changes took

place on our planet. As the climate was getting warmer and the
ice sheets were melting, some areas in the northern latitudes
rose as they were being freed from the weight of the ice. At the
same time, the sea levels rose, drowning low-lying areas,
resulting in major changes in the land worldwide: the Japanese
islands were separated from the Asian mainland, Tasmania from
Australia, the British Isles from continental Europe, East Asia and
 North America became divided by the flooding of the Bering
Strait, and Sumatra separated from Malaysia with the
correspondent formation of the Strait of Malacca. Around 5,000
BCE, the shape of the continents and islands was very much
those of the present day.

3. Neolithic or New Stone Age: begins with the introduction of

farming, dating variously from c. 9,000 BCE in the Near East, c.
7,000 BCE in Southeast Europe, c. 6,000 BCE in East Asia, and
even later in other regions. This is the time when cereal
cultivation and animal domestication was introduced.

In order to reflect the deep impact that agriculture had over the
human population, an Australian archaeologist named Gordon
Childe popularized the term Neolithic Revolution in the 1940s
CE. Today it is believed that the impact of agricultural innovation
was exaggerated in the past: the development of Neolithic
culture appears to have been more gradual rather than a sudden
change.

Agriculture brought major changes in the way human society is

organized and how it uses the earth, including forest clearance, root
crops, and cereal cultivation that can be stored for long periods of
time, along with the development of new technologies for farming and
herding such as plows, irrigation systems, etc. More intensive
agriculture implies more food available for more people, more villages,
and a movement towards a more complex social and political
organization. As the population density of the villages increase, they
gradually evolve into towns and finally into cities.

Towards the end of the Neolithic era, copper metallurgy is introduced,

which marks a transition period to the Bronze Age, sometimes referred
to as Chalcolithic or Eneolithic era.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD
Tools and weapons during the Stone Age were not made exclusively of
stone: organic materials such as antler, bone, fibre, leather and wood
were also employed. The archaeological record, however, is biased in
favour of items made of stone because these are far more durable
than the organic materials, which are easily obliterated by the many
processes of decay that they are subject to and can only survive under
rare circumstances such as cold temperatures or very dry climate.
Other durable materials such as copper and glass-made items have
also survived. Under rare circumstances, plant, animal, and human
remains have also managed to survive, sometimes merely fossilized,
but other times they still present part of the soft tissue such as the
several frozen specimens of the extinct woolly rhino and woolly
mammoth that have survived in Siberia virtually intact.

Clay is another material which is abundant in the bulk of Stone Age

material remains. Clay can be fashioned into a desire shape and baked
to fix its form. This is the birth of pottery. Usable clay is widely
available, which explains why pottery was independently invented in
many parts of the world at different times. The oldest evidence of
pottery manufacture has been found in an archaeological site known
as Odai Yamamoto, in Japan, where fragments from a specific vessel
have been dated to 16,500-14,920 BP ("before present", meaning
16,500-14,920 years ago, usually associated with radiocarbon dating).
Non-agricultural Jomon peoples of Japan were producing clay pots that
were elaborately decorated by about 13,000 BP, which were used for
food preparation.

During the Early Neolithic era, around 8,000 BCE, special ovens used
to parch cereal grains and to bake bread were being built in the Near
East, which allowed people to control fire and produce high
temperatures in enclosed facilities. Initially, pottery was made in open
fires, but the use of ovens added new possibilities to the development
of pottery. Around the same time, some areas of South America were
also developing pottery technology.

With the introduction of Bronze metallurgy, the Stone Age came to an

end. Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin, which has greater hardness
than copper, better casting properties, and a lower melting point.
Bronze could be used for making weapons, something that was not
possible with copper, which is not hard enough to endure combat
conditions. In time, bronze became the primary material for tools and
weapons, and a good part of the stone technology became obsolete,
signaling the end of the Stone Age.

In the earliest prehistoric era, before Man knew how to build shelters, they made use of the natural
environment to provide them with shelter. The earliest forms of shelter were those in trees, where it
would provide minimal protection against the searing heat of the sun and the cold of the rain. Also,
trees protected Man against animals that could not climb up the trees. Another natural form of shelter
was the cave, which provided greater protection against inclement weather, though offering less
protection against wild animals.

The first man-made shelter was believed to have been made out of stones and tree branches. The
stones were placed at the base of the structure to hold the branches in place. Man slowly learned the
make simple tools that would allow them to build better structures, and later on these structures
gradually evolved in shape and form. Other materials such as huge stone slabs, bones, and even animal
hide were used to built the structures, which then provided much more stability, security and comfort.
Eventually, earth was taken from the ground and dried in the sun to form clay blocks, leading to the
usage of bricks as the basic building block of shelters.

The ancient Egyptians started building flat-topped houses made out of sun-dried bricks around 3100BC.
The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians were constructed using perishable materials
such as clay bricks and wood. Peasants lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite were more
elaborate structures. Famous structures such as the pyramids and temples were built to emphasise the
control and power of the Pharaoh. The idea of sun-dried bricks was improved upon by the Assyrians almost 600
years later, when they discovered that baking bricks in fire made them harder and more durable. They also started
glazing bricks to strengthen them and improve their imperviousness to water, which was useful in times of storms.

The ancient Greeks lived in well-made stone houses with slanted roofs that let snow and rain slide off. Most of the
walls in Greek structures were built using sun-dried clay bricks or wooden framework filled with fibrous material
such as straw or seaweed covered with clay or plaster. In addition to building houses, the Greeks built other forms of
shelter such as temples and public buildings, which were dignified and gracious structures built to emphasise the
cultural and economic prosperity of their society. Open-air theatres meant for public gatherings as well as cultural
performances were also built, with some still standing today.

The Romans improved upon the techniques of the Greeks, and introduced the concept of central heating to tide them
thru cold weather. They laid rows of earthenware pipes under the roofs and floors and ran hot water or air through
them to heat. Most houses were built around atriums, or a central court, with rooms off the court.

Chinese Architecture
Ancient Chinese architecture is based upon three components: the foundation platform, the timber frame, and the
decorative roof. In addition, the most fundamental feature of any ancient Chinese shelter would be that of a four-
sided rectangular enclosure, with walls formed at right angles to one another. Similar to civilizations elsewhere,
the Chinese used packed earth as well as sun-dried clay bricks in their construction of structures. These were
typically used within wood frames and formed the foundation of the structure. The roofs and ceilings of the
traditional Chinese were constructed without nails, only held together via layering the different pieces in
interlocking bracket sets.

From the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907 AD) onwards, the common use of wood in buildings was replaced by the use of
stone and bricks. This ensured that the buildings or shelters would last longer and not be as vulnerable to
weathering, fires and rotting.

Middle Ages
When the Roman Empire collapsed around AD400 and were overrun by Germans and
Scandinavians, the improvements they made in building and construction of shelters were lost for
several hundred years. Buildings built by Germans and Scandinavians were supported by
frameworks of heavy timber or wood, and spaces between the wood were filled with clay.

Some of these structures developed into fortified castles of the Middle Ages, with thick stonewalls,
water filled moats, and drawbridges. Inside the walls, people built stables for horses, barracks for
soldiers, shops for making tools and weapons, kitchens, dining halls, and even prisons for enemies
captured in wartime.

In the 15th century, Europeans began building half-timbered houses, with stone or brick
foundations. Tree trunks are placed at corners of the houses, and strong wooden beams were used
to support the house. Then they fastened crossbeams at the top and bottom of the beams and
added slanting braces. They covered the walls with lath, or thin wooden strips, plastered with a
mixture of clay and straw.
The Early Modern Period encompasses the late Renaissance period as well as the Early Industrial Age. Many
technological innovations took place in this period, some of which formed the foundation for building shelters in the
modern day. Glass was used extensively in this period, and altered the facade and window construction details
considerably. This technique was used mostly in the building of grand public structures. Construction in the
Renaissance period also focused much on the design and architecture of the building, rather than the materials used
for the construction process. This was largely due to the increased appreciation of aesthetics and design, as well as
the emancipation of various other art forms, leading to widespread cultural reforms.

The advent of the Early Industrial Period brought about mass production using existing technological processes, as
well as an increase in the innovation of technology. The rate of building of shelters increased exponentially
following the widespread use of the steam engine, and this allowed iron to be made easily at a large scale. Many
different forms could be mass produced in factories, and iron beams soon became the standard support for an entire
structure.

Brick was also mass produced in factories by the use of kilns, instead of having to resort to the ancient method of
leaving it in the sun to be dried. Thus, the costs of bricks was reduced and led to their extensive use in buildings.
The advent of steam and water powered sawmills also allowed wood to be manufactured in a standard size at large
scales. Cheap machine-made nails were also available, and the combination of these two materials provided for a
quick and cheap form of shelter in the form of balloon framing (a method of wood construction). The low cost and
ease of construction made balloon framing highly attractive, as people no longer requirely highly-skilled carpenters
and could build their own buildings without a time-consuming learning curve. This was the answer to America's
problem of mass immigration at that time.

Contemporary Era
One predominant factor featured in the construction of shelters in the Contemporary Era. Shelters were
no longer simple structures, but were towering high-rise buildings that were usually constructed with
either concrete or steel. A major innovation was the development of the steel frame as a structural
element. Bricks were still used in buildings, and glass has been used extensively to give the building a
modern look and feel.

Lightweight concrete also increased the strength of concrete, and the use of pumps to deliver concrete to
upper levels meant that concrete could be used in the construction of high-rise buildings as well.
Reinforced concrete, where steel rods are combined with concrete, was also developed. The mutlifaceted
developments during this period have led to practices that have become the industry standard for the
construction of buildings and shelters, and will continue to do so.