Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Revision Notes
June 2016
Pure Core 2
1 Algebra .................................................................................................................3
Polynomials ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Factorising ................................................................................................................................................3
Standard results .........................................................................................................................................3
Long division ............................................................................................................................................3
Remainder theorem ......................................................................................................................... 4
Factor theorem ................................................................................................................................. 5
Choosing a suitable factor .........................................................................................................................6
Cubic equations ............................................................................................................................... 7
2 Trigonometry ........................................................................................................8
Radians ............................................................................................................................................ 8
Connection between radians and degrees..................................................................................................8
Arc length , area of a sector and area of a segment ...................................................................................8
Trigonometric functions .................................................................................................................. 9
Basic results ..............................................................................................................................................9
Exact values for 30o, 45o and 60o ..............................................................................................................9
Sine and cosine rules and area of triangle ....................................................................................... 9
Sine rule ....................................................................................................................................................9
Ambiguous case ...................................................................................................................................... 10
Cosine rule .............................................................................................................................................. 10
Area of triangle ....................................................................................................................................... 10
Graphs of trigonometric functions................................................................................................. 10
Graphs of y = sin nx, y = sin(x), y = sin(x + n) etc. ............................................................................ 11
Solving trigonometrical equations................................................................................................. 12
Using identities .............................................................................................................................. 13
6 Differentiation ..................................................................................................... 25
Increasing and decreasing functions .............................................................................................. 25
Stationary points and local maxima and minima (turning points). ................................................ 25
Using second derivative ......................................................................................................................... 26
Using gradients before and after ............................................................................................................ 27
Maximum and minimum problems ............................................................................................... 28
7 Integration .......................................................................................................... 29
Definite integrals ........................................................................................................................... 29
Area under curve ........................................................................................................................... 29
Numerical integration: the trapezium rule ..................................................................................... 30
8 Appendix ............................................................................................................ 31
Binomial coefficients, nCr .............................................................................................................. 31
Choosing r objects from n ................................................................................................................... 31
n
Cr = nCn r ............................................................................................................................................ 31
(a + b)n ................................................................................................................................................... 31
Points of inflexion ......................................................................................................................... 32
To find a point of inflexion .................................................................................................................... 32
Integration...................................................................................................................................... 33
Area under graph sum of rectangles .................................................................................................... 33
Integration as anti-differentiation ........................................................................................................ 33
Index....................................................................................................................... 34
Factorising
General examples of factorising:
2ab + 6ac2 = 2a(b + 3c2)
x2 5x + 6 = (x 2)(x 3)
x2 6x = x(x 6)
6x2 11x 10 = (3x + 2)(2x 5)
2ax 3by 6ay + bx = 2ax 6ay + bx 3by
= 2a(x 3y) + b(x 3y)
= (2a + b)(x 3y)
Standard results
x2 y2 = (x y)(x + y), difference of two squares
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2,
(x y)2 = x2 2xy + y2
Long division
Example:
3x2 5x + 9
2 4 3
2x + 3x 1 6x x + x 3
4 3 2
6x + 9x 3x
10x + 3x2 +
3
x 3
3 2
10x 15x + 5x
2
18x 4x 3
2
18x + 27x 9
31x + 6
P (d c ) = r.
Theorem: If we put x = d/c in the polynomial we obtain r, the remainder that we would
have after dividing the polynomial by (cx + d).
Example: The remainder when P(x) = 2x3 + ax2 + bx + 9 is divided by (2x 3) is 6, and
when P(x) is divided by (x + 2) the remainder is 1.
Find the values of a and b.
and (x + 2) = 0 when x = 2,
dividing P(x) by (x + 2) gives a remainder
P(2) = 2 (2)3 + a (2)2 + b (2) + 9 = 1
4a 2b = 8 II
I + II 7a = 21
a = 3
using I we get b = 10
Example: A quadratic equation has solutions (roots) x = 1/2 and x = 3. Find the quadratic
equation in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0
Example: Show that (x 2) is a factor of P(x) = 6x3 19x2 + 11x + 6 and hence factorise
the expression completely.
But (2x 2) = 2(x 1) and (2x 6) = 2(x 3), so they are not new factors.
We now test the possible factors using the factor theorem until we find one that works.
Test (x 1), put x = 1 giving 2 13 + 12 13 1 + 6 0
Test (x + 1), put x = 1 giving 2 (1)3 + (1)2 13 (1) + 6 0
Test (x 2), put x = 2 giving 2 23 + 22 13 2 + 6 = 16 + 4 26 + 6 = 0
and since the result is zero (x 2) is a factor.
1 1 ( 1) 2 4 1 ( 1)
x = 2 or x = = 0618 or 1618 to 3 D.P.
2 1
r
Arc length s = r
1
radians s = r Area of sector A = 2 r2.
r
r
Area of segment
radians = area sector area of triangle
1 1 2
r
= 2 r2 2
r sin.
sin 60o = 3
/2 sin 30o = 2
3
o o 3
cos 60 = cos 30 = /2
o o 1
tan 60 = 3 tan 30 = /3 60o
b a
A B
c
Sine rule
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
be careful the sine rule always gives you two answers for each angle,
so if possible do not use the sine rule to find the largest angle as it might be obtuse;
you may be able to use the cosine rule.
Cosine rule
a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cosA
You will always have unique answers with the cosine rule.
Area of triangle
Area of a triangle = 1
2 ab sin C = 1
2 bc sin A = 1
2 ac sin B .
y y=tanx
y y
2
1 y=sinx 1 y=cosx
1
x x x
90 90 180 270 360 90 90 180 270 360 90 90 180 270 360
1
1 1
2
2
y = sin 3x is like y = sin x
but repeats itself 3 times for 0o x 360o, or 0 x 2 c
2 y 2 y
y=tanx y=tan(x)= tanx
y=sinx
1 1
x x
180 90 90 180 180 90 90 180
1 1
y=sin(x)= sinx
2 2
1
y= cosx
2 y
y = sin(x + 30)
y=sinx
y = sin(x + 30) is the graph of y=sin(x+30)
x
30
90 90 180 270 360
Examples: Solve (a) sin x = 0453, (b) cos x = 0769, (c) sin x = 0876,
(d) tan x = 156, for 0 x < 360o.
Solutions:
(a) sin x = 0453 y
y=sinx
1
x = 269 y=0.453
x
using the graph we see that
90 180 270 360
x = 180 269 x=26.9 x=18026.9
1
x = 269 or 1531
x = 573 y=1.56
1
using the graph we see that
x
y=tanx
x = 180 + 573 90 180 270 360
x=57.3 x=180+57.3
x = 573 or 2373 1
1 X=/6 X=/6
5
X = x4 = 6
or 6
5 13
x = 12 or 12
.
Example: Solve cos 2x = 0473 for 0o x 360o, giving your answers to the nearest
degree.
Solution: First put X = 2x and find all solutions of cos X = 0473 for 0o X 720o
X = 6177..., or 360 6177 = 29822
or 6177 + 360 = 421.77, or 298.22 + 360 = 65822
i.e. X = 6177..., 29822, 421.77, 65822
1
x = 2
= 31o, 149o, 211o, 329o to the nearest degree.
Using identities
sin A
(i) using tan A
cos A
5
Example: Given that cos A = 13 and that 270o < A < 360o, find sin A and tan A.
1 y=+12/13
12
sin A = 13.
y=sinx
But 270o < A < 360o x
12
sin A = 13. y=12/13
Also tan A =
sin A 1
*
cos A
12 12
tan A = 13
= 5
= 24.
5
13
2
sin x = 3 x = 418o,
o
1382 ,
or sin x = 1 x = 270o.
N.B. If you are asked to give answers in radians, you are allowed to work in degrees as
above and then convert to radians by multiplying by 180
So the answers in radians would be
x = 418103 /180 = 0730, or 1381897 /180 = 241, or 270 /180 = 3
/2 .
S A
Under no circumstances should you use the diagram.
T C
You need to understand the graphs and their symmetries, so get used to using them.
Let P and Q be the points (a1 ,b1) and (a2 ,b2). Q (a2 ,b2)
M
Using Pythagorass theorem b2 b1
PQ = (2 1 )2 + (2 1 )2 P (a1 ,b1) A
a2 a1
Perpendicular lines
Two lines with gradients m1 and m2 are perpendicular m1 m2 = 1
Example: Find the equation of the line through (1, 5) which is perpendicular to the line
with equation y = 2x 3
x + 2y + 9 = 0
Circles
Centre at the origin
Take any point, P, on a circle centre the origin
and radius 5. y
r
Suppose that P has coordinates (x, y) P (x, y)
Using Pythagoras Theorem we have r
2 2 2 2 2 y
x +y =5 x + y = 25
x
which is the equation of the circle. r x r
and in general the equation of a
circle centre (0, 0) and radius r is
x2 + y2 = r2.
r
Example: Find the centre and radius of the circle whose equation is
x2 + y2 4x + 6y 12 = 0.
Example: Find the equation of the circle which has diameter AB, where A is (3, 5), and
B is (8, 7).
Example: Find the equation of the tangent to the circle x2 + 2x + y2 4y = 20 at the point
( 4, 6).
x2 + 2x + 1 + y2 4y + 4 = 20 + 1 + 4
(x + 1)2 + (y 2)2 = 25. * 5 x+2x+y4y=20
3x4y+36=0
* x
Second find the gradient of the radius from the
10 5 5
centre (1, 2) to the point ( 4, 6)
62 4
gradient of radius = 41
= 3
5
3
gradient of the tangent at that point is 4 , since
the tangent is perpendicular to the radius
4 3
and product of gradients of perpendicular lines is 1 = 3 4
3
equation of the tangent is y 6 = 4
(x 4)
3x 4y + 36 = 0.
If the two points of intersection are the same point then the line is a tangent.
Note. You should know that the angle in a semi-circle is a right angle and that the
perpendicular from the centre to a chord bisects the chord (cuts it exactly in half).
Sn r Sn = a + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 arn
(1 r) Sn = a arn = a(1 rn)
(1 ) ( 1)
Sn = = .
1 1
Solution: x6 = x3 r3 multiply by r 3 times to go from the 3rd term to the 6th term
16 = 2 r3
r3 = 8
r = 2
Now x3 = x1 r2
x1 = x3 r2 = 2 (2)2
1
x1 = 2
1
nth term, xn = arn 1 = 2 (2)n 1
and the sum of the first 11 terms is
1 (2)11 1 2049
S11 = 2 21
= 6
1
S11 = 341 2
12 3
Solution: Firstly the common ratio is 16
= 4 which lies between 1 and +1 therefore
the sum converges to a limit.
a 16
The sum to infinity S = =
1 r 1 3 4
S = 64
row 0 1
row 1 1 1
row 2 1 2 1
row 3 1 3 3 1
row 4 1 4 6 4 1
row 5 1 5 10 10 5 1
row 6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
To expand (a + b)6 we first write out all the terms of degree 6 in order of decreasing
powers of a to give
a6 + a5b + a4b2 + a3b3 + a2b4 + ab5 + b6
and then fill in the coefficients using row 6 of the triangle to give
1a6 + 6a5b + 15a4b2 + 20a3b3 + 15a2b4 + 6ab5 + 1b6
= a6 + 6a5b + 15a4b2 + 20a3b3 + 15a2b4 + 6ab5 + b6
Factorial n, written as n! = n (n 1) (n 2) . . . 3 2 1.
So 5! = 5 4 3 2 1 = 120
Binomial coefficients or nCr or
If we think of row 6 in Pascals triangle starting with the 0th term we use the following
notation
0th term 1st term 2nd term 3rd term 4th term 5th term 6th term
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
C0 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
where the binomial coefficients nCr or are defined by
n !
Cr = = ()! !
n (1)(2)(3) up to numbers
or Cr = =
!
This is particularly useful for calculating the numbers further down in Pascals triangle.
is 10 9 (8x3) = 720x3
so the coefficient of x3 is 720.
For more ideas on using the binomial coefficients, see the appendix.
graph in y = x. 4
Rules of logarithms
log a x = y x = ay log a xn = n log a x
log a xy = log a x + log a y log a 1 = 0
log a (x y) = log a x log a y log a a = 1
To solve log equations we can either use the rules of logarithms to end with
log a = log a =
or log a = = a
x3 = 8
x = 2.
x2 + 6x = 8x + 8 x2 2x 8 = 0
(x 4)(x + 2) = 0 x = 4 or 2
But x cannot be negative (you cannot have log 2 when x 0)
x = 4 only
A particular case
log b b 1
log a b = = This gives a source of exam questions.
log b a log b a
Example: Solve 5x = 13
Solution: y = f (x) = x3 x2 x + 7
dy
= f ' (x) = 3x2 2x 1
dx
For an increasing function we want values of x for which f ' (x) = 3x2 2x 1 > 0
x = 1/3 or 1 1
1
so graph of 3x2 2x 1 meets x-axis at /3 and 1
x
and is above x-axis for 1 1/3 1 2
third substitute x to find the value of y and give both coordinates in your answer.
Example:
Find the local maxima and minima of the curve with equation y = x4 + 4x3 8x2 7.
Solution:
y = x4 + 4x3 8x2 7.
dy
First find = 4x3 + 12x2 16x.
dx
dy
At maxima and minima the gradient = =0
dx
4x3 + 12x2 16x = 0 x3 + 3x2 4x = 0 x(x2 + 3x 4) = 0
x(x + 4)(x 1) = 0 x = 4, 0 or 1.
d2y
N.B. If = 0, it does not help! You can have any of max, min or stationary point of
dx 2
inflection.
N.B. We could have max, min or stationary point of inflection when the second
derivative is zero, so we must look at gradients before and after.
Solution:
6 x 2 8 x + 1 dx = [2 x 3 4 x 2 + x ] 1
3
3
Solution: no need for +C as it cancels out
1
2 x
x3 16
= 2x2 = [ 8
3
8]] [0 0] = which is negative 2 4
3 0
3
2
since the area is below the xaxis
+ 16
required area is
4
Solution: First sketch the curve to see which bits are above (positive) and which bits are
below (negative).
y = 3x x2 = x(3 x)
y
meets x-axis at 0 and 3. 3
y=3xx
A1
Area A1, between 1 and 3, is above axis: x
3 A2
area A2, between 3 and 4, is below axis
so we must find these areas separately.
3
3
3x 2 x 3
= = [4 5] [1 16 ] = 31/3 .
2 3 1
4
4 3x 2 x 3
3x x = [2 23 ] [4 5] = 1 65
2
and dx =
3 2 3 3
b
a
f ( x) dx 1
2
h ( y 0 + y1 ) + 12 h ( y1 + y 2 ) + 12 h ( y 2 + y 3 ) + ... + 12 h ( y n 1 + y n )
b
a
f ( x) dx 1
2 h ( y0 + y1 + y1 + y2 + y2 + y3 + y3 ... + yn 1 + yn 1 + yn )
b
a
f ( x) dx 1
2
h ( y 0 + y n + 2( y1 + y 2 + y 3 + ... + y n 1 ))
If we have n objects, the number of ways we can choose r of these objects is nCr.
n
Cr = nCn r
Every time r objects from n must, therefore, be the same as the number of ways of
leaving n r behind. are chosen from n, there are n r objects left behind; the
number of ways of choosing r objects
n
Cr = nCn r .
(a + b)n
In the expansion of (a + b)n = (a + b) (a + b) (a + b) (a + b) (a + b) (a + b) (a + b),
where there are n brackets,
we can think of forming the term an rbr by choosing the r letter bs from the n
brackets in nCr ways.
Thus the coefficient of an rbr is nCr.
- --
-- +
++
+ +
minimum
of gradient
+
+ --- maximum
--- - -
of gradient
+ ++ - --
-
minimum maximum +
-
+
++
++
of gradient of gradient
+ +
++
Oblique points of inflexion Stationary points of inflexion
Solution: y = x4 x3 3x2 + 5x + 1
= 4x3 3x2 6x + 5
2
= 12x2 6x 6
2
2
= 0 6(2x2 x 1) = 6(2x + 1)(x 1) = 0
2
1
x = 2 or 1.
3
= 24x 6
3
1 3 3
x=2 = 18 0, and x = 1 = 18 0
3 3
Integration
Area under graph sum of rectangles
y
y=f(x)
In any continuous graph, y = f (x), we can divide the
area between x = a and x = b into n strips, each of
width x.
The area under the graph (between the graph, the
x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b) is approximately y0 y1 y2 yn
the area of the n rectangles, as shown.
the area under the graph x
dx dx dx
a b
, and as 0, =
=1
Integration as anti-differentiation
y
A = area under the curve from x = a to x y = f(x)
we have
= ()
to find the integral we anti-differentiate f (x).