MODULE 4

Degradation of
Marine and Coastal
Resources

Global Environmental Studies (GES) Course

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
a. What are the goals, objectives and teaching methods of the class?

This module aims to provide students with a general understanding of

the diverse, rich and valuable coastal and marine resources in the
oceans. The module introduces the various ways in which humans utilize
and interact with coastal and marine resources, such as for tourism and
recreation, as a food source, for transport and industrial production, or
for cultural, and aesthetic purposes. The module also explores
appropriate management systems for marine and coastal resource use.

The Marine and Coastal Resources Module consists of 4 contact lectures

with participants over a 2-week period.

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
b. What problem set are we going to tackle and how?

Lecture 1 introduces coastal and marine resources, inshore and off-shore

organisms and ecosystems and coral reefs, and coastal areas as attractive
environments for tourists.

Lecture 2 deals with coastal tourism and recreation such as diving and other
water sports activities, the economic importance of coastal tourism, the benefits
of responsible tourism for coastal communities, consequences of mass tourism
such as negative impacts on the environment, responsible tourism such as low
impact tourism and eco-tourism,.

Lecture 3 concentrates on marine resource use, commercial fishing, the

importance of inshore fisheries, and the negative impacts associated with
fishing.

Lecture 4 directs attention to the management of coastal and marines resources,

Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and
Marine Conservation Areas (MCAs). 3
LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
c. What are coastal and marine resources?

Oceans have been described as perhaps the most significant life-support system on
earth. Covering over 70% of the earths surface, oceans regulate our climate, absorb
waste, recycle nutrients, serve as a sink for carbon dioxide, and provide abundant
food and means of transport and energy production.

In addition oceans provide for our health and wellbeing through recreation and
tourism.

Marine and coastal environments contain diverse habitats that support an

abundance of biodiversity such as mangrove forests, shallow water and deep water
coral reefs, sea grass beds, estuaries in coastal areas, sea mounts, and open ocean
environments amongst others.

The health and proper functioning of these ecosystems are intimately connected to
each other and their management requires an integrated ecosystem approach that
recognises this connectivity.

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
The list below represents the direct and indirect goods and services that
our oceans and coasts provide:

Fishing (for food purposes);

Shipping and Transport;
Tourism and recreation;
Mariculture and aquaculture;
Mining and minerals extraction;
Energy production;
Nutrient cycling;
Climate Buffer (regulates the Earths climate); and
Oxygen production (by removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and in turn
providing all living organisms with oxygen).

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
Coastal and marine resources comprise both living and non-living
resources. Non-living coastal and marine resources include the physical
environment, whilst living marine resources include marine mammals,
birds, reptiles, fish, shellfish, plants, corals and other organisms.

South Africa is rich in marine and coastal resources. This natural wealth
supports important economic and social opportunities for our population
such as food, recreation, transport, job creation amongst others.

The warm Agulhas current along the East coast and the cold Benguela
current along the West coast, drive different weather patterns and create
vastly different environments on land. A consequence of these two
different current regimes is a complex and dynamic coastline that is
blessed with a rich, diversity of living marine resources including hard
and soft coral communities, and a multitude of pelagic and benthic
organisms, invertebrates and algal concentrations.
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The map above shows the global ocean current systems
South Africa is blessed with both the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem and the
Agulhas and Somali Current Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) 8
 The Benguela Current LME is driven by cooler temperatures while the
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Agulhas and Somali Current LME is characterised by much warmer temperatures
 Cape Point coast, South Africa

Elands Bay, West Coast, South Africa Portion of East Coast, Mozambique
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Shipping and Transport Seafood Mining

Tourism (Cape Town, South Africa) Mariculture (Oysters) Diamonds

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Different economic activities supported by our oceans and coasts
LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
d. Offshore and inshore marine organisms and coral reefs

Inshore marine organisms live in shallower coastal waters, close to the shore,
whilst offshore marine organisms are found in deeper waters out to sea. The
definition of inshore vs offshore waters can change according to each country.
Some nations define inshore waters as those within 20nm from the shore and
offshore waters as those beyond 20nm from shore. Offshore and inshore marine
organisms are not mutually exclusive and many organisms move between coastal
and ocean waters during the different stages of their lifecycles.

The harvesting of offshore marine resources requires vessels and specialised

equipment to locate and harvest resources. Inshore marine resources are more
accessible to a wider range of marine user groups including traditional line
fishers, recreational fishers, and inshore trawl and longline fishers. Both off-
shore and inshore marine resources are affected by exploitation of resources.
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 Coastal Zone (Inshore Fisheries)

Continental Shelf

High Ocean (Offshore Fisheries)

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
Coral reefs mostly occur in tropical and sub-tropical regions. While deep water
corals do exist, coral reefs generally form close to the surface in shallow clean
waters where the suns ray can reach. Coral reefs are stone-like in appearance
but are actually communities of complex living organisms that may have various
colourful forms and textures. Coral polyps are tiny soft bodied organisms. At
their base is a hard protective limestone skeleton, which forms the structure of
the coral reefs. The tiny individual coral animals slowly build up coral reef
colonies as they grow, divide and reproduce.

Like estuaries and mangrove forests, coral reefs are essential to the health of
many commercially important fish stocks. They provide secure nursery habitats
for the juvenile forms of many animals and plants.

Again, like mangrove forests, coral reef structures are important as they protect
islands from erosion and storm events by serving as natural barriers. Through the
photosynthesis process, coral reefs also remove carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and make carbohydrates available as food for coral polyps and other
organisms or species. Excessive amounts of carbon dioxide can however, damage
the coral reefs.

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
Coral reefs represent some of the most productive and diverse ecosystems on
earth and provide essential goods and services for many coastal communities.
Their existence is increasingly under threat due to both local human activities
and global processes.

Impacts from local activities include marine pollution, degradation from

destructive fishing methods or tourism, over exploitation of marine species,
whilst impacts from global processes include ocean acidification, water
temperature fluctuations and severe storm events from climate change. These
impacts can lead to significant degradation of coral reefs, i.e. warming seas may
result in bleaching of coral reefs and pollution can cause coral diseases and die-
off.

The Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Australia, is the worlds largest coral reef
extending over 2300 km. This barrier reef has increasingly shown evidence of
degradation from human activities such as land-based sources of pollution and
global processes.
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Corals off Chumbe Island, Zanzibar

Great Barrier Reef, Australia Fire coral, Chumbe Island, Zanzibar

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
e. Coastal areas as attractive environments for tourists

Coastal areas are areas located between the land and sea and are characterised by
the richest and most dynamic and fragile ecosystems on earth, i.e. coral reefs,
seagrass beds and mangrove forests.

Coastal areas are attractive environments to many, particularly for tourists.

A large percentage of the worlds population live in coastal areas and people are
increasingly interested in residing in coastal areas. Among all the different parts of
the planet, coastal areas are most visited by tourists, particularly island nations.

Coastal ecosystems are highly attractive and host a multitude of different sun, sea
and sand tourism activities. These range from sunbathing on beaches to swimming,
snorkelling and scuba diving, different kinds of boating, recreational and sport
fishing, surfing, kite-boarding, marine eco-tours, cultural and heritage tourism etc.
Most of these tourism activities depend to a large extent on the healthy functioning
of the marine and coastal environments and well-being of local coastal inhabitants.

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
Coastal tourist destinations contribute substantially to the economies of
many countries but are also under increasing pressure. Tourism in coastal
areas becomes problematic when the number of user groups cause more
changes than the environment is able to cope with and the impacts from
the activities exceed acceptable limits of change.

The environmental impacts from inappropriate tourism development and

activities may cause irreversible impacts. These impacts include
urbanization, over exploitation of resources, coastal erosion and
degradation, deterioration of water quality, increased pollution levels,
deforestation, and the destruction of coral reefs, mangroves and sea
grass beds. Many of these factors reduce the resilience of the ecosystems
and increase their susceptibility to climate change impacts.

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 Camps Bay, South Africa Curieuse, Seychelles

Gloden Mile, Durban, South Africa An eco-lodge on one of the attractive

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white beaches in Zanzibar, Chumbe Island
 LECTURE 2: COASTAL TOURISM

a. Economic importance of coastal tourism

Tourism is a generator of economic growth and it is an important

contributor to local, national and international economies. If managed
responsibly, tourism may contribute to diversifying economies, particularly
in countries where other income generating activities might be limited.
Tourism generates employment opportunities for both women and men,
and the opportunities in the tourism sector continue to grow.

Tourism also increases foreign exchange in regions, which is beneficial for

economic development. Tourism contributes substantially to the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP), particularly in countries with attractive coastal
areas. Tourism therefore, provides opportunities for economic growth but
is undoubtedly one of the most dominant factors contributing to coastal
development.
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South Africas tourism treasures
LECTURE 2: COASTAL TOURISM

b. How does this benefit coastal communities

Coastal inhabitants have close ties with their environment, which provides them
with both livelihood and income. Coastal tourism can benefit local communities
in many ways. It creates employment opportunities through work in the hotels,
restaurants, travel agencies, tourism operators etc. and can stimulate economic
growth through cultural and heritage tourism. Thus, increasing tourist arrivals
can lead to more opportunities for local communities. Tourism also offers
opportunities for development and infrastructure and if planned responsibly, can
also benefit local communities through improved development, infrastructure
and services.

Coastal tourism not only stimulates the local economy, contributing overall to the
GDP, but also creates opportunities for community-based tourism, which offers
tourists opportunities to interact with local residents. Community-based tourism
also allows local communities to manage tourism offerings and be the direct
beneficiaries thereof.
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Coastal tourism benefiting coastal communities in various ways
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Community-based Tourism
LECTURE 2: COASTAL TOURISM

c. Consequences of mass tourism negative impact on the environment

Tourism if not planned and managed responsibly, may have devastating

impacts on the natural environment and local communities and may
result in inappropriate coastal development. Tourism developments are
often situated at or near fragile marine ecosystems. A concentration of
tourism activities in a confined space and time can also heavily impact
the environment over the long term.

As the number of tourists increases so do the number of coastal

developments and tourism activities. Badly planned coastal development
may have negative environmental consequences, which are further
accelerated by increased human activity in the coastal regions.

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LECTURE 2: COASTAL TOURISM

Coastal tourism also contributes to coastal degradation through erosion, which

causes sedimentation of rivers, streams and coastal marine areas. Coastal
development has also contributed to deforestation of coastal vegetation, which
includes the removal and cutting down of trees for construction, fuel wood or
boat-building purposes.

A considerable influx of tourists can have enormous impacts, adding to pollution

and waste, stressing the water consumption needs of the local population, and
increasing pressures on habitats. Tourism development may therefore, reduce
the availability of local resources such as energy, food, land and water, and needs
to be managed appropriately.

Socio-cultural impacts from tourist development can include degradation of

heritage values, the introduction of illegal substances and activities as well as
diseases and changes in local identity and values. Commercialization of local
cultural traditions can lead to reconstructed ethnicity and cultural erosion may
occur in the process.
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Coastal development and erosion
LECTURE 2: COASTAL TOURISM

d. Alternative tourism low impact tourism, eco-tourism

Ecotourism is often known as low impact or responsible tourism. The

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines
ecotourism as "Environmentally responsible travel to natural areas, in
order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and accompanying cultural
features, both past and present) that promote conservation, have a low
visitor impact and provide for beneficially active socio-economic
involvement of local peoples".

Ecotourism focuses on uniting conservation, communities and

responsible and sustainable travel. Ecotourism provides a viable
economic development alternative for local communities with few other
income generating options and can increase the level of education and
activism among travellers, making them enthusiastic and effective agents
of conservation.
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Different kinds of ecotourism offerings
LECTURE 2: COASTAL TOURISM

e. Coastal tourism and recreation: SCUBA diving and other water sports

A wide variety of coastal tourism and recreational activities exist that are based
on or in coastal waters. These coastal activities are broadly categorized as in-
water sports, on-the-water sports and underwater sports.

In-water sports includes, swimming, snorkelling, diving etc. On-the-water sports

includes boating, jet skiing, kayaking, surfing, kite boarding, etc. Underwater
includes recreational SCUBA diving, free diving and spear-fishing.

While water sports such as SCUBA diving and snorkeling on coral reefs are
recreational activities enjoyed by many coastal water users, SCUBA divers and
snorkelers can damage reefs by kicking or standing on corals. Jet skis also pose a
hazard and can collide with marine fauna and scare off animals. Fishing too can
pose risks and can remove large predatory fish which are essential for keeping
the oceans healthy.
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Recreational activities
associated with coastal waters

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 LECTURE 3: FISHING
a. Commercial fishing

Commercial fishing is often known as the formal fishing sector or fishing for a
profit. Commercial fishing can range from relatively small-scale fisheries to highly
industrialised fisheries. The commercial fishing industry provides countries
around the world with large quantities of food by means of imports and exports.

Some of the most commercially important fish stocks include: hake, sole, kingklip,
tuna, cod, carp, salmon, pilchard, anchovy, rock lobster, oysters, shrimp and
prawns, krill, clams, squid, crab amongst many other species.

Commercial fishing makes use of various methods and different types of gear for
instance purse-seining, pole and line fishing, and trawling. Some fishing methods
are more environmentally impactful than others such as bottom-trawling and
long-lining, both have high levels of by-catch (unintended catch of non-target
species such as sea turtles, seabirds and marine mammals). Some efforts are
underway to develop alternative fishing techniques to reduce the impact on the
ecosystems and marine species.

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Commercial fishing practiced sustainably: The Marine Stewardship Council promotes
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sustainable commercial fishing practices and sustainable seafood
 Commercial fishing practiced unsustainably:
Bluefin Tuna is fished on a commercial scale and has been an endangered fish for several years
Stocks in the Northern Pacific Ocean has declined by more than 96% 36
One Bluefin Tuna in 2013 was sold at 1 million in Japan (more than R 19 million)
LECTURE 3: FISHING

b. Importance of inshore fisheries

Inshore fishing provides a range of broader social and cultural values

and benefits in addition to food security particularly for coastal
communities.

Inshore fisheries require a different management system because of

their diversity, local importance, and strong connection with local
identity and resources.

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LECTURE 3: FISHING
Inshore fisheries are important for some of the following reasons:

A large percentage of the worlds fishing operations are artisanal or small-scale

and take place in coastal, inshore waters;
Inshore fisheries generate a diverse range of inter-dependent livelihoods and
provide significant indirect employment (contributing to local economies, food
security and social and cultural identities of coastal communities);
Fisheries provide food and protein to coastal communities as well as the worlds
population at large;
The fisheries sector provides majority of small-scale fishers with employment;
Inshore fisheries provide an important contribution to household cash income;
Social and cultural benefits include benefits to the wider coastal communities,
such as funds towards community projects and improving infrastructure and
services for the community;
Fishing is also a social activity, strengthening bonds between people and
community cohesion; and
People often use natural resources when livelihood options are limited, in this
instance fisheries can act as a safety net for the poor and needy.
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 Coastal Communities
depend on inshore
fisheries for food
security and local
economies
Moheli, Comoros
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LECTURE 3: FISHING

c. Negative impacts

The fisheries sector may have numerous negative impacts. One of the key
challenges is that of sustainability, as it is important that the fisheries
benefits continue to be available in the future.

Fishing, like other human activities, can have consequences on marine

ecosystems. Overfishing and destructive fishing methods have the potential
to modify ecosystems and cause changes in composition and diversity of
plant and animal species.

If managed properly, these impacts can be reversible but if not, they may
cause irreversible damage and permanently affect the health of marine
ecosystems. The fisheries sector also contributes to pollution, both directly
and indirectly by means of solid and organic waste.

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Dead fish on the bottom at Pengeleni Reef because of dynamite fishing, Tumbatu, Zanzibar
LECTURE 4: MANAGEMENT

a. Legal frameworks for marine and coastal management

Policy and legal frameworks exist at the national, provincial and local (district
and municipal) levels to protect marine and coastal resources.

In South Africa the two overarching policies governing coastal and marine
management are the White Paper for Sustainable Coastal Development in
South Africa and the White Paper on the National Environmental
Management of the Ocean (NEMO) respectively.

The national law that enables the implementation of the coastal policy is the
National Environmental Management: Integrated Coastal Management Act
No. 24 of 2008 (NEM:ICMA). This legal framework sits at the national level
and through the requirement of the development of Coastal Management
Plans, its implementation filters through to the provincial and local legal
frameworks.

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LECTURE 4: MANAGEMENT

The underlying purpose of the ICMA is as stated in the introductory

section of the Act:

To establish a system of integrated coastal and estuarine management in

the Republic, including norms, standards and policies, in order to promote
the conservation of the coastal environment, and maintain the natural
attributes of coastal landscapes and seascapes, and to ensure that
development and the use of natural resources within the coastal zone is
socially and economically justifiable and ecologically sustainable; to define
rights and duties in relation to coastal areas; to determine the
responsibilities of organs of state in relation to coastal areas; to prohibit
incineration at sea; to control dumping at sea, pollution in the coastal zone,
inappropriate development of the coastal environment and other adverse
effects on the coastal environment; to give effect to South Africas
international obligations in relation to coastal matters; and to provide for
matters connected therewith.

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LECTURE 4: MANAGEMENT

The ICMA provides the overall guidance for implementation and

management marine and coastal resources alongside other national,
provincial and local level legislative frameworks.

The Marine Living Resources Act (MLRA) No. 18 of 1998 provides the
legal foundation for the management of marine resources including
commercial fisheries in South Africa, and promotes the sustainable
management of commercial fishing in South African marine and
coastal waters. The MLRA and associated regulations outline catch
sizes and limits and prevents specific species from being targeted.

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LECTURE 4: MANAGEMENT
b. Environmental Impact Assessment

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is relevant to coastal and marine

management, particularly in terms of guiding coastal development as it is an
important tool for stakeholders to ensure that their coasts are developed
responsibly.

EIA is a systematic process of assessing the predicted or environmental

consequences (positive and negative) or potential environmental impacts of a
plan, policy, programme or proposed project or development, taking into
account all spheres of the environment, the social, economic and ecological
aspects. This decision-making tool is a rigorous process required by law.

EIAs involve decision making based on specialist assessments of impacts and

participation of interested and affected parties (I&APs) to determine the most
appropriate course of action prior to moving forward with the proposed
action.
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LECTURE 4: MANAGEMENT

The fundamental components of South Africas EIA framework include:

Screening - to determine the level of detail of the EIA, whether a basic or full
EIA is required;
Scoping - to identify potential impacts that must be assessed, as well as
alternative solutions for avoiding, or mitigating impacts on biodiversity such
as finding alternative designs etc.;
Assessment and evaluation of impacts and development of alternative - to
predict or identify potential environmental impacts and elaborate on
alternatives;
Reporting through the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) or EIA Report -
which includes Environmental Management Plans (EMPs) and a non-
technical summary for a general audience;
Review of the EIS - based on the Scoping Terms of Reference and Public
Participation (including the authority); and
Decision-Making - whether to approve the project or not and whether there
will be any further conditions to consider.

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South Africas Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Process
LECTURE 4: MANAGEMENT

c. MPAs and MCAs

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), Marine Managed Areas (MMAs) and

Marine Conservation Areas (MCAs) are all terms that refer to the
demarcated areas or approaches for the management and/or
protection of special places in our oceans, seas and coasts.

MPAs play a significant role in supporting sensitive ecosystems and

biological diversity.

The main purpose of these areas is the conservation and sustainable

management of natural and cultural heritage.

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LECTURE 4: MANAGEMENT

MPAs offer protection through various levels of restrictions, ranging from the
complete restriction of fishing which includes no-take reserves, to limited
fishing reserves, seasonal closures or species limits, which may restrict
activities such as recreational and commercial fishing as well as other
activities such as mining and tourism in the area.

MPAs are increasingly being implemented to conserve our ecosystems and

habitats in order to maintain the diversity of commercially and ecologically
important species.

There are currently 24 MPAs in South Africa. While MPAs have traditionally
been managed by government authorities, locally managed marine areas are
an increasingly popular management approach that is being used in some
coastal countries to empower local inhabitants to manage their marine and
coastal resources.

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LECTURE 4: MANAGEMENT

Marine Protected Areas are declared under Section 43 of the Marine Living
Resources Act in general no fishing (at least in certain zones), construction
work, pollution, or any form of disturbance is allowed unless written
permission (which could be in a form of a permit or exemption issued by the
Department of Environmental Affairs) has been granted by the Minister.
Closed Areas are declared under Section 77 of the Marine Living Resources
Act fishing is restricted or prohibited entirely in these areas.
National Parks are declared under the Protected Areas Act and can include
marine areas and estuaries only the Marine Living Resources Act
Regulations can apply in these areas.
iSimangaliso Wetland Park is declared under the World Heritage Convention
Act as the Greater St Lucia Wetland is managed by the iSimangaliso Wetland
Park Authority fishing in these areas are subject to the provisions
described for the St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Protected Areas

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Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in South Africa
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Marine Protected Area signage overlooking a MPA
High diversity of Corals inside the
MPA on Chumbe Island, Zanzibar

Surgeon and parrot fish in the The endangered coconut crab in the MPA on
Mohli Marine Park, Comoros Chumbe Island, Zanzibar 53
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Map of South African National Parks and MPAs in the Western Cape, South Africa
 African Penguins located in a MPA at Boulders Beach, Cape Town, South Africa
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The population of these coastal birds have substantially reduced over the years
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) protect marine and coastal resources such as abalone and west
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coast rock lobster from being illegally removed in large numbers to meet increasing demands
ASSESSMENT

Assignment Question: Module 4: Degradation of Marine and Coastal

Resources

In 2000 - 3000 words, critically analyse the current global status of

Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services, examining the value and
relevance these systems play in humanitys existence.

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