19
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN/ENGINEERING
19.1 COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN
Computer-aided design (CAD) is a signifi-
cant tool used in the design and manufacturing
process. Most CAD systems are designed and
intended to automate manual functions, such as
engineering analysis, conceptual design, draft-
ing, or documentation.
To automate design processes, many software
packages were developed independently to suit
specific needs and objectives. However, because
of the proprietary nature of the various formats,
system-to-system compatibility became a big
problem when electronic transfer of informa-
tion was needed. Therefore, a joint government/
industry force was created in 1979 to develop a
method for data exchange. Through their efforts,
the Initial Graphics Exchange Specification
(IGES) was published in 1980 to facilitate data
exchange independent of CAD/CAM (computer-
aided design/computer-aided manufacturing)
systems. IGES is capable of design data exchange
for applications such as 2D, freeform, surface,
wireframe, and solid models. Since 1980, several
versions of the standard have been published.
Since IGES was initially developed, another
neutral exchange standard called the Standard
for the Exchange of Product model data (STEP)
has emerged. As compared to IGES, STEP is
generally better for solid models and includes
product data in addition to design data. STEP
can also incorporate different application proto-
cols that identify how data for a specific applica-
tion are exchanged.
Fundamentals of Manufacturing
CAD software packages and their capabilities
continually evolve. Early CAD software pack-
ages included a limited number of modeling tools
and capabilities. Modern software packages of-
fer a variety of collaboration tools and a much
broader range of modeling tools. This is more
evident in higher-end packages as compared to
mid-range packages. Following is a brief descrip-
tion of select CAD applications.
PARAMETRIC AND NONPARAMETRIC MODELING
In parametric modeling, features such as
lines or circles are defined by parameters,
dimensions, and relationships. Parameters
also control the location of features within a
part or assembly. Typical parametric modeling
software records the history of how the model
was built. When a part revision is made, param-
eters change, and the revised model is rebuilt
using the same history of operations but with
the new parameters. Parametric models can
be enhanced with appropriate animation or
rendering software.
Nonparametric modeling or direct modeling is
geometry based rather than parameter based. It
allows the designer to interact directly with the
model and does not utilize history information
as in parametric modeling. This can allow the
designer to more easily create flowing or organic
shapes. Virtual clay modeling is an example of
nonparametric modeling whereby the designer
can create the same clay models normally cre-
ated by hand.
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Fundamentals of Manufacturing
WIREFRAME DRAWINGS
Wireframe drawings store the geometry of
the 3D model as edges and points. A wireframe
is transparent in nature, requiring some skill
and expertise in interpreting the model. The
points on the surface are implied. Precise surface
representations or information must be passed
through line and offset-type information. One
advantage of a wireframe is the infinite number
of views and drawings that can be generated
from a single model. However, it is moderately
difficult to clean up the wireframe to make a
finished engineering drawing. Thus wireframe
drawings have given way to solid modelers.
SURFACE MODELING
Surface modeling adds varying degrees of accu-
racy in a CAD model when compared to wireframe
models. Planar or ruled surfaces or surfaces of
revolution have increased accuracy, while sculp-
tured surfaces have lesser degrees of accuracy
than wireframes. The additional surface infor-
mation gives improved graphical imaging when
it is linked to 2-1/2, 3, and 5-axis manufacturing
applications and numerical control processes.
SOLID MODELING
Solid modeling consists of constructive solid
geometry (CSG) or boundary representation
solids (BREP). CSG uses primitives (cubes, cyl-
inders, cones, tori, etc.) to create solid models. In
the CSG system, the solids are created by storing
construction parameters and size to specified
primitives. These primitives are combined to
form a composite solid object. BREP is a data-
base method that defines and stores a solid as
a set of vertices, edges, and faces (points, lines,
curves, and surfaces), which completely enclose
its volume (SME 2011).
Solid modeling provides CAD/CAM systems
with a wealth of knowledge. Solid modeling
requires more computer power than surfaces or
wireframe, but drafting, engineering analysis,
and CAM functions can be executed faster from
solid models than from other systems.
NURBS
Non-uniform rational b-splines (NURBS)
are mathematical representations used to de-
Chapter 19: Computer-aided Design/Engineering
scribe shapes such as lines, curves, and three-
dimensional free-form or organic shapes such
as surfaces and solids. NURBS are used in
applications such as, but not limited to, anima-
tion, virtual clay modeling, and rendering. Using
NURBS to define a given geometry generally
requires less data or information than other
methods that use facets.
POINT CLOUDS
A point cloud is a collection of XYZ points typi-
cally captured by contact or noncontact scanning
devices. Point cloud data is collected when part
data does not exist for reverse engineering or in-
spection purposes. Collection of the point cloud is
the first step the process. Once collected, the data
must be converted to a mesh, surface, or solid. A
mesh connects the points together using polygons
or facets. Surfaces can be created from the points
using NURBS. The points also can be converted
into a parametric solid. The conversion process
chosen is a function of the scanned part geometry
and how the resultant CAD model will be used.
19.2 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Finite element analysis (FEA) is a computer-
based technique for developing and improving
an engineering design whenever an analytical
solution is not easy to obtain or the analysis
is too complex for a classical approach. From
an engineers point of view, FEA is a practical
method of analyzing the design of a component
under its working or service conditions.
BACKGROUND
In 1943, R. Courant began theoretical work
related to the finite element method using a
numerical approach to obtain approximate solu-
tions for vibration problems. The finite element
method was more fully developed during the
1950s. For the next two decades, 1960 to 1980,
intensive research and development was done on
linear problems. After 1980, most research work
was focused on non-linear problems. Commercial
software was developed during the 1980s with
the advancement of computer technology and
computational capacity (Cook et al. 2001).
In the early 1970s, FEA software was expen-
sive and limited to mainframe supercomputers.

Fundamentals of Manufacturing
Most of these computers functioned in the
aeronautical, automotive, defense, and nuclear
industries. With modern computer technology,
commercial FEA programs now run on desktop
computers or laptops making them affordable
solutions to many engineers. However, compo-
nents requiring more complicated analysis still
require supercomputers to obtain a realistic
solution within a reasonable timeframe.
FEA has proven to be a useful tool in new
product design and in the refinement of existing
products. It can also provide valuable analysis
for complex parts that may be expensive to pro-
totype and test. With verification of the strength
and the possibility of improving the design
during the initial design stage, FEA can reduce
the cost of engineering changes, field failures,
prototyping, and testing. However, most designs
will always require some amount of prototyping
and testing.
MAJOR PHASES
Finite element analysis is comprised of three
major phases.
1. Pre-processing: An FEA model is prepared
for the solver. Starting with a solid model,
an analyst develops a finite element mesh,
which divides the original model into
smaller elements for mathematical analy-
sis. Figure 19-1 illustrates the finite ele-
ment mesh. The analyst also applies mate-
rial properties and boundary conditions.
Boundary conditions represent external
constraints, such as a bolted connection,
for example. To determine the number and
the shape of elements required for the
analysis, the analyst should have a good
understanding of the physical model and
Figure 19-1. FEA mesh.
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Chapter 19: Computer-aided Design/Engineering
the finite element procedure for that par-
ticular problem.
2. Solution: Solutions are generated and
calculated. The FEA software derives the
governing matrix equations from the model
and solves for the primary quantities, such
as stresses and displacements in a struc-
tural analysis, for example.
3. Post-processing: Results are reviewed and
interpreted. Figure 19-2 shows a part with
higher stress levels/darker shading. It is
an example of the graphical images that
are prepared for visualization and inter-
pretation. The actual image would have
multiple colors representing the varying
stress levels. As part of the final step, the
analyst will check the validity of the solu-
tion, examine the values of the primary
quantities, such as stresses and displace-
ments, and derive and examine additional
quantities, such as specialized stresses and
error indicators.
APPLICATIONS
The finite element method was initially used for
structural analysis but has been adapted for many
other applications in engineering such as fluid flow,
heat transfer, etc. For example, FEA is used for:
structure analysis,
thermal analysis,
fluid flow analysis,
electromagnetic analysis,
acoustic analysis,
biomechanics and bioengineering,
soil mechanics,
geo-mechanics,
mechanisms and linkages, and
design optimization.
Figure 19-2. FEA resulting stress distribution.
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Fundamentals of Manufacturing
Finite element analysis has a number of ad-
vantages, including the ability to:
handle a wide variety of engineering prob-
lems where the analytical solutions are not
available with a classical approach.
improve an existing product by alternat-
ing various design parameters easily and
inexpensively.
verify a new design concept quickly to deter-
mine its real-world behavior under various
working conditions.
allow designers and engineers to quickly and
accurately assess critical dimensions or fea-
tures when integrated with a CAD package.
be used on affordable computer worksta-
tions and personal computers.
shorten the time to market, lower develop-
ment costs, and improve product quality.
It is also important to recognize the limita-
tions of FEA, for example:
it requires an investment in commercial
software packages and the required hard-
ware to run them if more than a personal
computer or laptop is necessary.
the analysis tool can reduce physical prod-
uct testing, but does not totally replace it.
the FEA analyst must be proficient not only
in engineering fundamentals but also in the
finite element method itself.
an inexperienced user can unknowingly
deliver incorrect answers that can nega-
tively impact the design based on this false
information.
19.3 CIRCUIT BOARD LAYOUT
CAD software designed for printed circuit
boards (PCB) has features unique to that ap-
plication. Current surface mount technology
(SMT) and the continued miniaturization of
integrated-circuit products make the design
of most PCBs complex. Contributing to the
design complexity are:
the number of layers in a final board as-
sembly (single-sided, double-sided, and
multi-layered);
the miniaturization of components and the
effect on pin spacing and the number of pins
in a conductor;
Chapter 19: Computer-aided Design/Engineering
conductor routing and board layers;
frequency of the current in the different
circuits and the resulting inductance;
heat dissipation; and
the placement of similar types of components.
PCB-oriented CAD software can assist in
board layout and routing, and in accommodating
the preceding points. It is preferred over attempt-
ing PCB design manually or with non-PCB CAD
software. Manual layout gives greater flexibility
in component placement and in determining if
conductor placement is an inductive or capaci-
tive issue, but it requires electrical expertise.
For an automatic system to be useful, the rules
constraining the layouts (for example, board size,
components, component placement, etc.) must
be established. This may be time consuming.
However, the advantage is that once they are
developed, they are done for that type of board.
19.4 RAPID PROTOTYPING
Rapid prototyping uses modern technology
to produce a physical prototype from a CAD file
in a matter of hours instead of days or weeks.
Due to the rapid evolution of rapid prototyping,
this section provides only a survey of some of
the rapid prototyping technologies available.
It is not meant to be an all inclusive list or an
authoritative reference on rapid prototyping.
TECHNOLOGY SURVEY
The technologies discussed in this section are:
stereolithography apparatus (SLA),
selective laser sintering (SLS),
direct metal laser sintering (DMLS),
laminated object manufacturing (LOM),
fused deposition modeling (FDM);
3D printing (3DP), and
jetted photopolymer (JP).
The advantages of rapid prototyping include
the ability to:
produce three-dimensional parts within
hours;
create masters, patterns, and tooling;
accelerate prototype production;
achieve major savings in production of soft
and hard tooling;
increase manufacturing capabilities with
low-volume production runs;

Fundamentals of Manufacturing
add impact to marketing concept presenta-
tions with hands-on models; and
improve the accuracy of vendor bid response.
Rapid prototyping also has some disadvantages:
Not all parts can be used for physical testing.
Parts can have surface finish quality,
strength, and tolerance limitations.
Special techniques and materials are re-
quired on some systems.
Equipment can be relatively expensive.
Regardless of the method used, rapid proto-
typing begins with a solid model developed in a
CAD package and saved in the stereolithogra-
phy (STL) or virtual reality modeling language
(VRML) file format. The VRML format preserves
part colors as created in the CAD package.
Therefore, if the rapid prototyping process is
capable of color, the model will be printed in
color. If desired, color can usually be added to
an STL file through a secondary process. The
software, which comes with the machine, will
slice the model into layers based on the user-
defined layer thickness. Depending on the rapid
prototyping technology used, layer thickness
generally ranges from .001 to .013 in. (25.4 m
to 330.2 m). The software will also calculate
where supports are needed, if necessary. After
compiling the necessary information, the part
is sent to the modeler.
Stereolithography Apparatus
A stereolithography apparatus (SLA) creates
three-dimensional plastic parts directly from
CAD data. It builds the physical models one
layer at a time. An ultraviolet (UV) laser traces
a thin cross-section of the object onto a liquid
resin surface, selectively hardening the polymer.
The layer is lowered into a polymer vat, and its
surface is recoated in preparation for building
the next cross-section. Successive layers are
built until the object is complete.
Selective Laser Sintering
Selective laser sintering (SLS) is similar to
SLA except the part is not created in a liquid
vat but from heat-fusible wax or plastic powder,
such as nylon. As the process begins, a very thin
layer of heat-fusible powder is deposited into a
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Chapter 19: Computer-aided Design/Engineering
workspace container and heated to just below
its melting point. An initial cross-section of the
object under fabrication is traced on the layer
of powder by a laser. The temperature of the
powder impacted by the laser beam is raised to
the point of sintering, forming a solid mass.
As the process is repeated, each layer fuses to
the underlying layer, and successive layers of
powder are deposited and sintered until the
object is complete.
Direct Metal Laser Sintering
Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) is similar
to selective laser sintering except it uses metal
powder as opposed to wax or plastic powder. The
process begins when an initial cross-section of
the object under fabrication is traced on a thin
layer of metal powder by a laser, thereby sintering
or fusing the powder into a solid. As the process is
repeated, each layer fuses to the underlying layer,
and successive layers of powder are deposited and
sintered until the object is complete.
Laminated Object Modeling
Laminated object modeling (LOM) produces
3D parts of various complexities directly from
CAD data by successive deposition, bonding,
and laser cutting of sheet or film materials. A
laser is guided over an x-y axis table by the data
from CAD files and cuts a 2D cross-section in
the sheet material. A platform under the table
drops an increment equal to the thickness of a
single layer of the material. The material is then
advanced from a supply roller to a pickup roller
over the top of the previously cut cross-section
and a heated roller presses and bonds the mate-
rial against the previous layer. The next layer is
cut by the laser beam and the cycle is repeated
until the 3D object is completed.
Fused-deposition Modeling
Fused-deposition modeling (FDM) involves
depositing thin layers of thermoplastic material
from an extruder head/nozzle onto a fixtureless
base. The thermoplastic material is supplied in
the form of wire-like filaments from a spool. The
plastic is fed into the extruder head/nozzle and
heated so that each layer fuses to the previously
deposited one. The head/nozzle moves in an x-y
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Fundamentals of Manufacturing
plane to build each layer. A water-soluble sup-
port material is used when necessary.
3D Printing
Unfortunately, there is no universal defini-
tion of 3D printing (3DP). However, 3D print-
ers use rapid prototyping technology and are
generally smaller, less expensive, and more
user-friendly than larger rapid prototyping
machines. They are also designed to be used in
an office environment.
A powder-based build material and a com-
patible binder are used in 3D printing. Powder
types typically include plaster, metal, and sand.
A print head, which is similar if not identical
to an inkjet print head, sprays binder in select
locations as it passes over the powder in the x-y
plane. If using plaster powder, it is possible to
use a second print head that can print multi-
color prototypes. After one layer is printed, a
roller distributes another layer of powder. The
print head then prints the next layer. After
completion, the part is removed and excess
powder removed.
Finishing the parts, to increase strength, de-
pends on the type of powder used. Plaster powder
parts can be sprayed with a solution of Epsom
salt and water, or dipped in isocyanate. Metal
powder parts are sintered to impart strength.
Jetted Photopolymer
In the jetted photopolymer process, a print
head containing multiple jets moves in the x-y
plane as it deposits a photocurable polymer
onto a build tray. After deposition of one layer,
the polymer is immediately cured by ultraviolet
light. The build tray then lowers and the next
layer is deposited and cured. Similar to the FDM
process, jetted photopolymer also uses a support
material that is generally water soluble. This
process can produce prototypes of varying stiff-
ness depending on the polymer mixture used.
19.5 ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
Additive manufacturing (AM), an extension
of rapid prototyping, produces parts by building
one layer at a time as compared to subtractive
manufacturing that removes material to form a
part. Several rapid prototyping processes, such
Chapter 19: Computer-aided Design/Engineering
as but not limited to, direct metal laser sintering,
selective laser sintering, and fused deposition
modeling, are considered additive manufactur-
ing since they are capable of producing tooling
for injection molding and casting, parts for func-
tional testing, and/or end-use parts (Campbell
et al. 2011).
Additive manufacturing has a number of
advantages such as the ability to produce parts
directly from a digital file, to accommodate
part complexity that is difficult to produce with
other methods, and waste reduction. However,
additive manufacturing faces several challenges
such as non-uniform part strength due to the
layer-by-layer building process and a slow pro-
duction rate as compared to processes such as
injection molding (Campbell et al. 2011).
REVIEW QUESTIONS
19.1) What are the names of the exchange
standards used to exchange CAD data between
different CAD systems?
19.2) Which type of 3D CAD modeling is trans-
parent in nature?
19.3) Which type of solid modeling uses primi-
tives to create solid images?
19.4) What process must be done after collecting
a point cloud?
19.5) Which stage of FEA produces a color image
showing stress distribution on the part?
19.6) Which type of rapid prototyping uses a
laser and an ultraviolet-light-sensitive polymer?
19.7) Can rapid prototyping create a part that
can be physically tested?
REFERENCES
Bakerjian, Ramon and Philip Mitchell, eds. 1992.
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, Fourth
Edition. Volume 6: Design for Manufacturability.
Dearborn, MI: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
Campbell, T., C. Williams, O. Ivanova, and B. Garrett.
2011. Strategic Foresight Report: Could 3D Print-
ing Change the World? Washington D.C.: Atlantic
Council, October.
Cook, Robert, David Malkus, Michael Plesha, and
Robert Witt. 2001. Concepts and Applications of
Finite Element Analysis, 4th Ed. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.
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