See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263351433

Estimation of Soil Erosion By Using USLE

Article January 2010

CITATIONS READS

0 574

1 author:

Raghu N. Prajapati
Nepal Engineering College
7 PUBLICATIONS 10 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Delineation of Run of River Hydropower Potential of Karnali Basin-Nepal Using GIS and HEC-HMS
View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Raghu N. Prajapati on 25 June 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Estimation of Soil Erosion by using USLE
Er. Raghu N. Prajapati
Department of Civil Engineering
Khwopa Engineering College

Introduction
Erosion, the detachment of particles of soil and surfacial sediments and rocks, occurs by hydrological
(fluvial) processes of sheet erosion, rolling and gully erosion, and through mass wasting and the action of
wind erosion, both fluvial and eolian (wind) is generally greatest in arid and semi-arid regions, where soil is
poorly developed and vegetation provides relatively little protection. Soil erosion reduces the levels of the
basic plant nutrients needed for crops, trees and others plants, and decreases the diversity and abundance of
soil organisms.

Soil erosion is an important social and economic problem and an essential factor in assessing ecosystem
health and function. Sediment yield from a basin is that portion of the eroded soil which leaves the basin. In
almost every case the real need is to forecast future conditions, and yet the material presented herein
focuses on hindcasting a historical period. That is because land use, rainfall, and runoff are known for
hindcasting, However, in forecasting future yields, all these parameters must be estimated. Moreover,
hindcasting is the required technique for confirming that the procedure will be valid for the proposed
study area. Estimation of erosion is essential to issues of land and water management, including sediment
transport and storage in lowlands, reservoirs and irrigation and hydropower systems. Rates of soil erosion
can be estimated using erosion prediction equations developed during the last four decades. Among these
algorithms are Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and its recent updated the Revised Universal Soil
Loss Equation (RUSLE) or Modified University Soil Equation (MUSLE).

Soil Erosion
Sedimentation is the processes of erosion, transportation, deposition and the compaction of sediment. These
are natural processes that have been active throughout geological times and have shaped the present
landscape of our world. The major external dynamic agents of sedimentation or erosion are water, wind,
gravity and ice. Thus, Erosion is the loosening or dissolving and removal of earthy or rock materials from
any part of he earths surface, is often differentiated according to eroding agent (wind, water etc).will be
defined as the detachment and removal of rock particles by the action of water and wind. Fluvial sediment
is a collective term meaning and accumulation of rock and mineral particles transported or deposited and
accumulation of rock and mineral particles transported or deposited by flowing water. Aeolian sediment is
that moved or deposited by wind.

The Hindu Kush- Himalayan region is considered to be the Himalayans. This includes the northern small
part of Afghanistan, the northern part of Pakistan, the Kashmir Region, the northern part of India, Nepal,
Bhutan, Tibet and some southern parts of China, Myanmar and some parts of Bangladesh. In the
Himalayans, the high concentrations of sediments in the rivers are related to climatic, tectonic and
geological factors. The Himalayas share a common pattern of precipitation, characterized by the occurrence
of yearly monsoon or wet season. 74 % annual precipitation will fall in June September (Divas B.
Basnyat, et al) is the cause of a large number of landslides. Most parts of the Himalayan region are
geologically weak and unstable thats why, these regions prone to erosion. In addition, the Himalayan
regions have been greatly affected by soil erosion due to intensive deforestation, large-scale road
construction, mining and cultivation on steep slope (Kothyari, 1996, Sangroula).

The worlds largest rivers in terms of sediment discharge are summarized in Table 1:
The rivers in Himalayans have the highest sediment discharge in the world.

Table 1: Ranking of the worlds rivers by sediment discharge to sea (Morris and Fan, 1997)
River and country Average sediment discharge
( million tones / year)
Ganges / Brahamaputra , India 1670
Yellow, China 1080
 Amazon, Brazil 900
Yangtze, China 478
Irrawaddy , Burma 285
Magdalena, Colombia 220
Mississippi, USA 210
Orinoco, Venezuela 210
Hungho (Red), Vietnam 160

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) shows that the total global sediment discharge is about
14 x 109 tons / year (UNEP, 2003). Takeuchi (2004) reported that the global suspended sediment
discharges to sea range between 15x109 to 20x109 tons/ year. The relative suspended sediment discharge
per region is presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Suspended sediment discharge and distribution per region (UNEP, 2003)
S. No. Region Suspended sediment Distribution of Remarks
discharge suspended sediment
(million tones/year) discharge (%)
1 Asia 6349 47.1 Global
2 Oceanic Islands 3000 22.2 suspended
3 Central and South 2230 16.5 sediment
America discharge is
4 North America 1020 7.6 about 15 to
5 Africa 500 3.7 20 x 109
6 Europe 314 2.4 tons/year
7 Australia 62 0.5

1
 Fig 1: Rill formation due to rainfall

Fig 2: Gully formation due to high rainfall intensity Fig 3: Sheet Erosion

Soil Erosion in Nepal

Soil erosion from the Himalayan belt is considered to be one of unreturnable ecological disaster, which is
occurring annually with the onset of monsoon, it is often linked with the population rise and also
deforestation. Erosion is very irregularly distributed in time and space, and it is difficult to determine how
representative a particular site is. It is assumed that about 5 to 10 tons/ha/year of soil eroding from the land
area of Nepal. That means about 2.5 to 5 m3 of soil is removed per hectare per year or about 0.2 to 0.5 mm
depth from the top.

Up to the middle part of 20th century there was very little concern about the soil erosion. After 1960s there
has been all of a sudden evidence of serious concern of the soil erosion deforestation and desertification of
Himalayan in general and Nepal in particular. 78 % of flow in 4 major basins (Koshi, Narayani, Karnali,
Mahakali), 6 % in 5 medium basins and 16% in Southern Rivers where 42% of population in major basins,
16 % in medium basins and 42 % in Southern Rivers (Divas B. Basnyat, et al) are availabled. To be more
particular, the concern came after the study of Karnali Chesapane Dam by Nippon Koei (1966). It has been
indicated that about 93.5 million tons of sediment in a year is removed from the drainage area to the river,
in this calculation the trap efficiency is not included and also bed load is not measured.
 N
River Basins of Nepal

Mahakali
Karnali
CHINA
(TIBET)

Babai
W_Rapti Gandaki

Karnali Chesapane Dam

Bagmati Koshi
INDIA Kamala
Kankai

60 0 60 120 180 Kilometers

Sediment Load in Relation to Soil Erosion
Laban P (1978) did some measurement about the rate of erosion and sedimentation. He presented a detailed
table giving the rate of erosion in specific areas as given in the table.

Table 3: Sediment loads in Nepalese Rivers

River Catchment Total annual sediment Sediment load Erosion rate
area load in m3 (ton/ha/ yr) (ton/ha/yr)

Tamur 5900 29.6x106 80 240

6
Arun 36533 34.6x10 15 45
6
Sunkoshi 19230 54.2x10 45 135
Bagmati 585 2662769 45.5 96
Trisuli 4110 7610210 18.5 55
6
Karnali 42890 220x10 51 153

Laban P (1978) estimates the following overall erosion rates in different areas of Nepal

1. Churia hill - east 7.8 - 36.8 tpms/hectare/year

- West 20 200
2. Mahabharat lekh 31.5 140
3. Central Nepal 63 420
4. Middle Mountain 27 45
5. Kathmandu Valley
a) Without forest 125 570
b) Kathmandu with forest 8
c) Phetal pasture 9

Table 4: Accepted rates of tolerable soil loss

Description of location and site condition Rate (tons/ha/yr) Reference
USA, under farming practices recommended by 2.5 12.5 Hudson, 1971
conservation service

1
East Africa 10.0 12.5 Hudson, 1970

A probably reasonable figure for tolerable soil loss in 12.0 20.0

Nepal

Source: (Lapan. P, 1978)

USLE- a mathematical modeling currently in Practice-

The large variety of sediment yield methods can be placed into two broad categories: methods based on
direct measurement and mathematical methods. Only those based on direct field measurements are
considered a rigorous approach; mathematical methods are trend indicators at best. The Universal Soil
Loss Equation (USLE) is the most popular mathematical model than others. Soil loss equations, evolving
since 1940, have been developed for use in small, rural upland watersheds. The USLE is one of the most
recent and most widely used of these equations. It was developed to predict the long term average soil loss
from agricultural land. The pertinent parameters were assembled into the following regression equation by
Wischmeier and Smith.

The general form of the universal soil loss equation is

A = R x K x LS x C x P
In metric units
A (in f/ha) = R(in J/ha)xK(in t/J)x LSxCxP
Where, A = Soil loss per unit area per time period, tones per acre per year
R = Rainfall erosion index
K = Soil erodibility factor
LS = Length-Slope Factor
C = Cover and management factor
P = Erosion Control Factor

To calculate soil loss, each of the factors is assigned a numerical value. The five factors are then multiplied
together to produce an estimate of soil eroded from the site in and average year.

Parameters of USLE
Rainfall Erosion Index (R)
The rainfall erosion index R is a measure of the erosive force and intensity of rain in a normal year. The
two components of the factor are the total energy E and the maximum 30 minute intensity I30 of storms.
The magnitude of surface soil erosion is directly related to the intensity of precipitation. The rainfall
intensity data is very scarce in Nepal, so direct assessment of rainfall intensity throughout the country is
impossible. With the help of rainfall measured in Kathmandu weather station, Fetzer and Jung (1978)
calculated R value as 70 for moderated low intensity rainfall where as the world value range between 10
and 1000. it is commonly acknowledged that rainfall intensity relatively higher rainfall while areas in the
high himal have relatively lower rainfall intensity.

Soil Erodibility Factor (K)

The soil erodibility factor K is measure of the susceptibility of soil particles to detachments and transport
by rainfall and runoff. Texture is the principle factor affecting K, but structures, organic matter and
permeability also contribute. K value ranges from 0.02 to 0.69. The soil with more developed soil
structures and higher infiltration is less erodible. Red soils in Nepal are notorious for sheet and gully
erosion because of the low infiltration rates and tendency towards surface crusting. A nomograph method
using analyses of site soil is the most reliable. The use of the nomograph requires a particle size analysis to
determine the percentage of sand, very fine sand, silt and clay. The determination of the K values should be
based on the soil exposed during the critical rainfall months. On the large sites, several samples should be
taken and analyzed separately to ensure that differences in soil texture are detected.

2
 Fig 4 : Triangular nomograph fro estimating K value

Length-Slope Factor (FS)

The slope lengthgradient factor LS describes the combined effect of slope length and slope gradient. Slope
length has been recognized as a significant factor affecting soil loss. It is the ratio of soil of loss per unit
area on a site to the corresponding loss from a 72.6 ft long experimental plot with a 9 percent slope.

The FS value is derived from Wischmeirs empirical equation

LS = (65.41xs2/( s2+10000)+ 4.56/ (s2+10000)+ 0.065)(l/72.5)m

Where, LS = topographic factor

l = slope length
s = slope steepness
m = exponent dependent upon the slope steepness
(0.2 for slopes < 1 %, 0.3 for slope 1 to 3 %, 0.4 for slopes 3.5 to 4.5 % and 0.5 for slopes
>5 %)

Cover Factor (C)

The cover factor C is defined as the ratio of soil from land under specified crop to the corresponding loss
from tilled, bare soil. The C is not the same as the runoff coefficient C used in the rational method. In
USLE, the C factor reduces the soil loss estimate according to the effectiveness of vegetation at preventing
detachment and transport of soil particles. Any product that reduces the amount of soil exposed to the
raindrop impact will reduce erosion. Greater the density of vegetation, the less is the erosion of the soil
surface. Overgrazed lands results in the most sever surface erosion while multistoried forests have the
lowest levels of topsoil erosion. The table below gives the C values for various ground covers.

When soil loss surface is bare, C is 1.0. At the other end of the scale, undisturbed native vegetation is
assigned a value of 0.01; hence the advantage of retaining as much existing vegetation as possible is clear

Table 5: C values for Soil Loss Equation

Type of Cover C factor Soil loss reduction, %
None 1.0 0
Native vegetation (undisturbed) 0.01 99
Temporary seeding
90 % cover, annual grasses, no mulch 0.1 90

3
 Wood fiber mulch, ton/acre ( 1.7 t/ ha), with seed 0.5 50

Excelsior mat, jute 0.3 70

Straw mulch:
1.5 tons / acre (3.4 t/ha), tacked down 0.2 80
4 tons / acre (9.0 t/ha), tacked down 0.05 95

Erosion Control Factor (P)

The erosion control factor P is defined as the ratio of soil loss with a given surface condition to soil loss
with-downhill plowing. Practices that reduce the velocity of runoff and the tendency of runoff to flow
directly down slope reduce the P factor.

Table 6: P factor for Construction Sites

Surface Condition P Value
Compacted and smooth 1.3
Track walked along contour 1.2
Track walked up and down slope 0.9
Punched straw 0.9
Rough, irregular cut 0.9
Loose to 12 in (30 cm) depth 0.8
A value is estimated for each of these variables using information gained through a field reconnaissance of
the watershed to enter tables and nomographs.

Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE)

The universal soil loss equation was modified by Williams with the resulting equation termed the Modified
USLE (MUSLE). The MUSLE allows the estimation of soil losses for each precipitation event throughout
the year, thereby becoming an event model rather than an average annual runoff model. As an event model,
the MUSLE and similar techniques have more application to crops analyses. The full equation defining the
MUSLE is:
Y = 95 * ( [ Q * qp ]**0.56) *K*C*P*LS
Where
Y = Sediment yield from an individual strom through sheet and rill erosion only, tons
Q = Strom runoff volume in ac-ft
qp = Peak runoff rate in cubic feet per second
LS = Slope length and gradient factor
K, C, P = as defined previously for the USLE

The MUSLE is simply the USLE with the rainfall erosion index replaced by the runoff rate term. The Q
and qp terms would be obtained from the runoff hydrograph with Q used in estimating the amount of
soil detachment and qp used in determining the volume of soil transported. The sediment yield for each
event is summed to obtain each years total with average annual sediment yield being the average of all the
yearly values. Long term simulation is normally required to obtain a representative estimate. While much
additional information is gained from the use of the MUSLE and the necessity of determining an
appropriate sediment delivery ratio is eliminated, this technique requires considerable data gathering and
calibration effort to apply correctly.

Limitation of USLE / MUSLE

4
 Even the USLE is a strong mathematical tool to estimate the soil erosion; there are some points of caution
when using the USLE:

Channel Projects
The USLE gives no information on gradation of the eroded sediment. Consequently, the equations
would be of limited value in analyzing the effects of a channel project where sands and gravels are of
primary interest.

Construction Sites
The significance of selecting coefficients can be illustrated by looking at the soil erodibility factor, K.
Soil in a construction area would be expected to exhibit similar erosion to agricultural land during the
first rain event after the ground was disturbed, but successive rainfall events would erode that soil at a
reduced rate because the construction site is not plowed regularly.

Erosion Mechanisms
The canalization of surface water runoff due to construction may increase gully and channel erosion
significantly, and the USLE would miss that altogether because it is formulated for sheet and rill
erosion.

Sediment Transport
There is no transport function in the USLE, and a watershed sediment delivery ratio must be applied to
account for overland deposition, however, the validity of results is questionable when the USLE is
applied to sub areas in excess of a few square miles

Runoff
A separate rainfall runoff model is needed to calculate flood volume and flood peak runoff rate.
Calibration is usually against measured water volume with at least 3 years of data normally needed.

Confirmation
Comparison and confirmation of sediment yield calculated with USLE / MUSLE should be made
against that from other techniques. A report by Dyhouse describes a study in which sediment yield,
which had been calculated by a method similar to MUSLE, was calibrated using a flow-duration
sediment transport integration.

Conclusion
This paper has dealt the procedure to find out the soil erosion using USLE model. It should be understood
that the USLE model alone in itself is not sufficient for finding out the degradation rates and monitoring the
watershed degradation and it is better if the result obtained from the model is verified with sediment
erosion rate that we obtained from the measurement of sediment in the particular area with the help of
sediment soil in the river. For mountainous country like Nepal, it is not easy to apply the model because of
variation of inclination, soil texture and intensity of rainfall from place to place in a small stretch of land.

Reference
1. Shrestha,R.(2001), Introduction of USLE, PRABIDHI, An annual technical publication
2. Sangroula, D.P. (2007),Sediment Management for Sustainability of Storage Projects in
Himalayas-A case study of the Kulekhani Reservoir in Nepal, International Conference on Small
Hydropower Hydro Sri Lanka
3. Chih, T. and Timothy, J. (1998), Surface erosion, sediment transport, and reservoir sedimentation
4. Engineering and Design Sedimentation Investigations of Rivers and Reservoirs, Department of
The Army, Office of the chief of Engineers, Washington, D.C., Engineer Manual No. 1110-2-
4000
5. Ven Te Chow et. al., Applied Hydrology, McGRAW- Hill International Editions
6. Sedimentation Engineering, ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice No. 54
7. Galay.V. et.al., Himalayan Sediments Issues and Guidelines
8. Lysne, D.K. et.al.(1995), Sediment control: recent developments for headwork, Hydropower and
Dam

View publication stats