AEPP Book PDF

-
, -

.

, -
.
-
. 14 , .
( 1-5) -
,
. -

-
.
. -
-
. -
. -
.
,

.

, , -
. -

.

( ). -
, -
. -
, -
, -
. -
, -

.
iv
, , -
, -
.
:
1. ...........................................................................1
1.1 .........................................................................3
1.2 ..............................................................5
1.3 ........................................................................8
1.4 ..............................................................11
1.5 ...........................................................16
1.6 ..........................................................18
2. ................................................................23
2.1 ........................................................................25
2.2 ..........................................................27
2.3 ................................28
2.4 / .............................28
2.4.1 .............................................................30
2.4.2 .................................................................32
2.4.3 ..................................35
2.4.4 .............................................37
2.4.5 ..........................................................39
3. ........................................................51
3.1 .......................................................................................53
3.2 + = ........................54
3.3 .........................................................................................56
3.4 ...........................................................................................59
3.5 .............................................................................................60
3.6 ....................................................................................64
3.7 ...................................................................................66
3.8 ......................................................................................69
vi
3.8.1 .....................................69
3.8.2 .....................70
3.8.3 Fibonacci...................72
3.9 .................................................................73
3.9.1 .................................................................................73
3.9.2 ................................................................................75
3.9.3 ................................................................................75
4. ...........................................................79
4.1 ................................................................81
4.2 ...................................................83
4.3 .......................................................85
4.4 ......................................................87
4.5 .........................................................................90
5. ............................................................................95
5.1 ....................................................................97
5.1.1 ..........................97
5.1.2 ..................................98
5.1.3 ........99
5.1.4 .........................................100
5.2 ...............................................................101
5.3 .....................................................104
5.3.1 ...................................107
5.3.2 .....................................................108
5.4 .........................................................................109
6. .......................................................115
6. 1 .....................................................117

vii
6.2 .....................................................................117
6.2.1 ...........................................................118
6.2.2 .....118
6.2.3 ............................................119
6.2.4 4 .........................................................127
6.3 . ..................................................130
6.4 ...........................................131
6.4.1 ..............................132
6.4.2 ......................................132
6.4.3 .......................................132
6.5 ....................................136
6.6 .................................................137
6.7 .............................................137
7. ...................................................145
7.1 ........................................................148
7.2 ........................................................................148
7.3 .....................................................................................149
7.4 ................................................................................151
7.5 ..................................................................152
7.6 ................................................................................153
7.7 ...............................................................153
7.8 ......................................................................154
7.9 - .............................................................155
7.10 ................................................................157
8. ......................................................................163
8.1 ........................................................................165
8.1.1 .........................................................................166
viii
8.1.2 .............................................................172
8.2 ..................................................................173
8.2.1 ...............................................173
8.2.2 _ ...................................................175
8.2.3 ....................................................178
9. .................................................................................................183
9.1. . ...........................................................185
9.2. ..............................191
9.3. .............................................................191
9.4. .................................................198
10. ..............................................................................203
10.1. ................................................205
10.2. ...............................207
10.3. ..............208
10.4. .............................................................................209
10.5. ...................................................210
10.5.1 ..................................213
10.5.2 ....................................214
10.5.3 ..........................216
10.6. -. ...........................................220
10.7. .................................................................................222
11. ..................................229
11.1. .................................231
11.1.1 ....................................................................232
11.1.2 ...........................................................................234
11.1.3 ........................................................................235

ix
11.1.4 .........................................................................237
11.2. .....................238
11.2.1 ...................................................................239
11.2.2 .............................................240
11.3.
...............................................241
11.4. ........248
11.4.1 ............................................................249
11.4.2 ..........................................................251
11.5. .............................................252
12. ..............................................................259
12.1. ......................................................................261
12.2. ..........................................................262
12.3. ..........................................266
12.4. ..................................270
12.4.1 .......................................................................271
12.4.2 ........................................................273
12.5. .................................274
13. .......................................................279
13.1 ....................................................................281
13.2 .........................................................................284
13.3. ......................................................284
13.4 ..............................288
14. - .................................................................291
14.1 .....................................293
14.1.1 - .................................................293
14.1.2 ..........................................................................297
x
14.1.3 ......................................................................301
14.1.4 .......................................................................305
14.2 ...............................................308
14.2.1 ........................................................310
14.2.2 ...............................................310
14.2.3 .............................................315
14.3 ..........................................................315
: ASCII....................................................................323
............................................................................326
................................................................................................327
.............................................................................................333
.................................................................................................337
1.

2

, .
, , -
, -
, -
.
, -
, -

, .

:
-

-

-

3
-
;
3 2000";
3 -
;
3 ,
;

3
1.1

,
. ,
,
. -
, -
,
, -
, . -
-
,
.
: -
, , ,
.
, ,
, -
.
, -
.
-
. ,
-
.

,
.
, -
,
.
-
Robin Wood
Nottingham.

,
.
4
-
2000
(millennium bug). -

. , 15 1999 -
150499.
,
-
, -
. 21
010100,
.
2000 . -
()

. -
-
.
, -
, , , - -
,
2000.
, -
-
. 2000
.
, ,
.
, ,
,
, Pasteur Fleming, -
.

-
-
.
-

5
,
, , -
, .
,
,

-
.
, , ,
,
, -
, -
.
-
, ,
,
, -
-
.
-
, -
-
.
, , -
, -
, , -
, .
1.2

-
. -
,

.
-
6
-
.

. -

, -
, , -
.

,
, , , -
. -

. -
, .
-
.

. -
. ,
, .

-
. , ,
-
. -
. -

.
1

,
. -
, .

7
, -
:
. -
. .
,
. -
, .
, . -
, , -

.
. -
. .

. -

. ,
, . - - -
.
: .
: -
.

. , -
( ) -
( ).

.
-
. -
. -
-
.
8
:

.
-
.

, -
.
-
. ,
.
1.3

.
-
.
, . -

-
.
: -
, -
.
-
. -
-
,
.

.

9

-
.
, :
(1)
(2)
(3)
-
.
.
(1) ,
:
(1.1)
(1.2) , -

(1.3)
(2) , -
:
(2.1)
(2.2)
(2.3)
(3) ,
:
(3.1) -

(3.2)
(1.1) -
:
(1.1.1)

(1.1.2)
(1.1.3)

10

(1.2),
:
(1.2.1)
(1.2.2) -

(1.2.3)

, -
-
.
.
, -
, -
.
-
. -
-
. :
-

-
,

-
,
. , -
-
.

1.1.

11
. 1.1.

. -
,
.
1.4
-
. -
-
.
-
. -
. -

. , -
. -
, -
.
12

. -
.

, , .. -
-
, -
.
, -
-
. -
, -
-
.
: -
.

, -
.
:
, , -
,
. -
.
. -

.
;
.
, -
;
-
.
, . -

.

13
1.1.
: 9
: : 2
:
/
1 10
2 17
3 15
. -
100 , -
.
. -

1.1.
,
. ,
-
. -
.
:
100 ;
, ,
.
, ,
.
.
: -

, ;
.
-
92 8.
, , -
.., 5809 , 5287
522 . -
14
-
. , ,
. -
, -
.
-
.
,
10 13 ..
, -
. -
, -
1.2.
1.2.
1999-2000.

%

0 9 522 9,0
10 13 1211 20,8
14 15 2120 36,5
16 17 1180 20,3
18 20 776 13,4
5809 100
1.2 -
, -
( ) -
-
( ).
-
, .
, 1.2,
, -
. -
1000 .

15
. 1.2. .
, -

.
, -
.

,

.

, .
. -
, -
, , -
. ,
( ),
.
16
-
( 1.3):
,

, -

, ,
.
. 1.3. -
1.5
-
, ,
. ,

. -
.
1. ,
:
,
. -
, -
, -
.
,
, ,
.

, .
,
, . -
-
. -
, .

17
2. , -
:
, -
. -
, -
,
.
,
,
.

-
. -
, ,
-
.
, -
-
. -
. -
,
.

-
.
3. , -

. -
, :
, -
, ,
. - -

. -
,
.
:
, .
, -
18
, .

.
:
.
,
. -
-
.
:
.
1.6

, . -
-

. -
, ,
. -
,
.
,
, -
,
, ;
-
.
. -

.
-
.
, .
, , -

19
-
. -
.
-
, , .

.
. -
,
, . ,
. -
,
,
.
-
, .
,
-
3 .
-

3 ,
3 ,
3 ,
3 .
,
:
3 , ,
,

3 , -
,
3 , -
.
,
.
20

.
-

.
.

.
,
,
.
-
.

-
. -

-
. -
, -
.
.
.
-
, -
.

, , , -
, , , .

21
-

.

.

.
, , -
.
-
1.4.
.
-
;
-
.

1. Jacques Arsac, Les machines a penser Des ordinateurs et des hommes,
Seuil, Paris, 1987.
2. Emanuel Falkenauer, Genetic algorithms and grouping problems, Wiley,
1998.
3. Les Goldschlager & Andrew Lister: Computer Science A modern
introduction, Prentice Hall, 1990.
4. R. Kadesch, Problem Solving-Across the Disciplines, Prentice Hall
Engineering, Science & Math, 1996.
5. Nicholas Negroponte, Being digital, Alfred Knopf Inc, 1995.
6. G. Polya, How to solve it A new aspect of mathematical method,
Princeton University Press (second edition renewed), 1985.
22

http://snow.utoronto.ca/Learn2/targets8.htm
,
. -
, ,
, -
.
.
http://www.awesomelibrary.org/Classroom/Science/Problem_Solving/Pro
blem_Solving.html
-
. -
, .
http://www.suremath.com/suremath/suremath/essential.html
-
. -
,
.
http://www2.hawaii.edu/suremath/click.html
,
, -
,
(, , ) -
.
http://www.infinn.com/creative.html
-
, -
, -
.
2.

24

-
. , -

.
,
, .
, -
-
. , -
, -
. , -
, , -
, -
. -
, -
. -
,
,
.

:
,
,
-
,
,
-
.

3 ;
3 ;
3 ,
;
3 3+6+9++999;

25
2.1

,

1 n.
. -
,
. -
25 , -
-
.

(algorithm)
Abu Jafar Mohammed ibn Musa al Khowarizmi,
825 ..
Algoritmi dixit ... ( -
....). al Khowarizmi
( al-jabr=-
), -
. -
, -
.
20
.
, ,
. , -
.
: ,
,
.
.
(input). ,
. -
, -
26
-
.
(output).
-
.
(definiteness).
. ,
, -
.
(finiteness). -
. -
-
, (computational
procedure).
(effectiveness). -
.
, .
-
. , ,
-
:
3 ,
3 ,
3 ,
3 ,
3 ,
3 ,
3 ,
3 .

. ,
, , , -
, -

. , , -

27
,
(
) .
2.2
-
. ,
, ,
.
H , ,
:
(hardware). -
,

(
, -
.).
(programming languages).
(, -
) -
. -
( assembly C)
( Basic Pascal). -
,
. ,
(
).
(theoretical). , -
-
.
, -
. -
,
.
(analytical). (computer
resources) , -
28
,
CPU / .. -
5.
2.3

:
(free text),
. -
-
,
.
(diagramming techniques),
.
,
, (flow chart).

, -
.
(natural language) .
, -
, -
, .
(coding), -
.
-
,

.
2.4 /

29

-
, .
,
. -
:
, ,
,
,
, -
,
, .
-

.
..

.
30
, -
.
, -
, , , -
-
.
( ),
.
2.4.1
( )
, -
.

. -
-
.
.
1. A
, -
.

_1
a
b
= - c a + b
c
T _1
= -

.
, . -
. -
, a
, a
.

31
(constands). -
-
.
, .. 123, +5, -1,25
.. ,
,
(variables). ,
. -
, -
. -
, , -
.
(operators). -
. -
, .
(expressions). -
(operands), -
. -
.

.
.
, ,
. -

.
a b -
: c a + b. -
. :

-
, , . -
, - . 2.1.
. , 1
=
32
. -
.
, -
. -
. -
, -
.
a b
, c -
, . , -
(),
(), -
(). -

, 2.1.
2.4.2

/ .

.
,

. -
. , -
. -
, , , .
,
.
-
( ) -

. -
. -
,
-
.

33
2.
, -
, , .
, ,
, + 5 = 5 5 = 5
. -
.
_2
a
a < 0 a a*(-1)
a
_2

.... :

: ( ), -
.
, .
... , , -
.
, - .
_. .

_1
_2
...............
_
_
,
a . -
, (-
), (),
(-
). -
2.1.
34
. 2.2. 2
3.

, -
, -
.
_3
a, b
a < b
c a + b

c a * b
_
c
_3

35
-
, :

. 2.3. 3
2.4.3
-
-
. ,
1 24,
.
-
.
36
4.

, 1 2 3 -
.
_4
a
a = 1
_ a = 2
_ a = 3

_
_4
. 2.4. 4
,
...
(select case), .

37
5.

-
.
_5.

;
age
age<0
...
0 age < 5
!!
5 age < 60

60 age < 100

age > 100

_
_5
2.4.4
.

... , ( )
.... ,

.
6.
-
. , -
80 , -
. -
1.70, .
38
_6
,
< 80
< 1.70
,

,
_

< 1.70
,

,
_
_
_5
. 2.5. 6
,

39

. -
. -
-
. ,

, -
, -
. -
. -
.

( )
. -
-
.
2.4.5
, -
-
. -
, -
, . ,
. -
-
,
= *
. -
-
(
). -
40
-
.
7.
: ...
1
100.
.
, -
. -
, -
.. 5, 207, -32 . -
i i + 1
i - -
1. -
, i, 1 100
1.

ii+1
i i 1.
100 i i + 1. -
....
:

_
:
, . ,
_-
.
:
_7
i 1
i 100
i
,
i i + 1

_
_ -
. _7

41
8:
:
,
. , , -
, -
,
. :
1.
2.
3. 1.
,
( ). , -
. , -
.
, 3 :
3. ,
1, .

. :
,
, -
.
-
, .... -
: -

_8 ,
x .
x > 0
x
x
_
_8
,
. ,
42
. ,
-
, ,
.. 999999. -
. ...
:
x 999999
9. :
_..._

. , -
.
_9
_
x
E x
_ x < 0
_9
, -

_-
x .
..._ -

, -
.
10.
: ......
100 1
100.
-
, -
....... .

43
_10
Sum 0
i 1 100
Sum Sum + i
_
E Sum
_10
, ......
Sum Sum+i -
, - Sum
i (=1) (=100). i i
1, , 1.
Sum , -
0, -
. Sum -
.
. 2.6. 10
44
11. :
.........

1 100.
-
.
, -
i.
_11
0
i 2 100 _ 2
+ i
_
E
_11

....... ,
, .
, .
, -
, :
k 100 0 _ -1
k 5 5

, -
. . , -
k 5 1
f(x) x 0

1,
x 0 1 _ 0,01
12.
-
,
.
-
. , , -

. ,
,

45

45
, , -
x 19
.. -
405
, + 45
2.7. 855
, -
. 2.7.
. ,

. - .
( ), -
,
. ,
,
.
, , , 45 45 19 45
19. - - 90 9 90
, . - 180 4
2.8 , 360 2
. ,
720 1 720
, -
= 855
. ,
. . 2.8. -
.
(shift)
-
, 0 1, -
, ,
.. 17 -
00010001 ,
byte.
, 0 -
0,
00100010 , 34
. , , -
,
1 0,
00001000 , 8
. -
, -
.
46

1.
: , +,
,
:
,
: , .
2.
-
, ,
_ (underscore).
, .
3.
+, -, *, /, ^
: , <, =, , >,
: (), (), ().
4.
, , ,
.
5.

6.
<> <>
<> <_1>
<_1> <_1>
_ <_2>
<_2> <_2>
_ ......
_ <_>
1 <_>
_1
............ <_>
_
_

_
_

47
7.

<>

_

_

_ <>

1 2 _

_
8.
, , , ..
9.

, , -
, ..
10.

- , !,
!.
11.
<_> <_-
>
12.
( )
// ... //. -

// ... //.
48
, -

. , ,
. -

. , , -

(shift),
. -
-
-
.
-
.
: ( )
: M1 M2, M1, M2 1
: P=M1*M2
1 P=0
2 M2>0, 3, 7
3 2 , P=P+M1
4 1=1*2
5 2=2/2 ( )
6 2
7 P.
-
.
__
// 1,2 //
P 0
M2 > 0
M2 mod 2 = 1 P P+M1
M1 M1*2
M2 [M2/2]
_
// P, 1,2 //
__

49

-
. -
. .
, -
. -
, -
, ,
.

, , , , , -
, , .
-
1. .
2. ;
3. -
;
4.
;
5. -
.
6. / ;
7.
.
8. -
.
9.

.
10.

.
11.

50
.
12. -
.
13.
; -
;

1. ., ., .,
, , 1991.
2. , , -
, 1993, .
3. ,
Pascal, Art of Text, , 1998.
4. .. , -
, , 1990.
5. D. Brunskill and J. Turner, Understanding Algorithms and Data Structures,
McGraw-Hill, 1996.
6. D. E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming: Fundamental Algorithms,
Vol.1, 3rd edition, Addison Wesley, 1997.
7. M.A. Weiss, Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis, 2nd edition,
Benjamin/Cummings, 1995

http://hissa.ncsl.nist.gov/~black/CRCDict/
, -
(Algorithms, Data Structures, and Problems Terms and Definitions
for the CRC Dictionary of Computer Science, Engineering and Technology)
http://www.ee.uwa.edu.au/~plsd210/ds/ds_ToC.html

, -
.
3.

52

, -
. -
.

, -
, .
-
, , -
, .

:

,
-
,
-
,
-
,
-
,
.

3 FIFO;
3 -
, ;
3 -
;
3 , -
;

53
3.1
(data) -
. ,
.
, , , , .,
, . , , ,
(byte)
.
11110001.
H :
(information). -
l _ -
, ASCII 437
-
l -
.
928
. -
l 1 -
, , , . ,
EBCDIC
,
, (Information Theory), l 241
( -
.
)
- l -14
, ( -
. , - -
: 1)
l -15
. (hardware), , ( -
- -
2)
(representations). , SCII (.
), EBCDIC, 1 2 .. 2 4
bytes, -
.
.
(high level programming languages) -
-
(types) (variables)
, -
. - ,
, , -
. , -
,
. (data structure) ,
.
, (record), .
, .
(fields) (attributes) -
, , . -
54

. -
.
.

. (Data-
bases), (Data Modelling) -
(Knowledge Representation)
.
3.2 + =

,
.
, -
. (data structure)
-
.
:
.

(nodes). ( ) -
:
3 (access),
.
3 (insertion), -
.
3 (deletion), , -
.
3 (searching),
, -
.
3 (sorting),
.

55
3 (copying),
.
3 (merging), -
.
3 (separation),
.
-
.
,
,
, .
, -
.
-
. , -

. ,
.
1976 Wirth
( Pascal)
+ =

.
.
: (1,1), (2,2), ...,
(n,n), i i -
i- , i=1,2,...,n.
: -
k k.
,
.
56
.
: -
, -
. (,n1),
(B,n2), ..., (,n24). K -
ni ( i=1, 2, ..., 24) -
.
: .
:
(static) (dynamic).
-
(dynamic memory allocation). -
, ,
-
.
-
. , -

3.3

-
,
.

.
,
-
. -
( , .). -

. -
,
-
(indexes) .
, -

57
, -
.
, -
(square) n x n.
, -
. -
,
.
1.

table 100 . -

_
// table //
. 3.1
Min table[1] (-
i 2 100 , , -
table[i] < Min Min table[i] )
_
//Min//
_

Min. -
, Min , -
. Min -
table.
2.
table m n . -
, .
. -
, -
.
-
.
58
_
// m, n, table //
sum 0
i 1 m
row[i] 0
_
j 1 n
col[j] 0
_
i 1 m
j 1 n
sum sum + table[i,j]
row[i] row[i] + table[i,j]
col[j] col[j] + table[i,j]
_
_
// row, col, sum //
_
-
, , -
.
, ,
. -
, i 1 j -
1,2,,n. , i 2, j
1,2,,n. -
i m.
5x5. -
,
row
, col -
. sum -
- .

59

table
row
4 16 5 21 7 53
28 9 38 13 51 139
17 67 22 40 30 176
20 40 10 3 13 86
21 34 48 29 26 158
col 90 166 123 106 127 612 Sum
-
, (stack) (queue), -
, -
.
3.4
. -
, (top)
, -
. ,
,
. -
, LIFO
. 3.2. .
60
(Last-In-First-Out). -
,
.
:
(push) ,
(pop) .
,
, (overflow) -
. , , -
, (under-
flow) .
-
, 3.3. -
. 3.3 - ( top)
.
() top
. -
()
top top
.
3.5
. , -
, , , .. -
.
, ,
(Operations Research), -
(Queueing Theory), -
. , -
( -
). -
, -
FIFO (First-In-First-Out).
:

61
(enqueue) ,
(dequeue) .
, ,
: (front) (rear) ,

.
3.4 (), -
() .
. 3.4. .
-
, 3.5.
rear -
. ,
front,
, .
, -
, -
.
. 3.5
62
FIFO LIFO
LIF,
FIFO.
.
. -
-
, , -
. -
, , .. -
, -
.

.
-
-
.
, ,
;
o .
, -
.
(.. ),
. -
FIFO
.
-
, -
. -
.
/
1/1/99 4 100 400
15/1/99 6 120 720
10 1120

63
/
30/1/99 5 200 1000

-
/ - - - - - -

1/1/99 4 4 400 400
15/1/99 6 10 720 1120
30/1/99 5 5
-
. -
, .
) LIFO
30/1/99 5
6 , 120 .
=5x120 = 600 . =1120-600=520. -
1000-600=400.
) FIFO
30/1/99 5 , 4 -
1/1/99 1 15/1/99.
=4x100+1x120=520 =1120-520=600. ,
1000-520=480.
)
-
, -
.
1120/10=112. =5x112=560
=1120-560=560.
1000-560=440 .
64
3.6
(searching)
.

, . -
,
. .

(sequential) (linear) .
Sequential Search key -
table. position -
0, , -
, (-
, 1 n).
Sequential_Search
// n, table, key //
done
position 0
i 1
(done=) (i<=n)
table[i]=key
done
position i

i i+1
_
_
//done, position //
Sequential_Search
, table
. , -
. -
,
: done
-
i n. , -
, , -
.

65
,
. , -
56 4 . , -
() 11 9 -
, . -

. 11 -
12.
, -
. , -
:
3 ,
3 ( , n 20),
3 ,
. 3.6.
66
-
, .
3.7

(sorting)
(ordering). (ascending
sequence) .

.

,
, , , -
-
.
.
. a1,a2,...,an
(permutation) , -
ak1,ak2,...,akn ,
(ordering function), f, :
f(ak1) f(ak2) ... f(akn)
A
, -
(descending sequence) .

H (straight exchange sort)

, .
-
-
.
- -
(bubbles) ,
-

67

/ , -
.
-
, -
. (files).
-
, -
, . ,
,
,
, -
. (records),
(fields),
, -
. ,
: , , -
, , .
(primary key) . -
-
(secondary keys), .
(searching)
-
, -
( , , -
, ..), ( -
, , , , ..),
(,
.).
. -
(bubblesort).
. -
: 52, 12, 71, 56, 5, 10, 19, 90 45.
.
,
-
68
.
(i).
. 3.7. .
.

// table, n //
i 2 n
j n i _ 1
table[j-1] > table[j]
table[j-1], table[j]
_
_
- _
// table //
.
-
table n -
-
. -
. -
, -
, ,
(quicksort). .
-
table[j-1], table[j]
- . -
. .

69
temp table[j-1]
table[j-1] table[j]
table[j] temp
3.8

(recursion), -
.
.
,
, -
.
3.8.1
H . -
, n, n , n!,
:
n! = 1 x 2 x 3 x x (n-1) x n

n ( n 1) ! n > 0
n!=
1 n = 0
-

.
. -
n .

// n //
n = 0
product 1
product n * (n-1)
_
// product //

70
, n! , -
2.
2
// n //
product 1
i 2 n
product product * i
_
// product //
2
, -
n , -
. , -
.
3.8.2
E
() .
.
.
x y.
( ), -
-
. , z,
z
, x y,
z.
__
// x,y //
x < y
z x

z y
_
(x mod z 0) (y mod z 0)
z z-1
_
// z //
__

71
,
,
.

// x,y //
z y
z 0
z x mod y
x y
y z
_
// x //

. , -
150 35. -
z, x y, -
. , -
x y 150 35 (
). 0 z, -
x, 5.
z x y
35 150 35
10 35 10
5 10 5
0 5 0
-
, . H
.

// x,y //
y = 0
z x
z (y, x mod y)
_
// z //

72
3.8.3 Fibonacci
-
, ,
Fibonacci , -
:
0 i = 0

Fi = 1 i = 1
F = F + F i > 1
i i1 i2
Fibonacci :
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 .
A -
. Fibonacci
Fn .
-
n.
Fibonacci1
// n //
n 1 Fib n
f0 0
f1 1
i 2 n
fib f0+f1
f0 f1
f1 fib
_
// Fib //
Fibonacci1
Fibonacci2
// n //
n 1
Fib n

Fib Fib(n-1) + Fib(n-2)
_
// Fib //
Fibonacci2

73
-
. -
,
. -
. -

. -
. ,
,
.
Fibonacci
,
,
. , -
. -

F5. -
Fibonacci .
3.9

-
. -
, -
. ,
.
3.9.1

. (pointer) -
. -
, .., -
-
, -
. 3.8 -
. -

, 3.8. -
74

.
3.9 ,
, -
index pointer -

.
. -
,
-
. . 3.9.

. 3.10
-
.
. 3.10.
, -
()
-
( -
). ,
.

, -

(dynamic),
,
- . 3.11.
-
.
,

, -
, 3.11. (
-
) -
- , .
.

75
3.9.2
(trees) -
, -
. , -
( ). ,
, -
. , , -
. 3.12.
. . ,
... -
,
.
. 3.12.
3.9.3
(graph) (
) ( ) -
. -
,
.
. 3.13.
76
-
. -
-
. -
, ,
, -
.

, -
, . -

.
( ),
, . -
,
.
-
.
.
/ -

.
-
. ,
, .

, , , ,
, , , FIFO LIFO, , , -
, , , .

77
-
1. ;
.
2.
;
3. .
4. ;
5. -
;
6. .
7.
.
8. .
9. ;
10. .
11. ;
12. -
.
13. -
.
14. .
15. -
.
16. .
17. -
.

1. , , , 1996.
2. , .
, , 1993.
78
3. ,
4. , , , 1993.
5. D. Brunskill and J. Turner: Understanding Algorithms and Data
Structures, McGraw-Hill, 1996.
6. D. E. Knuth: The Art of Computer Programming : Fundamental
Algorithms, Vol.1, 3rd edition, Addison Wesley, 1997.
7. M.A. Weiss: Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis, 2nd edition,
Benjamin/Cummings, 1995.

http://hissa.ncsl.nist.gov/~black/CRCDict/
, -
(Algorithms, Data Structures, and Problems Terms and Definitions
for the CRC Dictionary of Computer Science, Engineering and Technology).
http://www.ee.uwa.edu.au/~plsd210/ds/ds_ToC.html

, -
.
4.

80

, -
,
. ,
,
-
. ,
-
.
.

:

,

,
,

,
.

3 ;
3 -
;
3 ;

81
4.1
, -
. -
. ,

, . ,
-
. -
.
-
:
3 ,
3 ,
3
:
3 ,
3 .
, -
:
1. ,
2.
,
3. ( -
),
4. (.. ),

5. -
(.. )
. -
, , -
, -
, -
. -
,
.
82
. 4.1. .
4 4
, 6
. ,
-
. ,
1, , -
2, 3 4. -
.
) :
1. ,
2.
,
3.
.

:
36 .

83
) :
1. ,
2. -
-
.

:
30 .
, -
,
,
. ,
-
. ,
-
. , -
-
:
-
,

( -
),
-
, -
.
4.2
-
, -
, .
, -
84
. , -
-
.

. ,
. -

( ). -
, :
3 ,
3
3 .

.
, -
-
.

. -
,
:

. 3
3
3

.
-
, -
. -
.
,
.

85
4.3
(divide and conquer)
,
-
. , -
.
-
,
.
(top-down).
,
:
1. .
2. -
.
3. -.
4.
-, -
.

: .

, -
n .

. n -
: names[1..n] phones[1..n] .
, ,
(
).

, 3 -
:
1. names, . 4.2. -

86
2.
names,
3.
names.
. -
-
(, names).
-
- , -
- .
.
_
// names, phones, onoma, arxi, telos //
meso [arhi + telos]/2
onoma = names[meso]
Tel phones[meso]

onoma < names[meso]
_(names, phones, onoma, arhi, meso-1)

_(names, phones, onoma, meso+1,telos)
_
_
// Tel //
_
. -
-
.
.
. 4.3 -
.

87
, , -
. -

. ,
,
. , -
, - -
. , -
.

. ( Bolzano)
f(x)=0 -
[a, b]. , ,
f(a).f(b)<0 ( -
). x1 (=(a+b)/2)
[a, b] , f(a).f(x1)<0. ,
[a, x1], [x1, b]. -
x2 -
.
x1, x2, ...
. , -
.
. 4.4
4.4
-
, -
.
- -
88
. , -
(bottom -
up). ,
-
. ,
-
, -
.

..
-
.

, -
.
-
,
- . -
:
1. ,
2. -
,
3. .
-
.

-
. ,
,

.
, , -
, ab. -
1, -
.

89
1
// a, b //
power 1
i 1 b
power power * a
_
// power //
1
1
, , b
b- . -
, -
a16
: (((2) 2)2)2.
, -

b. -
power
. , -
2 (, a=2),
0 1, 1 2, 2 4,
3 16 , .
0 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 4 8
2 =1 2 =2 2 =4 2 =16 2 =256

0- 1 2 4 8
2
. 4.5 2.
, , -
. , 27 , -
4 2, 27 = 24 *22 *21.
ab
, -
.
90
2
// a, b //
!:
power[1] a
i 1
pow 1
pow < b
i i+1
pow 2* pow
power[i] power[i-1] * power[i-1]
_
!:
used 0
result 1
used < b
used + pow <= b
result result * power[i]
used used + pow
_
pow pow / 2
i i - 1
_
// result //
2
4.5
,
, ,
, -
. ,
, -
. -
-
-
. ,
4.1, . -
(greedy method),
:

91

-
( -
).

,
, .

1,
2, 5, 10, 20, 50 100 200, 500, 1000,
5000 10000 .
, , -
. -
789 . 1 , 1 -
, 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 2 , -
8 .
,
-
. T
,
.

// C, n, poso //
find poso
coins 0
choice n
(choice>0) (find > 0)
C[choice]<= find
coins coins + 1
find find - C[choice]

choice choice - 1
_
_
// coins //

92
C n -
. -

( coins). , -
.

-
. -
. -
: -
, -
. -
-
. -

. -
-
-
. ,
, -
.

, , ,
, .
-
1. -
;
2.
;
3. -
;

93
4. -
.
5.
.
6.
.
7.
, -
.
8.
.

1. :
, , -
, 1993.
2. : .
, , 1993.
3. : , -
, , 1988.
4. :
5. , , -
, , 1996.
6. , , , 1995.
7. Niklaus Wirth: , , ,
1990.
8. G. Brassard and P.Bratley: Fundamentals of Algorithms, Prentice Hall,
1996.
9. T. Cormen, C. Leiserson and R. Rivest: Introduction to Algorithms MIT
Press, 1990.
10. E. Horowitz, S. Sahni and S. Rajasekaran: Computer Algorithms,
Computer Science Press, 1998.
94
11. I. Oliver: Programming Classics: Implementing the Worlds Best

Algorithms, Prentice Hall, 1993.

http://www.cs.pitt.edu/~kirk/algorithmcourses/index.html
-
. .
http://www.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il/~naor/puzzler.html
puzzle.
/.
http://www.cs.sunysb.edu/~algorith/
(Stony Brook)
- . .
5.

96

-
-
.
, -
(, ). -
, ,
() -
. , -
,
, .

:
,
,
-
,
,
,
.

3
;
3 ;

97
5.1
-
,
.
(performance)
(efficiency) .
-
. -
:
1. ;
2. ;
3. , ;
-
. -

.
5.1.1
-
, -
. -
.
-
. -

. , :
3 ,
3 ,
3 .
, -
, -
.
98
: :
1
n 10
A_
m
n n - 1
M_ (m=0) (n=0)
m
1

10 ( n=0).
5.1.2

(size) .
-
. ,
. ,
,
n,
.
5.1
,
:
. 5.1.

(n)

99
5.1.3 -
:
2
x 123
y 234
i 0 4
i
z x * y
_
x
y
z
2

. -
5 , :

x y 2

i 1
i 6
i 5
i 5
z (25) 10
x, y, z 3
32
-

n ,
n. 5.2
n, -
- :
100
. 5.2.
n
5 42 -
10 77 -
100 707 -
1.000.000 7 ()
5.1.4
-
, -
. ,
,
, . -
, -
, . -
, -
. ,

:

,
,
,
-,
, .
,
, :
3 -
,
3 -
,
3 ,

101
3
.
5.2
, -

.
-
.

. -

. , ,

. -
, -
.

-
. -
,
, , .. .
. ,
;
, -
. -
:
: -
10 -
.
-
:
102
3
// a //
low a[1]
i 2
i < 10
a[i] < low low a[i]
i i+1
_
// low //
3
, -
. -
10 , -
. 3 -
:
11 3 2 56 32 69 81 90 222 2
2 444 1 65 51 51 99 98 1 1
90 11 333 38 224 61 73 80 7 59
,
. -
:
6 8 3 4 3 7 8 9 5 2
3, -
2. , -
, .
,
.
, , -
, -
.
(i < 10), .

103
,
. , -
, -
,
.
-
, , -
.
1/10, 10 . -
0,9.
, -
0,9*0,9=0,81.
-
:

-

1 0,1 0,9
2 0,19 0,81
3 0,271 0,729
4 0,344 0,656
5 0,410 0,590
6 0,469 0,531
7 0,522 0,478
, -
7 -
0,5 .
-
. ,
.
-

.

:
104
-
,

, -
. .
a b

. -
, -
.
, -
: a b b a, .
,
a0 b0 . ,
: a=b0 b=a0.
. , -
,

. :
t a, a b b t
, ,
.
5.3

(empirical) (a posteriori).
, -
, (proces-
sing time) (memory space). -
.

.
, -

.

105

.
-
(theoretical) (a priori).
n, (size)
,
-
, . -
, .
, k n=k.
-
f(n) -
(time complexity) (space complexity).
-
, .
O (-notation),
order -
. .
: f(n),
O(g(n)), c n0,
n n0 :
f ( n) c g ( n)
.
f(n)=2n3+5n2-4n+3. -
, x (
) -
,
. , 2 -
g(n)=n3. ,
(n3). ,
.
f(n)=5.2n+4n2-4logn, g(n)=2n, -
f(n) 5
2n. ,
f(n), 1, 2, 3 -
n .
( , n=10),
2n.
-
106
, ,
. , -
,
.

, :
(1). K
. -
.
(logn). . -
log , ln
. , -
.
O(n). . -

n .
O(n logn). (n logn),
( -
).
.
O(n2). .
.
O(n3). . -
.
O(2n). -
.
5.3 -
-
(n). -
. -
(n3) , -
(23) . -
,
.

107
. 5.3.

n=20 n=40 n=60
(n) 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006
(n2) 0.0004 0.0016 0.0036
3
(n ) 0.008 0.064 216
n
(2 ) 1.0 o 2.7 366
(n!) 771 3 1032 3 1066

.
, ,
.

3, -
.
5.3.1

C, (key
comparisons), .
(moves) -
. C M n ,
.
,
,
. :
C = 1 + 2 + + (n-1)

n ( n 1)
C=
2
,
(n2).
108
5.3.2
3.6 ,
.
,
(successful). , -
(unsuccessful).
.
, .
, -
n -
. , -
, , -
. , n-
, n
. ,
:
(1 + 2 + K + n) n ( n + 1) n +1
= = =
n 2n 2
, -
(n),
.

(n). ,
,
.
, -
,
.
. 5.4.

- (1)
- (1)
Fibonacci (n)
O(n2)
O(n)
O(logn)

109
5.4
, -
,
, -
. , ,
. , -
-
.
.
, -
/ -
. ,
, , -
,
( ).
-
, -
. -
,
, -
, . -
(parallel) ,
, -
, -
. ,
-
.
,
2 ,
, . -
. , -
.

110
,
.
, . -
, -
,
, ,
,
..
, -
, (Computa-
tional Complexity),
. -
, -
. (optimal),
, -
.
(polynomial)
. ,
(n), O(n3/2), O(n2) ..

O(2n), O(n2 2n) O(nn), -
.
-
, -
.
, :
x1, x2, , xn (
n ). n/2 , -
,
x1, x2, , xn (
n ). n/2 , -
.
, -
. , -
n ,
. (n2), -
. ,
-

111
. , -
.
. -
(2n).

( ) -
, -
. (intra-
ctable).
-
,
.
.
. ,
-
,
. -
, -

.
, -
, NP--
Nondeterministic
Polynomial. -

.
-
,
(approximate) ,
.
, ,
-
.

, , -
,
, .

. -
112
,
.

,
.
-
,
.
-
. -
() -
.
-

.
, -
(-
, , ).

/ , -
, , , -
, , , ,
, ,
-
1. -
;
2. -
;
3.
.

113
4.
;
5. -
;
6. .
7. -
;
8.
.
9. .
10. -
, .
11. ;
12. ;
13. ;

1. ,
, , ,
1993.
2. , .
, , 1993.
3. , , -
, , 1988.
4. ,
5. . , , , , 1993.
6. Niklaus Wirth, , , ,
1990.
7. G. Brassard and P.Bratley, Fundamentals of Algorithms, Prentice Hall,
1996.
8. T. Cormen, C. Leiserson and R. Rivest, Introduction to Algorithms MIT
Press, 1990.
114
9. E. Horowitz, S. Sahni and S. Rajasekaran, Computer Algorithms,

Computer Science Press, 1998.
10. I. Oliver, Programming Classics: Implementing the Worlds Best
Algorithms, Prentice Hall, 1993.

http://www.csd.auth.gr/~contest/
-
. -
.
http://olympiads.win.tue.nl/ioi/
-
.
http://acm.baylor.edu/acmicpc/

Association for
Computing Machinery (ACM).
6.

116

. -
-
, -
. -
. -
,
,
-
. -
,
.

.

:

.
-
.
.
.
-

3
;
3 ;
3 ;
3 ;
3 -
;

117
6. 1
, -
, .
.
.
-
.
,
-
,
. ,
, , -
-
.
.
, -
.
. ,
-
, , -
, -
. ()
, ()
. -
,
, -
.
6.2
-
. ,
-
-
.
(hardware) , -
, -
118

1945 , .
,
, -

.
6.2.1

, 0
1, -
.
, - ,
- .

. ENIAC ,
, -
,
.
,
. , -

, .
-
0 1, ,
, .
6.2.2
-
, ,
-
0 1. ADD () -
, -
. -
-
. ,
(assembler).
,
, -

119
.
. -

, .
-
, . -

,
-
.
. -
10101000 00001010 INDEX=$01 sum = 0 -
SUM=$02 FOR index=1 TO 10 -
10001100 00000001

00111100 LDA #10 sum=sum+index
01010001 00000001 STA INDEX NEXT index
01000011 00000001 CLA END
11000000 11111010 LOOP ADD INDEX
10001100 00000010 DEC INDEX
BNE LOOP
11111111
STA SUM
BRK
. 6.1. ,
1 10
6.2.3
-
-,
50
.
1957 IBM
FORTRAN. FORTRAN FORmula
TRANslation, . FORTRAN -

. FORTRAN -
, -

, .
FORTRAN ,
. -
FORTRAN , -
.
120
C PROGRAM EQUATION
READ(*,1) A,B
1 FORMAT(F5.1)
IF (A.EQ.0) GO TO 20
X=(-1.)*B/A
WRITE(*,2) X
2 FORMAT(X=,F10.2)
GO TO 50
20 IF (B.EQ.0) WRITE(*,3)
IF (B.NE.0) WRITE(*,4)
3 FORMAT()
4 FORMAT()
50 STOP
END
.6.2. FORTRAN -
. , -
.
4, 77, 90/95 Visual
FORTRAN. .
FORTRAN -
,
,
.

.
1960 , -
COBOL. COBOL (Cm-
mon Business Oriented Language - -
) , -
, FORTRAN .
COBOL -
. -

.

, ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language -
). ,

121
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. EQUATION.
ENVIRONMENT DIVISION.
CONFIGURATION SECTION.
SOURCE-COMPUTER. IBM-PC.
OBJECT-COMPUTER. IBM-PC.
SPECIAL-NAMES. DECIMAL-POINT IS COMMA.
DATA DIVISION.
WORKING-STORAGE SECTION.
77 X PIC S9(6)V9.
77 A PIC S9(6).
77 B PIC S9(6).
77 W-X PIC -(6),-.
PROCEDURE DIVISION.
ARXH.
DISPLAY .
ACCEPT A.
DISPLAY .
ACCEPT B.
DISPLAY .
IF A = 0 GO TO ROYT-1.
COMPUTE X = B * (- 1) / A.
MOVE X TO W-X.
DISPLAY H : W-X.
STOP RUN.
ROYT-1.
IF B = 0
DISPLAY
ELSE
DISPLAY .
STOP RUN.
. 6.3. COBOL Grace Marray Hopper

1960. COBOL
-
. COBOL
(divisions).
, ADD, MULTIPLY, MOVE
.. . -
.
.
122
10 REM
20 INPUT A=,A
30 INPUT B=,B
40 IF A=0 THEN 100
50 X=-B/A
60 PRINT X=;X
70 END
100 IF B=0 THEN PRINT ELSE PRINT
110 END
. 6.4. BASIC 1964 Dartmouth College

-
Kemeny Kurtz.
. BASIC -
(1975).
8 ROM Bill Gates Paul Allen.
- ,
Microsoft Bill Gates
. GWBASIC 1981 IBM PC. -
,
.
QuickBASIC Visual BASIC. -
.
1960,
.
60 PL/1
(Programming Language/1 1)
, -
, ,
FORTRAN COBOL .
-
. 60
LISP (LISt Processor- ), -
PROLOG
(PROgramming LOGic ) 70.
-
( , ,
..).
,
60 , -
BASIC PASCAL.

123
TO KYBOS :A
REPEAT 4 [FD :A RT 90]
PU SETPOS [20 20] PD
REPEAT 4 [FD :A RT 90]
PU HOME PD
REPEAT 2 [FD :A RT 45 FD 29 RT 135]
PU SETX :A SETY 0 PD
REPEAT 2 [FD :A RT 45 FD 29 RT 135]
HOME
END
. 6.5. LOGO 1967

Seymoyr Papert. -.
-
. -
.
BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic

Instruction Code -
) , ,
.
,
(interpreter).
,
.
Microsoft QuickBasic
Visual Basic, -

PASCAL ( Niklaus Wirth) -
. 1970 -
ALGOL. ,
-
. -
. PASCAL
-

ADA Modula-2.
1960 -

. -

124
(DEFUN a-exisosi (a b)
(setf apot (- (/ b a)))
(princ )
(princ a)
(princ x + )
(princ b)
(princ = 0 = )
(princ apot))
. 6.6. LISP 1959 .

-
.
, , -
. , -
. ..
(a-exisosi 2 5).

.
.
C. C
BELL
Unix, -
, Pascal -
-
. C C++, -
. -
70 -
.
-
.
, -
(Internet), JAVA. H JAVA
SUN
, ,
.
-
,
.

-

125
#include <stdio.h>
int main(int argc, char* argv[])

{
float a, b;
printf(A = );
scanf(%f, &a);
printf(B = );
scanf(%f, &b);
if (a == 0) {
if (b == 0) {
printf(\n);
}
else {
printf(\n);
}
}
else {
printf(X = %f\n, -b/a);
}
return 0;
}
. 6.7. C Bell-
& 1972 Dennis Ritchie. C
-
.
UNIX, C
-
.
.
-. -
, -
, -
.
-

(object driven programming) (visual
programming).
126
CLEAR
? 1.
? 2.
? 3.
? 4.
INPUT [1..4] : TO CHOICE
DO CASE
CASE CHOICE=1
APPEND
CASE CHOICE=2
LABEL FORM PELATES
CASE CHOICE=3
BROWSE
OTHERWISE
QUIT
END CASE
. 6.8. dBASE 70
Ashton-Tate 8-bit -
. dBASE
-
() . dBASE -
,

-
.
-
. dBASE III Plus.
Clipper ,
-
. ,
-
xBASE,
Access.
-
.

-

. -

-
- , -
.
, -
- -
Visual Basic, Visual C++
Java.

127

-
:
-
.
.
.
-
.
-
.
-
.
-
.

,
-
.
6.2.4 4
( 3 ) -
. -
.
, -
. -
-

. -
-
4 .
,
, -
128

-

-
.
(procedural) . -
, -
. -
:
(object -oriented languages)
(functional languages) .. LISP
(non procedural languages) ..
PROLOG. -
.
(query languages) .. SQL.
-
. :
.
-
. -
. -
:
3 (science-oriented langua-
ges) .. FORTRAN
3 (business-oriented languages)
.. COBOL.

.. BASIC, Pascal.
(system programming
languages) .. C.
(artificial intelligence languages) ..
LISP, PROLOG.
. -
.. -
, , -
, , -
..

129
-
,
.
SELECT ENAME, JOB, SAL
FROM EMPLOYES
WHERE DEPTNO=20
AND SAL > 300000;
SQL
EMPLOYES ,
20 300.000 .

. -
-
. -
.

.
-
.
-
.
-
,
.

,
, -
. -
, -
-
.
130
6.3
, -
.
-
, -
. , -
, -
, .
, ,
.

-
.
: -
48 (-
-), 10 (0-9) .
(A-Z a-z)
.

,
. -
, -
, .

(accidence)
(syntax).
-
. -
, , ,
.

131

.
-
-
.

(Semantics)

.
, -
, - ,
- .
.
.
-
. ,
,
-
,
.
, -
.
-
,

. -
( GW-Basic QuickBasic)
( Basic Visual Basic).
6.4
-
,
,
132
6.4.1
-
(top-down
program design) -
, ,
, -
, -
- .

-
,
- .
-
,
6.4.
6.4.2

. -
, (mo-
dule), -
.

-
-
.
-
,
, -
.
6.4.3

,

133
. 6.4.
(structured programming). -
1960.
1964
Bohm Jacopini -
.
, 1968 Edsger Dijkstra -
-
.
GO TO Statement Considered Harmful - -
GOTO -
. ,
.

,

.
,
GOTO .

134
GOTO:
-
GOTO (). GOTO
,
.
.
GOTO,

-
, -
.

GOTO.
-
, -
,
,,,,,
>0 GOTO 1
=0 GOTO 2

GOTO 4
1:
GOTO 4
2:
GOTO 4
4:! ,
,,,,
>0
_ =0

_
,,,
GOTO -
.

135
, -

GOTO .
-
, .
GOTO -
-
.

GOTO .
-
,
,
, -
.

, , -
.
-
.
.
2 -
.
-
GOTO, -
.

, -

.
136

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
6.5
-
70
.
-
(object-oriented) .

.
-
. -
()
. ,

.

.

,
(objects). -
,

137
-
. , , -
;,
;, ;
;. -
-
11.
-
,
.
6.6

, -
. -

. -

. -
,
.
, -

-
-
.

5, - OCCAM.
,
.
6.7
-
,
, .

. -
138
, (compilers) (interpreters). -
-

. -
.

-
.
(source), -
-
(object).
-
, . -

,
(libraries) . -
(linker-
loader).
(executable), -
. -
.
-
, . -
. -
, .
, -
.
. 6.5.

139
-
.
,
, -
, -
, -
.
-
.
.
, -
.
, -
, -
. -
. -
, -
,
. -
. 6.6.
140
, -

-
.

- -
(editor). -
-
, -
. -

- ,
-
: , -
,
- . -
. .
-
. (visual) -

( -
, , ) -
.

-
. -
, -
-
.
, , -
.
-
,
, -
, -
. -
, .

. -
, -

141
, .
, ,
-
.
-
;
;

;
;
-
;
;
-
;
;
;
;
;
-
;
;
-
;

, , , -
, , , -
, , ,

142

1. Ph. Breton, , , ,
2. . , , , 1986.
3. . -, , ,
, , 1992.
4. , -
, , 1986.
5. .-., FORTRAN 77 FORTRAN
90, , , 1995.
6. . -. , COBOL ,
, , , 1992.
7. . -. , Structure & Advanced COBOL, -
, , 1992.
8. . -. , GWBASIC ,
, , 1992.
9. . -. -. , PRO
LOG, , , 1991.
10. . , LOGO , -
, , 1991.
11. . , C , , -
, 1995.
12. M., SQL 4 ,
, , 1995.
13. E. Horowitz, , -
, , 1995.
14. R. Shackelford, Introduction to Computing and Algorithms,
Addison-Wesley, USA, 1998.
15. W. Hutching-H. Somers, An Introduction to Machine Translation,
Academic Press, London, 1992.

143

cuiwww.unige.ch/langlist
. -
2000 .
www.swcp.com/~dodrill/
-
.
www.progsource.com
, , -
-
Pascal, Delphi, C/C++, Java, Perl, Visual Basic.
www.hensa.ac.uk/parallel/

.
Softwaredesign.com/objects.html

-
.
Iamwww.unibe.ch/~scg/Ooinfo
,
.
7.

146

, , -

. -
.
.
,
,
.
, -
,
.

:
.
.
.
.
, , -
.

3 -
;
3 ;
3 ;
3 -
;

147
-
,
.
, -

. -
.
:
,
-
. -
, -
.

. -
,
. -
-
, -
.
-
, , -
.

, -
-
. , -
Pascal,
Visual Basic, C, C++, Java , -
.

.

,
.
.
148
7.1

, , ,
, -
.

(-)
(-)
(-)
(a-z)

0-9

+ - * / = ^ ( ) . , ! &
7.2
, -

.
,
,
.
. -
. , -
. 1, 3409, 0, -980.
.
. 3.14159,

149
2.71828, -112.45, 0.45 . -

, .
.
. -
. - -
, , , -
15 . -

- (bytes). -
, . , - -
, - -
. bytes

. . . -
. -

. -

7.3 (integer)
1, 2 4 bytes -
(constants) - (real) 4 8 bytes.
.
, , , -
.

, -
(
, ).

-1 = --1
-2 = --2
.
.
.
- = --
150

=3.14159
=0.18
=

.
,
-
.

.

, (-
) , -
. -
(-,
-), (0-9) (underscore)
(_), .

, , , -
, .,
. .
: ,
, , _, 100, , , _-
.
: 100,
, $.

151
7.4
(variable) .

=
() , -
. , -
.
,
.
, -
-
. -

.

, -
, -
.

,
.

, , ,
-
.
, -
, ,
_, .

-1: --1
-2: --2
.
.
.
-: --
152

: ,
: ,
:
:
, -
, -
, ,
.

- -
- ,
.

.
7.5
-
: , ,
,
.
:

153

+
-
* div -

/
-
^ , -
mod .
DIV ..
MOD 7 div 2 = 3 7 mod 2 = 1
7.6

. :
()
()
()
_()
()
() ex
A_M(X)
_()
7.7
, -
(expressions). -
, , ,
.
.
,
.
154
, -
, .

, -

1.
2.
3.
a+1 a+1
3
1/2 a 1/2*a^3
3x + 2y
(3*x+2*y)/(a-b)
ab
2 2*()
,
-
. -
-
. - . -
- .
- , . ..
- 2+3*4 14, (2+3)*4 20,
.
.
7.8
-
.

155

- <-

<- 132
<-
<- *

, .
-
. ,
, -
, .

<- -
(=). , , -
.
.
7.9 -
,
, -
.
-
, -
, .
-
-
.
156

-
.
-
.
(,). -

, -
.
.

, , : ,

-
.
-
. , -
,
.
.
.

. -
-
.

157

, -
.
7.10
,

. -
, -
.
.
-
, .
, -
.
,
.
_.
(. . 10),
_.
.
,
&.
(!),
.

. -
, -

. 18%.
158
_
!

=0.18

: , _,
: _, _

!

_
!
<- * _
_ <- *
_ <- +_
!
,,. ,
, _
, _
_ _
-
Pascal Basic.
Pascal
PROGRAM computers;
CONST
fpa=0.18;
VAR
cost, value, quantity:INTEGER;
total,cost_fpa:REAL;
BEGIN
write( );
readln(quantity);
write( );
readln(value);
cost:=quantity*value;

159
cost_fpa:=cost*fpa;
total:=cost+cost_fpa;
writeln ( , quantity, :,
cost);
writeln ( : , cost_fpa:7:0);
writeln ( : , total:7:0)
END.
Basic

fpa = .18
INPUT : , Quantity
INPUT : , Value
Cost = Quantity * Value
CostFpa = Cost * fpa
Total = Cost + CostFpa
PRINT ; Quantity; :;
Cost
PRINT USING H : ######; CostFpa
PRINT USING : #######; Total
END

, , , -
, , -
,
.
:
: , ,
, .
-
.
-
.
,
( )
- .
160

, , , , , -
, -
-
.
;
-
;
;
;
;
;
;

1. . , . , Pascal, ,
1984.
2. . , Basic: , , ,
1991.
3. . , QuickBasic , -
, , 1992.
5. S. Leestma-L.Nyhoff, Turbo Pascal, Programming and Solving, McMillan,
New York, 1990.
6. N. Wirth, Systematic Programming: An introduction, Prentice Hall, 1973.

161

http://www.swcp.com/~dodrill/
-
.
http://www.progsource.com
, , -

: Pascal, Delphi, C/C++, Java, Perl, Visual Basic.
www.cit.ac.nz/smac/pascal/default.htm
Pascal -
. , .
http://www.cs.vu.nl/~jprins/tp.html
, , , -
Turbo Pascal.
http://qbasic.com/
,
Qbasic.
www.basicguru.com
Basic. -
, , -
.

(Usenet):
comp.lang.pascal
comp.lang.pascal.misc
Pascal
alt.lang.basic
comp.lang.basic.misc
Basic
8.

164

,
. -
-
, ,
, -
, -
.
, , -
. -
-
. -

.

:
, .
() .
.
-
.
.

.
-
: , .

3 ;
3
;
3 ;
3 ;
3 ;

165
8.1
,
. -
-
.
-
. -
, -
. , -
, 0.
,
0, , 0,
.

, , ,
, .
, -
.
.
-
.
= =0
<> 1 <>
> >10000
>= + >= (+)/
< ^2-4** < 0
<= <= 500

166
, -
.
. -
-
.
,
.
-
,
- -
.
, -
(=)
. (<>),
.

-
,
. -
, , .

0<<5 >0 <5
=1 2 3 =1 =2 =3
8.1.1
.
. ...,
...... ......
. _.
-
( ),
_.

167

>=0
< _()
_

-1
-2

-
_

> 0

_ <- _+1
_

, -
_, -
.
_
,
,
, ( ).
.......

168

>=0
< _()

.
_
...... :

-1
-2

-

-1
-2

-
_

> 0

_ <- _+1

0
__ <- __ +1
_

, -
,
_.
_

169
-
.
, -
,
, .

...... .

,,,,,,,
,
< 80
< 1.70
,
_
_
,,,,,

.
,

__, .

,,,,,,,
,
< 80 < 1.70
,
_
,,,,,
......_
170

-1
-1
-2

-
_AN -2
-1
-2

-

-1
-2

-
_

> 0

- <- _+1
_ <0

_ <- _ +1

0
_0 <- _0 +1
_

,
.
-
_

171
( -
)
. -
.
1-50 200,000
51-100 180,000
101-200 160,000
200 150,000
:
=<50
< *200000
=< 100
< *180000

=< 200
< *160000

< *150000
_
_
_
......_ -
:
=<50
< *200000
, -
_ =<100 , -
< *180000 ,
_ =<200 -
< *160000 -

< *150000 -
_ .
172

.
.

, -
:
<=50
< *200000
_ >50 =<100
< *180000
- _ >100 =<200
_ -
< *160000
>50

< *150000
_
8.1.2
, -
, :

__1
_1
__2
_2
......

_
_

0

173
1,3,5,7,9

2,4,6,8

< 0 >9
_

.
, .

-.
-
.
8.2
, , -
. -
, -
.
, -
-
, _ -
-
, -
.
8.2.1 ...

... . , -
-
, .
174
... -
. -
,
.

-1
-2

-
_

<0
<1000

< +
_

,
_ _-
. ,
. , -
_-
.
,
,
. -
.

, ,
.
0.

175
:, ,
:
<- 0
<- 0

<>0
<- +
<- +1

_
>0
<- /
: ,
: ,

_
-
, -
0, -
.
-
. ,
, 0
.
.
8.2.2 _
-
_.
-
.
176

_
-1
-2

-
_ -

_

<- +
_ >= 1000

_ -
_.
( ), _-
_, .
, -
.

_.

... -
_
.
_ -
. -
, _.
_
-
.

177

, . ,
( ).
:, ,
:
:
<- 0
<- 0
_
_
!

=<0
, ...
_
!
_ >0
<- +
<- +1
;

! -
_ = = _ -

<- /

=,
=,
_
Pascal
PROGRAM athroisma2;
VAR
x,sum,count:INTEGER;
avg:REAL;
choice:CHAR;
178
BEGIN
count:=0;sum:=0;
REPEAT
REPEAT
write( :);
readln (x);
IF x<=0 THEN
writeln ( , ..);
UNTIL x>0;
sum:=sum+x;
count:=count+1;
write( ;);
readln(choice);
UNTIL (choice=o) OR (choice=O);
avg:=sum/count;
writeln(: , sum:5);
writeln( : ,avg:6:2);
END.
8.2.3 ......
,
. -
-
, .
, . -
-
, ( -
......
- _).
- .
, . -
, -
.
,
_.
, 1, -
.

179

1 2 3
-1
-2

-
_

1 100 2
<- +
_

,
. 1, .
-
100.
:,
<- 0
-
1 100 2

<- + ...., -
_
: , -
_ ..
...
-
. -
.
180

.
:
-
. ,
.
.
-
.
5
-
.

! 1 10

:,,
!:
!:
!:

1 10
1 10
<- *
,,,=,
_
!
_
_
Basic

DEFINT A-Z
FOR a = 1 TO 10
FOR b = 1 TO 10
c = a * b
PRINT a; x; b; =; c
NEXT b

181
PRINT
NEXT a
END

-
.

-
, , . .
:
_.
.
. , -
_ .
,
-
.
, _
.

, , ,
-
1. ;
2. ;
;
3. ;
4. - - -
_;
5. ;
6. ;
182
7. ;
8. _;
9. ;
10. -
;

1. . , Pascal, , -
, 1997.
2. . -. , Turbo Pascal, -
, 1996.
, , 1992.
New York, 1990.

http://qbasic.com/
www.basicguru.com
9.
184

-
. , -
.

.
,
-
, -
, , .

.
.
, .
.
.
.

3 -
, ;
3 -
;
3 ;
3 -
;

185
9.1. .
-
, .
, , -
-
.

, 30, ,

.
<- 0
1 30

<- +
_
<- /30
..
, -
, -
.
-
,
. -

.

,
, .
30 1,
2,..., 30. -
.
-
, -
.
-
,
. -
186
, -
.
-
.
,
9.1.
. 9.1.

, .

,
[ ]. [2],
,
27.
[i] i-
-
.
-
. -
- , , , , .

-
i, j, k. .
-

.

187
: [30]
, -
.
. -

.
1
-

: [30], ,
: i,
<- 0
i 1 30

[i]
<- + [i]
_
<- /30
<- 0
i 1 30
[i] <
<- +1
_
_
:,
,
_
,
, . -
, ,
[i], -
188
,
<-+ [i].
, -
-
, -
, . , -
-
30 .

, -
2
-
,
-
- , , -
, 2 100.

.
.
N
Xi
i=1
=
N
N
Xi
i=1
2
= 2
2
N
-
. ,
. -
, -
, , -
.

, 3.

: i, , [100], , ,
_2,
: , _

!
( 100)

189
i 1
,i,-
[i]
_
!
<- 0
_2 <- 0 -

i 1

,i,-
[i]
<- + [i]
_2 <- _2 + [i]^2
_
!
T <- /
!
_ <- _(_2/ - ^2)
!
i 2 N
j N i -1
X[j-1] > X[j]
! j j-1
<- X[j-1]
X[j-1] <- X[j]
X[j] <-
_
_ !! j
_ !! i
!
MOD 2 =0 TOTE
<- (X[N/2]+X[N/2+1])/2

<- X[(N+1)/2]
_
!

============
=,
= ,
= , _
= ,
_
190
Basic

DEFINT A-Z
DIM x(100)
CLS
sum = 0: sum2 = 0

INPUT N=, n
FOR i = 1 TO n
PRINT ; i; - : ;
INPUT , x(i)
NEXT i

FOR i = 1 TO n
sum = sum + x(i)
sum2 = sum2 + x(i) ^ 2
NEXT i
mt! = sum / n
ta! = SQR(sum2 / n - mt! ^ 2) ..

FOR i = 2 TO n
FOR j = n TO i STEP -1
IF x(j - 1) > x(j) THEN SWAP x(j - 1), x(j)
NEXT j
NEXT i

IF n MOD 2 = 0 THEN
median = (x(n / 2) + x(n / 2 + 1)) / 2
ELSE
median = x((n + 1) / 2)
END IF
PRINT
PRINT =======================
PRINT =; n
PRINT =; mt!
PRINT =; ta!
PRINT =; median
END

191
9.2.

, -
.
,
.
.
. -
-
.
. -
,
100. -

,
.
-
.
,
, -
.
.
.

. -
,
. , -
, .
-
, .
9.3.
30 ,
-
192
30 , .

.
.

1 2 10
1 25 21 32
2 26 22 31
. .. .. .. ..
30 27 23 30
30 -
, 300 .
,
, . -
27.

, (
) ( ).
[30,1] 27.
-
[i,j] i j -
, i 1 30 j 1 10.
3010.

( 30 -
10 ). , , -
.

193
_2
: [30,10], [10]
: i, j, ,
!
i 1 30
j 1 10
, i, j
[i,j]
_
_
!
j 1 10
<- 0
i 1 30
<- + [i,j]
_
[j] <- /30
_
j 1 10 ,

<- 0
-
i 1 30
[i,j] < [j] , -
<- +1 -
_ -
_ .
, i, :, [j]
,
_
_
Pascal
PROGRAM poleis;
VAR
temperature: array[1..30,1..10] OF REAL;
ave:array [1..10] OF REAL;
total:REAL;
i,j,days:INTEGER;
194
BEGIN
FOR i:=1 TO 30 DO
FOR j:=1 TO 10 DO
BEGIN
write ( :,i,j, );
readln (temperature[i,j])
END;
FOR j:=1 TO 10 DO
BEGIN
total:=0;
FOR i:=1 TO 30 DO
total:=total+temperature[i,j];
ave[j]:=total/30
END;
FOR j:=1 TO 10 DO
BEGIN
days:=0;
FOR i:=1 TO 30 DO
IF temperature[i,j] < ave[j] then
days:=days+1;
writeln ( ,i,
,ave[i]:4:1);
writeln ( :,
days);
END
END.
-
,
, -
. -
-
.

, . -
. ,
.
, 25
[1,1,1].

195
2001
1 2 10
1 25 21 32
2 26 22 18 31
2000
. .. .. .. ...
1 2 10
30 27 23 18 30
1 25 21 32
2 26 22 18 31
1999
. .. .. .. ...
1 2 10
30 27 23 18 30
1 25 21 32
2 26 22 31
... ... ... ...
30 27 23 30
4.
:
. -
.
. -
,
.
. -
, .
-
. ,
.
, -
,
, .
:
196
1. -
, .
2.
, -
.
3. -
,
.
.
,
.

: [10,7], i,j, , ,

: [10]

!
i 1 10
,i,
[i]
j 1 7
, j,-
[i,j]
_
_
!
!
<- 0
i 1 10
<- 0
j 1 7
<- +[i,j]
_
. ,[i], =,
<
<-
<- i
_
_

197
.. ,, ,[]
!
!
<- 0
j 1 7
<- 0
i 1 10
<- + [i,j]
_
. ,j,- =,
<
<-
<- j
_
_
.. ,, ,,-
_
Pascal
PROGRAM cinemas;
VAR
i,j,k,max,sum:INTEGER;
tickets:ARRAY[1..10,1..7] OF INTEGER;
name:ARRAY [1..10] OF STRING;
BEGIN
FOR i:=1 TO 10 do
BEGIN
write ( : );
readln (name[i]);
FOR j:=1 TO 7 DO
BEGIN
write ( , j, : );
readln(tickets[i,j]);
END;
END;
max:=0;
FOR i:=1 TO 10 DO
BEGIN
sum:=0;
FOR j:=1 TO 7 DO
sum:=sum+tickets[i,j];
198
writeln( , name[i], = , sum);

IF max<sum THEN
BEGIN
max:=sum;
k:=i;
END;
END;
writeln ( , max, , name[k]);
max:=0;
FOR j:=1 TO 7 DO
BEGIN
sum:=0;
FOR i:=1 TO 10 DO
sum:=sum+tickets[i,j];
writeln( ,j, = , sum);
IF max<sum THEN
BEGIN
max:=sum;
k:=j;
END;
END;
writeln ( , max, , k);
END.
9.4.
-
. -
:
.
.
.
.
.
-
.
, -

199
, -
.
:
.

.

.
.
-
. -
, , -
. , -

.
.
3 -
, 2.
-
.
.

, -
.
.
:
3
3
, -
.
. -

.
200
.
.
( )
, .

-
.
-
. -
(-
). ,
. -
. -
.
-
, . -
-
.

, , , , -
,
-
1. ;
2. ;
3. ;
4. ;
5. ;
6. ;
7. ;
8. .

201
9. ;
10. ;
11. ;
12. ; -
;

1. . , Turbo Pascal 6.0 , -
, , 1993.
2. QuickBASIC: , , -
, 1991.
, , 1992.
New York, 1990.

-
.
, , -

:Pascal, Delphi, C/C++, Java, Perl, Visual Basic.
Pascal -
. , .
202
, , , -
Turbo Pascal.
http://qbasic.com/
,
Qbasic.
www.basicguru.com
Basic. -
, , -
.

(Usenet):
comp.lang.pascal
comp.lang.pascal.misc
Pascal
alt.lang.basic
comp.lang.basic.misc
Basic
10.
204

-
.
. ,
-
.
,
,
. -
-
.

:
.
-
-
.

.
.
-
.

3

;
3
;
3 -
;
3 ;
3 ; -
;

205
10.1.
,
,
. 6,
-
, , -
(top-down). -
-
.
o- , -

.
-
.
-
,
-
.
-

.
1
o
,
.

.
:

. -
:
206

-
.
-
. ,
,
,
-
.

10.1

.
( 3)
-
1 2 .

, -
(subprogram).

207
. 10.1
10.2.

,
.

, -
.
.
208
, ,
.
-
:
. -

, ,

.
.
,
-
.
.
.
, -
,
.
. ,
.
10.3.

6.
, -

:
-
.

.
-
.

209
.
-

.
-
.
-
, -
.
-
.

. , -
. -
, -
, -
.
.

. ,

,
-
, ( ).
-
,
, . -
, -
.
10.4.

.
, ,
, -
210
.
, -
.
, .
-
.
-
, -
.
-
.
,
, .
10.5.
, -
. -
.

. ,
,
. -
.
. -
, ,
. -

.

.
.

211

, -
.
-
( -
).
-
.
,
.
.
) , -

) (=r2)
) , ,

, -
.
-
. -
, . -
_, -
:
_()
_

_ >0
_
212

. -
.
, .
_(R)
.
,
.
_(R) :

=3.14

: R

_ <- *R^2
_
.
, -
. -
.
()

:

:,
_
:
_2

: R, E

_(R)
<- _(R)
()
_
. ,
-

213
. 10, -
:

10
: 314
-
, .
10.5.1
.
( ):

....
<-
...
_
-
. ,
.
-
.
, , ,
-
, -
_<-*R^2.
, -
.
.
<-_(R).
O , : -
R. -
R
. -
. -
, -
.
214
10.5.2
.
( )

_
.
, -
/
.
.

.
,
.

- (-)

(, , )

-
. -
.

. -
.

_(R)
()

215
-
. ,
_
,
. ,
_ ,
( -
) R -
. -
-
.
-
. , -
. , -
-
.
-
. -

.
2 -
Pascal Basic.
Pascal
PROGRAM example2;
VAR
r,e:REAL;
FUNCTION area(r:REAL):REAL;
BEGIN
area:=pi*sqr(r)
END;
PROCEDURE input(var x:REAL);

BEGIN
REPEAT
write ( :);
readln(x)
UNTIL x>0;
END;
216
PROCEDURE output(result:REAL);
BEGIN
writeln ( :,result:6:2)
END;
BEGIN
input(r);
e:=area(r);
output(e)
END.
Basic
3
DECLARE SUB Eisodos (nb!)
DECLARE SUB Ektypwsh (res!)
DECLARE FUNCTION Emvado! (r!)
CLS
CALL Eisodos(r)
e = Emvado(r)
CALL Ektypwsh(e)
END
SUB Eisodos (nb)

DO
INPUT : , nb
LOOP UNTIL nb > 0
END SUB
SUB Ektypwsh (res)

PRINT :; res
END SUB
FUNCTION Emvado (r)

pi = 3.14
Emvado = pi * r ^ 2
END FUNCTION
10.5.3

-
.

217
-
.
, , 1, 1, ,, 2, 2
_3 -
, ,, ,
, .
,, 1 - -
_3 - (formal parameter list)

-
_3. - .
. -
-
,
(actual parameter
, . list) -
, , -
.
,
.
218
-
_3 .
,, 1
1 , ,
, .
5 7.
, -
1 1 .
, -
_, -
-
-
- . (=5), (= 7),
1 (=-2) 1 (=12).

. .
:
. 10.2. ()
()
()
() 1 1
.

219

-
.
, -
, (return address), -

(execution time stack). -
-
-
. , -
-
. , a b,
c .
c, b, a.
,
. -
LIFO
.
. 10.3. -
.
220

.

. -
-
.

.
10.6. -.

.
-
. ( -
) .

.

: A, B,

...
_

: , , ,

...
_

: , ,

...
_

221
, , -
, .
.
, , , ,

.
,,.
.
-
, .
, -
,
. R
2.
.
-
, -
, . (scope) -
.
-

.
-

, . -
.

, -
,

.

-
, .
,
. .
222
-

, -
.
.

.
-
.

,
.
10.7.
-
.
. .
3,
,
.

-
- ,
-
.

. ,

:
:
n ( n 1) ! n > 0
n!=
1 n = 0
T -
,
1 n=0.

223
n*(n-1)!, -
,
.
-
.
():
!
=0
< 1

< *(-1)
_
_
():
!
: i,
Fact < 1
i 2
Fact <- Fact*i
_
_
, -
. -
-
, -
.
-
-
.
5!
().
5,
0, (4). -
224
, (3) -
-
(0).
(5)
<* (-1)
(4)
<* (-1)
(3)
<* (-1)
(2)
<* (-1)
(1)
<* (-1)
(0)
<1
=0 (0) 1, -
.
(2)=1*2, -
(3)=2*3, (4)=6*4 .
(5)=24*5. -
120 .

225
(5)
<* (-1)
5 120
(4)
-
<* (-1) -
4 24 .

-
(3) -
,
<* (-1)
3 6 ( ).
-

(2) ( ) -

<* (-1)
.
2 2
, -
-
(1) , LIFO

<* (-1) , -

1 1
-
, -
(0) -
.
<1
0 1
-
. -
3,
.
,
, -
.
226
Pascal
FUNCTION factorial(n:INTEGER) : INTEGER;
BEGIN
IF n=0 THEN
factorial:=1
ELSE
factorial:=n*factorial(n-1);
END;
FUNCTION factorial(n:INTEGER) : INTEGER;

VAR
i,fact:integer;
BEGIN
fact:=1;
FOR i:=2 TO n DO
fact:=i*fact;
factorial:=fact
END;
asc
FUNCTION Factorial (n)
IF n = 0 THEN
Factorial = 1
ELSE
Factorial = n * Factorial(n - 1)
END IF
END FUNCTION
FUNCTION Factorial (n)

fact = 1
FOR i = 2 TO n
fact = fact * i
NEXT i
Factorial = fact
END FUNCTION

227

-
.

,

. -
, . -
,
.
-
. -
,
. -
,
.
, -
.
.

, , , ,
, .
-
1. ;
2. ;
3. ;
4. ;
5. ;
6. ;
7. ;
228
8. -
; -
.
9. ;
10. ;
11. ;
.

1. . , . , Pascal, ,
1984.
2. . , Basic: , , , 1991
, , 1992.
New York, 1990.

http://qbasic.com/
www.basicguru.com

(Usenet):
comp.lang.pascal comp.lang.pascal.misc Pascal.
alt.lang.basic comp.lang.basic.misc Basic.
11.

230

, -
,
.
-
,
. -
-
. -

. ,
.

:
, , , ,

,
,
-

.

3
;
3 -
;
3 -
;
3
;
3 -
;
3
;

231
11.1.
,
,
-
, , ,
. -
-
-
.
, -
-
-
.

. -
(object - orie-
nted programming)
, -
.
-
-
- -
" ;".
, ,
-
()
.

, -
. -
,
,
.
, -
. ,
,
-
-
232
, .
,

.
-

- Visual C++, Java, Visual Basic, Delphi.
-
Simula
Smalltalk. 11.1.1.
-
(objects). , -
,
. -
,
, , (
11.1).
. 11.1.
, -
-
. , ,
.
, ,
, .. -
.
, ,
, -
.

233
, -
,
.
, ,
( 11.2).
. 11.2 .

; -
.
,
,
. , (data)
(operations) -
. -
(methods).
,
.

-
, , . -
, . -
-
, , , -
, , ,
11.3.
234
. 11.3 .
-
, , -
. -
-
, , -
, -
.
-
. ,
. -
, -
, -
.
11.1.2.
,
. , -

. -
, -
. -

235
-
. -
, (instance)
.
(class) -
. Smalltalk, -
-
- , , -
. - ,
. - .

. , -
-
, . -

(metaclass).
11.1.3.
-

.
. -
,
(attributes properties),
.

.

, , -
,
, -
.
-
,
,
.
-
,
(properties window), -
.
-
,
236

-
, , -
. -
:
(Data abstraction). -
.

. -

. -
-
.
(Encapsulation). , -
-
()
(). -
-
. -

. -

,

.
(Inheritance). -
-
.
(subclasses) .
()
.
, -
-
, , ..
.

237
(Polymorphism). -
-
, , ,
.

. -
-
. -
, -
. ,
, -
. -
. -

.
,
. -
, Visual C++ Visual Basic, -
:
. =

. -
.
11.1.4.
,
Smalltalk Visual Basic, -
(methods).
. -
.
. -
-
.
,
. :
.
238
11.2.

(event-driven prog-
ramming) ,
, -
.

, -
, -
.

, -
-

. -
.

. ,
, -
, -
.
,
-
, ,
.
, -
.
(event) -
, , -
.
, .

, ,
,
..

.

239
11.2.1.
, -
,

-
.
, -
,
(event procedures),
.

. , -
, -
.
:
_
...

...

To -
,
.
-
,
, -
.

-
, - -
.

, Visual
. C++ -
-
(functions).
, -
,

:
240

...

...

-
-
:
_
...

...

-
.
(modular) , -
, -
(structural) -
, -
.
,
, .. -

.
11.2.2.

-
, -
:
1. .
2. -
.
3.
, .

241
4. , -
.
5.
( 2).
-
- -
. - .
-
. -

, - -
, .
. -
-
.
11.3.

-
-
-
,

.
-
. -

,
(user interface). , -
-
. ,
-
. -
-
.
.
,

. -
.
242
, -
-
. -
. -
, -
-
.
-

:
1. -, -
.
2. -
.
3. .

, , -
,
-
.
-
, -

.

,
.
-
. :

,

,

243
.

.
(toolbox)
.
-

, .

. -
, -
.
-
.
-
, :
-
( ) ,

,

,

,

:

1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
244
,
.
-
. -
, -
, .

-
, :
-
. -
1, , -
- -
- ,
,
. -
,

,
-

.
-
:

0

1

1
-

,
2

2

245

3
3

4 ( )
-

-
,
-

.
-
-
-
-
.
. 11.4.

, -
11.4.

,

. -
.
.
246

, .
.
-
, , .
-

:
-
,
, .

.
,
-
.
:
1_()
1. =
2. =
3. =

2_()
1. =
2. =
3. =

3_()
1. =
2. =
3. =

-
:

247
_()

, , -
. -
-
. -
, -

, , -
.

-
, -
.
(
11.5).
. 11.5.

-
( 11.6).
248
. 11.6.
,
.
11.4.

. -
. ,
.
, Visual C++,
Delphi Visual Basic, -

. -
, ,
. -
, -
.

249
-

, -
, , ,
, , ,

. ,
, ,
,
.
,
-
. -
, (toolboxes),
(debugging tools), (code windows),
(report generators) -
. -
(wizards) -
, .
,
,
-
.
,
-
-
.

.
11.4.1
(menus) , -
, -
.
-
.
(menu bar)
( 11.7).
250
. 11.7.
-
- (popup menu) ( 11.8).
- , -
-
-

.
, -
(Menu
Editor).
. 11.8.

251
. 11.9.
-
, -
(toolbars) ( 11.9).

.
11.4.2
(dialog boxes) ( 11.10) -
. -
-
. -
, -
.

-

. -
-

. 11.10.
.

. -
, -
,
,
.
, -
252
(), (Cancel) (Retry).

.
, -

,
-
.
11.5.
-
, -
.
, -
.
-
-
, -
, -
.

, . ,
- , ,
-

. -

, -
- , -
, - ,
. -
- ( 11.11).
-
(document-centered ,
view) - -
- . ,

-
(multitasking).
.

253
. 11.11.
, (linking)
.
, -
. ,
, ,
. -

.
, -
,
. -
.
,
(real-time)
-
. -
, -
, -
,
:

254
-
,
(embedding)
. -
.

.

, -
, -
.
. -
.
-
-
. ,
,
-
. -
-
.

, ,
-

. -
.
.
. -
-
, -
-
.
, -
.
,

,
,
.

255

-
-
, , -
, , -
-
.
, -
. ,
-
,
. ,

, -
-
.
-
,
, .
-
.
,
.
-
. -
, -
-
.

,
, , , , , -
-, , -
, , , , -
.
256
-
1. -
.
2. .
3.

.
4. -
.
5. .
6. .
7. ;
8. .
9. -
;
10. -
;
11. -
;
12. -
;
13. -
.

1. Object-Oriented modeling and Design, Prentice Hall, New York, 1991.
2. G. Masini, A. Napoli, D. Colnet, D. Lonard, K. Tombre : Les langages a
objets, InterEditions, Paris, 1989.
3. Gary Entsminger: Secrets of the Visual Basic for Windows, SAMS
Publishing, Indiana USA, 1992.
4. Bertrand Meyer : Object-oriented Software Construction, Prentice Hall,
London, 1988.

257
5. . -. : Visual Basic
4.0, , , 1997.

http://iamwww.unibe.ch/~scg/Ooinfo/
-
Internet, -
.
http://whatis.com/oop.htm
-
.
http://oop.cs.technion.ac.il
-
.
www.oop.com/frameworks/delphi/

Delphi.
http://www.humboldt.edu/~jsb7/C/WIN95/events.shtml

.
http://midrangecomputing.com/mc/97/05/
-
.
http://service.shu.ac.uk/schools/sci/maths/jw/jw/vbintro/

Visual Basic Delphi.
http://www.cnet.com/Resources/Info/Glossary/Terms/ole.html
OLE (Object Linking and
Embedding).
12.

260

. -
, -
, -
(user
interface) -
. , , -

.
-
.

:
-

,

3

;
3 ,
;
3 ;
3 -
;
3 ,
;

261
12.1.
(user interface)
-
.
, -
( 12.1).
, -
.
-
, .
. 12.1 :
-
, -
(lightpen) . -
, , , , -
, ,

. , -
, ,
, -
,
.
.

.
, -
.
262
, Standard Directory of
Electrical and Electronics Terms, interface
shared boundary, -
.
( -
) interface
. interface -
, , -
.
, .
, -
,

-
.

.
, , -
.
-
. -
,
-
.
12.2.
,
, ,
. -
, (,
) ,
, -
.
-
(command-based). -

263
, -
, . -
-
DOS. -
, .
-
, -
.

.
-
DOS, DOS (dosshell), -
DOS (Norton
Utilities, ). , -
, -
,
.
Apple.
Apple
,
GUI (Graphical User Interface).
,
,
.
,
PCs,
. -

, Windows S/2. -
Apple.
Macintosh Apple
-
.
GUIs -
. , -
, clicks -
.
GUI
. , , -
264
-

.

:
: -
, .
:
. -
-
. (-
12.2):
3 ,

,
3 (title bar),
,
. 12.2: .

265
3 (menu bar), -

,
3 (toolbar), -
-
,
3 (status bar), -
,
3 (scroll bars), -
,
, -
,
3 (control menu),
,
3 (maximize button),

,
3 (minimize button), -
,
3 (restore button), -
,
3 (close button), .
:
. -
. -
, -
(, , ).
:

.
.
266
12.3.
-

. -

;, -
- . ,
- ,
,
,
-
.
, ,
-
-
(user task analysis).
,
. ,

.

:
: , , -
, -
.
, -
,
.
, : -
, . -
, - , -
, -
.
.
:
. ,
video
,
-

267
video,
.
: -
.
-
.

. -
, -
,
, -
.
, -

, . -
, -
,
-
.
: -
, -
.

.
-
-
.
, ,
.
:
-
.
-
:
268
3 on line , -
.
-
, , ,
.
3 , (assistants)
.

.
3 ,
.
: -
, -
-
. , -
-
.
:

. -
,
. ,
, ,

- ,
. -
-
.
.
: -
. ,

; (/), ;
(/), -
-
( , ).

.

269
................
!
, , ,
()
................
-
()
<- 0
_ ,
(/);
.

, , , n
<- 1
, , ,
<- 2

_ =1 =2

, -
, -
.
. ,
, -
-
.

-
.

. -
-
.
( 12.3) :
270
. 12.3.
, ,
, -
-
.
,
.
, , . -
, -
.
,
.
, , .
, -

-
,
.
12.4.
-
-
,
.

271
12.4.1.
-
. -
, -
. -

, -

. ,
-
.
: , , -
. ,
. , ,
, . -
:

,
,
,
,
,
-
.

. -
. -

.
12.1.
272
12.1 :

. -

-
.
:
. -
. -
-
, -
, , -
-
.
. -

, -

. -
.

-
. .
, -
.

273
. , , -
-
, -
.
. -
, -
-
.
.

.
.
12.2 .
12.2 :

-
.
12.4.2.

-
. , -
,
. , -
274
. -
-

.
,
,
, :
. -
-
.
, -
.
,
.
. -
,
.
-
-
.
. -
. ,

.
-
.

-
-
. -
. -
-
.
12.5.
-
.
, .

275
, -
, .
. -
, :
:

. -
. -
.
-
.
.
, -

.
.
, -
.
. -
. -
,
.
:
, .
-
. -
, , .
-
, -
.
, -
.
: -

. .
, -
, -
-
276
. -
, -
. ( -
)
.

(user
interface) . -
,
(GUI). -
, . -
-
.

.

(user interface), , -
, ,
-
1. -
user interface
.
2. -
.
3.
GUI.
4. .
5.
.
6. -
.

277
7. -
-
;.

1. Lon Brafield: The user interface Concepts & Design, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, Amsterdam, Holland,1993.
2. Robert Lindstrom: Multimedia Presentations Create dynamic
presentations that inspire, Osborne-McGraw Hill, USA, 1994.
3. Arch Luther: Designing Interactive Multimedia, antam Books, New York,
USA, 1992.
4. Mark Maubury: Intelligent Multimedia Interfaces, AAAIPress/The MIT
Press, California, USA, 1993.
5. Karen McGraw: Designing and Evaluating User Inetrfaces for
Knowledge_based Systems, Ellis Horwood Limite, West Sussex, England,
1992.
6. : , , -
, , 1994.
7. Ben Shneiderman: Designing the User Interface Strategies for Effective
Human-Computer Interaction, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Inc,
New York, USA, 1992.

http://cfg.cit.cornell.edu/cfg/design/contents.html
-
, ,
, , ..
.
http://www.depauw.edu/~dberque/hci/bell/index.html
Ben
Shneiderman Designing the User Interface -
, -
.
278
http://www.depauw.edu/~dberque/hci/chauner/main.htm
, , -
,
, ,
.
http://www.sju.edu/~jhodgson/gui/guihome.html

. -
,

.
13.

280

-
, , -
, -
. -
, , -
.
, -
.
, -
.
,
, -

, ,
.

:
.
.

.
.

3 -
;
3 ;
3 -
;
3
,
;
3
;

281
13.1
, , -
, . -

,
.
-
, :

, -
. -
-
.
, -
, -
.
, , -
.
-
, -
-
. -
, . -
-
,
.

-
-
-
, -
(bug)
. -
(crash) .
, -
, -
bugs, -
-
.
.
282
, -
-
,
.
,
, ,
-
,
,
.

.
-
-
, -
.

(testing) -
.
-
2000 (millennium bug). -
, -

.

-
:
1962 Mariner 1 -
Canaveral
. -
-
... (NASA) -
, -

283
.
. NASA
-
FORTRAN -
. 80 -
.
1990 -
-
AT&T, -
-
. 5
.
Pentium 1994 ,
-
.
Thomas Nicely Lynchburg
Virginia . -
,
-
-
450
1995 -
Denver . -

. -
-
, -
.

,
3,2 .
284
13.2
,
(debugging). -

.
,

. -
.

, -
.
-
, -
, ,
-
-
- . -
- , -
. .
-
-
.

.
13.3.

-
. -
,
.

,
-
. -
-
. .
(debuggers).

285

, -

-
.

:

(watch expressions)

. ,
,
. -

.
. 13.1.

(breakpoint) -
. -

.
, -
.

, -
.
-
.
286
. 13.2.

(history)
. -

.

, -
. -
(tracing) , -

.

-
-
.
. 13.3.

287
-
(.. -
, ), -
-
.

,
,
, -
.
13.4

. -

, -
.
288
. -
-
, .
, -
-
. .

- -
, - :
.
-
,
.
,

(exception error handler), -
. -
.
-

-
,
.
-
- :
-

-
Java, ADA C++ - .
- .
(exceptions),
Visual Basic -
, .
(On Error GoTo).
, -
, -
, -
.
-
, -
. -
(..
) , -
.

289

, .
,
.
-
-
. ,
( ) -
.

. -

.

.
-

. -

.

,
-
-
.

, , , ,
.
-
1. -
.
290
2. -
.
3.
.
4. .
5. -
.

1. , -
, 2, , 1986.
2. . -. : Visual Basic
4.0, , , 1997.
3. Ivars Peterson: Fatal Defect:Chasing killer Computer Bugs, Science
News, USA, 1995.

http://www.alsplace.com/home/pages/famous_bugs.htm

.
http://www.bugnet.com

.
http://www.guide-p.infoseek.com

.
http://www.netstuff.com/computerbug
.
http://www.techweb.com
, ,
2000.
http://www.year2000.co.nz
2000.
14.
-
292

-
.
,

, . -
, ,
, -
. VTOC (Visual Table
Of Contains), -
.
-
.

:
-
, -
.
-
.
-
( , ..).
.

.
.

3 ,
;
3 ;
3 -
;
3 ;
-
293
14.1
, -
, .
-
. -
. -

:
,
3 ( , - -

)
, -
3 ( , ) -
.
3 ( )
3 ( )
3
, , -
,
, -
, .
-
. -
. -
.
,
. -
,
. ,
, -
.
14.1.1 -
, -
. -
( -
), , -

. -
, -
294
. , -
, .
. -
:
3 .
3 .
,
!!
, -
.
-
-
.

1000 . ,
. -
.
:
, -
, .
(<>), , -
, (=) -
.
.
2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6,
7, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9.
:
-
295

2 2
3 4
5 1
6 5
7 1
8 6
9 6
.
1
: i, S, _, A[1000]
i <- 1
S <- 0
_ <- [i]
i < 1001
_ <> [i]
_, S
_ <- A[i]
S <- 0
_
S <- S+1
i <- i+1
_
_, S
_ 1
: i, S, _, A[1000]
i <- 1
S <- 0
_ <- [i]
i < 1001
_ = [i] i < 1001
S <- S+1
296
i <- i+1
_
_, S
. <- (i)
S <- 0
_
_ 2
3

: i, S, _, A[1000]

i <- 1
S <- 0
_ <- [i]
i < 1001
_= [i]
S <- S+1
i <- i+1

_ , S
_ <- [i]
S <- 0
_A
_
_, S
_ 3

-
.
. -
(i).
(i),
, (i). -

(i).
i
i<1001. _(i). -
, .. -
i<1001, i .
-
297
, ... -
.
, -
(=) (<>),
...TOTE....
:
3 .
3 , -
.
3 , .
,
(i) .
., S -
, .<-(i), s<-0" -
. -
, . -
.A, S ,
, ,
. , -
s<-0, .A<-A(i)" -
-
. ,
.
s<-s+1.
14.1.2
-
. ,
, -
, ,
.
. -
,
.
,
, 3
.
298
4 .
,
.
, -
.
-
.
_2

,
,
<
,

,
_
_ _2
, ,
.
;
.
-
.
3 6 (3!=1*2*3=6). -
, -
.
_3

, ,
, ,
<
<
, ,
-
299

<
, ,

, ,
_
_
<
, ,

<
, ,

, ,
_
_
_
_ _3
, -
24 (4!=1*2*3*4=24) -
, -
, -
.
-
, , -

, -
.
,
, -
.
,
, -
. -
,
, 16%,
, , 50%.
.
.
300
_2

,
,
>
- temp <-
<-
- <-temp
- _
. ,
_ _2

.
,
.
, , -
.

.
_3

:
, ,
<- 0
, ,
=0
<- 1
>
temp <-
<-
<- temp
<- 0
_
>
temp <-
<-
<- temp
<- 0
_
_
, ,
_ _3
-
301
, -
. =1 -
. -
, -
( ),
. > > -
, .
(>) (>, >).

.

.
14.1.3
-
.
, ,
.
,
-
, .

-
.
, -
, -
. . .
.
-
.
,
, -
.
-
, .
. -
.
, ,
. ,
; .
302
. -
; -
, -

.
(,
, ), -
. -
: , ;
12; 32;
, -
-
.
:
3 -
;
3
;
3 -
;
:
.
.
0 1.
.
.
I, V, X, L, C, D, M, -
-
.

,
.

. -
,
.
-
303
, -
-
. , -

. .

, , - -
, . -
-
, - , -
.
.
.
-
.

,
.
365 , , 366.
, , , , ,
31 .
, , , 30 .
28 , ,
29.
4,
100, 400. -
: 1984 ( 4), 1900 (-
4 100), 2000 (
4, 100, 400), 1993 .
.
4 1582
. 4 15 .
10 1923. 10
23 1923.
304
-
11/3/1923 22/3/1923. -
5/10/1582 14/10/1582.
, .
, -
.
3 , .
3 , .
.
3 , .
, -
.
3 ,
.

, ,
_1(, , , c)
c=0
_2(, , , c)
c=0
_3(, , , c)
c=0

_1(, , , c)
!
c <- 0
>0 >0 >0 c <- 1
_ _1
_2(, , , c)
!
c <- 1
(10< <23) =3 =1923 c <- 0
_ _2
_3(, , , c)
! ( =1 )
4 <- mod 4
100 <- mod 100
-
305
400 <- mod 400

<- 0
4=0
100=0
400=0
<- 1
_

<- 1
_
_
! (c=1 )
c <- 0

1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12
<=31 c <- 1
4, 6, 9, 11
<=30 TOTE c <- 1
2
=0 <=28 c <- 1
=1 <=29 c <- 1
_
_ _3
_2. -
,
.
.
, .
-
-
. -
.
.
14.1.4
, -
. :
. -
, (quick
306
sort), ( -
) ,
,
,
, -
,
,
, -
.

,
-
, -
.

, .
( -
).
.
number>0
<- +1
_ number<0
<- +1

<- +1
_
number<0
<- +1
_ number>0
<- +1

<- +1
_
-
307
number=0
<- +1
_ number<0
<- +1
<- +1
_
;
,
, -
,
. -

2 .
1000 . -
, -

.

3. , -
,
. -
,
.
:
.
,
.
,
.

-
, , -
.
308

. ;

12345. 6 :
6 =(1*1+2*3+3*5+4*7+5*13) mod 11
=(1*1+2*3+3*5+4*7+5*13) mod 11 =(1+6+15+28+65) mod 11 = 5.
123455.
, , -
6, ,
1000 .
6 : -
,
. 11.
. 11 0
10. 10, 6 0.
-
.
,
.
, -
,
1000 ,
, .
,
, ISBN -
-
.
14.2

-
.
14.1 -
.
-
309

-
,
-

-
.
. 14.1.
: .
-
.
,
, -
.
310
14.2.1
. , -
, -
, -
.
. -
-
-
.
. -
-
. (test file), -
, -
.
14.2.2
. -
,
, . -
.
. (test file)
,
-
-
. , -
.
.
-
. -
(users manual).
. -
,
. -
. -
, , -
, -
.
-
-
311
.

.
:
- - .
, -
.
, -
, .

. ,
-
.
. -

.
.
. -
, ,
.
.
,
-
, -
. -
. -
.
-
-
.
.

. -
, , .
-
. -
. -
312
2000

,
, ,
,
. , -
, -
, -

. , -

,
, -
.
, , -
,
.

.
HIPO (Hierarchy plus Input Process Output). -
,
. .
(Visual Table Of Contains, VTOC). -

.
- -
(Overview Hierarchy plus Input Process Output, Overview
HIPO). , ,

.
, ,
(Detail HIPO). ,
-
.
-
313

, VTOC,
. -
,
, ,
. -
,
. -
, .
VTOC
.
. 14.2. VTOC
14.2 -
, . -
, -
. , -
. ,
-
.
314
-
, ,
. (
), 0000.
1000, 3000 ...
9000 -
( 1000, 3000 .). -
, -
.
, -

. 1100
1300 1000 ..
-
.
, , , ,
, . -
, -
, .
,
. -
, , -
, -
.

-
, .
3
, -
l
( 3 , , , ).
l

l
.
, ,
.
, -
.
.
-
315
14.2.3
-
. , -
, , ,
, -
,
, . -
, .
-
.
, -
.
14.3
-
, -
(, , -
).
,
, , -
, , o
(version).
-
, -
. , ,
, , , -
(DOS ver.5 DOS ver.6),
, (Windows v.3.1, Windows
v.3.11). -
. -
,
-
(Windows 95, Windows98, Office 97 .).
,
, MS-DOS -
Windows.
316

, ,
.
; ;

. .

, , ,
, . ,
, , -
.,
, , , , ,
, .. ( ).
-
,
-
, , , .. ( ).
-
, -
( ).
-
. -
,
( ).
. -
,
(
).
, -
,
14.3.
-
.
, .
, -
, .
-
317
. 14.3.
-
, :
3 -
.
3 , -
.
3 .
3 (, )
.
3 (modules) -
.
3 -
.

, :
3 -
. -
.
3 . -
(source program).
3 , -
.
(object program).
318
3 "
.
3 -
, .
:
,
. -
, -
.
. 3 ,
, -
.
3 -
.
3 -
.
3 -
.
3 , -
-
.

. -
,
, -
. -
.

-
.
. :
3 -
.
3
.
3
.
-
319
3 -

.
3
. ...
.
14.4
.
. 14.4. -

-
.
-
.
-
,
.

.
-
.
320
, -
.
.
VTOC
.

, , HIPO, VTOC,
, .

1. ;
2. -
;
3. 3 ;
4.
;
5. -
(VTOC).
6. -
;
7. .
8. ;
9. ;
10. -
;
11. -
;

1. , -
, 1986.
2. . , , -
, 1992.
-
321

http://diamond.idbsu.edu/~philmac/cs125/980331.htm
.
http://129.219.88.111/softeval.html

.
http://www.acm.org/pubs/toc/Abstracts/cacm/62963.html

, , -
, ACM (Association of Computing Machinery).

................................48 Fibonacci ......................................................72

......................................57 ..................................................86
..................................................89, 90
...............................................58
.........................................91
.................................................54
......................................175, 177
...........................................58
.............................................................180
() ........................69, 223
, .............188
() .............................70, 223
............................................295
.......................................70
....................................298
() ....................71
..............................................303
() .........................71

algorithmic languages
- object oriented language
-
. , -
-
algorithm
.

- data abstraction -
. -

alphanumeric -
.
,
.. - loop
. , -
.
recursion -
- event -
. -
. -
recursive function

.
-
, - machine language
. -
.
analysis
programming
- language -
. .
object . graph ,
- , -
- .
.
write -
object program -
- .
.
328
data , - -
.
, -

.
program testing and debugging -
index , - .

program testing
-

.
.
pointer - -
- .
.
structure
tree - programming -
. -
, ,
, . -
, .
. : ,
.
read -
, . debugging -
-
procedural language
.

debugger -
. , -
, -
interactive -

-
.

() - assignement -
. .
interface software testing
, -
, - -
, - .
.
instruction -
interpreter - -

, .

329
program control variable -

verification -
.
.
compiler -
iteration -
-
. -
.
data processing
. event driven -
: , , - -
, .. -

software tools
.
-
. accuracy 1)
. 2) -
application
.
-
.
.
queue
software life cycle
-
, ,
.
.
error trapping
code -
-

-
() linked list , -
-
(pointer) . -
. , -
software .
, - software package
, -
-
. .
variable - software piracy -
- .
,
software
.
development environment -
330
- access
-
. .
table breakpoint
-
. .
() information - constant
, , - .
, ,
stack
-

.
.
() program -
string
. -
,
-
.

, merging -
.
.
programming -
. .
programmer - assembly language -

, , ,
, -
. .

program
.
specification
assembler -
, - -
. .
append condition -
. -
,

.
bottom-up approach
bug -
- .
- program design
.

331
- -
. - -
- .
.
subprogram
sorting - ,
- .
.
natural language
program
documentation - , -
. .
operand nesting H -
. -
.
operator
- pseudocode -
.
.
artificial intelligence -

a posteriori= background=, chart=

a priori= backslash= \ check digit=
abstraction= () backtracking= check sum=
access= backup= checking=
accessing= bar chart= choice=
accidence=, bell= , class=,
accuracy= benchmark= clear=
activation= beta test= client=
actual= blank (character)= clipping=
aid= blinking= code=
algorithm= block= coding=
alignment=, bookmark= collate=
alphanumeric= boolean (data type)= - colon= :
column=
alteration=, , -
box= combination=
ambersand= & braces= {} combining=,
ambiguious=, brackets= [] comma=
ambiguity= break key= command=,
analysis= break= command driven=
analyst= breakpoint=
analytic= browse=, command language=
animation= bubblesort= command line=
annotation= bug= comment=
append= build-in functions= - compact=
compare=
application=
business applications= compatibility=
approximate=

argument= compatible=
button=
array= compilation=
call=
artificial intelligence= - compiler=
call-by-reference=
computability= -
call-by-value=
assembler=
cancel= computational complexity=-
assembly language=
caret= ^
assignement=
carriage return character= computational=
at sign= @
computer instruction set= -
attribute=
catalog=
authentication= -
cell=, computer science= -
()

certification=
authoring languages= -
concatenation=
character code=
concept=
automation= character set=
conception=,
auxiliary= character=
334
conceptual= decrement= enhancements=, -

condition= default value=
entity=
conditional branch= default=
entry=,
definiteness=
conjuction=, , , enviroment=
definition=
/ equal=
delete=,
constant= equation=
deletion=
constraint= equivelence=
delimiter=
consultant= erase=
demo(stration)=
context= error=
design=
continue= error trapping=
development=
control character= - escape=
diagnostics= ()
evaluation=,
control point= diagram=
even=,
control variable= diagramming technique=-
event=,
convention=
digit= exclusion=
conversational=
digital= executable=
conversion=
dimension= execution=
copying=
directive= exit=
correction=
directory= expandability=
counter=,
discrete= exponent=
create=
disjunction=, - expression=
cursor= , factorial=
customer= display= failure=,
cut=, divide and conquer= - false=
cut-and-paste= -
fault=,
document=,
data= feature=
documentation=
data base= feed=
download=
data capture= feedback=, -
dummy instruction= -
data compression= -
field=
dump=
data definition= file=
duplicate=
data entry= finiteness=
dyadic operation=
data flow= flag=,
dynamic=
data processing= - flow chart=
editing= (, -
) font=
data structure= editor= foreground=
data type= effectiveness= form=, , ,
date= efficiency=, formal=
debugger=, - element=, () format=
embedding= formatting=
debugging=
empirical= free text=
decision=
emulation= function=
declaration=
encapsulation= global=

335
graph= job= monitor=,

greedy method= join=, , move=
hardware= jump= multimedia=
heap= justification= natural language=
help= key= negation=, ,

heuristic= keyword=
nested=
hyphen= label=
nesting=
hyphenation=, landscape=
nomenclature=
icon= library=
numeric=
identifier= (- licence=
) object=
life cycle=
ignore= object driven= -
link=, ,

image=, linked list=
object oriented=
immediate= linker=
odd=,
implication= linking=
office automation= -
implicit=, list=
implied= listing=, office=
improvement= literal= O-notation=
incompatibility= loader= operand=
indent= local= operation=
index= logic= operator=,
infinite loop= logical= optimal=
information= loop= option=
information processing= machine language= optional=
macro (instruction)= order=

inheritance=
main program= ordering=
input=
maintenance= output=,
insertion=,
manipulation= overflow=
installation=
manual=, overlay=
instance=
map= package=
instruction=
mark= parameter=
integer=
mask= parity=
interaction=
matching=, parsing=
interactive=
matrix= password=
interface=
menu= , paste=,
interpreter=
merging= patch=
interrupt=
mirroring= pattern=
intractable=
mode=, performance=
intricic=, , -
modify=, permission=
inverse= modular=, - permutation=

italics= planning=, -
module=, ()
item=
monadic operation= platform=,
iteration=
336
pointer= reserved word= structure programming=

restart=
polymorphism=
retrieval= subprogram=
polynomial=
return= subroutine=
pop=
row=, sum=
portability=
rule= syntax=
portrait=
run= table=
precision=
save= testing=
primary key=
scalar=, text=
print=,
scope= time complexity= -
procedure=

processing= scroll bar=
tool=
program= scrolling=
toolbar=
prompt= searching=
toolbox=
property= secondary key=
tracing=
pseudocode= semantics=
transform=
pull down menu= - separation=
translate=,
sequence=, ,
translator=
push= sequential=
trapping=
quantity= serial=
tree=
queue= set=
trial=
quit=, shift=,
unary=,
quotation mark= simulation=
unconditional jump= -
radian= software=
rank= sorting= underflow=
read= source= underscore= _
ready= space complexity= undo=
real=
update=
record= specification=
upgrade=
recursion= SQL(Structure Query Language)=-
user=
reference=,
stack= utility program=
relation=
standardization= validation=
relative=
statement=, (- variable=
release= ()
) verification=
reliability=
static= verify=
replica=
status= version=, ,
reply=
step= virus=
report=, ,
straight exchange sort= - visual=
()
watchpoint=
requirement=
string= window=
rerun=
structural= write=
reserved=
.-., , , , 1994

al Khowarizmi 25 64 29
ALGOL 120 16, 81 10
Allen P. 122 - 317 28
BASIC 122, 123 232 128
Bolzano 87 138 210
Clipper 126 - 85
COBOL 120, 121 123, 136, 231 253
dBASE 126 293 241, 261
Dijkstra E. 133 301 138
Fibonacci 72 90 219
FIFO 61, 62 293 53
FORTRAN 119, 120 85 8
Gates B. 122 88 157
GOTO 134 100 123, 132
HIPO 312 26 85
Hopper G.M. 121 60 74
JAVA 124 152 87
Kemeny G. 122 Fibonacci 72
67
Kurtz T. 122
236 67
LIFO 59, 62
25, 155
LISP 122, 124
315
LOGO 123 285 284
NP- 111 138 138
OCCAM 137 40 31, 153
Papert S. 123
PASCAL 123 285
238 154
PROLOG 122
4 127 282, 318
Ritchie D. 125
- 128 28
SMALTALK 235
- 118 220
SQL 129
- 119 37
VTOC 312
- 118 236
Wirth N. 55, 123
130 254
A 248 26, 155
30 75 39, 173
128 8
25 97
130, 148 8, 32, 165
286 56, 73, 185 25
69, 222 75 297
338
25, 71 101 59, 219, 225

111 60 118
105

118
235 69, 222
153, 210
154 109
128
132 137
138
286 209
156
286 67
140
26
131
11 138
318
26 56, 185
5 ASCII 326
234 8, 53 66
67 236 67
236 104 305
315 110 308
28 216 31
3 31
2000 4, 282, 312 130
281 17
130 - 16 132, 205
73 - 16 216
282 - 17 293
165 - 17 148
130
- 17
70
- 111
- 16 317
233
- 17 110
87
- 17 207
249
117
31, 151
137
138
111 138
127
28, 130
110

64
131 46
-
125, 238 285 308
45 31, 149
150 63
60
125 56

AEPP Book PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AEPP Book PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

-

col 90 166 123 106 127 612 Sum

11. I. Oliver: Programming Classics: Implementing the Worlds Best

9. E. Horowitz, S. Sahni and S. Rajasekaran, Computer Algorithms,

. 6.3. COBOL Grace Marray Hopper

. 6.4. BASIC 1964 Dartmouth College

. 6.5. LOGO 1967

BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic

. 6.6. LISP 1959 .

int main(int argc, char* argv[])

2.71828, -112.45, 0.45 . -

>= + >= (+)/

< ^2-4** < 0

<= <= 500

writeln( , name[i], = , sum);

PROCEDURE input(var x:REAL);

SUB Eisodos (nb)

SUB Ektypwsh (res)

FUNCTION Emvado (r)

FUNCTION factorial(n:INTEGER) : INTEGER;

FUNCTION Factorial (n)

(), (Cancel) (Retry).

400 <- mod 400

................................48 Fibonacci ......................................................72

program control variable -

programmer - assembly language -

a posteriori= background=, chart=

conceptual= decrement= enhancements=, -

graph= job= monitor=,

macro (instruction)= order=

pointer= reserved word= structure programming=

25, 71 101 59, 219, 225

You might also like