Technological University of the Philippines

College of Engineering

Design of Experiment

Pressure Measuring Instruments

Course Code: ME 15L Program: BSME

Course Title: ME lab 3 Date Performed:
Section: 5-D Date Submitted:
Members: Instructor: Engr. Nelson D. dela Pea, Jr.
1.Llorera, Jeshua B. Leader
2.Cruz, Patrick Safety officer
3.Villalino, Arnold Quality Inspector
4.Castro, Edgar Document Controller
5.Pagkaliwangan, Alma Mae Asst. Document Controller
6.
1. Intended Learning Objectives (ILOs):
The students shall be able to:

1.1 To be familiar with Pressure Measuring Instrument.

1.2 Explain the functions of each Instrument and Operation.
1.3 To know the principles and usage of different Pressure Instruments.
1.4 Differentiate the different types of valves.
1.5 Developed professional work ethics, including precision, safety and ability to follow instructions.

2. Discussion:

Pressure Measurement

Pressure measurement is the analysis of an applied force by a fluid (liquid or gas) on a

surface. Pressure is typically measured in units of force per unit of surface area. Many techniques have
been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum. Instruments used to measure and display
pressure in an integral unit are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges. A manometer is a good
example as it uses a column of liquid to both measure and indicate pressure. Likewise the widely
used Bourdon gauge is a mechanical device which both measures and indicates, and is probably the best
known type of gauge.
A vacuum gauge is a pressure gauge used to measure pressures lower than the ambient atmospheric
pressure, which is set as the zero point, in negative values (e.g.: -15 psi or -760 mmHg equals total
vacuum). Most gauges measure pressure relative to atmospheric pressure as the zero point, so this form
of reading is simply referred to as "gauge pressure". However, anything greater than total vacuum is
technically a form of pressure. For very accurate readings, especially at very low pressures, a gauge that
uses total vacuum as the zero point may be used, giving pressure readings in an absolute scale.

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Other methods of pressure measurement involve sensors which can transmit the pressure reading to a
remote indicator or control system (telemetry).

Absolute, gauge and differential pressures zero reference

Pressure measurements, such as for vehicle tire pressure, are usually made relative to ambient air
pressure. In other cases measurements are made relative to a vacuum or to some other specific reference.
When distinguishing between these zero references, the following terms are used:

Absolute pressure is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, using an absolute scale, so it is

equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.

Gauge pressure is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute

pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted. To distinguish a
negative pressure, the value may be appended with the word "vacuum" or the gauge may be
labeled a "vacuum gauge." These are further divided into two subcategories: high and low vacuum
(and sometimes ultra-high vacuum). The applicable pressure ranges of many of the techniques
used to measure vacuums have an overlap. Hence, by combining several different types of gauge,
it is possible to measure system pressure continuously from 10 mbardown to 1011 mbar.

Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points.

The zero reference in use is usually implied by context, and these words are added only when clarification
is needed. Tire pressure and blood pressure are gauge pressures by convention, while atmospheric
pressures, deep vacuum pressures, and altimeter pressures must be absolute. For most working
fluids where a fluid exists in a closed system, gauge pressure measurement prevails. Pressure instruments
connected to the system will indicate pressures relative to the current atmospheric pressure. The situation
changes when extreme vacuum pressures are measured; absolute pressures are typically used instead.
Differential pressures are commonly used in industrial process systems. Differential pressure gauges have
two inlet ports, each connected to one of the volumes whose pressure is to be monitored. In effect, such a
gauge performs the mathematical operation of subtraction through mechanical means, obviating the need
for an operator or control system to watch two separate gauges and determine the difference in readings.

Pressure Units

Pressure units

v Technical Standard Pounds per

Pascal Bar Torr
atmosphere atmosphere square inch
t
e (Pa) (bar) (at) (atm) (Torr) (psi)
7.50061 1.4503771
1 Pa 1 N/m2 105 1.0197105 9.8692106
03 04

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 100 kPa
1 bar 105 1.0197 0.98692 750.06 14.50377
106 dyn/cm
2
9.80665
1 at 0.980665 1 kp/cm2 0.967841 735.5592 14.22334
104
1.01325
1 atm 1.01325 1.0332 1 760 14.69595
105
1/760 1 Torr
1.3332241 1.3595511 1.9336781
1 Torr 133.3224 1.3157891
03 03 02
03 1 mmHg
6.89481 7.0306910
1 psi 6.8948102 6.8046102 51.71493 1 lbf /in2
03 2

The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per square metre (N/m2). This special
name for the unit was added in 1971; before that, pressure in SI was expressed in units such as N/m 2.
When indicated, the zero reference is stated in parenthesis following the unit, for example 101 kPa (abs).
The pound per square inch (psi) is still in widespread use in the US and Canada, for measuring, for
instance, tire pressure. A letter is often appended to the psi unit to indicate the measurement's zero
reference; psia for absolute, psig for gauge, psid for differential, although this practice is discouraged by
the NIST.

Because pressure was once commonly measured by its ability to displace a column of liquid in a
manometer, pressures are often expressed as a depth of a particular fluid ( e.g., inches of water).
Manometric measurement is the subject of pressure head calculations. The most common choices for a
manometer's fluid are mercury (Hg) and water; water is nontoxic and readily available, while mercury's
density allows for a shorter column (and so a smaller manometer) to measure a given pressure. The
abbreviation "W.C." or the words "water column" are often printed on gauges and measurements that use
water for the manometer.

Atmospheric pressures are usually stated using hectopascal (hPa), kilopascal (kPa), millibar (mbar) or
atmospheres (atm). In American and Canadian engineering, stress is often measured in kip. Note that
stress is not a true pressure since it is not scalar. In the cgs system the unit of pressure was the barye (ba),
equal to 1 dyncm2. In the mts system, the unit of pressure was the pieze, equal to 1 sthene per square
metre.

Many other hybrid units are used such as mmHg/cm 2 or grams-force/cm2 (sometimes as [[kg/cm2]] without
properly identifying the force units). Using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or gram-force (or their
symbols) as a unit of force is prohibited in SI; the unit of force in SI is the newton (N).

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Static and dynamic pressure
Static pressure is uniform in all directions, so pressure measurements are independent of direction in an
immovable (static) fluid. Flow, however, applies additional pressure on surfaces perpendicular to the flow
direction, while having little impact on surfaces parallel to the flow direction. This directional component of
pressure in a moving (dynamic) fluid is called dynamic pressure. An instrument facing the flow direction
measures the sum of the static and dynamic pressures; this measurement is called the total
pressure or stagnation pressure. Since dynamic pressure is referenced to static pressure, it is neither
gauge nor absolute; it is a differential pressure.

While static gauge pressure is of primary importance to determining net loads on pipe walls, dynamic
pressure is used to measure flow rates and airspeed. Dynamic pressure can be measured by taking the
differential pressure between instruments parallel and perpendicular to the flow. Pitot-static tubes, for
example perform this measurement on airplanes to determine airspeed. The presence of the measuring
instrument inevitably acts to divert flow and create turbulence, so its shape is critical to accuracy and the
calibration curves are often non-linear.

Pressure Instruments and its other types

Many instruments have been invented to measure pressure, with different advantages and disadvantages.
Pressure range, sensitivity, dynamic response and cost all vary by several orders of magnitude from one
instrument design to the next. The oldest type is the liquid column (a vertical tube filled with mercury)
manometer invented by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643. The U-Tube was invented by Christiaan Huygens in
1661.

Electronic pressure measuring instrument

The basis for an electronic pressure measuring instrument is formed by the pressure sensor. It
converts the measurement parameter of pressure into an electronic signal. The advantage of
electronic pressure measuring instruments lies in the excellent dynamic performance and the low
material stress. This gives them a high load resistance and long-term stability. They are available
in very small sizes.

Mechatronic pressure measuring instrument

Electronic assemblies or components are integrated into a mechanical pressure measuring
instruments The measured pressure is displayed locally, however, in addition, the pressure
measuring instrument offers an electrical signal or includes an electrical switching function. With
these instruments, the measured value can also be read reliably on site if the power supply fails or
the measuring signal is disrupted. With the combination of mechanical measuring instruments with
different signals and switches, this results in a comprehensive range of mechatronic pressure
measuring instruments. They work without any kind of mechanical contact, consequently they are
wear-resistant, and there's absolutely no influence on the pressure measuring instrument.

Diaphragm seals

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 Even for the most demanding measuring requirements, you'll find the right solution with WIKA.
Diaphragm seals enable pressure measurement with harsh conditions such as, for example,
corrosive, highly viscous or fibrous media, very high temperatures, awkwardly placed measuring
points, hygienic regulations or also toxic media or media harmful to the environment.

Mechanical pressure measuring instrument

Because of their robustness and simple handling, indicating pressure measuring instruments are
widely used. Their elastic pressure elements deform under the influence of pressure. The
measuring system is made from a capsule element, diaphragm element or Bourdon tube. The
measuring systems are made from copper alloys, alloyed steels or, if required for specific
measuring tasks, from special materials. WIKA manufactures mechanical pressure measuring
instruments with scale ranges from 0 0.5 mbar up to 0 7,000 bar with indication accuracies of
up to 0.1 %. For pressure measurement with high dynamic pressure loads or vibration, you will find
mechanical pressure measuring instruments with liquid filling in the WIKA portfolio. Through their
damping, they are optimally protected against destruction.

Types of Mechanical pressure measuring instrument

Hydrostatic gauges

Hydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) compare pressure to the hydrostatic force
per unit area at the base of a column of fluid. Hydrostatic gauge measurements are independent of the
type of gas being measured, and can be designed to have a very linear calibration. They have poor
dynamic response.

Piston-type gauge
Piston-type gauges counterbalance the pressure of a fluid with a spring (for example tire-pressure
gauges of comparatively low accuracy) or a solid weight, in which case it is known as a deadweight
tester and may be used for calibration of other gauges. Pressure is sensed by the movement of a precisely
ground floating piston/magnet in a precision bore against a calibrated spring. Any variation in pressure on
either side of the piston/magnet will cause the magnet to move proportionally to the change in differential
pressure. A rotary pointer magnet located close to the internal magnet, but outside the pressure housing,

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follows the movement of the piston magnet and indicates differential pressure on the dial.

Liquid column (manometer)

Liquid column gauges consist of a column of liquid in a tube whose ends are exposed to different
pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight (a force applied due to gravity) is in equilibrium with
the pressure differential between the two ends of the tube (a force applied due to fluid pressure). A very
simple version is a U-shaped tube half-full of liquid, one side of which is connected to the region of interest
while the reference pressure (which might be the atmospheric pressure or a vacuum) is applied to the
other. The difference in liquid level represents the applied pressure. The pressure exerted by a column of
fluid of height h and density is given by the hydrostatic pressure equation, P = hg. Therefore, the
pressure difference between the applied pressure Pa and the reference pressure P0 in a U-tube manometer
can be found by solving Pa P0 = hg. In other words, the pressure on either end of the liquid (shown in
blue in the figure) must be balanced (since the liquid is static) and so Pa = P0 + hg. In most liquid column
measurements, the result of the measurement is the height, h, expressed typically in mm, cm, or inches.
The h is also known as the pressure head. When expressed as a pressure head, pressure is specified in
units of length and the measurement fluid must be specified.

McLeod gauge
A McLeod gauge isolates a sample of gas and compresses it in a modified mercury manometer until the
pressure is a few millimetres of mercury. The technique is slow and unsuited to continual monitoring, but is
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capable of good accuracy. Unlike other manometer gauges, the McLeod gauge reading is dependent on
the composition of the gas since the interpretation relies on the sample compressing as an ideal gas. Due
to the compression process, the McLeod gauge completely ignores partial pressures from non-ideal vapors
that condense, such as pump oils, mercury, and even water if compressed enough . Useful range: from
around 104 torr (roughly 102 Pa) to vacuums as high as 106 Torr (0.1 mPa), 0.1 mPa is the lowest direct
measurement of pressure that is possible with current technology. Other vacuum gauges can measure
lower pressures, but only indirectly by measurement of other pressure-controlled properties. These indirect
measurements must be calibrated to SI units via a direct measurement, most commonly a McLeod gauge.

Aneroid

Aneroid gauges are based on a metallic pressure-sensing element that flexes elastically under the effect of
a pressure difference across the element. "Aneroid" means "without fluid," and the term originally
distinguished these gauges from the hydrostatic gauges described above. However, aneroid gauges can
be used to measure the pressure of a liquid as well as a gas, and they are not the only type of gauge that
can operate without fluid. For this reason, they are often called mechanicalgauges in modern language.
Aneroid gauges are not dependent on the type of gas being measured, unlike thermal and ionization
gauges, and are less likely to contaminate the system than hydrostatic gauges. The pressure sensing
element may be a Bourdon tube, a diaphragm, a capsule, or a set of bellows, which will change shape in
response to the pressure of the region in question. The deflection of the pressure sensing element may be
read by a linkage connected to a needle, or it may be read by a secondary transducer. The most common
secondary transducers in modern vacuum gauges measure a change in capacitance due to the
mechanical deflection. Gauges that rely on a change in capacitance are often referred to as capacitance
manometers

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Bourdon pressure gauge

The Bourdon pressure gauge uses the principle that a flattened tube tends to straighten or regain its
circular form in cross-section when pressurized. Although this change in cross-section may be hardly
noticeable, and thus involving moderate stresses within the elastic range of easily workable materials,
the strain of the material of the tube is magnified by forming the tube into a C shape or even a helix, such
that the entire tube tends to straighten out or uncoil, elastically, as it is pressurized. Eugene
Bourdon patented his gauge in France in 1849, and it was widely adopted because of its superior
sensitivity, linearity, and accuracy; Edward Ashcroft purchased Bourdon's American patent rights in 1852
and became a major manufacturer of gauges. Also in 1849, Bernard Schaeffer in Magdeburg, Germany
patented a successful diaphragm pressure gauge, which, together with the Bourdon gauge, revolutionized
pressure measurement in industry. But in 1875 after Bourdon's patents expired, his company Schaeffer
and Budenberg also manufactured Bourdon tube gauges.

In practice, a flattened thin-wall, closed-end tube is connected at the hollow end to a fixed pipe containing
the fluid pressure to be measured. As the pressure increases, the closed end moves in an arc, and this
motion is converted into the rotation of a (segment of a) gear by a connecting link that is usually adjustable.
A small-diameter pinion gear is on the pointer shaft, so the motion is magnified further by the gear ratio.
The positioning of the indicator card behind the pointer, the initial pointer shaft position, the linkage length
and initial position, all provide means to calibrate the pointer to indicate the desired range of pressure for
variations in the behavior of the Bourdon tube itself. Differential pressure can be measured by gauges
containing two different Bourdon tubes, with connecting linkages. Bourdon tubes measure gauge pressure,
relative to ambient atmospheric pressure, as opposed to absolute pressure; vacuum is sensed as a
reverse motion.

Diaphragm pressure gauges

Diaphragm pressure gauges are suitable for gauge, absolute and differential pressure. Their core, the
diaphragm element, is a circular, corrugated diaphragm which is clamped or welded between two flanges.

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This element is generally manufactured from resilient steels such as stainless steel or Inconel. On pressure
loading, the deflection of the element, proportional to the incident pressure, is translated to a movement via
a link. The usable diaphragm travel is as short as approximately one millimetre, which offers a high
repeatability. However, this characteristic is related to corresponding standards for quality and tolerances of
the diaphragm materials. In addition to the material itself, the material strength, wave form and diameter
determine the metrological characteristics of the diaphragm, and with this, the quality of the measuring
result for the appropriate measuring range. Diaphragm elements basically possess a corrugated profile. A
smooth metal diaphragm would deform plastically under loading and would therefore make a precise
pressure measurement impossible.

Bellows
Like a diaphragm, bellows are also used for pressure measurement, and can be made of cascaded
capsules. The basic way of manufacturing bellows is by fastening together many individual diaphragms.
The bellows element, basically, is a one piece expansible, collapsible and axially flexible member. It has
many convolutions or fold. It can be manufactured form a single piece of thin metal

The action of bending and tension operates the elastic members. For proper working, the tension should
be least. The design ideas given for a diaphragm is applied to bowels as well. The manufacturer describes
the bellows with two characters maximum stroke and maximum allowable pressure. The force obtained
can be increased by increasing the diameter. The stroke length can be increased by increasing the folds or
convolutions.

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Magnetic coupling
These gauges use the attraction of two magnets to translate differential pressure into motion of a dial
pointer. As differential pressure increases, a magnet attached to either a piston or rubber diaphragm
moves. A rotary magnet that is attached to a pointer then moves in unison. To create different pressure
ranges, the spring rate can be increased or decreased.

Dead weight gauge tester

A dead weight tester apparatus uses known traceable weights to apply pressure to a fluid for checking the
accuracy of readings from a pressure gauge. A dead weight tester (DWT) is a calibration standard method
that uses a piston cylinder on which a load is placed to make an equilibriumwith an applied pressure
underneath the piston. Deadweight testers are so called primary standards which means that the pressure
measured by a deadweight tester is defined through other quantities: length, mass and time. Typically
deadweight testers are used in calibration laboratories to calibrate pressure transfer standards like
electronic pressure measuring devices.

The Deadweight Gauge is the most accurate instrument available for the pressure measurement.
Repeatable readings with accuracies of 0.1% and 0.05% of measured pressure are obtainable. The device
does not require recalibration unless the components have excessive wear of weights. It can be easily
transported and set up in the field, requires minimum maintenance and is simple to operate.

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Globe Valves

The globe valve is used for throttling flow control. Shut off is accomplished by moving the disc against the
flow stream rather than across it as in the case with a gate valve. The flow pattern through a globe valve
involves changes in direction, resulting in greater resistance to flow, causing high pressure drop. The
globe valve is an excellent valve to use for on-off service, but is highly suited for frequent cycling and
control of fluids anywhere in amount or volume between the open and closed positions.

The globe valve must be installed in the proper relation to the media flow as indicated by the flow direction
arrow marked on the valve body. This valve is considered uni-directional and must be installed with the
pressure side or inlet under the seat.

Gate Valve

Gate valves are widely used for all types of applications and are suitable for both above ground and
underground installation. Not least for underground installations it is paramount to choose the right type of
valve to avoid high replacement costs.

Gate valves are designed for fully open or fully closed service. They are installed in pipelines as isolating
valves, and should not be used as control or regulating valves. Operation of a gate valve is performed doing
an either clockwise to close (CTC) or clockwise to open (CTO) rotating motion of the stem. When operating
the valve stem, the gate moves up- or downwards on the threaded part of the stem.

Gate valves are often used when minimum pressure loss and a free bore is needed. When fully open, a
typical gate valve has no obstruction in the flow path resulting in a very low pressure loss, and this design
makes it possible to use a pipe-cleaning pig. A gate valve is a multiturn valve meaning that the operation of
the valve is done by means of a threaded stem. As the valve has to turn multiple times to go from open to

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closed position, the slow operation also prevents water hammer effects.

Cock Valve
A Cock valve is one the simplest and earliest valve design. A cock valve consists of a cock
which is generally tapered toward the bottom, but sometimes can be parallel. This cock fits
in a seating in the body of the valve as indicated in the schematic. The cock also contains a
port to allow the fluid flow as indicated in the figure. This port can be rectangular or round
in shape. The rotation of the cock and hence the port, can be used to control the opening
to allow the fluid flow. Rotating the cock by 900 can completely open or close the valve.
Cock valve are not usually used for regulating the flow, but sometimes specially designed
cock can be used for flow regulation.

3. Materials and Equipment:

Training Unit
Globe, Cock, Gate valves
Mercury Manometer
Data recorder
Personnel Protective Devices

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 Laboratory Manual for ME Lab 3

4. Procedure:

Personal and General laboratory safety

1. Never eat, drink, or smoke while working in the laboratory.

2. Read labels carefully.

3. Do not use any equipment unless you are trained and approved as a user by your
Professor/Instructor.

4. Wear safety glasses or face shields when working with hazardous materials and/or equipment.

5. Wear gloves when using any hazardous or toxic agent.

6. Clothing: When handling dangerous substances, wear gloves, laboratory coats, and safety shield
or glasses. Shorts and sandals should not be worn in the lab at any time. Shoes are required when
working in the machine shops.

7. If you have long hair or loose clothes, make sure it is tied back or confined.

8. Keep the work area clear of all materials except those needed for your work. Coats should be hung
in the hall or placed in a locker. Extra books, purses, etc. should be kept away from equipment that
requires air flow or ventilation to prevent overheating.

9. Disposal - Students are responsible for the proper disposal of used material if any in appropriate
containers.

10. Equipment Failure - If a piece of equipment fails while being used, report it immediately to your lab
assistant or tutor. Never try to fix the problem yourself because you could harm yourself and
others.

11. If leaving a lab unattended, turn off all ignition sources and lock the doors.

12. Never pipette anything by mouth.

13. Clean up your work area before leaving.

14. Wash hands before leaving the lab and before eating.

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I. Preparing the experiment

1. Observed Proper Safety Precaution measures, wear safety eye goggles, remove all laces, no
playing around during activity
2. Conduct a visual inspection of the Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Base Model Unit to ensure
that it is in good working condition.
3. Make sure that the Personal and General Laboratory Safety had been read before to start the
activity.
4. The laboratory in-charge or personnel informed prior utilization of laboratory equipment.

5. Every member of the group must know their respective assignments.

6. Make sure that the Laboratory equipment is in good condition.

7. Check for any loose bolts and nuts; check the refrigeration components, accessories and
auxiliaries for any possible dents, unusual deformed parts.

8. Check the first aid kit before conducting an experiment.

9. The leader and safety officer must ensure the members that they have Personal Protective
Equipment.

10. Make sure the electrical components are off and initial positions.

11. Make sure that the Start-up procedure and shut-down procedure had been read and fully
understand by the group.

II. Procedure

1. Fill the training unit with water.

2. Turn on equipments and run the pump to start the experiment.

3. Make sure the valves are open.

4. Check if the manometer is properly connected to the pipes.

5. Wait for the water to flow completely into the system before starting the experiment.

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 6. Start gathering the data from the first valve by turning it by full rotations then check the pressure
from the suction part and discharge part the record it do the process for 4 times.

7. After achieving 1 full revolution the valve will close, make sure to fully open it again and precede
with the next valve the repeat step 6 and 7.
8. After completing the experiment make sure to properly disengage the setup and turn-off the
equipments and the pump.

9. Make graph representing the datas and make a conclusion based from it compare it with the
theories from fluid mechanics for a better conclusion.

10. Convert the given pressure to different units.

11. From the following data give some reasons for possible discrepancies in the data and justify them.

5. Components and Fucntions

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7. Conclusion and Recommendation:

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8. Duties and Responsibilities:

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9. Documentation:

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