An Origin of A Theory - A Comparison of Ethos in The Homeric "Iliad" With That Found in PDF

An Origin of a Theory: A Comparison of Ethos in the Homeric "Iliad" with That Found in
Aristotle's "Rhetoric"
Author(s): Todd S. Frobish
Source: Rhetoric Review, Vol. 22, No. 1 (2003), pp. 16-30
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3093051
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TODD S. FROBISH
lona College
An Origin of a Theory: A Comparison of Ethos

in the Homeric Iliad with that Found
in Aristotle's Rhetoric
Homer's Iliad is an epic story about human character, which predates the Aristo-
telian lectures by some four hundred years. While classical scholars have always
valued Aristotle's notion of ethos as a primary factor in persuasion, few have
traced this concept to this earlier period. Following a close analysis of speeches
in the Iliad, this examination attempts to reconstruct what Homer's theory of
character might have looked like. While Aristotle seems to have understood
character much differently than did Homer, enough evidence exists to suggest
that Aristotle may have embraced Homer's Iliad and the story it tells about the
importance of age, social convention, and the heroic.
Homer's works are vital not only as literary masterpieces but also as corer-
stones for much of Western philosophy.1 It is widely accepted that the Homeric
epics were valued as guides for future writers, rhapsodes, and thinkers, but the
extent to which they inspired later philosophies of rhetoric needs to be reas-
sessed. Homer's conception of character, for example, is largely overlooked
when rhetoric scholars focus on persuasion in ancient Greece. This essay reveals
that the focus on character in the Iliad is an anchor for the more advanced notion
of ethos found centuries later in Aristotle. Although Kennedy has argued that
"we cannot trace the development of artistic ethos in early human rhetoric" we
can, based upon an interpretation of speeches in the Iliad, cull out an implicit
"Homeric" theory of character (Comparative 43).
Although the concept itself is rarely explicit in the Iliad, it is not the case
that character was not important. "Homer," as Vivante has written, "plunges us
into the very essence of character" (45). Indeed, Homer discussed qualities that
are essential to our modern ethical theories, including the virtues of excellence,
eloquence, and goodness. These are frequently attributed, for example, to King
Nestor. In fact, when Zeus sent the dream to Agamemnon, it was Nestor whose
image appeared because it was he "whom above all the elders Agamemnon held
in honor" (Iliad 2.20-21).
Rhetoric Review, Vol. 22, No. 1, 2003, 16-30

16 Copyright ? 2003, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
An
An
Origin
Origin of a Theory
of
1717 a
Homer's wor
persuasion. K
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18 18 Rhetoric Review Rhetoric Review
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sion, his th
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ternal facto
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This essay
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of persuasi
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Finally, the
tween the H
Ethos
Classical scholars need no introduction to the notion of ethos, but it may help
to review the central arguments made about its place in the rhetorical tradition.
Ethos, of course, generally relates to an audience's perception of a speaker's char-
acter, but its origins have more modest beginnings. Halloran has argued that
the most concrete meaning given for the term in the Greek lexicon is
"a habitual gathering place," and I suspect that it is upon this image
of people gathering together in a public place, sharing experiences
and ideas, that its meaning as character rests. (60)
Homer's primary focus on the Achaeans in public interaction might, given this
perspective, be an attempt to teach others about those habits that constitute ethi-
cal behavior. Havelock has written that one's effort to understand public ritual
and law in Homeric society will inevitably lead one to "discern also items of the
personal code as these are interwoven with the public" (76). In fact, he has ar-
gued that the code of ethical behavior is "so penetrative and pervasive in
Homer's lines that its analysis could proceed almost indefinitely" (76).
An
AnOrigin ofOrigin
a Theory of a Theory 19 19
Aristotle said
when the speec
claimed that "t
the speaker say
speak" (1.2.135
Aristotle, wh
(phronesis), go
Scholars gener
element in per
its theoretical
concept that is
word ethos doe
tomed place of
cannot talk of
whose work loo
acter is related
He states further that in the Iliad men and Gods share the same character traits.
"In order to raise himself up to them," man "must not at all enter into conflict
with himself. He must not compromise his own nature or aspects of his own na-
ture.... Rather he must simply be himself' (13).
Here we find a major difference between the Homeric conception of charac-
ter and that found in later rhetorical thinking. In the Iliadic world, disguising
one's identity was only an implied part of Homeric society whereas by later an-
tiquity it becomes commonplace. For Homer's men, their identities were forged
through action, not speech, and were usually displayed on the battlefield. Only
the gods took false forms, and only in battle or in a place of conflict. In the Iliad
a man simply was as he acted-his identity or character was strengthened
through heroic deed or ruined by some act of cowardice. Finley has argued that
"everything pivoted on a single element of honour and virtue: strength, bravery,
physical courage, prowess. Conversely, there was no weakness, no unheroic
trait, but one, and that was cowardice and the consequent failure to pursue heroic
goals" (19). Indeed, Germain has stated that
the bravest take to flight when they feel there is too much against
them, and no one regards them as dishonored, not even they them-
selves. The wounded man does not hesitate to groan. Flight, pain,
death are taken according to nature. (59)
One's character, then, rests entirely upon one's actions as reasonable and ex-
pected responses to the situation at hand.
None of th
launches as
his prize. I
the primar
Achilles' "h
honor and
an analysis
see more c
world. Thr
character f
ries later.
The Ho
Speeches m
the Iliad,"
isolated rem
pute resolv
prowess of
for advice,
alternative
suggestion
one-his pr
camp on t
linked to a failure of character.
Finley has written that "skill with words had its uses" (122). There is a rea-
son why Phoenix reminded Achilles that he was the one who had taught him "to
be a speaker of words and a doer of deeds" (Iliad 9.443). Public speech could
build morale. This is especially true of Nestor. Nestor, as Finley has suggested,
was the perfect choice for this role because it was he who had the most stories
and experience from which to remind the soldiers "by example of the way to
honour and glory" (123). "Without honor," according to MacIntyre, "a man is
without worth" (118). Thus, it seems as if the best speech in the Iliad is that
which concerned noble action. These speeches may help us to reconstruct what,
if anything, Homer's theory of character might have looked liked. A solid place
to begin is with Nestor.
Homer gave us clues as to why Nestor was so highly respected by Agamem-
non and all the others. He recounted in the beginning of the Iliad that
among them rose up Nestor, sweet of speech, the clear-voiced orator

of the men of Pylos, he from whose tongue speech flowed sweeter
An
An
Origin ofOrigin
than honey
away, who lo
Pylos, and h
addressed th
Homer later stated that
when they had put from them the desire of food and drink, first of all
the old man began to weave the web of counsel for them, Nestor,
whose counsel earlier also appeared the best. He with good intent
addressed their assembly and spoke among them. spoke with hon-
esty and good courage setting out his thoughts neat and clear, like a
weaver weaving a pattern upon his loom. (9.90-95)
Thus we see already some of the virtues that were important to those of this
time: honesty, eloquence, courage, graciousness, endurance, and wisdom or in-
telligence. MacIntyre has provided ample evidence of this, asserting that "physi-
cal strength, courage and intelligence are among the excellences" (119).
There is no doubt that Nestor was older than most, if not all, of the Homeric
men and was admired by all. But what about Achilles? We know that "the Iliad
is the story of the anger of Achilles" (Lang, Leaf, and Myers xii). Germain has
even written that "the Iliad is Achilles, absent or present, since everything de-
pends first on what he does not do, then on what he does" (57). While Achilles
is certainly a flawed character, he is still the hero of the Iliad. Could it be that
the character of Achilles is assessed differently according to age? In the begin-
ning of the tale, Achilles' girl is taken from him by Agamemnon, his king, and
Achilles is humiliated. This is so despite Agamemnon's generous offer of
seven tripods that the fire has not touched, and ten talents of gold
and twenty gleaming cauldrons, and twelve strong horses, winners
in the race, that have won prizes by their fleetness .... And I will
give seven women skilled in noble handiwork, women of Lesbos,
whom on the day when Achilles himself took well-built Lesbos I
chose out for myself from the spoil, who in beauty surpass all the
tribes of women. (Iliad 9.120-31)
It was when Achilles refused "this proper and under all normal circumstances
satisfactory, gift of amends," according to Finley, "that the real tragedy of the Il-
iad began" (126). Following the argument between Achilles and Agamemnon,
the former refused to participate in the war. Even when approached by his best
friend, Patroclus, Achilles refused and offered his armor to him so that he could
fight in hi
is in many
reasons diff
his commu
young are e
It is no re
Homer tho
that Nestor
son has no
Iliad and th
like Perup
Ekheneos,
these are A
two terms
theory of e
Old Age
Old age typically results in a loss of physical ability. This loss of ability is
the primary reason why the elderly did not fight in battle in the Iliad, but who in-
stead acted as generals and advisers. They were expected to command through
speech. Those who were old but still esteemed were those with "rhetorical skill,
sagacity, goodwill and circumspection" (Dickson 11). Successful speech skills,
which are known in the Iliad by the term mythos, seem to serve a critical func-
tion in the ethos of the elderly. Panthous, for example, who is the father of
Polydamas, is one who was classified as among those who "because of old age
they had now ceased from battle, but they were good speakers, like cicalas that
in a forest sit upon a tree and pour out their lily-like voice" (Iliad 3.150-52).
Thus, while the old were not expected to be physically strong, they were ex-
pected to be mentally strong. All of the elders, for instance, affected "things al-
most exclusively through their choice of words" (Dickson 11), and, if skillful,
they were assigned such esteemed titles as Counselor, Herald, Prophet, and
Nurse. To act otherwise would be dishonorable, cowardly, and unheroic. Nestor,
as we have already seen, was admired by all because he fulfilled the expecta-
tions of the community by advising the youth. Dickson has stated that Agamem-
non, who was "not usually liberal with praise, wishes that he had ten men such
as Nestor (3.371-74); others praise him (1.286, 8.146) for words that are always
'right and fitting"' (10). Homer told us that "[e]ver unstable are the hearts of the
young; but whatever an old man takes part in, he looks both before and after, so
that the issue may be far the best for either side" (Iliad 3.108-10). "Rhetorical
An
An
Origin ofOrigin
prowess," acc
elderly conv
age," he has
type of chara
This last poi
physical stren
tation of elde
are formed" (
speech inspir
way to be an
and counsel t
The old were
flict, battle,
Homer. The p
them," is fou
whether dur
problem or d
122; Iliad 1.7
cases, there
crisis. These
elder. Homer,
Thus, we can
cantly domin
speaking of a
Youth
Youth can be linked to the term ergon. In the Iliad, ergon refers to the deed
or act, and as a praise, may refer to one's physical prowess, combat excellence,
or bravery. Physical prowess, according to Dickson, refers mainly to physical
strength in the Iliad and is used as praise when Homer discussed Achilles
(11.763), Hector (22.268), Diomedes (8.535), Meliones (13.275), Oeneus
(14.118), and Periphetes (15.642). Homer frequently discussed the combat ex-
cellence of Achilles (1.131, 19.155, 21.280, 24.53), Agamemnon (1.275, 3.179),
Menelaus (4.181), Diomedes (10.559), Tydeus (14.113), Peleus (21.109), Hector
(21.280), Euchenor (13.664), Polyidus (13.666), and Podes (17.576). Homer
also discussed bravery when referring to Achilles (17.203), Teucer (15.489),
Diomedes (5.206), Agamemnon (5.206), and Paris (3.44-5). What these numer-
ous examples suggest is that success on the battlefield was highly significant as
the mark of character for the youth of the Iliad.
Ergon actu
by compar
successful
strength a
claimed tha
world leads
asserted th
and outrigh
ardice, a pr
This suspi
when advic
ple, Iliad 1
Mating
Old age is
wisdom, el
vidual is st
possesses b
perhaps ev
qualities, in
is the true hero in the Iliad.
The Iliad is constructed around Achilles. Indeed, Homer told us this in the
first line of the story: "The wrath sing, goddess, of Peleus' son, Achilles, that de-
structive wrath which brought countless woes upon the Achaeans, and sent forth
to Hades many valiant souls of heroes" (1-1.5). Achilles, as the son of the sea
goddess Thetis, is by all accounts both the hero and the villain of the Iliad. The
war starts with his pride and immaturity, yet is finished with his skill and bravery
on the battlefield. Thus, as Vivante has claimed, "we cannot take Achilles for
granted or give him any one-sided attribute" (70). Following the maiming of
Hector's body by Achilles, Apollo said the following of him:
It is the ruthless Achilles, you gods, that you are eager to assist, him
whose mind is in no way right, nor the purpose in his breast one that
may be bent; but his heart is wild, like a lion that at the urging of his
great might and lordly heart goes out against the flocks of men to
win him a feast; so has Achilles lost all pity, nor has he shame,
which harms men greatly and profits from them. (Iliad 24.39-45)
An
An Origin
Origin of a of
Theory 225 a
Yet Zeus defen

purpose, nor y
(Iliad 24.157-58
les. Vivante ha
"the idea of an
nature, as dista
coursed throug
Achilles repre
the central he
clear and blurr
sentences that
66). We see a
Priam in the l
row, bewails h
of Troy's onc
les when he ca
Achilles when
food, though t
in their prime
grows philosop
experience, se
the eloquent an
ruthless Achi
Achilles drew
beside the nec
Achilles seized
away, and boa
among the fi
think nothin
We see a confl
plays the lyre
and destructi
roundness in c
ferred to this
pass all the Da
Achilles, whi
leagues have ar
because he like
sessed wit
sion and
What is r
war for h
the Iliad.
is ambigu
course, af
role and
end with Achilles.
Discussion
The Iliad is no doubt a complex work. Action and speech are intricatel
linked as forces that forge character. Action is the arena for the young whil
speech is for the old. Yet the young may be eloquent; the old, strong. Addi-
tionally, the mating of eloquence and strength may create a person of godlik
ability. The person, whether young, old, or some mix, is revealed to us in th
success or failure of that person's ability to meet socially constructed expecta
tions. One's virtue, then, is connected to one's ability to succeed in conflict. In-
deed, if Homer suggested anything with his work, it is that character is mos
fully realized when in conflict. We know Nestor best when he is giving advice t
kings and warriors about the war, and we know Achilles best when he is either
arguing with Agamemnon or slaughtering soldiers on the battlefield.
While Homer did not develop an explicit theory of ethos, we can, with wha
he has presented to us, speculate on what such a theory might look like. A fe
conclusions are evident. Many of the qualities esteemed by the Iliadic men are
embraced today: wisdom, courage, style or eloquence, patience, foresight, brav-
ery, skill, circumspection, honesty, and graciousness. This list does not includ
accuracy in reasoning, because even Nestor was often wrong. Virtue is not seen
in moralistic or ethical terms but rather as a particular excellence of mind or
body. Good will, as Germain asserts, refers to qualities of the elderly, not to t
Aristotelian eunoia (11). Furthermore, resisting the community's wishes, muc
like Achilles did, does not impair one's character. Rowe has argued along thes
lines, stating that "success is all-important; results are what matter" (251). If on
failed to behave in a manner expected and, in a sense, predetermined for him b
the community, then one would be labeled as a coward.
Homer's account of character in the Iliad is noticeably different from that o
Aristotle's. Homer's conception of ethos is created through a habit of action, n
established through discourse. As Vivante has said, character is "achieved by th
simplest means: the sheer recurrence of certain positions and motions" (52).
An
An
Origin ofOrigin
Here is the cr
a matter of b
make the spe
greater extent
that Aristotle
government o
cept what is a
side the purvi
time of speak
factor in spee
In Homer's th
ability to be l
to, because of
Aristotle's acc
acter is a per
one's abilities,
mentally diff
claimed that H
"the character
exclusively up
so different i
works of two
your character
this sense, wa
point in argui
dividual pleadi
of man. Even
guard, Dolon,
peal was one b
Take me alive
bronze and g
my father gr
am alive at t
A man who at
we might ima
stance, Hecto
marked as a coward:
Suppose I
leaning my
ble Achille
treasures t
that was t
to take aw
me? Let it
me nor hav
were a wom
now I may
just as yo
the other.
let us kno
22.111-131)
There is, as Vivante has argued, "no heroic speech on virtue or glory ... no pre-
cepts, maxims, statements, or ready-made resolutions" (54). There is only the
option to fight.
While there are many differences between Homer and Aristotle in their
conceptualizations of character, there are some similarities that warrant atten-
tion. Kennedy has asserted that "many devices of invention, arrangement, and
style were clearly in use long before they were conceptualized and named" and
that "the role of ethos, or character, is particularly strong" (Classical 14). In
fact, Aristotle may have borrowed from Homer's portrayal of character and re-
fined a few of his thoughts for his own ethical theory. Most similar is that like
Homer Aristotle suggested that one's age is important for understanding char-
acter. Aristotle distinguishes between the ages of life (youth, old age, and
prime) and relates these to his theory of character. On youth Aristotle said that
"they love honor, they love victory more" (2.12.6), "the young are heated by
their nature" (2.12.8), "they are sensitive to shame" (2.12.10), "they live more
by natural character than by calculation" (2.12.12), and "all the mistakes they
make are in the direction of excess" (2.12.14). On old age Aristotle said that
"they 'think,' but do not 'know' anything" (2.13.2), "they live in memory more
than in hope," which is "cause of their garrulity; for they keep talking about
things that have passed" (2.13.12). The best age of life, according to Aristotle,
is the mean or prime age. Those in the prime of life "will be between the
young and the old in character, subtracting the excess of either, and neither ex-
ceedingly confident (rashness is such) nor too fearful but having the right
amount of both" (2.14.1) and will "combine the prudence with courage and
An
An
Origin ofOrigin
a Theory of a Theory 29
2
courage wit
borrowed f
In summar
ory of etho
First, it see
be judged in
community
be perceived
according t
he is useful
iad, "a man
something
tool that m
of characte
idea of repu
establishin
seems to ha
as an essent
point, there
suasion, but
Note
11 am gratefu
written in his
outstanding R
and insightful
Works Cited
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Dickson, Keith. Nestor: Poetic Memory in Greek Epic. New York: Garland, 1995.
Finley, Moses I. The World of Odysseus. New York: Viking, 1954.
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Havelock, Eric. Preface to Plato. Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1963.
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Homer. Iliad. Trans. A. T. Murray. Rev. ed. W. F. Wyatt. 2 vols. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1999.
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ric. Ed. Edward Schiappa. Davis, CA: Hermagoras P, 1994. 35-52.
Kennedy, Geor
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Chapel Hill: U
-. Comparativ
1998.
Lang, Andrew
1950.
Maclntyre, Alasdair. After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory. Notre Dame, IN: U of Notre Dame P,
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Rowe, C. J. "The Nature of Homeric Morality." Approaches to Homer. Ed. Carl Rubino and Cynthia
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Todd S. Frobish is Assistant Professor and Chair of the Department of Speech Communication
Studies at Iona College, New Rochelle, New York. While revising this manuscript, he successfully
defended his dissertation at The Pennsylvania State University, which examined the role of ethos in
computer-mediated communication.

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An Origin of a Theory: A Comparison of Ethos in the Homeric "Iliad" with That Found in

An Origin of a Theory: A Comparison of Ethos

Rhetoric Review, Vol. 22, No. 1, 2003, 16-30

Karp has writ

among them rose up Nestor, sweet of speech, the clear-voiced orator

Homer later stated that

Yet Zeus defen

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