ENERGYPREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE COST REDUCTION

ENERGYPREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
COST REDUCTION PROGRAM
ERS
A MANUAL FOR CONSERVATION
0 ver 2,000 North Carolina

Maintenance and Engineering
people have attended and profited
from these workshops in the last
60 months and have benefited
from over $10,000,000/year in
recommended savings.
PRESENTEDBY
ENERGY DIVISION, NORTH CAROLINA DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
EMA I WITH
-I I-- m IU
===-=-E
--
=
---
--
E INDUSTRIAL EXTENSION SERVICE
North Carolina
Department of Commerce NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY
CHILLERS AND COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual for Conservation -- 3 Y
NC Department of Commerce
ENERGY DIVISION
NORTH CAROLINA
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
Histo y and Purpose

The Energy Division, which was created as a permanent state agency in 1974,
is charged with:
Developing emergency plans to handle sudden energy shortages;
Maintaining energy consumption data and making projections
for future energy use;
Providing staff support to the Energy Policy Council, which
develops and recommends state energy policy for the effective
management and use of current and future sources of energy; and
Developing and coordinating energy conservation programs.
t ,] Energy Conservation Programs

The Institutional Consemation Program provides 50 percent matching grants
to schools and not-for-profit hospitals for energy audits, technical assistance and
other energy-saving improvements in buildings constructed prior to April 1977.
To date, the Energy Division has awarded 468 grants totaling $21.7 million.
The Low-Income Weatherization Program provides for the purchase and

installation of insulation, weatherstripping, caulking, storm windows and doors,
and other energy conservation materials in homes in which the total household
income is at or below 150 percent of the poverty level. Since the program's
inception in 1977, more than 54,000 homes have been weatherized.
The State Energy Conservation Program and Energy Extension Service give
personalized informa tion and technical assistance to develop specialized energy
conservation programs for small-scale energy users in various sectors. Some
specific programs include:
J (more)
-
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
DNiSbll
A Manual for Conservation Energy
NC Department of Commerca
Residential
The North Carolina Solar Center at North Carolina State University
which distributes information on solar energy; and
A pilot project providing rebates to residential customers who
purchase energy efficient central heating and cooling equipment.
Aericul tura 1
The distribution of information on energy efficient techniques
farmers can use to cool products after harvest; and
Energy audits and evaluation of irrigation systems.
Transuortat ion
Two-day car care clinics to help motorists improve their cars engine
performance; and
Traffic signal timing analysis designed to reduce traffic delay and
congestion, vehicle emissions, and unnecessary fuel consumption.
Education
Assisting local school boards identify and select energy efficient
building designs; and
Developing a system to computerize the scheduling and routing of
school buses.
Local Government
Seminars to help local governments identify and implement solid
waste management options as an alternative to landfills;
Technical assistance in establishing energy accounting systems and
building audits aimed at identifying no- and low-cost measures to
reduce energy consumption in public buildings; and
Development of a manual of North Carolina governmental units that
have successfully utilized available alternative rates to trim their
electrical costs.
(more)
- NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNWERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Division
Commercial
Rebates for relamping and replacement of inefficient lighting sources
in commercial facilities; and
Bulletins outlining recent technological innovations by high energy
using commercial enterprises, primarily hotels/motels, laundries and
dry cleaners, restaurants, and retail stores.
Jndustrial
Rebates for relamping and replacement of inefficient lighting sources
in commercial facilities;
Technical assistance in preventive maintenance techniques; and
Workshops on measuring and improving boiler efficiency.
3
- NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1. CHILLERS
Chapter 2. MAINTENANCE
Chapter 3. CHILLER OPTIMIZATION AND FREE COOLING
Chapter 4. CHILLED WATER SYSTEMS
Chapter 5. AIR HANDLERS / COOLING COILS
Chapter 6. COOLING TOWER PIPING
Chapter 7. COST OF OWNERSHIP

QiILLElcs AM)COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual fir Conservation
Nc DeparDnent of commerce
INTRODUCTION
As technology and industry change at an ever increasing rate, we are doing more,
I
faster and with less new materials. Of all the resources necessary to continue this
industrial transition, energy is the most critical. Without an adequate supply of energy,
all the raw materials in the world are of little value. To insure that we can continue to
have the energy resources available to us, it is imperative that we understand how each
energy consuming system in our facilities operates. It is only through a thorough
understanding of how we use energy that we can develop plans and strategies that will
minimize our energy usage.
It is the intent of this workshop to provide you with an understanding of one of the
majorusers of energy in a facility today -chiller and cooling tower systems.
Specifically, water-cooled chillers and their supporting equipment are the focus of the
workshop material. With this information, you will be able to determine if your chiller
plant, cooling tower and other equipment are operating effectively and efficiently. In
addition, energy conserving strategies will be discussed that will help you in developing
plans to minimize energy use and operating costs.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSlTY - WllW THE NORlH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Introduction- 1
w i
CHnLm AND COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual for Consemtion Energy
NC D e m t of Commerce
REDUCING ENERGY CONSUMPTION
CHILLERS AND WATER TOWERS
1
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DnrrSaON
Introduction- 2
Chapter I
CHILLERS
Division
A Manual for Conservation ,
Eiferav
sri
NC Departmentof Commerce
3 CHILLERS
NOTES
A water-cooled chiller is a mechanical device that uses a

centrifugal impeller to compress refrigerant gas, and thus the use of
the refrigerant to produce cold water.
The motor-driven impeller imparts its energy to the refrigerant

gas, and compressing the gas produces heat. The hot compressed gas
is then cooled by water flowing through the condenser, generally
from a cooling tower. In this press it gives u p its heat and condenses
to a liquid. This warm liquid then passes through a metering device
into the evaporator. The evaporator is at a lower pressure. The
liquid absorbs heat from the water passing through the evaporator,
thus cooling the water and evaporating the refrigerant. The low
pressure gas passes into the compressor through the compressor
3 inlet vanes and starts the cycle again.
A centrifugal chiller has a centrifugal compressor, a condenser,

evaporator, compressor inlet control device, and an evaporator
liquid refrigerant control device. The performance of a chiller is
impacted by:
e efficiency and horsepower of the motor,
e design of the evaporator and the condenser,
e number of passes in the condenser and the evaporator,
e quantity, thickness and type of tubes,
e refrigerant levels,
e tube enhancement,
0 operating capacity of the chiller,
e condition of the water flowing through the chiller,
e condition of the heat exchanger ,surfaces,
e temperature of the condenser and the chilled water, and
e type of refrigerant used.
-
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UMVERSlTY WlTH IHE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 1-1
Division
A Manual for Conservation
NOTES
The condenser and the evaporator are shell and tube heat
exchangers. The cooled water is then pumped through the chiller
water piping system and is used for cooling air and for process
cooling.
The capacity of the chiller is controlled by the inlet vanes to the

compressor. They restrict the flow of refrigerant gas to the
compressor, thereby controlling the compressor capacity.
The compressor motor under a restricted flow of refrigerant gas

does not have as much work to do and uses less energy at lower load
conditions (Figures 1-1 through 1-41.
NORTH CAROLlNA STATE UMVERsITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 1-2
NC Department oi Commerce
CENTRAVAC OPERATING CYCLE:

@ Liquidrefrigerantis distributedalong the lengthof the evaporatorand uniformlysprayedthrough
orificesto coat each evaporatortube with refrigerant. The refrigerantabsorbsheatfrom systemwater
being circulated through the evaporator tubes and changes to a gas. @ Refrierant gas flows
through the droplet eliminators to the compressor. 0 Refrigerant vapor is drawn through the
first-stage inlet vanes and intothe centrifugal compressor impeller. The inletvanes modulatethe flow
of gas to match system capacity requirementsand also prerotatesthe gas to enter the impeller wheel
at the proper angle, minimizing losses at all load conditions. 0 Discharge gas from the first
compressor stage flowsthroughthe second-stageinlet vanes and into the second-stage impeller. @
Compressed refrigerant gas from the second stage is introducedinto the condenser and distributed
v;& fl pde-$.,..;;,
$
across the condenser tubes. Condenser water circulatingthrough the condenser tubes removesheat
from the refrigerant causing it to condense.@ Liquid refrigerant passesthrough the patented Trane
4U.L p o d orifice system to the economizer. Some of the refrigerant flashes to gas as a result of the pressure
/
a
% y
-b-
pJC
s&\cl
&W-/-
GdY
A drop across the orifice system, coding the remainderof the liquid refrigerant.The flash gas is drawn
directly to the second stage of the compressor. This reduces the refrigerationcycle energy require-
ments by avoiding the necessity of compressing all of the refrigerantgas through two stages of
compression. The remaining liquidflows through additional orificesto the evaporator section of the
0
machine
Figure 1-1
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 1-3
Division
CHnLERS AND COOUNG TOWERS WORKSHOP Fnarm3.f
t= :w:
A Manual for Conservation 391
Inaddition tothrottling, inlstguide

vanes at each stage prerotate
refrigerant gas for more efficient
entry into the impeller. This results
in improved part-load performanca
and in increased compressor
range.
Figure 1-2. i
first stage inlet vanes control the flow of refrigerant gas to the centrifugal compressor.
These Vanes can control the flow from 10 to lOO?! of the gas flow.
I N L R GUIDE
VANE
Figure 1-3.
-
NORTH CAROLlNA STATE UrJrVERSlTY WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 1-4
Division
Compressor Operation Schematic
-1
- ...
Figure 1-4.
NORTH CAROIJNA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 1-5
Division
CHILLERS AND COOLlNC TOWERS WORKSHOP
NOTES
WATER FLOW
The amount of water circulated through a chiller is generally

constant. The design temperature rise in the condenser water and the
chilled water are normally loo F. Occasionally the design of a system
may require a greater or smaller temperature rise, or delta T (AT).
The design inlet and outlet temperatures of a chiller are

important. The chiller is designed around these parameters. Any
change from these parameters effects the operation of the chiller
mechanically and impact the efficiency of the chiller.
Condenser water design inlet temperature to the chiller is

normally 8 5 O F and a discharge temperature of 9 5 O F. The chilled
water leaving temperature can be from 420 F to SO0 F with a 100 F AT.
In most cases, less than 420 F design is imprudent because it is
possible to get a cold spot in the chiller evaporator where ice might f
form. Ice in a chiller is usually disastrous. A chiller can be designed
to operate with a glycol solution to prevent freezing in the
evaporator.
One ton of air conditioning is 12,000 BTU. The specific heat of

water is 1: The weight of water is 8.33 pounds per gallon. One gallon
per minute circulated with one degree rise equals 500 BTU per hour
(10 AT x 8.33 lbs x 60 min = 500).
Therefore, BTU = gpm x temp diff x 500

12,000 BTU = 2.4 gpm x loo F x 500
12,000 BTU @ 100 F temp rise is 2.4 gpm circulated per ton of air
conditioning
So it is necessary to circulate 2.4 gpm through the evaporator

constantly for each ton of cooling at a loo F temperature drop. A 500-
ton chiller requires 1200 gpm water circulating rate.
NORTH CAROIJNA STATE UNlVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 1-6
Division
A Manual for Conscroution Energy
NOTES
The design of the chiller will determine the pressure drop of

water through the heat exchangers - normally between 3 and 20 psi
(or 6.9 ft and 48 ft of heat).
In the design of a chiller, manufacturers use minimum and

maximum velocities with the heat exchangers. If the velocity is too
high, the water will erode the tubes. If it is too slow, there will be
poor heat transfer.
The selection of the condenser and the evaporator are a

compromise of cost and design efficiency. The most efficient
condenser and evaporator may have a high cost and require a
relatively high waterside pressure drop. A less efficient selection
may cost less but still have a relatively high pressure drop. A third
design may be more expensive but have a lower pressure drop
(Figure 1-8).
i
The cost of operating the system will be affected by the selection

of the various components. If the pressure drop through the
condenser, for example, can be reduced, the reduced pressure
through the heat exchangers affects the pump motor horsepower. A
reduction in static pressure is the relationship of AP* = BHP3.
If the pressure drop through a chiller could be reduced 50

percent, the BHP to drive the water through the chiller would be
reduced to 25 percent.
1
As 1 is to 2 is to 4, (T)*
= .25, ( 1T )= ~
.125
If a 20-ft heat required 5 brake HP,

20 R A P = 5 BHP
10 FT'AP = 1.25 BHP
NORTH CAROIJNA STATE Uh'lVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 1-7
Division
A ManualAND
CHnLERS Conservation
for COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP Energy
NOTES
So the selection of heat exchangers must be a compromise of
efficiency versus cost of opera tion.
Figures 1.5 and 1.6 show the relationship of some different

condensers and evaporators which are available for similar sized
units but with different pressure drops and operating characteristics.
COMPRESSOR MOTORS PRODUCE HEAT
In most centrifugal chillers the motor is cooled by refrigerant

passing through the windings.
The compressor motor as well as the bearings add heat to the

refrigeration cycle which must be allowed for. The result is that in
designing water-cooled equipment, the condenser water flow is
calculated at 15,000 BTU per ton and requires 3 gpm circulated to
provide a 100 F temperature rise across the condenser (Figures 1-7
and 1-8). For this reason cooling towers are rated at 15,000 BTU per
ton.
One of the first ways that manufacturers used to reduce the KW

per ton in 1975-1980 was to remove the compressor motor from the
refrigerant circuit and go to an open drive. This arrangement
required a seal for the drive to enter the sealed refrigerant system.
TUBE ENHANCEMENT
The efficiency of the thermal transfer through a chiller tube is a

function of the turbulence or velocity of the water through the tube
and the amount of surface available for contact with the medium
being heated and the medium providing the heat. For some time
prior to 1975, chiller tubes were enhanced on the refrigerant side.
?
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 1-8
Division
NOTES
The tubes had very fine fins machined into their exterior surfaces,
greatly increasing the square inches of surface available for contact to
the refrigerant in rela'tionship to the inside surface of the tube. This
is referred to as "tube enhancement". In an effort to further improve
heat transfer and efficiency and to allow for fewer tubes in heat
exchangers, manufacturers now will provide in temally enhanced
tubes.
The tube is rifled internally in a spiral fashion to increase surface

area, turbulence and actual water velocity on the tube surface. There
was a considerable amount of resistance to this procedure. It was felt
that internal enhancement would cause premature tube fouling.
However, experience has not borne this out, nor is this type of tube
any more difficult to clean.
..J
CHILLER PERFORMANCE
As we have indicated, most chillers are designed for about a 100 F

differential between the inlet and outlet of the condenser and the
evaporator. When a system is designed, the engineer will select a
chilled water discharge temperature based on the use of the system.
For the purpose of this discussion, we will use 450 F leaving chilled
water temperature.
Once a chiller is designed and manufactured, the temperature

differences, inlet and outlet temperatures u t full caaucity are
constant.
If the chiller performance or use is to be modified, it is wise to

consult the manufacturer before making any changes.
3 NORTH CAROLINASTATEUNIVERSITY - w r r THE

~ NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 1-9
Division
C H n L E R S AND COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual fir Consewation Energy
CHART 45-1 Extended L e n p Condensers E31 Through J1L CHART 45-2 Evaporators K1 through S1
100
90
80
70
Bo
50
40
30
p 25
3
w
20
;; 16
!
n.
i
8 d.8
w 8.0
5 7.0
B
Y
6.0
6.0
4.0
3.0
2.6
2.0
1.6
1.o
s o o ~w o ~ 1 o o o1 w o t Q # ) 1ooo ~ ~ 1 o o o o
FLOW mN) FLQW ( Q W
100
w
80
70
60
50
40
30
p 25
Y
t 20
'z
lj 1s
-e
8 10
80
Y 80
5 70
3 60
E 50
40
>P-
30
25
20
15
10
400 m8001ooo 1MD2ooc Moo moo#x)o1ooo0
FLOW I G W I
ginb$& Gb
a@kqw*mntsam den0t.d as tollom
UL-1 OnPurE3LCon6.mr
%+
-2 Two PY E3S C o n d w i ~ Figures 1-5
3-3 T h r y P . u E3 Ev.gora1w
ROLINA STATE UMVERSlTY - WITH THE NOmH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 1-10
DNlSbtl
A ManualAND
CHILLERS Conservation
UNISHELL CONDENSER UNISHELL COOLER

FLOW RATE ( L I S ) FLOW RATE (LIS1
FLOW RATE (GPM I 001
0 P 40 60
P . . .?o. . . 40. , . .60. , . 80. . , . . 80
ISQ
m
50
0
0 4 I2
NOTES:
1. Solid lines show pressure drop with standard Water box. Dashed lines show pressure dro with marine water box option.
2. Cooler pressure drop is based on ULTC tubing. Condenser pressure drop is based on TZTS tubing.
-3
3. To determine pressure drops more aCCUrately and to COmpenSatefor actual water temperature, use the computerizedselection sewice
availabk through your loul U r r W NIn o f f i i .
-
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSrrY WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 1-11
Division
Hermetic Chiller Motor. The Trane Centravac Hermetic Motor is cooled with liquid refrigerant
which flows through passages around the motor windings. The motor bearings are
lubricated and cooled with oil. The oil is pumped to the bearings and is cooled by a water-
cooled heat exchanger.
Figure 1-7.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WlTH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 1-12
Division
A ManualAND
CHILLERS for COOLING
Conservation
TOWERS WORKSHOP Energy
I Figure 1-8. Carrier Corporation manufacturesboth hermetic and open drive chillers.
1
..- Fig. 1-8 Open Drive Chiller Motor Separated from the Refrigerant Cyde
Division
NOTES
CHILLER DESIGN KW PER TON
Up until 1975, most chillers were designed for .85 KW per ton.
Then came the oil crisis and the cost of energy rose dramatically.
From 1980-1985 we saw KW of .70 to .75 per ton, and now the
designs are in the .60-.65 KW per ton range. Chiller design is now
approaching the maximum theoretical efficiency for centrifugal
chillers of .579 KW per ton.
HOW HAS CHILLER PERFORMANCE BEEN IMPROVED SO

DRAMATICALLY?
There are several things that were done. The performances of

heat exchangers were improved through tube enhancement and
water flow velocity. The exteriors of the tubes have been finned for
years; now the interiors, the water side of the tubes have also been
enhanced with grooves to increase the surface area and to improve
the flow of heat through the tubes. It is usual to have internally
enhanced tubes in new chillers now. The design of compressors has
been improved to provide more capacity at lower motor horsepower
(Figure 1-12).
The design of condensers and evaporators has been improved to

add to the overall operating efficiency.
The flow of refrigerant through the chillers has been improved

to reduce restrictions in chillers, improve fluid flow, reduce pressure
drops, and decrease energy losses.
The design of motors has been improved to increase their

efficiency (see pages 16 and 17 for a discussion of design versus
performance efficiency).
~ - _ _
NOR77 I CAROI.INA STATE UMVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 1-14
Division
Figure 1-12. The Trane Three-Stage Direct Drive Chiller has been designed to improve the chiller Kw per
ton. The chiller performance is in the .6Q to .65Kw per ton range. The chiller provides
much quieter and smoother operation than has been available from the Tram Company in
prior models. The chillers have solid state controls and are available with unit mounted
starters.
Chapter 1-15
Division
CFULLERS AND COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP Em&=-
The CenTraVac"Chiller
Engineering Story
Low Kw P u Ton
cortr
-Roducod Enorgy Thm sot^ of InM Guido VM I
Part load performance is further
Dosign Simplktty
Impellers are keyed directly to the
Just u a multi stage turbine is more improved through use of carefully motor shaft for high reliability and
efficient than a singb stage turbine, designed variabb inlet guide vanes. performaw and low l i e cycle costa
the CenTraVac three-stage Inlet guide vanes improve
Rolkblo Motor Cooling
compressor is more efficient than performance two wayr: 1) by
Tho motor is engulfed in liquid
single-stage designs This higher throttling refrigerant gas fiow to
ntrig.rant to w i d e efficient,
efficiency produces savings in direct t exactly meet part load mquircmwnts
complote d i n g at all load
onorgy costs for typical applications and 2) by premtating r ~ m gast Canditiona Refrigerant is delivered to
of 5 to 20%. for optimum entry into tho impeller.
the motor from the liquid sump on
Consider a typical 320-ton Prerotation of refrigemnt g u
the condensor through a fixed orifice
minimizas turbulence and i n c "
a p p l i i t h . Cataloged kw per ton at system. Reffrig.ront is then mumed
ARI cocrditiis ranges from .63 to efficiency. to the two-staga ownomiter through
.67, an efficiency increase of 5 to nlvo-stag.E c o " k 8 r a gravity drain. This system is
15.5% wor previously available The CVHE c h i l l r also has a
chilkn. Cataloged ratings for tvpical
5oo-ton capacity chillers, at ARI
two-stage ecconomizer
up t o wen percent greater
- providing
reliable and easy to maintain.
FlX.doli(k.FkWCWttd
c o n d i i , range from .6l to .64 Irw o f f i c i i than designs with no For proper d r i g " t flow control at
per ton. These are typical - even
mon efficient selections are possible.
economizer. Since the CVHE uses
three impellem it is possible to flash
all load conditiorw, the CenTraVac
design incorpontes the Tram
refrigerant gas at two intermediate patented fixed orifice system. It
Thw st8g.r of compmuion eliminates float valves, thermat
The thW-8-e c ~ m p r -rates~ w
pressures between the evaporator
and condenser pressures, expbcrsion valves and other moving
mom efficiently over a wide range of pa- A series of exprnsion and
caprcitias, virhrrlly eliminating the signifmntly increasing chiller
efficiency. This improvement in c o n t n c t h C h u n h effmiv*
need for w r g y wasting hot gas efficiency is not possible in . controls tho flow of refrigerant in the
by- as typically found on single compreuor, condenser and
stage chillem. Adrigemnt gas leaves single-rtage chillers since all
comprouion is done by one impeller. evaporator t o procirely meet all
the impeller at an angle having
tangential and radial
The tangential component (V,) is
oknt Dlhro b i g n
Noowrl.oaaa
- cooling lord conditions. As system
cooling load d o c " , liquid
refrigerant flow t o the condenser is
determined by impeller tip speed, The dinct drive compressor operates reduced. This h e m the hydrostatic
apd the radial component (VJ is without speed increasing gears, thus head, causing more refrigerant to
determined by volume of gas flow eliminating gear energy losses. vaporize in the downstream chamber
and c t o u sectional area of the Comprosoor8 wing gears suffer and reducing the amount of
impeller discharge. The three-stage mesh loss08 and extra bearing losses refrigerant entering the evaporator.
design takes advantage of lower tip in the nng. of t h m to five percent This smaller amount of liquid
s p e d to discharge the gas with u at full load. Since these losses are refrigerant in the evaporator matches
large a radial component as possible. fairh/ constant over the load range, the cooling load requirements for
The radial componont of velocity increasingly larger percentage losses efficient operation. Since there are no
determines the ability of the chiller to result as load decreases. For a typical moving parts, reliability is increased.
resist intemption of smooth building load profile, power
refrigerant flow when oponting at consumed by gear losses can be
light loads and with h q h condensing considerably greater than the thrqe
temperatures. This interruption in to five pdrcent at full load tona
flow and unstable operation, called
"surge" is avoided with the
threo-stage dosign.
Chapter 1-16
CHILLERS AND COOUNC TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual for Cascwafion
Nc Department of commerce
"3 *i.tOp.ntion
With only one moving component - ConlhVat P-H Diagram
The preuureanthalphy fP-HI
and pressure to state point 5, then
discharges it to the condenser.
the rotor and impeller assembly - diagram describer refrigerant flow
Condenser - Refrigerant gas entem
the Trane low speed, direct dnve through the major CVHE chiller
design operates exceptionally quietly. components. This diagram confirms the condenser where the system
Gear driven compressors, by the superior operating cycle cooling load and heat of compression
contrast may generate objectionable efficiency of the three-stage are rejected to the condenser water
noiw in their high S& drive train. compressor and two-stage circuit. This heat rejection cools and
The smoothly rotating CenTraVac economizer. condenses the refrigerant gas to a
liquid at state point 6.
compressor IS inherently quieter than
other compressor types. Typical
Evaporator - A liquidgar refrigerant
Patented T w o - S t e Economizer and
mixture enters the evaporator at
CenTraVac chiller sound ratings arg state point 1. Liquid refrigerant is Refrigerant Orifice System-Liquid
krr than 80 dBA, measured vaporized to state point 2 as it refrigerant leaving the condensor at
according t o ARI Standard 575. absorbs heat from the system state point 6 flows through the first
Cow R.uun R-11 Rdrigonnt for cooling load. The vaporized d c e and enten the high pressure
Hlgh Hfickncy and Rollablo refrigerant then flowr into the side of the e c " u e r . The purpose
compmssor first stage. of this orifice and economizer is to
All CVHE and CVHB CenTraVac
chiikn use safe, efficient R-1 1
Compressor First Stage -
Refrigerant gas is drawn from the
prefiash a small amount of refrigerant
at an intermediate pressure cslled
nfrigerant allowing a number of P l . P1 is between the evaporator
evaporator into the first stage and condenser pressures. Proflashing
kmficil faarwec compressor. The first stage impeller
A-11 is well suited to the Tram some liquid refrigerant cools the
accelerates the gas increasing its remaining liquid to state point 7.
kw-spoed, direct drive design. It's temperature and pressure t o m t e
mora efficient than hgh density, high point 3. Refrigerant W i the first stage
p " ~ r emfrigerants
Tha A-1 1 mutti-stage CenTraVac c o m p r secorrd ~ -
Stage
Refrigerant gas leaving the fim stage
economizer flows through the
ldcond orifice and enters the second
cunpnrror dmign has inherently stage economizer. Some refrigerant is
highor cycb efficiency compared to compressor is mixed with coder
proflashed at i n t e r m d i e pressure
other chiller &signs. drigerant gar from the low pressure
P2. Froflashing the liquid refrigerant
side of the two-stage economizer.
.Thr large r ~ n t i o effect
n This mixing lowen the enthalpy of
cools the remaining liquid to state
pddd R-11 in Btu's per pound point 8.
the mixtum entering the second
ofnfrig.nntr"bmrant Another benefit of preflrshing
+
>
stage. The second stage impeller

is mquind t o produce a given accelerates the gas, further refrigerant is to increase the total
capacity. Again, R-11 is a better evaporator mfngeration effect from
increasing its temperature and
d u b for grwter m n c y . promure t o stare point 4. R E to RE. The two-stage economizer
Sinco krr mfrigmnt is mquind,
nfrigerant replacement costs are less Camp" Third Stage -
Refrigerant gas leaving the
provides a seven percent energy
savings compared to chillers with no
expensive than for hgh preuure economizer.
chilhn. And sinca R-11 is liquid at comprerun second stage is mixed
atmospheric pc8uum, ku of R-1 1 is with cooler refrigorant gas from the To complete the operating cycle,
less likely to occur. high p n r u r r e ride of the two-stage liquid refrigerant leaving the
economizer. This mixing lowers the economizer at state point 8 flows
enthalpy of the gas mixture entering through a third orifice system. Here.
the third stage compomor. The third refrigerant pressure and temperature
stage impeller accelerates the gas, are reduced to evaporator conditions
further increasing its temperature at state point 1.
NOWW CAROLINA STATE UMVERSITY - WKH THE NOKTH CAROLINA ENERCY DMSION
Chapter 1-17
Division
CHILLERS AND COOLlNG TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual for Conseruution
The search for chiller efficiencv

J
)
Available options to increase the efficiency

cf cent rifugal packaged chillers
both technical and economic. rich-

By WILLIAM J. LANDMAN, 180
Manager. Applications Engineering. nology has always had the capabil-
The "kme Co., Le Crosse, Wis. ity to improve chiller efficiency. h
160
However, only economics can un-
-=:
LL
x
+
140
leash technology so that it can per-
form. In this c a s e , economic - 120
100
In 1972, the average cataloged changes are driven by rapid in-
Kwper ton value of the most popular creases in energy costs. These costs s
xo
80
hermetic centrifugal water chillers are increasing faster than hardware 60
was 0.817. A recent catalog shows an costs. Consequently, it is cost effec-
average value of 0.699. This change tive to fund technology in hopes of
represents an efficiency increase of
over 14 percent.
This significant change brings
improving performance.
Any analysis of chiller efficiency
quickly focuses on the four key in-
I 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 10 11
Water velocity. fps
~~
2 Typical values of Ucbased on optimistic heat

three questions to mind: gredients that influence machine transfer efficiencies.
Why did this change occur performance:
now? 1) Water-to-refrigerant heat
How are higher efficiencies be- transfer efficiency. Q the rate-quantity of heat
=
ing achieved? 2) Refrigerant cycle efficiency. transferred
0 What are the efficiency limits? 3) Drive train efficiency. U = the overall heat transfer
Answers to the first question are 4) Compressor efficiency. coefficient
No other factor has any effect on A = the heat transfer surface
overall chiller efficiency. Obviously, area
then, any improvement in KW per A7' = the "log mean temperature
x3 ton values at any load must occur in difference"btween the two
one or more of these four categories. materials
Advances in technology improve The goal is to improve the effi-
efficiency in two basic ways. Firstly, ciency of this process. This is ac-
they provide better heat transfer complished by decreasing AT for a
techniques and surfaces. This area given Q.This can only be achieved
x2 by increasing either A, U,or both.
has the greatest potential. Sec-
ondly, the mechanics of com- Area is increased by simply 'throw-
pressible fluid flow are receiving ing moneyn a t the problem. As more
x 1.5 surface is added, diminishing effec-
close scrutiny. In this case, the po-
tential for improvement, while real, tiveness occurs. The plot in Fig. 1
Base
is relatively small. shows this relationship. Curve A is
surface based on a Ybase surface" perfor-
Heat transfer mance of a 10 F approach between
06 07 08 09 The technology of heat transfer the leaving water and the saturated
Chiller KW per ton* has been especially active over the refrigerant temperature. Curve B
past 10 years. Still, the funda- uses an 8 F approach temperature
*Based on constant base surface. As surface is increased
mechanical efficiency of mentals have not changed. The clas-
Motor 93 percent sic heat transfer equation remains: to 300 percent of the original value,
Transmission 97 percent Q = L'A(1T) the chiller K W per ton value de-
Compressor 75 percent
where creases. Clearly, the additional sur-
45195 F terminal water'temperatures foi face results in very little efficiency
evaporator and condenser improvement at this point.
1 Surface area vs chiller K W per ton. Bchnology, then, can do some-
Chapter 1-18
CHILLERS AND COOlJhC TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual for Conservation !qJy
E!2'2
e
T h e search for chiller efficiency
thing about U. The overall heat based on the most optimistic tech- multistage compressors because
transfer coefficient is comprised of nical information available. they are used to separate saturated
four individual factors. See the ac- gas and liquid at the interstage
companying sidebar for an expla- Refrigerant cycle pressures.
nation. The second category is the refrig- Fig. 4 shows a typical refrigerant
Technology can improve two of erant cycle efficiency. It is a physical pressure-enthalpy chart for a cen-
the factors shown in the sidebar. property of the refrigerant itself. trifugal chiller. The theoretical KW
Work has recently focused on Table 2 shows relative theoretical per ton value is calculated on the
h,and h,, the fluid film heat trans- KW per ton values for various refrig- basis that compression occurs is-
fer coefficients. T h e term h, is erants commonly used in centrifu- entropically (without a change in
helped by "external tube enhance- gal chillers. These values are based gas entropy, S).The heat content of
ments." Essentially, all manufac- on data from Table 8, Chapter 16, compressor discharge (/a2) can be
turers employ 'high flux tubes." ASHRAE Handbook, 1931 finda- calculated from t h e t h e r m o -
This is another way of describing mentals. Once the saturated refrig- dynamic properties of any refrig-
something better than conventional erant temperatures are established, erant. The theoretical KW per ton
extruded integrally finned tubing. the refrigerant efficiency is fixed. value is found from:
The term h,, being primarily a The only variables that can change Kwlton [ ( h , - hJ1
physical property of water, is at the the cycle efficiency are cycle config- (hi - h,)] X 3.517
mercy of velocity. High velocity urations such as condenser sub- The term 3.517converts the units
helps h, but eats up water pumping coolers and economizers (interstage of enthalpy (Btu per Ib) to KW per
power. Recent 'internal tube en- flash coolers). Subcoolen are sel- ton by:
hancements" are simply config- dom used with water cooled centrif- (12,000 Btu per ton-hr) X
urations to the normally smooth ugals because their effectiveness is ( ~ ~ / 3 4Btu)
1 3 = 3.517
tube bore. They boostvelocity at the limited. Their additional expense Fig. 5 is a plot ofthe results of this
expense d increased pressure loss would be more effectively applied to calculation for various Refrigerant
just as turbulators d o in water coils. increase condenser surface. Econo- 11 suction and condensing temper-
While this'works,"an equally effec- mizers are confined to chillers using atures. Since R-11is the most effi-
tive strategy might be to use a
greater number of waterside passes
to increase velocity.
Combining these improvements,
Fig. 2 shows typical values of U.
based on optimistic heat transfer
efficiencies. All that is needed to
find the refrigerant temperature is
the equivalent external tube surface
ana.
To produce the chart Shawn in
'Ihble 1, the equation shown in the
sidebar is used to solve for LMTD.
Refrigerant temperatures relate to
LMTD -
LMTD as follows:
(GTD - LTDV
In (GTDILTD)
where
GTD = the greater tempera-
ture difference
LTD = the lesser tempera-
ture difference
This is pictured in Fig. 3. The
lesser t e m p e r a t u r e difference
(LTD) is sometimes referred to as
the 'approach" temperature. With
infinite heat transfer surface, this
value would approach zero.
The water-to-refrigerant heat
transfer efficiency is now defined.
We can calculate real numbers
3 - NORTI 1 CAROI.INA
STATE UNIVERSITY
Heatmg/Piping/Air Conditioning July 1983
- WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION

Chapter 1-19
Division
CHILLERS AND COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP EF9i iE 9-qa 1
L I 9 - 4 r
A Manual for Conservation -1
cient refrigerant in common use,

Fig, 5 shows the lowest theoretical
cycle KW per ton values we can ex-
pect to see.
Drive train
The third category, drive train ef-
ficiency, involves all of the energy
conversions between the incoming
power wiring and the rotating com-
pressor shaft. Fig. 6 shows a repre-
sentation of the various elements
and their power losses.
Motor starters generally lose very
little power. Resistance heating of
the wiring and contactors is min-
imal. Total losses are well under 1
percent of the input electrical
power. Solid state devices are some-
times part of the drive train. Solid 2 3 1.6 15.0 10.0 124 9.677 44 40.25
state reduced voltage starters pass
essentially the complete wave form
in the run mode. Therefore, very
H
W
24
4.8
10.0
5.0
10.0
10.0
124
124
9.677
9.677
44
44
38.4
36.61
little loss occurs. Total losses are 2 3.0 10.0 10.0 161 9.317 95 100.20
1 6.0 5.0 10.0 161 9.317 95 102.04
about the same as mechanical start-
ers.
*Calculated lrom Fa. 2 at Uton = 10.
Solid state frequency inverters
T a w P-ReIathe theoretical KW per ton values for various m-

friaerants.
Condensingtemperature I Theoretiul. KW per ton values
No OW Two 7F
Refrigerant economuer economizer economucrs Subcooling
- - ---
113 0.405 0.466 0.451 0.472
11 0.463 0.444 0.431 0.453
114 0.671 0.644 0.624 0.644
12 0.492 0.472 0.458 0.477
22 0.507 0.487 0.472 0.491
*Based on saturated suctm and condensing temperatures of 40 F and 100
F respectively.
Evaporating temperature
Heat transfer distance

(inlet tooutlet)
3 kfrlgerant temperature vs. heat transfer distance.
I Enthalpy (h). Btu per Ib
4 Ressure-enthalpy chart for a centrlfugal chiller.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UMVERSlTY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 1-20
CHILLERS AND COOLrNC TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual for Conseroation
NC Deoaitment of Commerce
T h e search for chiller efficiency
I mission efficiency usually ranges

between 95 and 97 percent. O&n,
the compressor shaft bearing m d
seal losses are covered in the b ~ .
mission efficiency.
Present day technology can pro.
duce a drive train efficiency as high
as 95 percent. The other end of this
range could be as low as 85 percent,
depending on the configuration and
the selection &components. Future
technological improvementa are un-
likely to improve significantly the
highest efficiency that is achievable
today. Instead, primary effort is fo-
cused on using the configurations
and components t h a t reach the
highest overall efficiency.
Compressor
The final energy converter is the
compressor itself. The conversion
process involves the basic dynamics
d turbomachinery. The ability d a
compressor to make this conversion
eficiently embraces complex a
binations d technology and experi-
ence. NASA, for example, haa con-
d u c t e d extensive s t u d i e s on
compressor performance. Ita work
indicates a maximum state-d-the-
art efficiency dabout 86 percent for
centrifugal compressors that oper-
ate a t compression ration d3.5 to 1.
Multistate compressors, for thia to-
tal pressure ratio, can achieve 88
percent efficiency. Neither d these
values, haarwer, includes any rys-
tem loeeee. The chiller system lames
absorb power from the compressor
by transporting gas and liquid
through the cycle.
llansporation losses include the
energy needed to m& refrigerant
from one place to another. Further,
system lasses due to imperfect flow
patterns and spurious heat transfer
and mixing must be acknawledged.
W e n together, the miscellaneous
loseee amount to between 1 and 2
percent d compressor input -1.
It is a relatively constant loss a t all
I seals loads.
Compressors rarely operate a t
L windage
Coolq Elecfrlcal their maximum efficiency point at
rys!rm losses Eearlngs design air conditioning conditions.
and sezls Thus, the actual observed com-
pressor efficiency will fall several
points short ofthe calculated sweet
NORTH CAROLINA S T A T UNlVERsITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENUlCY DMSION

Chapter 1-21
Dwision
A Manual for Conseruation Energy
spot"va1uee. According to the ASH-

RAE Handbook, 1979 Equipment,
Chapter 12, the adiabatic efficiency
of centrifugal compressors gen-
erally varies from 62 to 83 percent.
NASA studies forecast an even-
tual theoretical maximum com-
pressor efficiency between 90 and
92 percent for our pressure range. It
doesn't tell us how to achieve this or
when it will occur, if ever.
Summary
The following simple equation
accounta for the total chiller system
KW per ton value:
K W per ton = (theoretical is-
e n t r o p i c K W p e r t o n Val-
ue) X ( l / d r i v e t r a i n efficien-
cy) X I/compreseor efficiency)
ARI Standard 550-77specifies 44
and 95 F as the leaving chilled and
condenser water temperatures for
rating purposes. A minimum KW per
ton value can be calculated by using
this developed data as follows:
Step 1-Assuming a surface-to-
capacity ratio d 10 sq ft per ton d
refrigeration, the saturated suction
and condensing temperaturee are
38.48 F and 100.2 F.
Step 2-At these saturated re-
frigerant conditions, the isentropic
K W p e r ton value is 0.4925. A double
economizer (three-stage com-
pressor) would reduce this by 7 per-
cent to 0.458 KW per ton.
Step 3-A direct drive hermetic
chiller could demonstrate the high-
est drive train efficiency of 95 per-
cent.
Step 4-A multistage compressor
could show a 'sweet spot" efficiency
d about 88 percent, lesa 2 percent
for transporation and labyrinth seal
IOSSeS.
S t e p 5-KW per ton =
(0.458) X (1b.95) X (1/0.86)
= 0.561.
Obviously, we do not see KW per
ton values this low quoted in cata-
logs. Only an extraordinary combi-
nation of machine components
could be put together to achieve this
efficiency. However, this gives some
indication of the theoretical poten-
tial for efficient performance. Fur-
ther, we now have a way to measure
the future's latent capability. Q
Heating/Piping/Air Conditioning July 1983
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - W THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 1-22
Chapter 2
MAINTENANCE
3
--)
3
Division
CHILLERS A N D COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP E parr-re\ I
L S SGPgy
NC Departmentof Cornmerca
"'3 MAINTENANCE //
IMPROVINGCHILLER PERFORMANCE!{),
I\ NOTES
*'
Some of you may be the proud owners of .60 KW/torl,chille$s,
but the majority of you have the .85 to.90 KW/ton machL9. Si ce
most chillers operate in excess of 30 years, there will be a lot 07%
i
KW chillers around for a number of years. These are the less
efficient workhorses of industry.
How can we improve the performance of these chillers? As we

consider improving them, we should also consider how we can
maintain the performance of the newer units as well as the older
machines. The key word is M A I N T E N A N C E .
Preventive maintenance is the cheapest way to reduce the

operating cost of a chiller, and it is the only way to keep a chiller
system efficient after an energy plan has been implemented.
Chillers are prone to tube fouling, the buildup of dirt or calcium

on tubes. Chillers also lose capacity because of low or reduced water
flow.
The most effective way to save money is with good maintenance

and the opposite is also true. The easiest way to waste money is with
poor maintenance.
The first step in maintaining a chiller is having an accurate and

timely log. A log is a record of tests taken periodically on the chiller
that indicate its performance and operating condition.
Some of the tests recorded are inlet and outlet water

temperatures, condenser and evaporator pressures, motor operating
amps, operating capacity, ambient temperature, and any addition
information you feel is pertinent to your chiller (see Figure 2-1).
Chapter 2-1
Division
NOTES
Generally, each manufacturer has a sample log sheet in the

startup instructions. You can obtain a sample from their nearest
office.
A handy item to include on your log sheet is a list of normal

readings for comparison purposes. These readings can be taken off
the startup log on the chiller.
This will give the technician who is recording the log a reference
point to know when something may be going wrong or if he should
recalibrate the measurement devices. It is very important to use
calibrated thermometers and pressure gauges.
One of the most reliable ways to take water pressure drops is to

use a single pressure gauge on a manifold as shown in Figure 2-2.
Since the same gauge is used for both readings, the calibration of
the gauge is not as important, so long as it is functional and
repeatable.
Chapter 2-2
Division
NC Department of Co"erce
TRANE DATE LOG

UNIT # PLANT
-3
-
NORTH CAROLMA S A T E UMVERSlTY WITH THE NOmH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 2-3
A Manual for Consemation L I 5-5
Fig. 2-2
PRESSURE
DISCHARGE SUPPLY WATER

CON~EC?-lON
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WlTH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 2-4
Division
A Manual Afor
CHILLERS Consernation
N D COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP Energy
NOTES
CONDENSER MAINTENANCE
The cost of cleaning a chiller condenser depends a great deal on

how well the water treatment is maintained. In many areas, dirt can
be a major contributor to fouling condensers and in some cases
silicate sand is a major contributor to the problem.
When dirt is a contributor to the annual cost of cleaning

condensers, it is also causing wasted energy. A bypass filter may be
the answer. A bypass filter will remove solids from your condenser
water system.
A bypass filter can be automated to back flush dirt out of the

system. Most tower manufacturers will provide these as an option. It
will be worth checking into if dirt is part of your chiller maintenance
problem.
The chiller is such an integral and important part of your

operation that it requires good periodic maintenance, both
preventive and predictive. Sometimes it is difficult to get
technicians to think of themselves as preventive maintenance
people rather than a s service technicians who repair things after they
break.
Reliable efficient chiller opera tion requires preventive and

predictive maintenance.
Any discussion of increasing the efficiency of or decreasing the

energy usage of a chiller must start with a properly performing
machine. You cannot optimize a system that is sick (see References
2-1,2-2, and 2-31,
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UMVERSlTY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION '
Chapter 2-5
Division
A ManualAND
CHILLERS Conservation
Nc Departmentof commerce
14 r- 11,1989 A i r Condrfrorrry,Hairry & Re/rycrmloi
Corrosion, scak a d fouling

Operating and maintaining a refrigerated facility
a compkdy diUmnt aubjcf om-
by Jamm M a W & riding d "impingement" and
Them'r an old adage. "!t takes The differenca in electrical "urit.riop" we rillnot diwusl
money to d e money. Wh.t potential lets a c u m n t p u r it bere.)
h' thir b v e to &I mth rater through the metal from OIU point &de and f o a l 4
trmtment? The o d y muon for to another. "ha poinu ua ullod
rater treatment uta u v e money. a common cell. They have two SCALE u s &Me. white. ult-
Tbw, it mha m ow (buying r a . a n u : tha an& and the cathode like coating 011 the h u t cruder
tar trutment b m i a l ) to nuke (tha " e l a m " parr). rurtaca.It co- ouinly dim.
m ow (uw 011 water -1. Tha an& ia tha of lower p n i c InAtwiaL La., uleium ur-
If we k l i a w h t . by + d i n g potmud.when m o d iotu will g0 bOM.1.. and Pb0lph.t.. d
m o ~ c yup h n t wa rilln v e in rb. into lolution whon an aloctmlyt. magnesium ult~.
ir prrunt. The uthodr is the m a FOULING u tb ununul.tion
of higher potential. ofwli& otbrr thanomlo. It QP ba
El.euonr flow from tha anodic dirt udt or u n d r"th..it.Q
a n a to the I-tivs uthodic c O " i 0 n ~ A n d " a -
area. The anodic and cathodic gmirmr. i.s.. dpo,,fu~@. rad
murhrR w w n t l y , w cormion butaria. b f i c " Fmtb
spnadr evanly over the mtim u n uuy mrc.lQlRQiop It J.0
metal rurt~w. The extent of cor. can attack tb mod in cooling
rooion is the direct m u l t of the towam.
9ulr and fouling inumwith
-
metah ionr and elactronr. which
u n trawl thmunh d. md the th.httndU~inL7am
PUnrP bawpaa mui- "ENERGY-CONSCIOUS" OX-
me* and rdua rb.Ibrd d - chmgrr.
ing wataT in or tb b n t
trudu rurf.or, t hilldgatiag
mor, Dede aod/ahhll#. Aa lit- upper p.rt d tbc pH d. me
tle Y a 0.1-in"gd d c i u m W i o i t y numbadtbe w . b rc
&MU On* h.t lates .Iluliw (b.u)m i n e d to a
fer surface a n rrLsa tho b u t point whore " I sin the water
dm much m 40%. precipitate out and farm d on
the equipment.
What C.UII d e ? Wa know that at a d i n level
of l"a(CaCO,). at a given
M e u u d by opmpouod. tempomtun d alkalinity. d e
~minamlau l d ulwm the cooling will form due to water evmpom-
water that brcoma boluble - tion.
thy prripit.t.oucdth rdution For exynplr, u the d k d b t y
- at a h i n " n t m t e levels, number m a m a , tba C&O,'a
tempatrtum. .IrdPH lolubility drauwr.and the =a-
TbtmoltcomUKm&f~ tar lorer itl ability to hold the
m i ~ m lb ulcillm a r b o ~ w prorant amount. W h e n t h e
ccaco3. TbL mianl. in e** amount of CaCO, e x c w d ~i t s
001's -tar mppiy. is mhtod to u t w t i o n point. d e will rrdt
Lbr hudnmd r.tcr (the .mount
at ulcium d o r myncrium ment.
-with or without rater beat-
mine& prarnt). It is dm imparrnt b under.
We mad this hardness as a n d that, if alkalinity b m a
CaCO, por milligram por liter roo low. it incnvcrthc c h u m for
(m(/L).or purr pr million (ppm). wrmion. Wa mud maintain a
depotding on rho u doing the happy medium.
Ueing. Mat mca-nttQ
kiu mad ppm; laboratmy testing F e r
is uaually mgL. FOULING u Mrrumulation d
A proper water rule-pmvention mlid material, other than d e .
program can work only when the that deemmer the efficiency
budncv lave1 nrmi~ within a and/or life span of hest rejection
prwcribed mop.Tbe range will quipment. Tbe mort common
depend on tempemtw. p R foulant. M rilf u n d , corrosion
the amount of wale-fornag byproductr, and biological
minerals. Tempcratura and pH micmorgmirmr.
can cunderobly deet ruL for. BidoqLil fouling of tower water
mation on heat e x b . w equip iscommon in 111 putr ofthe wun-
try. It d tltrom growth of lower
ment.
We n l b t e rater pH to it. 'ah- -
fOrmr ofplant life algae. fun@.
and bcLcria. A tower water rys.
linity" r h n talking .bout b..t-
meat. The alkalinity d W L tem is an i d 4 u e a for powth of
d 1 . r and mar CMlbd-thr th.w o r p l h 6 .
Ref, 2-1
Chapter 2-6
Division
CHILLERS A N D COOLIh'C TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual for Conscruation . . Energy
NC Department oCCommerce
r) We QII mbmt tbr larvr life

f a m r by treating the water with
a microbiocide. Th key to su-
All rater h u diU0lv.d solids.
Cooling torerr and evaporative
eondenrcrr use water M the oml-
NOTES
is a rlow rate of fecd and longer ing media by evaporation. Olrly
coatact time. pure water - -
Y O is evapo-
Switching types of microbiocidc rated off, leaving behind the TDS.
far a faater rate of kill ia impor- All water solutions hold a spccfic
tant. When looking for a miaobi- amount of diruolved solids before
ocide. shop for a wide kill s p c . they precipitate out of solution.
trum. uuble at a wide pH range and rtvL to foul and .cnle the sys
.ad. hopefully. low in cost. tem.
Cooling towerr and evaporative Stick to basics
condensers are the best air.
wuhing rystems money can buy. To rum it up. treat the areas
k air paosa through the tower, that may p v e problems. T h e cor.
it is ruhdcloan of all put~culatc m i o n proeers, for example. must
matter. "hie wouldn't be so bad if be interfered with or slowed down
wo h d a once-through system. with an inhibitor that deals
However. if the water is recircu- dimctly with either the anode or
Iatad. it becomes m open. recir. uthode.
d a t i n g water ryrtem. Whatever Then treat for rule. Check ti&
caoling rater doesn't evaporate to -ine the water'r hudnes~.
trpr recirculating: particulate then maintain an alkalinity level
matter thus bocomes concern that will not scale the system. or
trued. Ifdlowed. waterborne pu- eat it away from too low of M
W a t e rcttlos on oquipment sur- alkalinity.
f.cw in tho sump, and will do a11 Then troat for fouling. Tbir is
rortr of temble things to the sys- done by using a chemical diaper-
1.m. unt and maintaining the TDS
To provent &is, um n o d to treat Ievel in the c o o h g rater sump.
tbs tower rater system with a Remember, TDS ia dl the imsu-
C b . W dlprrunt. alro known rities or soli& diaaolved in the wa-
u a drporit inhibitor. Thu chem- ter.
icaakould nat be wrd in phcr of We aood to maintain a e m i n
a aideat" w ri
n g ayatetn pH and temperature range, de-
N&o C h d d dorribcr tho pending on the d i ~ ~ l .nd
v da w
cbrmiul u a chuge-miafolcc pendad soli& in the water. To do
moat and rr#inq agent. "he this, we nod to take into aumunt
CbrgW0inlarrnvntdirpavntr the quality of water makeup and
Q.pIklUhwtonp61o w mother the pH. Know what you have to
by incroaring tho electrical work with, and get a water treat.
c b w u the^ an^. knp ment company that believes in
atatrhNlpmion.pmcW educating itr Eultomers.
&om brom nttlMon motd sur- I " m e n d that you obtain the
Lac following booka and make them
Tadirpaunt rlro ia .wetting put of your pemnal library.
ylrrt; it IMkOa tho r a m "rot- The Noln, Water H o d b o o k .
tr"by ducing d a c e tomion. M&w Hill, 1979 Drew Princi-
7&h hop tho puticloa in the p k 8 of ~ndwbrolWokr Treat-
kiL rator flow, to bo mmovod ment. H."oada McEntyn &
Ihm the w m through blow. MumuL lac., 1981; urd solrrtionr
dmrn (blood) or filtration. The b Boiler h Cooling Water R o b
blood ia r c t i v a t d by totrl dic lema. The F.irmont b, IM.,
d v o d solids. 1986.
cOacenb.tion cy&
We r u d cycla d-ntration
(COCtuTDS,orbycoodminty.
Candwtivity u a quantitative ex.
m n d m aqcuour rolution'r
JUIw topwrkcrr*:nr. dw
Wtbs ~ I W O Md d h o l v o d d i d s .
COC is the ratio of the makeup
to the point at which we
umt to maintain TDS in the mol-
iagtm.r sump. We maintainthu
b e l by activating the bleed.
bt'r find the COC by using a
TDS motor. Cbiago. for eumple.
uy W e Michigan water, otuch
h u a TDS reading of between
100 and 150 ppm. If *re maintain
a TDS reading of 450 ppm in the
4 - r -tar mmp. mad a 150
ppm rndingin tho nul.uprater.
J m d d b v o a COC of 3.
-
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 2-7
Division
CHILLERS AND COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP C nI--icd-#
auap
A Manual for Conservation - - w g
NOTES
WINTER INSPECTION
Pressure test for leaks.
Repair leaks
Detailed inspection of purge system and
thorough cleaning of purge compressor,
purge oil separator, purge drum, and purge
condensing coil. Change purge oil as
required.
Check condition of contacts for wear, pitting,
etc.
Check and calibratesafety controls.
Meg compressor motor and oil pump motor.
Record readings.
Check dash-pot oil in main starter, tighten all
starter terminals and check contacts for i
wear. Check overloads.
Calibrate safety controls.
Ref. 2-2
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSlTY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 2-8
Division
A Manual for Casenation
NC Departmento ~ & " e r c e
EDDY CURRENT TUBE ANALYSIS
What Is Eddy Cumnt Tuba A ~ . l y . l ~ ? What Type of Tube Defects Can Eddy Current Tube Anatpi8 Oetoct?
A n0ndestruct)Vs method of tssting heat
exchangetuber InCentrifugal and &
sorption chNkm.Over a periodof time lnrlck Munetor Pfttlng CIUud by Emion and/or Cor" of tho M e r SI&
veriousoperating condltlonscan cause Surtoco Du.to Acldlc Water.
damage and wtmequentfailure of these
tubesthroughwear,vibratkn,erosion StrouConooion Cnck Causod by8 ComMmUonof TukStrou and a
and amosion. If undetected, the damage Cormah Envlronmont.
CM lead to wrkrw breakdowm Involving Fatlour Cncklng Cauwd by T u b Aexlng or V l h t b n Duo to 1mpmp.r
not only the t u b , but boarings, motor 0P.nting Condltlons.
windings, etc. Bemwe of these inherent
rbk there k addlnlte needto know as Fnur Cracks cluwd by Wator Froulna In tho TLk..
muchabout tube QondltloM BI possiblein
order to propdy pkn your preventive
maintenance.
HOWWlll Eddy Cumnt Tuba AM- Who b OurlW to Porfom Eddy

S w o You MoImJ? Cumnt T u b Analysis?
Since the EddyCumnt tube analysis is Brady Tmne Services Eddy Current tube For proper preventive maintenanceof
P d O m 3 d byquaHfbd technicians, the analysisis a sophistic nondestructive Centrifugal and Absorption units, we
analysiiscan detect hazardous conditions testingtechnique which should only be recommendthat the tubes be tested a
beforethey becomo critical and cause performed by a qualified technician. The minimumof every three to five @am.
failure. This procedurecan reduce repair Trane comp.nY has the latest stateof-
costs and virtually eliminate downtime theart equipment and mom importantly, Where severe problems exist in a unit.
due lo tube failures. a full time staff of qualified technicians more frequent t u b analysis intervalsmay
who can properly interpretthe test be required for proper preventive
Tho analysis permitstubes to be removed results.Tram's Eddy Current technicians maintenance.
from service or replacedbefore a costly can detect tube problems, measuretheir
fWjOf failurecan m u r . A failure which severity and determine their cause. Occasionally. maintenancechecks may
could indve complete replacement of Equippedwith thii accurate information reveal indications of tube problems, in
refrigerant or tho Pbsorbent sabtions. not Srady Tram Sewices wili work with you Io which case an immedliafefesi shoulb be
to mention the d k.rings det"inowh.1 course of action is best 8ChOdUl.d.
3 and motor windlgr. forywrbuilding.
Ref. 2-3
Chapter 2-9
3
3
Chapter 3
CHILLER
OPTIMIZATION
-1
. ..*
AND
FREE COOLING
CHILLERS AND COOLING T O W WORKSHOP
c
CHILLER OPTIMIZATION AND FREE COOLING
NOTES
A rule of thumb used with chiller optimization is that a

reduction of 1.5 percent of operating KW is achieved with each
degree of discharge water temperature reset. Therefore, if the design
for a chiller is 450 F leaving water temperature and 550 F return
water temperature, a reduction of 1.5 percent in energy usage can be
obtained by operating with a 460 F leaving water temperature.
If the chiller plant is used for comfort cooling, temperature reset

should be a viable option.
For the purpose of this discussion, we are going to use a typical

system application.
A. Assume a system design load of 200 tons.
8. A chiller plant with a 200-ton chiller.
C A load composed of 80% building load and 20% intemal heat

gain.
D. A 200 F design temperature differential for chilled water and

condenser water.
Based on this example, the only time that 200 percent of the one
chiller capacity is required is when the outdoor temperature is at
design conditions of 950 F dry bulb, 780 F wet bulb, and the building
is occupied.
Since this occurs about 10 percent of the year, the balance of the
operating hours the unit is running at, less than full capacity.
3
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSlTY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 3-1
Division
NOTES
Lets assume, for this discussion, that on May 15th the load is 100
tons, or 50 percent of the system design. Since, as mentioned earlier,
the normal design system Delta T (AT) is 100 F, then the unit
operating at 450 F discharge water temperature would have a return
water temperature of 50 F.
In this situation the chiller could operate at 500 F discharge and

55O F return. The energy savings would be approximately 7.5 percent.
This method of operation may not be available to many users for

a variety of reasons. One of the most prevalent reasons given by
physical plant personnel is that the facility requires 450 F water all of
the time because one or more areas in the facility cannot maintain
temperature of humidity control with a higher discharge water
temperature.
This, unfortunately, is a common problem. The most undersized

piece of equipment drives the discharge temperature of the chiller
plant. This most likely is an area with a high internal load or a room
that is being used for a purpose other than it was originally intended.
In some severe cases, the load can be as small as 5 percent of the

total building load, and the chiller plant operates for extended
periods of time with little or no load in cool months.
A possible solution to this problem is the introduction of an

auxiliary chiller for this load, or retrofitting the area with a large air
handler to better match the load.
If the load is year-round, i! small reciprocating chiller for light

load conditions might be part of the solution.
-
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY WlTH THE NOFTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 3-2
Division
A Manual for Consewation
L:
L:
E v-q%I
NOTES
AUTOMATION
Most chillers are designed with discharge temperature control

which does not lend itself to temperature reset. The use of DDC
controls is required for discharge temperature control. Many chilled
water systems are now operated by DDC control systems. The use of
discharge temperature reset should be investigated for these systems.
OPERATING K W
Assuming now that you have maintained your machine, that it

is clean, and that it is operating reliably and properly, we can analyze
reducing the energy usage of your chiller plant.
The chart, CHILLER OPERATION ANALYSIS, (Reference 3-11

will be used in developing a typical chiller optimization analysis.
This information can be used to provide payback information for
return on investment calculations and for energy usage reduction
informa tion.
First, analyze the hours of operation with the CHILLER

OPERATION ANALYSIS chart.
How many hours per day, week and year does your chiller
plant operate?
What impacts the operation?
What affects the operation?
In many cases outdoor ambient condition is a prime mover, In a

knitting mill the internal heat gain is the major consideration, and
the use of good economizer is very important inmost mills, while in
many office buildings sun load and ambient tempgrabre can be the
primary factors that will require starting stopping chillers.
3 NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 3-3
Division
NOTES
Next, determine what the annual hours of operation per year, are
from minimum capacity to maximum capacity. A sample of typical
annual usage curves follows.
Analyzing the load characteristics of your plant will allow you to

determine which of the curves best represents the operating condition
of your chiller facility.
The curve in Figure 3-1 demonstrates a chiller plant which seldom

operates a full load. The chiller is oversized for the connected load or
the chiller plant has redundant chiller capacity. This is the curve
which offers the potential for the greatest savings with chiller
optimization or, in other terms, discharge water temperature reset.
Select the curve that most closely simulates your operation:
FIGURE 3-1. This curve represents the percentage of time a

chiller operates at a given capacity per year when
the chiller is lightly loaded or oversized for the
load. The curve is used to estimate ton-hours of
operation. It si used in developing energy saving
analysis information.
FIGURE 3-2. This curve illustrates the percentage of time per

year a chiller operates at a given capacity when the
load is moderate and the chiller is adequately sized.
FIGURE 3-3. This curve illustrates the percentage of time per

year
a chiller operates at a given load when the chiller is
heavily loaded and is close to the minimum size
necessary to handle the load.
The use of these curves will provide valuable insight into how
much savings may be available through chiller optimization.
Use the CHILLER OPERATION ANALYSIS chart to calculate the

annual KWH for each of your chillers.
NORTH CAROIJNA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 3-4
Division
NC Department of Commw
LOAD DISTRIBUTION CURVES
3 Primarily Light Loads Primarily Moderate Loads
24
22
20
I8
16
Y
F
2
F
14
I2
8
I-
8
I- lo
z
W
z
W
8
8
W
0
5
a Q 6
PERCENT OF FULL CAPACITY PERCENT OF FULL CAPACITY
.> Figure 3-1

York Division Bord-Wamer
Primarily Heavy Loads
Figure 3-2
Y
F
8
I-
z
W
0
6a
0 20 4S 60 80 1.9
PERCENT OF FULL CAPACITY

Figure 3-3
Chapter 3-5
A C C C D E F G
Total
Operating Mini" Maximum Avg Chiller TOn
Capacity Capacity Cap Rating inTons Hou S KW/Ton KW/Mon
Months Hrs/Month
% Hrs % Hrs % AxCxD ExF
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
TOTAL - - - - -
AVERAGE - - - - -
rill
+ 5 c3) .1D
chiller Load Distribution Curve A, B, C - Select the load distribution curve that most closely matches your load profile.
A Part Load Performance (PLP)= .05 (y)+ (y)35 + A = Chiller power consumption/evaporator load at ~ W O .
8
?
lJ
:Jz
!i @iT
3 7
B. PL -.10(?)+35
c. PL=:25 e+) + 35
(F)
(y)
+5t+
+ (y)
+
)+.lr
.5
3
.1D
B = Chiller power consumption/evaporator load at 75%.
C =Chiller power consumption/evaporator load at 50%.

13
8
D = Chiller power consumption/evaporator load at 25%.
Division
CHILLERS A N D COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual for Conseruation Energy
Reference 3-2.
Ton Hours
PL KW/Ton x Year = KW/Year
Solve for your KW/Ton for the curve you select. Use chart Number 4 for
a typical curve. The actual curve for your chiller can be obtained from the
manufacturer of the chiller.
EXAMPLE: Chiller Rate KW .85
A = .85 KW
B = .85 - (.85 x .06) = -799

1
..
C = .85 - (.85 x .lo) = .765
D = 3 5 + (.85x .02) = 367
CurveA,PLP=.O5( 3 5 + ,799)+.35( .799 + .765) + . 5 ( .765 + .86 )+.1(867)
Curve A, PLP = .05(.8245)+ .35(.782) + .5(.816) + .1(.867)
PLP = .0412 + .2737 + .4080 + .0867
A - PLP = .81 KW/Ton
3
N O R T H CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-7
DNlsion
CJ-ULLERS AND COOLMC TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual /or Conservation
Enerav
"-8
NC Department of CMmorca
Performance data (cont)
AUXILIARY RATINGS - 3 PHASE,50/60 HZ
%&:YE
DE*'GN SUPPLY
V-PH-HZ
SEALED
KVA
INRUSH
UVA
KVA - Kilo volt-amps
NOTES:
0.37 230 220/240-350 1. Average power consumed by auxllieries is included in the values ahown
on Pump 410 380/440-3-50 o'*l 522 in the Selsction Example tables.
220 200/240-3-80 2. Control circuit ratings provide for 32OOMP controls ESPll optiom com-
0.37 480 *u)/400-380 0.81 5.22 &reasornne o p e n t o n g r g e unit, two 1CR relays (15-VA each). a i d one
575 550/800-560 2. PR-1. P R I and 3 relays. The purge opyatm only when non-
ITEM INRUSH SEALED AVERAGE

KVA KVA kw
carcm*
oYn4d.r -
0.30 0.23
1.m
0.05
1.m
TYPICAL PART-LOADPERFORMANCE CURVE

LCWT
ERWT
-- Leaving Chilled Water Temperature
Entering Condenser Water
Temperature
U R I P A M LOAD)
all applications follow this exact curve. P a r t - W

pedomanca for specific applkatipn & i s
may bedeterminedfrom a canputenzed W o n .
0 o r5
% OESION CAPACITY
Integrated part-load performance

The Integrated Part-Load Value (IPLV) is the weighted To determine specific full-load and part-load machine
average of chiller input power consumption per evaporator performance you must obtain a computerized selection
load over the complete part-load range of chiller operation. from your local Carrier sales office.
The P L V was established by ARI and is included in the
latest version of ARI 550 Standards. Calculate IPLV as IPLV calculation example
A computerized selection for a 400 ton high-efficiency
machine produces the following information:
Model: 19DK73353CM
100% load at 400 tons = .63kW/ton = A
Where: 75% load at 300 tons = .55IkW/ton = B
A = chiller power consumption/evaporator load at 100% 50% load at 200 tons = .53IkW/ton = C
load point. 25% load at 100 tons = .68kW/ton = D
B = chiller power consumption/evaporator load at 75%
load point. IPLV
C = chiller power consumption/evaporator load' at 50%
load mint.
D = chille; power consumption/evaporator load at 25% = 0.1 (59)+ 0.5 (.%) + 0.3 (.605)+ 0.1 (.a)
load point. = 0.059+ 0.27+ 0.182 + 0.068
(AIwater conditions as defined by ARI Standard 550). = 0.579
Figure 3-5
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UhWERSlTY -WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 3-8
Figure 3-6. CHILLER OPERATION ANALYSIS
Total C I I E I G
KW/Mon
Months Hrs/Month
% Hrs % Hrs % AxCxD
January 40 25 40 25 0
I
3 8 0 5 4 0
100
100 I
561
561
200 I 5,000 I C
I
AVERAGE I
chiller b d Distribution Curve A, B, C -Select the load distribution curve that most closely matches your load profile.
A PartILoadPdomance(PLP)=.05 (?)+35 (F)+SC+)+.1D A = Chiller power consumption/evaporator load at 100%.
8
B. PL =.10(?)+35(?)+5(?)+.1D B = Chiller power consumption/evaporator load at 75%.
C. PL = 25 (?) + 35 (y)+ .5 e+) + .1D C = Chiller power consumption/evaporator load at 50%.
(Min % x Min Hrs + Max % x Max Hrs) / tIrsper month = Avg Cap D = Chiller power consumption/evaporator load at 25%.
Dwisum
CHILLERS A N D COOLING TOWERS WORKSFIOP
NC Depertmentof Commerce
NOTES
In many cases with older chillers, it is difficult to determine the

KW per ton at various operating capacities. This is particularly true
when there has been a motor failure and the replacement motor is
not a direct replacement. In fact, it would be quite unlikely that the
KW would be the same. In these cases it may be possible to
determine the KW/ton from information available in the operating
log.
The formula for calculating the KW/ton is:
KW/ton = operating amps/1000 x voltage x 1.732/ton x % operating ( lacity

KW/ton = 100 x 460/1000 x 1.732/200 x .5
KW/ton = .7958
NORTH CAROLrNA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-10
Division
CHILL= AND COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual for Conservation ,
J NOTES
THE MAXIMUM CHILLER OPERATING TEMPERATURE
A chiller efficiency can be increased by reducing the differences

between the inlet condenser water and the outlet chiller water
temperature. There are minimum limits to this differential. Each
chiller is different and you should consult the manufacturer on your
particular piece of equipment. The following graph shows
minimum condenser water temperatures for a Carrier chiller with
one-,two-, three-, and four-pass condensers.
Figure 3-7. Typical Part Load Performance Cooling Only Chiller
The curves are a representative composite.
The performance data in this graph demonstrates the relationship of the entering condenser water
temperature to the percentage of operating capacity. This chart is for a Carrier chiller. The chiller
is able to operate at lower condenser water temperatures a9 Iower loads than is permissible at high
operating capacity. A temperature of 580 F entering water temperature on a two-pass chilkr is
3 permissible up to 44% of the rated capacity. The condenser water temperature must be elevated to
operate at a higher rate of capacity.
STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
NORTH CAROL~NA
Chapter 3-11
Division
A Manual for Conservation Eneigy
NOTES
MINIMUM CHILLED WATER TEMPERATURE
In most cases the discharge temperature from your chiller is

mandated by the most undersized piece of equipment in your
facility. A typical example of this is a hospital. Many operating rooms
were designed for 720 F with four to eight air changes. Now the
requirements are 680 F with ten to fifteen air changes. This is a
dramatic increase in outdoor air as well as indoor load. Seldom has
this condition been addressed by replacing the air handling unit.
Usually the discharge temperature of the chiller is lowered to
attempt to increase the air handler capacity.
Since the operating KW is affected directly by the chiller

discharge water temperature, it may be to your benefit to change out
the piece of equipment that requires a lower operating temperature
with a properly sized unit design for a higher inlet water
temperature.
Generally, the first objection to increased chiller discharge water

temperature is a loss in dehumidifying capability.
The average water temperature in the cooling coil does not

change drama tically if the chilled water supply temperature changes
based on load conditions. That is, if the load goes down, the entering
water temperature goes up. Note the following example.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UMVEFSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 3-12
A Manual for Conscroation
3 NOTES
EXAMPLE
COIL A COIL B COIL c

~
CFM 4000 4000 4000

EDB / EWB 80.00 / 70.2 75.0 / 66.8 75.0 / 66.8
LDB / LWB 59.5 / 58.7 56.0 / 55.3 59.1 / 58.4
TH 155,561 144,590 109,870
SH 88,872 82,570 69,083
EWT / LWT 43.0 / 56.0 43.0 / 55.0 49.0 / 58.2
GPM 24.0 24.0 24.0
wv 3.3 6.5 6.5
WPD 6.7 39.9 39.2
FV 500.0 500.0 500.0
APD 0.58 0.58 0.52
Coils A, B, and C are the same coils. These three examples are for
the same coil a t varying inlet air temperatures and entering water
tempera tu res.
In COIL A, the entering dry bulb (EDB) is 800 F and the entering
water temperature (EWT) is 430 F. The work it will perform is
155,561 /BTUH total cooling.
In COIL B, the EDB is 750 F and the EWT is 430 F. The work it
will perform is 144,590.
In COIL C, the EBD is 750 F and the EWT is 490 F. The work it
will perform is 109,870.
Reference 1-7 is a psychometric chart which shows the work

required at the same conditions. The chart shows that the coil at 490 F
EWT will provide adequate cooling to satisfy the load at Point B.
NORTI+ CAROLINA STATE UNlVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-13
Division
NOTES
Since the machine is operating under low load conditions, a

major percentage of the time, the chiller has the capacity at 5 percent
to 80 percent of its rated capacity to carry the load 98 percent of the
time. It will also dehumidify as well as the coil under the conditions
A. Note the leaving wet bulb temperature - in COIL A, 58.70 F, in
COIL C, 58.40 F.
Chapter 3-14
''3
I
n
a
3
L
a m
Figure 3-8
-
N O M CAROLINA S A T E UNIVERSITY WITH THE NORTH CAROLJNA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 3-15
Division
NOTES
Since the chilled water circulating rate of the chiller is constant,

the amount of water circulated exceeds the load requirements 98
percent of the time.
The load BTU = gpm circulated times the temperature rise across
the air conditioning coils or the press load times the constant 500.
BTU - GPM x DT x 500
The air conditioning coils will perform less work when the
temperature difference between the entering air or return air and the
entering water temperature is decreased.
The new EWT of 490 F can be achieved with chilled water

temperature reset.
The improvement in efficiency is a result of improved thermal

transfer in the evaporator and condenser. This assumes that the
water flow rates in the evaporator and the condenser are unchanged.
In most cases it is impractical to try to increase the water flow rates
through the evaporator or the condenser to improve thermal
transfer because they are usually selected at their optimum velocity.
Is it possible to increase the discharge chilled water temperature

or reduce the entering condenser water temperature? We will
discuss the condenser water reset during the discussion of water
towers (see Figure 3-7 and 3-9).
NORTH CAROLrNA STATE UNlVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-16
e
CHnLERS AND COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual for Conservation rnQrgy
Dvision
3 NOTES
OPERATING CONDITIONS
The next thing to consider is chiller cycling. In multiple chiller

systems it is logical to operate the most efficient chiller as the lead
chiller. In chiller plants with multiple chillers of various capacities, a
careful analysis of the daily load conditions and what impacts that
load is necessary. In order to adequately use multiple chiller
strategies, it is necessary to be able to service all parts of your plant
load with any and all chillers. We will discuss this subject under
variable chilled water flow system.
The most efficient unit is usually the newest chiller; however. a

thorough analysis of all of your chillers is necessary to properly
address varying load conditions. Most chiller manufacturers will
assist you with this information. (Refer to Figure 1-10 for part load
KW informa tion.)
This graph shows the relationship between percent of capacity

and KW. You will see that this chiller has a lower KWlton at 50
percent than a t 30 percent or 100 percent and that it is most efficient
between 40 and 80. For this reason it is not unusual to find two
chillers in a system running with the capacity limiter set at 80
percent in both chillers.
A thorough understanding of the performance characteristics of

all of the chillers in your plant is necessary to properly plan an
energy reduction strategy.
Reference 1-3 is a reference from a 1977 Trane manual. It shows

the range of KW/ton for a compressor, a condenser and an
evaporator. The KW/ton runs from a low of .65 KW/ton to a high of
.78KW/ton a t full capacity.
NORTH CAROI.WA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 3-17
Division
CHILLERS AND C001.1NG TOWERS WORKSFIOP
This graph shows the relationship between the entering condenser water temperature and the
KW per ton required to operate the chiller at a particular capacity. The efficiency of the chiller
is increased by reducing the entering condenser water temperature.
Performance data
TYPICAL MINIMUM ENTERING CONDENSER WATER TEMPERATURE
63 -
-. 17
--
62
lb
Y3
--
.u
I- W
a a
a a
61
W
a. t
J
W
-. 16 a
c x
a W
t
W
t3 60 B
c
a
W s
v)
2
W Q
P
2
:u: H
z
59
B
0
a
W
z
a
t W
2 t
W 2
W
58
-, ' 14
A
57
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PERCENT OF FULL LOAD TONS
NOTE:Curveisbased~waterasthecoolerfluid.Lowtemperaturebrine
applications result in a slightly lower minimum entering condenser water
1.mpenture c
um
Figure 3-9
Chapter 3-18
Division
A Manual Afor
CHnLERS Conseroation
N D COOLINC TOWERSWORKSHOP
Energy
NOTES
Table 3-10 shows evaporator correction factors. Note that at 44O F

leaving water temperature and 950 F adjusted leaving condenser
temperature it requires 1015 KW to develop 1331 tons or .7625
KW/ton. At 500 F E.L.W.T., 950 F C.L.W.T. it requires 1015 KW to
develop 1497 tons or .678 KW/ton or 11 percent less power per ton
for a 50 F change in evaporator leaving water temperature.
The 1977 catalogue was used for this comparison since the CVHE
chillers are all selected by computer now and on graphs have been
published for these new chillers.
Most new chillers have solid-state control systems. Some of these

allow the user to optimize the operation.
., Chiller optimization is the ability to reset the supply water

jemperature based on the return water deviation from a set point
such as 550 F. It may also allow multiple machines to operate on a
parallel basis at an equal percent of capacity (see Figure 3-11).
If such a strategy is desirable and available, it is necessary to

operate the machines in such a manner that they d o not set a
demand peak when starting an additional chiller. The operating
chiller or chillers should cut back in capacity while the new chiller is
brought on line. Many digital control systems have this capability.
It is necessary to be sure that any control strategy is compatible

with your chiller capability and controls. Some early digital control
systems and control strategies did things that were damaging to a
chiller such as duty cycling chillers. Duty cycle is several stop-starts
per hour or per day. Most chillers cannot by cycled more than once
per hour, and it is best not to cycle them more than once per day.
Many chillers have cycle countersthat are helpful to catch short
cycling when attended.
Chapter 3-19
Division
Cnrrru
A Manual for Conservation :=iyy
PERFORMANCE EXAMPLE NO. 14
MODEL CVHB 125 V P1 P1S

Performance
Refrigerant (Ib5 R-11) 2200
ADJUSTED LEAVING CONDENSER - C
Oil Charge (Gallona) 10
E V A ? PI I I
Auxlllary Water Required (GPM) 4
COND ? I S 90 95 IO0 Evaporator Insulation Area (Square Feet) 360
Shipping Weight (Ibs) 43,650
b I 40
I273
1015
I240
1015
I201
1015
I
TONS
KW
Optratlng Welght (Iba)
Maximum Rlgging Weight (Ibr)
49,100
23.Ooo
1:
II 11 13 IMPELLER Shell i
3 Water Box Volume (Gallons)
0 1327 1302 I u z TONS Evaporator 259
42 1015 1015 1015 KW Condenaor ne
12 IMPELLER
NOTE All dlmsnslonl and physical mformalion applies only Io tlm cunpo.
1287 TONS nenl combinallon ldenMud on this page
1015 KW
IMPELLER
IMCELLER
1433
ioia
lM?ELLER
I509 I497 I429 TONS
972 101 I 1011 KW
08 01 IMPELLER
U
.m I
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSlTY - WlTH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-20
A Manual for Cascruation
CF""
ergy
NC Department of Comma
+*--
S"
Chilled Watei
Temperature
Sensor
Table 3-11
Chapter 3-21
Division
CHILLERS AND COOLING T O W E WORKSHOP S??6fSra_r
A Manual for Consernation 5 2 IYI Vi
NOTES
Some older machines have failed because of a fluttering water

flow switch. It is unwise to save a thousand dollars in energy use
and spend five thousand on chiller repairs.
Every motor has a minimum no-load KW requirement. Every

chiller has a minimum amp draw. Occasionally because of motor
selection, the minimum amp draw of the chiller may be at 30
percent to 50 percent of its full load amps.
Chiller manufacturers have several motor selections for each

size compressor and occasionally this matchup is not good.
Sometimes the problem occurs when a motor is replaced after a
failure, on an emergency basis. This generally happens because you
dont have any choice. The chiller goes down on a Friday or a
weekend and the replacement is on an emergency basis. Production
is screaming.
It is changed out on an emergency basis and you cannot get a

rewind done in time or the motor is beyond repair. Whatever the
reason, the eventual outcome can be a 400 HP motor in a 250-ton
machine. The minimum KW may exceed 50 percent of the
maximum design KW of the unit. This obviously will impact any
energy reduction strategy.
Low-end surge will also impact the general operation of a chiller.

The unit becomes unbalanced because there is not enough gas being
compressed by the impeller and the gas starts to rush back through
the impeller. The result is call low-end surge. This results in a
practical minimum capacity for a chiller.
NORTI 1 CAROI.INA STAW UNlVWSlTY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-22
NOTES
There is a minimum condenser water temperature and a

maximum chilled water temperature at which your chiller will
operate. It is necessary that the condenser water temperature in order
to start your chiller, and the chiller must be in this condition long
enough for the refrigerant in the machine to migrate to the proper
location before starting.
Also, the lower the machine operating capacity is, the more
critical these operating conditions become.
One way to overcome this low operating condition is with free

cooling.
FREE COOLING
One of the other alternatives being used is free cooling. Free

cooling in this context means using the cold water from the water
tower to cool refrigerant directly and to use the thermal properties
and the design of the chiller to cool the chilled water without the use
of the centrifugal compressor.
There are several other ways to produce free cooling with the use
of cold water from a cooling tower when there is a need for cooling
and the outdoor temperature is low enough, generally below 50 F
(see Figures 1-21 through 1-26).
NORTH CAROLlNA STATE UMVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-23
Division
climate with cold winters. It is

possible to cool the building
exclusively with Free Cooling three
to four months out of the year! Free
Cooling payback can easily be less
than a year.
Free Cooling is completely factory
installed and requires no more floor
space or piping than the standard
CenTraVac chiller (unlike the plate
frame heat exchanger).
Free Cooling operation is based on
the principle that refrigerant migrates
to the area of lowest temperature.
When condenser water is available at
temperatures lower than the required
leaving chilled water temperature
(typically 50 to 55 F), the System
Control Panel starts the Free Cooling Compressor Operation
cycle automatically. Up to 45 percent Not Needed
of nominal chiller capacity is
available without operating the
compressor.
JI
When the Free Cooling cycle can no I
longer provide sufficient capacity to
meet cooling requirements,
mechanical cooling is restarted
automatically by the System Control
Panel.
For example, a building with a high
internal cooling load is located in a
I I I
Rdrigorant Flow
Figure 1-21. This illustration shows the flow of refrigerant in a Trane chiller during the free cooling cycle.
The use of low condenser water temperature allows the unit to condense refrigerant gases
at a low pressure. At the same time the higher chilled water temperature boils the refrigerant ,
at this low pressure. In this operation the condenser water must be colder than the chilled
water.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UMVERSITY - WlTH TI-IE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 3-24
er
Diision
NC D e p a m " of Commerce
Figure 1-22. Free cooling performance to determine the required condenser water temperature for a
. given chilled water temperature and capacity enter the graph at the desired leaving
evaporator liquid temperature. Follow the line vertically to the desired percent base capacity
line. To determine the required condenser water temperature follow a line parallel to the
applicable solid or broken line to the desired temperature information.
Example: The required condenser water temperature for 48F leaving chilled water
temperature at 25% capacity is 41F for a standard condenser.
Free Cooling Performance

ENTERING CONDENSER LIQUID TEMP ER ATU R E
4OoF 5OOF 55OF
3 LEAVING EVAPORATOR LIOUID TEMPERATURE (OF) -

----
STANDARD CONDENSER
EXTENDED CONDENSER
Fig. 'os - NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-25
Division
A Manual far Conservation
Fig. 1-24
- Compnuor 0p.r.tiOn schonutk 1-25 - F m Cooling 0p.ration Schomotk
These figures demonstrate the differences in refrigerant fbws between the two
methods of chiller operation.
Chapter 3-26
Division
Money Saving Options

Performance Examples
- H0.t R O C O V O ~ ~
Performance E u m p k s
- Auxiliiry Condenser Performance Examples
With Auxiliary coding Typical Annual
Wnh Heat Cooling Coodenrer only Energy Savings ($1
RecoVW only CVHE0144CE4DE
CVHEO144CE4DE-lDE 140 7iw 140 Tons 53410
133 Tonr 140 Tom 1515 MBh -
2000 MBh - .72 K w K i .79 KwKon
.84 KwKon .80 KwKon CVHEOl6-XE-3DE
CVHM16-XE-3DE-1 DE 160 %It8 160 Tons 53895
147 Tom 160 Tons 1574 MBh -
2200 MBh - .69 K w K i .76 K w K i
.a Kw&m .77 KwKon CVHMIBZCE-PDE
CVHEOl8-2CE-2DE-1DE 180 k n s 180 T w 34380
161 Tom 180 Tonr 1627 MBh -
2400 MBh - .69 KwKon .74 KwKon
BO KwK' .75 KwKon CVHE020-1CE-1DE
CVHEO2O-1CE-1DE-1DE
, - ~mcooing ~ e r f o r n bu ~m p b
Frw coding T w Typical
Model Ent Cond. FAvg. Evrp. F Annual Energy
Nomid b s w48 43/52 45/56 Savings ($1
CVHEOlWCE4DE 49 57 63 $2930
*.
A l1
l
CVHMlSXE-IDE 54 63 72 $3160
160
CVHEOlE2CE-2DE
180 60 71 81 w20
CVHEO20-1CE-1DE
2M 65 77 90 uslro
Fig. 1-26
NORTH CAROIJNA STATE UMVERSITY - MrITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-27
Chapter 4
CHILLED WATER
SYSTEMS
3 c
Division
A Manual for Consewation Energy
3 CHILLED WATER SYSTEMS
NOTES
Up to this point we have reviewed the use of chillers and how to
conserve energy in their use.
The chilled water systems that they are used with, also use
energy. The way these systems are operated is an important part of
your total use of electrical energy.
The basic chilled water system includes the chiller, a chilled

water circulating pump, and the load.
The load is any heat exchanger that is connected to the chiller.

This will be an air handler or a fan coil or such in an office building,
or a press heat exchanger in an industrial plant.
In this system, the usual method for controlling the temperature

of the space or the process is a three-way modulating valve. The
three-way valve will provide a constant flow of water either through
the heat exchanger or around it through the by-pass. Constant flow is
required for the safe operation of the chiller.
Most older systems were designed with this type of control. It

wasnt until the cost of electricity rose sharply that other types of
control were seriously considered.
In the mid-eighties, energy management systems became more

prevalent and grew into total building automation systems. With
the advent of DDC control, many system operating strategies became
practical.
One of the most useful designs, that was introduced during this
period, is the primary-secondary loop system, which is also referred
to as the coupled, decoupled system. This system empbys a primar;.
system pump and a dedicated chiller pump (see Figure 4-1).
c
Chapter 4-1
Division
A Manual for Consemation
I=narm.(cr
Li 7
NOTES
There are several major attributes of this system. The system

allows for the use of two-way control valves, since the flow of water
through the chiller can be constant and the flow through the
building system can be variable. The operation of chillers can be
automated since the system does not require the use of isolating
valves to allow one or more chillers to be on- or off-line at a time.
This reduces the requirement for automatic valves or for attended
chiller startup.
The system layout in Figure 4-1 shows the basic components of a

primary-secondary loop system.
HkAI
TWO WAY
EXCHANGER
VALVE
b
Figure 4-1
Chapter 4-2
Division
A Manual fir Consemution
3 NOTES
An example of a typical application should provide a clearer

understanding of the benefits of thissystem. For this example, let us
consider the following:
CHILLER
Design capacity 250 tons
Minimum capacity 62.5 tons
GPM 600
EWT 550 F
LWT 450 F
AP 10 feet
SYSTEM
Design capacity 250 tons
Minimum capacity Variable
GPM 600
EWT 450 F
LWT 550 F
Ar 50 feet
BHP 9.95
The system is inwlled in a multi-level office buildin with tw

air handlers on each floor.
During normal operation, the chiller capacity will follow the

load by controlling the discharge water temperature at 450 F. the
chiller dedicated pump will provide 1200 GPM to the chiller at
sufficient pressure to overcome the resistance of the evaporator and
the piping to and from the main system.
The system pump is sized for the design pressure of the .

distribution piping, heat exchangers, and control valves at the
required GPM.
NORTH CAROLINA S A T E U M W I T Y - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 4-3
Division
CHILLERS AM) COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP
NOTES
The use of a variable speed system pump can greatly reduce the
operating KW. In our example, the design conditions are only met a
few hours per year. The rest of the time less water flow is required to
provide adequate cooling. The reduction in flow results in a reduced
system pressure drop. The relationship is:
Change in Flow = (Change in Resistance12
A reduction to 50 percent in flow will result in a reduction in

system resistance to .25 percent.
600 GPM x .5 = SR x (.5 x .5)

600 GPM x .5 = 50 ft x .25
300 GPM = 12.5 ft
(See Table 4-1 on the following page for examples.)
The same reduction results in a dramatic lowering in motor

brake horsepower.
A change in GPM results in a cubed effect on horsepower.
Change in GPM = (BHP)3

GPM x.50 = BHP x (.50 x .50 x .50)
600 x .50 = 9.95 x (.50 x .50 x .50)
300 = 9.95 x .125
300 = 1.24 BHP
While these reductions are dramatic, they may not ue obtainah-,,

since with a variable flow system some pressure is required to move
the water through the control valves to maintain control. Since the
pump speed must be controlled in some manner, one control
strategy uses a system pressure sensor located about one-fourth of
the total length from the end of the supply line. The sensor
-_-*__
rridrntains a coiisiaiit system pr2ssure at this point by varying the
pump RPM.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UMVERsITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSlON
Chapter 4-4
NC Depattment of Commerce
NOTES
Since the flow of water will vary with the system head, the fluid
flow laws still apply. The flow will more closely follow the pump
curve since the static pressure is being maintained. The static
pressure at the pump will still drop as the flow is reduced since the
pressure required to move the water to the sensing point will also be
reduced (see Figures 4-2 and 4-3).
CHANGE OF SPEED (RPM)
EXAMPLES
~~
GPM Directly Double RPM = (2) (RPM) = (2) (GPM)

Triple RPM = (3) (RPM) = (3) (GPM)
Double RPM = (2) (RPM) = (2)2 = (2) (2) = (4) Head

Triple RPM = (3) (RPM) = (3)2 = (3) (3) = (9) Head
:E IN IMPELLER DIAMETER (DIA.)
EXAMPLES
GPM
HEAD
1-Directly
quare
Double
Triple
Double
Dia. = (2) (Dia.) = (2) (GPM)
Dia. = (3) (Dia.) = (3) (GPM)
Dia.= (2) (Dia.) = (212 = (2) (2) = (4) Head

Triple Dia.= (3) (Dia.) = (3)2 = (3) (3) = (9)Head
BHP cube Double D i a s (2) (Dia.) = (a3= (2) (2) (2) = (8)BHP
Triple Dia.= (3) (Dia.) = (313 = (3) (3) (3) = (27) BHP
3 Table 4 1
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WlTH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSlON
Chapter 4-5
Division
NOTES
Since we are operating the system on a constant system pressure,

the pressure at the outlet of the pump will decrease slightly and the
GPM will drop because of the reduced load. Since the brake
horsepower is a function of GPM, the brake horsepower required to
pump the water is reduced whenever the rate drops off from 600
GPM.
The control of the rate of flow in this arrangement is the control

valve and the amount of water it allows to flow to the coil and back
to the pump. Remember that the variable in this arrangement is the
pump RPM.
The brake horsepower for 600 GPM @ 50 ft Head is 9.95.The

brake horsepower for 300 GPM at 38 is 4.5 BHP.
Chapter 4-6
Division
VARIABLE V O L U M E SYSTEM
with pump speed control and constant system pressure at remote system point
A -B Distribution pipe to last system load

C -D System load (air handler chilled water coil)
D-E Two-way control valve
E-F Return piping to pump at full load = 600 GPM
A-B 15APat60GPM
B-C 5.0 8 600 GPM
C-D 10 8 600 GPM
D-E 15 8 600 GPM
E.F 58 600 GPM
TOTAL 50 8 600 GPM
N O R T H CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 4-7
Division
NC Department of Commerca
NOTES
Calculation for Reduced Flow:
AP 8 300 GPM
A - B 8 600 GPM = 15 ft
A-B
15 15
4 = y X = 7 x = 3.75
AI = 3.75 ft
A = 35 + 3.75 = 38.75 ft
5 ft
Point c = 35 - (T) = 33.75 ft
Point D = 33.75 - - = 31.25 ft

(Iqo)
5
4 -- 1.25 = 1.25 ft
Point E = -
Pressures at Points:
600 GPM 300 GPM
A 50 ft 38.75 ft
B 35 ft 35 ft
C 30 ft 33.75 ft
D 20 ft 31.25 ft
E 5ft 1.25 ft
F Oft Oft
Chapter 4-8
Division
A Manual for Consrruafion Energy
Nc Depertment of Commercr,
",..
'-l
MAX. DIA.: 8.W

IMPELLER NO.: 105
. ....
Horsepower curves do not include motor service factor.

Figure 4-2
A = 600 GPM 8 50 ft Head with 9.95 BHP
B = Same pump and impeller 8 300 GPM. The reduced GPM

results in a lower system static pressure of 12.50 ft Head and
a reduced brake HP of 1.24 BHP.
300 GPM
(00GpM)2 x 50 ft = 12.50 ft
300 GPM
(00G p M y x 9-95BHP = 1.24 BHP
c = Curve A-B represents a change in flow as a result of

reduced GPM. The same curve will result if the RPM
were reduced to pump an equal GPM.
3 - NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 4-9
Division
A Manual for Conservation =: : w :
NOTES
There are a number of ways to control a variable volume system.
As we have just discussed, the use of a variable RPM and a constant
system pressure is one way. This method is workable. However, if it
is necessary to keep a fixed head of pressure in a system to provide
water to the top story of a multi-level building, this can become a
problem if not understood and properly maintained.
Another method is to use Multiple System Pumps. The same

system could use two 300 GPM pumps rated at 70 ft head piped in
parallel and controlled by a differential pressure switch in the system
at point F-A. If the pressure at point B decreases to X then pump #2
is energized, and if the pressure rises to Y then #2 is de-energized.
X = The pressure required to operate the system in excess of 50 %.

Y = The pressure the system will see at 100% flow and less than 50% load.
IO0
80
STATIC
PRESSURE 60
I N FEET
40
20
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
-.
GPM SYSTEM FLOW
Figure 4-3
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNlVERSlTY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 4-10
A Manual /or Caseroution
NC Departmentof Comwca
NOTES
Differential pressure: Pump #1 should be on with system. Pump

#2 should be on if system pressure is less than zero and less than 25
psi - off when system pressure is greater than 60 psi.
A bypass at the end of the loop is required for the primary-

secondary loop system for at least two reasons:
1. A centrifugal pump can be damaged when there is no flow.

The bypass will guarantee flow at all times.
2. Loads a t all points on the supply header will have cold water
when they are turned on, as long as flow is continuous in the
mains.
One bypass can be a fixed orifice such as a section of 1-inch pipe

or can be a back press regulating valve (relief valve).
In a primary-secondary system, we can look at the systems as

separate entities. Control of the primary system or load system and
the secondary or production system is independent. The operation of
the primary system controls the use and flow of water for the
building loads. The secondary system controls the operation of the
chillers and cooling towers.
In many central systems there is more than one chiller and there
can be several chiIIers of varying capacities.
In the primary-secondary loop system, the starting and stopping

of chillers as well as the control of the water temperature is open to a
variety of scenarios. Chillers are usually operated by controlling the
discharge water temperature. As discussed earlier, they can also be
operated by resetting to "off" the return water temperature variation
when using DDC control system. That allows the discharge
temperature to vary with the load.
3 NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNlVERslTY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 4-11
Division
CHILLERS AND COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP E nr . q . . ~ ~
&c;s ?.tiec;s--I
A Manual for Conservation JI
RETURN C H I L L E R #1 SECONDARY
WATER A LOOP
TEMP.
SENSOR
D BYPASS
I
f
C
Pl 0-
PRIMARY
LOOP
SYSTEM BY PASS
I
I
Figure 4-6
Chiller #1 - 250 tons

Chiller #2 - 250 tons
P1= 600 GPM
M = 600 GPM
CPl = 600 GPM
C M = 600 GPM
P1 and M are constant speed pumps controlled by DPC-I.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNlvERsrrY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 4-12
Division
CHILLERS AND COOUNG TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual fir Conservation --i4:Li;\c
CCL,bi
PI;
J r
Y
3 1 NOTES
In Figure 4-6, the return water temperature(RWT1 sensor will

react to increases or decreases in return water temperature. If the
return water temperature goes down, the amount of chiller capacity
has exceeded the load and the chiller capacity can be decreased. If the
return water temperature goes up, the load has exceeded the chiller
capacity and the chiller capacity should be increased.
Suppose that the system is operating with chiller #1 and pump

P1 on. It is mid-morning. The chiller is operating at 50 percent
capacity, the return water temperature is 550 F and the supply water
temperature is 500 F.
A-B 600GPM
B-C 600GPM
A-D zeroGPM
RWT = 550 F
. .> SWT = 500 F
The chiller is operating a t 50 percent capacity and the system

pump is providing 100 percent of its capacity to the building.
The load increases in the building. This causes several things to

happen. Flow A-B remains constant. The return water temperature
increases above 550 F. The chiller capacity increases due to the
change in return water temperature. The chiller capacity will
continue to increase until the return water temperature comes back
to 550 F.
The load continues to increase and the chiller percent of capacity

also increases until the machine reaches 100 percent of capacity.
RWT = 550 F
SWT = 450 F
3 NORTH CAROLlNA STATE UMVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 4-13
Division
NOTES
When this occurs, it may be necessary to start a second chiller. If

the DDC control determines that it is allowable, then CP2 starts.
Starting CM causes several things to happen. CP2 will pump 600
GPM. The flows are now:
A-B = 600 GPM

A-D = 600 GPM
The temperature at point A will increase to 500 F. The

temperature at point D will decrease to less than 55O F or 52.5O F. The
DDC control system ignores this for a predetermined period of time
and continues the startup sequence. The system differential pressure
will continue to drop, and pump P2 will be energized. This will
cause the flow in the bypass to stop and the total 1200 GPM to flow
through the building system. The temperature at point D will rise to
above 550 F. The startup sequence will continue until both chillers
are on-line and the return water temperature is controlled at 55O F.
NORTHCAROLINASTATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 4-14
Division
VARIABLE FLOW CHILLED WATER SYSTEMS

In the June 1983 issue of the Engineers Newsletter, The basic arrangement of pumps and chillers is
the basic decoupled primary distributionlsecondary also shown in the 1980 ASHRAE Systems Handbook.
production chilled water system wasshown in Figure Notice how Figure 3 from Chapter 18, shown here as
3. We see this same arrangement here in Figure 1. In Figure 2, parallels Figure 1. In fact, they are identical,
this newsletter we will explore some of the reasons except for the chiller pump location. Unfortunately,
for this systems performance. Further. we will the handbook does not go on to explain how the
speculate on some possible applications for its use. system works. The only explanation provided is that
this scheme allows variable flow at the terminals and
constant flow through the chillers, simultaneously.
VARIABLE FLOW CIRCUIT
------
FIGURE 2
HOW IT WORKS
Technically, this arrangement provides far more
capabilities. (Before exploring some of these
applications; we need to discover why the decoupler
scheme perfprms as it does.
, DISTRIBUTION LOOP Figure 1 can be divided into its two halves, as
II shown by Figures 3 and 7.Figure 3 displays
FIGURE 1 production functions. The purpose of each pump
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UMVERsITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 4-15
A Manual for Consemation w: :w: 1
NC Depenment o~Canmerce
is to move water from point A to point E, by way of the Studies of the expected mean times between
chiller. The amount of power consumed in this equipment failures reveal that very little system
process is: security is gained by ganging pumps per Figure 4,
K W ( p p ) = gpm x DP x 1.8763/EFF(p) x EFF(m) compared to Figure 3.
where: gpm is the pump flow rate in gallons per
minute
DP is the totai dynamic pressure loss
between A and B in feet of water
EFF(p) is the percent pump efficiency
EFF(m) is the percent motor efficiency.
This resulting power is relatively small because so
It
little pressure is needed to move water from A to E.
ROW SENSORS
The only significant loss is through the chiller itself.
Further, only those pumps actually running (in the
case of multiple chillers) actually consume power.
I BYPASS I
FIGURE 4
I
The production side (secondary) can consist of any
PR0WCTY)NLOOP TS1 I'
number of individual chillers and pumps. They can be
of any size or type. However, all chillers must be
selected to produce their design capacityat the same
entering and leaving chilled water temperatures,
since all chillers use common return and supply
t water mains.
Commonly, chillers are located in a single central
plant or machine room. Occasionally, chillers are
remote or separated from each other. This, too, can
be accommodated by the basic decoupler concept.
Figure 5 shows one method that has proven popular
in retrofitting "incremental" campuses to central
plants without forfeiting existing chillers as presently
FIGURE 3
locatedand piped. With thisscheme,valveVl isopen
if the local chillers are secured and the central plant
PRODUCTION furnishes capacity. Thisvalve is closed if the building
The production (secondary) can take several is to operate on local chillers only.
forms. Figure 3 displays multiple chillers with The thermostatically operated valve V2 meters
dedicated pumps. Each chiller operates in water as it leaves the building secondary pumping
combination with its own pump as a single unit. system. This prevents the return of this water until it
Temperature control of each chiller is separate from has reached an appropriate chilled water return
all others. The only function of the temperature ( C H W R ) temperature. Consequently, the building will
control system is to provide a constant temperature appear to the distribution system as a large two-way
of chilled water at the chiller exit. It does not provide valve controlled load. The "bridge" piping between
any sequencing or other integrating functions. valves V1 and V2 decouples the constant flow
One objection to this arrangement might be the building circuit and the variable flow distribution
possibility of either a pump or chiller outage causing piping.
the loss of one complete segment of system capacity. In order to allow surplus local chiller capacity to be
Gang pumping avoids thisshortcoming, but presents absorbed by the central system, the building's
aproblem in providing increments of chiller flow and existing pumping arrangement requires revision.
capacity. The arrangement shown in Figure 4, while Figure 6 shows a possible method. A new chiller
more complex, solves the prob!em. Chiller flow and pump P2 must overcome the differen!ial pressure
resulting system capacity increments are added or between the supply and return mains in the central
subtracted by the action of both pumps and valves plant through the building supply main connection.
Coordination of the pumps, valves and chillers is This constant flow connection provides surplus
needed to match flows properly. This is certainly not water (not used by the building) to the central SuPPlY
terribly difficult to accomplish, but it adds it measure main. Valve v1 must open when the chillerr are active
of complexity to the controls. and be closed when they are not.
Chapter 4-16
Division
A ManualAND
CHlLLm Consemation
Nc Department of cofnmm
WLDmt LOADS
1
FIGURE 7
loo 1
m
I I m
FER
OF
mu)
20
tm 200 300 U x ) m
PLMP FLOW - GPM
FIGURE 8
EXISTING
CHILLERS
Pumping power varies as system flow changes.
Various methods of pumpvolume control are used to
match pumping capacity with system demand.
-
IK I IX
NEW
1134N30NE:
Operation along a constant speed pump curve,
Figure 8, is possible. The rising pressure
characteristic of most pumps can be
FIGURE 6 counterproductive, however. Not only does the pump
pressure increase, but the differential pressure
between the suppJy and return mains increases
DISTRIBUTION dramatically. In simple terms, this can be
The distribution (primary) portion of the decoupler demonstrated by applying the pressure loss
system is the hydraulic equivalent of a shut-off VAV characteristics of pipes at various flow rates, Figure
system. As shown in Figure 7, water flows only when 9. For example, at 50 percent flow (load) the pressure
individual terminal control permits it. If all terminals losses decrease by 10.4 feet from P to A causing the
are closed, no water will flow. Some form of relief is differential at A-A' to increase by 20.8 feet. In
necessary to prevent the main disiribuiion pump aaaiiion, the pump curve snows another 24 ieei
from attempting to operate at zero flow. This is the pressure rise for a total change of nearly 45 feet. In
Purpose of the pressure actuated relief valve V1 large distribution systems this variation can produce
Chapter 4-17
Division
A ManualAND
CHnLEJtS for COOLING
Conservation
NC Department d Cwnmerco
difficult control problems at the terminals.

Consequently, system pressure control is an
PREFERENTIAL LOADING
Any number of good reasons for preferential chiller
'I
important aspect of system design. loading can be cited. For example, a system of
,?--I BYPASS PUMP

multiple chillers could involve machines of different
type. make, age or eff iciency. Newer or more efficient
units might be base loaded to take advantage 6f their
life-cycle cost effectiveness. Or, it might be desirable
to preferentially load absorption chillers during times
of peak electrical demand.
This system easily accommodates complex energy
A management strategies by allowing any chiller to be
T started and operated in any desired sequence. But,

once a chiller is in operation, its load is based on the
system delta-T and its individual flow rate. In effect,
all operating units are in parallel, operating at
identical "percent design capacity" values.
At first look, this appears inalterable. However,
FIGURE 9 there is a rather simple way to rearrange the system
so that a specific chiller can be preferentially loaded,
Pump staging is an effective and inexpensive way even as it operates in parallel with others.
to reduce overpressurization at partial load Figure 10 shows such an arrangement. This
conditions. In the previous example, at 50 percent scheme might be used to preferentially load a heat
system demand one pump could have been turned recovery machine. In fact, the heat recovery unit
off. The remaining pump, at 100 percent of its design could be a small reciprocating chiller that only heats.
flow produces 58 feet of dynamic head rather than 82 Cooling becomes a useful byproduct instead of the
feet. The total pressure rise at A-A', then, will be 10.4 main event.
feet, thus limiting the differential increase at A-A' to
20.8 feet.
A more effective (and expensive) method is pump
speed control. On large systems this technique is
cost effective because it greatly lowers the
distribution pumping costs. A critical distribution
point, A-A' for example, is chosen as the sensor
location. Pump speed is varied in response to
changes in this pressure differential. This technique
allows the pump dynamic pressure, which is
' C- BYPUS - . A
proportional to the square of its speed, to meet the

H
reduction in system losses, which also vary
approximately with the square of the water flow rate.
Again, we see the similarity to variable speed fans
applied to VAV systems. As in that application, this
method of pump pressure control approaches the
classic flow vs power relationship . . . power is
CHWR
-
AIR
4
CHWS
I
FLOW
proportional to the cube of flow. More precisely:
KWpl FLOWpl 3
( m )= ( m ) VARIABLE FLOW
DISTRIBUTION
Clearly, the potential for pumping power reduction
is substantial if, at 50 percent flow, the theoretical FIGURE 10
power is only one eighth of the full flow power.
It is important to recognize that the distribution
( pr imary) c i:c u it operates complete Iy i nde pendent Iy ?he key ?o understanding this arrangement
from the production (secondary) circuits. They are requires an analysis of available chilled water return
hydraulically decoupled by the bypass line common temperatures under various load conditions. Notice
to both circuits. Flow in this line is unrestricted and is that, hydraulically, chiller (H) obtains returning water
free to move in either direction. Thus, direction of before any mixing occurs at "tee" (B). Thus, the
flow is purely an indicator of t,he relationship between highest return chilled water temperature in the
flow supply and demand. system is available to this chiller.
Chapter 4-18
A Manual for Consewation
One of the characteristics of the variable flow W K L L R PLANT A

primary (distribution) system is the inverse return
temperature relationship to load. Normally, we
.expect a decrease in CHWR temperature as system
loads decrease. This is due to mixing at three-way
terminal control valves or the action of face and
bypass air damper control. However, with variable
BVPASSA -
flow, the CHYR temperature rises as loads decrease.
This can be seen by imagining a very low load and
flow rate condition at a cooling coil. Eventually. the
tnws
CHWR temperature approaches the temperature of
I
the air entering and leaving the coil. Clearly, this
temperature is higher than the design CHWR
temperature for that coil.
Conceivably, CHWR temperature control precision
can be effected by this arrangement. If the heat
recovery chiller is loaded on the basis of heating
demand rather than chilled water supply (CHWS) UNlVERSm
temperature, the leaving chilled water temperature

floats. If the chiller is large compared to other
operating machines, total CHWS temperature control
is not maintained.
The arrangement shown as Figure 11 overcomes
this problem by feeding chiller (H) supply water back
into the CHWR main. Thus, chiller (H) does not help
providesystem flow. Instead, it becomesadevice that
lowers system CHWR temperature.
1
..
CHILLER PUNT e
flGURE 12
I
With this scheme, an entire plant can standby for

another, provided the mains are large enough. A
evpIss
great amount of system redundance is available.
Further, plants can be operated to minimize many
aspects of operating costs, such as pumping power,
chiller power, operating personnel, etc.
Campuses that are expanding with limited in
place distribution systems can use this
doubleended arrangement. In this way, older
facilities can be served by newer and more efficient
plants without tearing out perfectly adequate
underground piping.
BEST DESIGN CONCEPT

Is the decoupled primarylsecondary system really
FIGURE 11 bulletproof? Probablynot. But. it represents the most
useful and versatile multiple chiller scheme that our
industry has applied to date. A number of perplexing
DOUBLE-ENDED PLANTS design and operating problems seem to have found
Large campus-type projects often involve more solutions.
than one central chiller facility The decoupler system Operating experience with these systems has been
is uniquely versatile in its ability to be applied in this extremely successful. An infinite variety of design
configuration Figure 12 shows a campus involving errors can be made. This concept does not prevent
two distantly separated central chiller plants Each errors. But, it overcomes a large number of the more
plant employs its own decoupler bypass line Water common ones without burdening such a facility with
flows into the CHWS main from either or both ends additional owning and operating costs.
3 NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 4-19
VARIABLE FLOW CHILLED WATER SYSTEMS
3. The speed of change of a deviation - to modify

the output signal in response to the rate of
deviation change (first derivati,ve).
This topic has been the subject of six previous Controllers with PID capability are properly applied
Engineers Newsletters: as supply chilled water temperature controllers when
-
1974 Vol. 3. No. 1 Control Systems That Save the following conditions exist:
Energy 1. Capacity control is fully modulated.
2. Chilled water flow variations fall within the
-
1976 Vol. 5. No. 2 Chilled Water Storage minimum and maximum flow rates permitted by
-
1977 Vol. 6. No. 1 Large Chillers: Series or Parallel the chiller manufacturer.
Flow 3. Flow variations are small and gradual.
-
1977 Vol. 6, No. 9 A Need for Variable Flow Chilled
Water Systems
-
1979 Vol. 8, No. 2 Control of a Reciprocating Modulation vs Stepped Output
Compressor Water Chiller PID-type controllers cannot, however, cope with
-
1980 Vol. 9, No. 1 Why Must Chillers Be Constant the physical consequences of "stepped capacity"
output. For example, a reciprocating chiller produces
Flow Devices?
a stepped reaction. As each step of capacity is
With all of this attention, you might think that we engaged, the AT produced by the chiller changes
have analyzed every aspect and exhausted the substantially and rapidly. This, of course, changes
subject. But, we haven't. In fact, considerable the amount (and, likely, thedirection) of the deviation
controversy still exists in the system design fromsetp0int.A PIDcontrollersees thisasa need for
community about the "right way" to design chilled drastic action; i.e. removal of the last step of capacity
water systems. that was just added. Consequently, the controller is
Apparently, there are many "right ways." They never satisfied and is always in search of a new
depend on several variables, or system parameters: equilibrium position: one which it can never find.
1. The system's mission. The control strategy for "stepped capacity"
2. The type of equipment; i.e. chillers, terminals, controllers is totally different from PID controllers.
pumps, control valves, etc.
3. System load profiles and time durations.
Basically, the controller is "educated" with regard to
ihe expected AT for each step of additional capacity.
)
Under this scenario, the controller takes action only
when the calculated result puts the temperature
New Controls Technology within the setpoint target. The latest generation of
Chiller control hardware continues to improve. sophisticated reciprocating chiller controllers
Many of the limitations of proportional electric and employ similar strategies to this. Earlier, proportional
pneumatic controllers are being set aside by controllers were simply located in the return chilled
advances in microelectronics. New generations of water stream.
microprocessor-based chiller controls are quite
capable of handling some previously unaddressed
aspects of variable flow. Industry jargon refers to the
Variable Flow and Heat Transfer
new controllers as providing "PID" response. "PID"
Excessively low chilled water flow rates cause poor
stands for "proportional + integral + derivative." In
heat transfer between the water and the evaporator
simple terms, this means that the controller operates
tube surfaces Poor heat transfer causes the
on the basis of sensing the deviation between chiller
refrigerant temperature to be lower than normal, at a
water temperature and the set point in terms of:
constant supply chilled water temperature More
1 . The amount of deviation - to give an output compressor power is then needed to produce a given
signal that is proportional to the deviation. refrigeration effect Further the refrigerant
2. The duration of the deviation - to modify the temperature can fall so far as to endanger the
output signa! to account for adeviat!on that does evaporator to freezing and consequent structural
not respond lo a proportional correction (time damage Therefore, low flows must surely be
integral). avoided
On the other hand, high tube velocities above 11
feet per second are traditionally considered to be
poor practice Any impurities (including air) in high
velocity water can erode the tube metal ana reduce i t s
life Consequently manufacturers place empirical
high velocity limits on evaporator tubes generally I C
the neighborhood of 11 feet per second
I
Chapter 4-20
Division
CHILLERS AM)COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual fir Conservation Energy
Nc Department otcommerce
'3 As long as water tube velocities are within these

two extremes, chiller performance is not greatly
compromised. Many designers then conclude that
unacceptable method of operation. No control
system can be expected to manage a physical
circumstance such as this. Therefore, large or abrupt
variationswithin the high and low limits are okay. But, flow rate changes must be avoided, even if the
they are not. A variety of conditions can produce temperature control system i,s capable.of handling
operating conditions that are quite unacceptable. variable flow.
CONTROLLER
Abrupt Flow Variations

An example of rapid flow changes within the high
and low limits will underscore the problem. Suppose
a chiller, Figure 1, is producing its full rated capacity
at the following conditions:
400 tons
960 gpm, 52.0 to 42.0 F
9.6 feeffsecond evaporator tube velocity.
-
CONTROLLER
FIGURE 2
Modest Flow Variations

Even small or slow flow changes can be upsetting
to the system, especially if controllers with only
proportional action are used. Such a controller
operates on the principle that each specific deviation
from setpoint produces a certain signal (air pressure,
voltage, etc.). Table 1 shows such an arrangement.
Clearly, a deviation of 2 F is necessary to position the
FIGURE 1 capacity control mechanism half way in its physical
travel. A change of 1 F will move the mechanism
through 25 percent of its total travel.
The system allows variable flow through the
application of two-way control valves on the
numerous air handlers. An energy management
system executes a scheduling strategy by operating
specific air handlers according to a time clock. At
5:OO p.m., two large air handlers. . . representing 40
.
percent of the system flow . . are shut down. The
two-way valves close instantly, reducing the system
flow to 576 gpm. The flow is still well within the The actual "sensitivity" setting (outputhnput) isset
allowable chiller range, Figure 2. An immediate as high as possible without inducing "hunting."
consequence of this event is an instantaneous When this adjustment is made, the chiller flow rate is
decrease in the supply chilled water temperature. constant at a high value. Decreases in the flow rate
Until the capacity control mechanisms adjust. the have the effect of increasing sensitivity. This occurs
chiller will continue to produce full capacity. But the because the lower flow rate causes a larger system
reduced flows increase the temperature drop from "AT" at a given chiller capacity. In other words, a
10 F (52-42) to 16 F (52-36). At the new supply given change in capacity control will create a larger
temperature of 36 F, it is quite likely that the chiller reaction in system temperature deviation.
safety controls will shut the machine down. If they This characteristic of proportional controllers
don't, a freeze up is possible. makes them generally unsuitable for variable flow
In any event, we see the potential for a nuisance applications, even if the variations occur gradually.
trip-out and possibly a disaster. This represents an
3 NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 4-21
Division
A Manual for Conseruation *I a = E
I1
PRODUCTION LOOP
Controllers that emulate PID characteristics often

can overcome much of this disadvantage. Given
adequate time, the integrating function compensates
for a long-term deviation. Therefore, the "sensitivity"
can be set very low and the time integrating feature is
allowed to make the necessary corrections.
Whilewe have the capabilityforapplying chillers to ------
restricted types of variable flow systems, the general FLOW SENSORS
rule is to avoid them. This is particularly appropriate
for multiple chiller applications where the flow
changes can be both abrupt and large. No controller DISTRIBUTION
can handle this assignment.
A Solution That Works

Consequently, the only known and proven solution
is a hydraulically "decoupled" primarylsecondary
pumping system. Figure 3 shows this basic
arrangement. In concept, the production of chilled
water is hydraulically decoupled from its distribution
by an open bypass line between supply (production)
water flow and demand (distribution). The direction
and amount of bypass line flow becomes an indicator II
,I
of system behavior. Flow in the reverse direction Ij DlSTRlBUllON LOOP
11
signals a call for more production (pumps and
chillers) whileanexcessflow in the forward direction FIGURE 3
can call for less production (fewer pumplchiller
combinations). Chillers are thereby isolated from any system flow
variations, regardless of their size or abruptness.
Chapter 4-22
Chapter 5
AIR HANDLERS /
COOLING COILS
Division
A Manual far Conservation Energy
AIR HANDLERS / COOLING COILS
NOTES
As we discussed earlier, the chilled water discharge temperature

is generally based on the weakest link - an undersized air handler.
The capacity of an air handler can be increased in some cases

with the addition of cooling coil surface. Sometimes air handlers
have room for an additional coil and others do not allow for the
addition of coil surface. It may be necessary to replace or modify an
air handler or a cooling system to allow chiller optimization.
If it is determined that an additional coil can be installed, care

should be taken to be sure the fan and motor have the additional
capacity necessary to overcome the additional pressure drop of the
cooling coil. The fans on most air handlers have additional capacity.
Motors are generally selected more closely and will probably require
replacement.
There are a number of consulting engineers specializing in

industrial air conditioning design who can assist you with design, if
needed.
FILTRATION
One of the major causes for reduced air conditioning capacity is

dirty cooling coils. The dirt passes through or around filters and
attaches to the heating and cooling coils, thus reducing the thermal
capacity of the coils. Typically throw-away or blanket-type filters
have very little effect on keeping the coils clean. The result is a
gradual reduction of coil efficiency. Thicker coils and tighter fin
spacing increase the problem. it is virtuaiiy impossibie to adequateiy
clean a cooling coil eight rows thick and ten or more fins per inch.
Chapter 5-1
Division
A Manual for Consamation
NOTES
Ellter housings with tight gaskets and pleated filters will

dramatically improve the ability of the AHU to maintain its capacity
(see Figure 3-1).
It has been estimated that at least 90 percent of the air handlers in

North Carolina bypass more than 25 percent of the air around the
filters when they are dirty. Most existing filter systems should be
reworked.
Pleated filters of 2-inch size will dramatically improve the

performance of air handlers.
i
f j
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSlTY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 5-2
Division
A Manual for Consemation
NC Dep&t of commerce
II n AIR SEAL CONSTRUCTION FEATURES ARE

RUGGED CONSTRUCTION
w\
The Air Seal Housing is factory
A MARK OF QUALITY assembled in a complete "one
piece" unit. constructed Of 16
Every Air Seal Housing IS built to exacting specilications gauge galvanized steel
by a company that takes pride in producing a quality
poduct.
Housings are constructed of 16 gauge galvanized steel
COMPLETE GASKETING
OF FILTERS
-
reinlorced with corner gussets and vertical leg supports Urelhane loam gasketing (two-
Doors are fully gasketed and lilted with quick action pound density) is installed on
positive pressure latches
"inside of doors" When doors
Housings are sealed by the application 01 silicone close, gasket seals against the
compound to areas where metal meets metal edge 01 filters. eliminating
Filters are sealed by the use of extruded aluminum tracks by-pass
combined with a woven nylon pile seal
These, and other quallty leatures 01 Air Seal Housings are FULLY GASKETED -
W
detailed below. ACCESS DOORS
Perimeter 01 doors is gasketed
with resiliant rubber gasketing,
assuring a complete seal when
doors are closed.
1" FLANGES FOR

EASY INSTALLATION
Turnedout flanges all lour sides
both lront and rear.
ALL METAL TO METAL-

COMPONENTS SEALED
After fabrication is complete, a
silicone compound is applied to
areas where metal meets metal.
assuring a sealed housing.
CENTER
ON 24"
These members add overall
rigidity to the housing and sews
CORNER GUSSETS MAKE 2
as supports lor the tracks. AN EXTRA RIGID UNIT
Corner gussets are standard on
EASY ACCESS FROM front 01 Air Seal Housings.
TWO SIDES adding extra stability.
Access lor litter installation is
available from either side. . or
both.
n
EXTRUDED ALUMINUM
FILTER TRACKS ^...^..
Both prefilter and linal filter UUILK ---.-IN POSITIVE
ACllU
tracks are extruded aluminum LOCK DOOR. LATCHES
combined with reinlorced nylon Access doors are filled with
plle seal to create a corrosion po;&"e piessuie ii,p ixilaiches
. reststanl seal W' that assures a tight seat and easy

access
-
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY WITH THE N O m CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter Si3
'?
Chapter 6
COOLING TOWER
PIPING
$.
Division
NC Oepartment of Commerce
COOLING TOWER PIPING 0
NOTES 2'
IMPROVING CHILLER PERFORMANCE
8 '
There are three general types of cooling towers - forced draft,
induced draft, and hyperbolic.
A forced draft tower uses a fan, usually a squirrel cage centrifugal

type, to force air through the tower and the wet decking to evaporate
the water.
The induced draft tower uses a fan, usually a propeller type to

draw air through the tower.
The hyperbolic tower is used on very large cooling loads.

Generally these towers are used for cooling water for power plants.
For the purpose of this discussion, we will not consider this type of
3)
i.
tower.
The forced draft-type towers use a centrifugal-type wheel and are

used for low tonnage u p to about 500 tons. These towers are usually
less expensive initially than induced draft towers. The required
motor horsepower is generally greater than the induced draft type.
Some designs for forced draft towers generate a very large

amount of turbulence in the water sumps which may cause
difficulty in controlling the tower water level. This has caused
excessive use of chemicals and water loss for some applications,
especially those with multiple towers. This is not a problem for all
forced draft towers. It is more prevalent on towers with small sumps
and surface areas.
. Induced draft towers use less motor horsepower per ton and can
be used for much larger tonnages. The induced draft tower uses
propeller-type fans which are more efficient at low static pressures.
3
-
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 6-1
Division
NOTES
Towers are manufactured from several types of materials. The

first towers were built of wood. Many of these towers are still being
installed. They provide some advantages not available in other
materials. They can be built in place and this is important when
accessibility is difficult. They can also perform in very large tonnage
in the thousands of tons per cell. These towers do have some
liabilities, however. They are difficult to keep tight. They have
numerous joints in the water basin and require caulking or other
sealing methods which add to the maintenance cost. They are
generally physically much larger than towers of other materials.
Galvanized metal towers were the next type of towers entering

the marketplace. Galvanized metal towers are the most common
type in use today. These towers use various fills - materials used
to allow the thorough mingling of water and air. Two of these fill
materials are wood, as mentioned before, and PVC. The PVC is
formed into honeycomb patterns which provide good air passages
and large surface areas. The major maintenance in these towers is at
the water line in the sump which is constantly wetted and dried
causing oxidation.
With the development of plastics came the third type -

polyethylene. These towers are available in forced and induced draft
design and range in capacity u p to 250 tons per cell. The advantage of
a polyethylene tower is durability. The tower material is impervious
to corrosion and does not degenerate. These towers will provide
good service for a long period of time - perhaps as much as 40
years. The fill is PVC which seems to last as long or longer than
wood. These towers are more expensive than galvanized towers in
initial cost. There seems to be a change in thinking on galvanized
towers, and the use of the polyethylene towers is becoming more
common. They have been used successfully for some years in harsh
environments such as paper manufacturing and chemical plants.
Chapter 6-2
Wish
NOTES
The newest material to be used in cooling towers is preformed
fiberglass. Towers made of fiberglass panels with PVC fill are
manufactured up to 1000 tons. These towers were introduced in this
country about ten years ago but they have been used outside of this
country since the mid-1950s. They have had a major impact on the
tower market. They have gained rapid acceptance. Since these towers
are usually built in place, some problems have occurred from
assembly practices by inexperienced personnel. These problems have
been declining as the numbers of towers have increased.
There are several other tower designs which have had some
limited acceptance but these are the major types available.
Each of these offers special advantages which may impact your

selection process. It is important to consider the cost of ownership of
any tower. Since the initial cost is low in comparison to the annual
operating and maintenance cost, these costs should be carefully
analyzed before selecting a new cooling tower.
Energy use in a cooling tower is a function of the type of tower -

forced draft versus induced draft - and the internal design of the air
flow through the tower.
The brake horsepower required by a cooling tower should be one

of the items considered in the selection of a cooling tower.
Cooling towers are designed to work with and take advantage of

the existing wet bulb temperature. The wet bulb temperature is the
temperature above which water wili evaporate in an air stream. If
we wet our skin, the temperature we feel is the wet bulb
temperature.
Figure 6-1 is a representation of a psychometric chart.
-
NOR'IH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 6-3
Division
A Manual for Conscroation Energy
NOTES
At 95O F dry bulb, the temperature a thermometer will read, and

50 percent relative humidity, the wet bulb temperature is 78O F.
The wet bulb temperature in North Carolina vanes dramatically

from east to west. The wet bulb design for Charlotte is 780 F, for
Raleigh it is 790 F, for Plymouth it is 800 F, and for Wilmington it is
820 F.
Cooling towers are usually rated at 95O F DB and 780 F WB by the

manufacturer.
The graph (Figure 6-2) shows the effect of the change in wet bulb
on cooling tower capacity. There is nearly a 30 percent difference
between a tower's capacity at 950 F/780 F and at 950 F/820 F. This is a
dramatic decrease in a tower's capacity and may explain the high
head pressure experienced in hot humid summer weather.
A cooling tower rated a 100 tons at 950 DB, 780 WB, 950 EWT, 85O
DB would have a 70-ton capacity at 820 WB or would only drop the
temperature of the leaving water to 88O F.
It is therefore very important to be careful in selecting a

replacement cooling tower. The operating condenser pressure of
your chiller greatly affects its operating cost. Keep in mind that any
increase in wet bulb temperature above the design condition of the
tower will result in an equal increase in the discharge water
temperature from the tower. It will also mean an increase in
operating KW and electrical cost.
-
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY WITH THE N O K H CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 6-4
Divlobn
A Manual for Consswation
\*
ca
i - 9
-4
Energy
J
J
-t
I>
a
c9
O I f
CD
d-
NORTH CAROLINA S A T E UNIVERSITY - WITH THE N0KI'I-I CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 6-5
Division
NC D q " m t of Commerce
1
BULLETIN 01-303-10
DELTA cooling tower selection data ( 1 0 ' ~Range) EWT/LWT
The capacity of a DELTA cooling tower is fixed. It can is to be applied to the calculated heat load. interpolation is
function properly under reduced load conditions; however, appropriate between range tables and temperature curves.
it cannot be increased above its fixed rating.
Example:
Therefore, selection should always be based on maxi- cool500 GPM of water from 95'F to 85.F with 78.F wet
mum load conditions and the particular design wet bulb bulb.
temperature of the area in which the tower is to be located.
1. Establish Range
Selecting a DELTA tower depends on four variables: Range=water in at 95.F minus water off at 85'F=lO*F
1. Gallons per minute of water to be cooled. 2. Establish tower ton load
2. Entering warm water temperature from process (heat 500 GPM X 500 (constant) X 10' Range
Load= 15,000 BTUl Hr./Ton = 167 tons
load) to be cooled.
3. Select Appropriate Range Chart (1O'F)
3. Cooled water temperature leaving cooling tower to re-
turn to process. 4. Enter chart using Wet Bulb temperature (78'F) and pro-
ceed horizontally to cold water temperature line (85'F).
4. Ambient design wet bulb temperature. From this point proceed vertically to correction factor (1.0).
To aid in selection for varying conditions a set of charts 5. Multiply correction factor x tons previously calculated
is provided in order to determine the correction factor that then refer to model selection tables in Bulletin At-303.
,go WB
- ...
L
- ..........-. . . . . . .. -. . . . . ......
. .-.
.
. .
. . . . . .
. .
..- ......
_- .
Fig. 6-2
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - IhrITH"E NOKTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 6-6
Division
NC Dep"ent of C 0 " e r c a
NOTES
This is the point at which your chiller will set a demand peak if
you do not have some means of limiting the peak. A demand
limiting system is a must in every air-conditioned facility that uses
electricity for production. The application of demand-limiting
equipment will not be covered in this seminar.
Cooling towers may be the least understood piece of mechanical

equipment you have in your facility. A small decrease in air flow
from worn belts, algae growth in the tower, or a plugged water
distribution system will result in reduced tower operating capacity.
The cooling tower is a prime candidate for good preventive

maintenance and a competent technician can, with the proper tools,
save large amounts of energy in chiller operation. The tools are
basic. You will need a hand-operated sling psychrometer, accurate
thermometers, and an amprobe. The sling psychrometer will
indicate the ambient wet bulb temperature so that the approach
temperature can be checked. The approach temperature and the
temperature difference across the inlet and outlet of the tower will
show exactly how efficiently the tower is running. When these
parameters start to change, it is time to locate the cause. An accurate
record of motor amps indicates the fan motor operation. An increase
or decrease in motor amps may indicate a problem.
In selecting a cooling tower, it is important to be conservative. It

will be wise to have some cushion in the size of the tower. The cost
of this added reserve capacity is relatively inexpensive in
comparison to the cost of energy.
The increased cost of the cooling tower will generally be offset in

the first year of operation.
Chapter 6-7
Division
CHnLERS AND COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual for Conservation *s 1-1
NOTES
CONDENSER WATER PIPING
Figure 6-3 shows a typical piping diagram for a single tower. The
piping is straightforward. A bypass system will allow the chillers to
be started and operated during low ambient conditions.
The use of a condenser water bypass will allow the condenser

water temperature to be high enough to permit the chiller
refrigerant pressures to equalize and the refrigerant liquids to
migrate to the proper locations for a chiller to start during low
ambient conditions.
Multiple towers and piping become more complicated. However,

a primary-secondary loop system still allows flexibility in operation.
Care should be taken to be sure that the system will provide trouble-
free operation. The height of the tower basin in comparison to the
pump inlets and piping and chillers is important.
The use of the primary-secondary loop system will allow for the
automatic start-stop sequence we discussed earlier. It may be
functional to use individual pumps as long as crossover piping is
used for emergency opera tion.
Since most of you are not planning on changing towers in the

near future, there is not a great deal you can do to improve the
energy performance of a cooling tower. However, you may be able to
improve its performance with regard to the other energy-using
equipment in the chiller system, such as condenser water pumps
and chiller operation.
Chapter 6 8
Division
CHILLElls
A ManualAND Conservation
NC b p M l M t l t of Commerce
WATER COOLING
TOWER
Fig. 6-3
CONDENSER
. CHILLED WATER
1 1 3-WAY CHILLED
WATER VALVE
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UMVERslTY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 6-9
Division
A
CHILLERS for COOLING
ManualAND Conservation
MULTIPLE COOLING TOWERS
EQUALIZING LINE
TOWER BYPASS PIPING

V%
J-
CONDENSERS
CONDENSER WATER PUMPS
Fig. 6-4
Chapter 6-10
Division
A Manual for Conservation Em=F:-a
Li i-lgf
:I>
Fig. 6-5
Chapter 6-11
NOTES
The water treatment being used on your condenser water system

will affect your chiller plant operating cost. Your chemical program
should keep your chiller clean and corrosion-free, control algae
growth and provide an acceptable level of cycles of concentration. A
common idiom in the industry is that your water treatment is only
as good as the person supervising the treatment. Here again, proper
care and understanding are required.
There have been towers with two inches of moss flourishing on

the top of the fill in a tower with little to no air passing through the
tower and masses of algae growing in the dark confines of towers.
There is no question that competent maintenance is fundamental in
conserving energy.
P.2
@" , ,i
GYJ
TOWERBLEED [
It is necessary to remove water from the condenser water system.

This is called a bleed. The bleed rate is usually 10 percent of the
makeup water rate. The purpose of a bleed is to control the cycles of
concentration of solids in the tower water. A typical rate for the
number of cycles is three to five. The number of cycles depends on
the amount of desolved solids in the makeup water and the ability
of your water treatment program to maintain these solids in
suspension.
Solids will usually come out of suspension in heat exchangers, in

condensers of chillers.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERslTY - WlTH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 6-12
e
A Manual for Conscwation Energy
3 NOTES
Good water treatment is mandatory for efficient chiller operation

and an automated chemical program is almost a necessity. An
automated system will include a chemical pump, some type of
conductivity sensor, or the use of a timer to cycle the pump on
automatic or a continuous bleed. The type of system and the
components of your system will depend on your experience and the
recommendations of your water treatment chemical company.
Whatever, the case, reliability is important.
-
NORTH CAROLINA D A T E UNIVERSITY WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENE?lGY DMSION
Chapter 6-13
3
'''..-I
. _..
Chapter 7
COST OF
OWNERSHIP
Division
A Manual for Consewation Energy
COST OF OWNERSHIP
NOTES
The major consideration for most new construction is first cost.

There are only a few firms that make ease of maintenance, energy
efficiency and cost of ownership a major part of the design function.
In many cases, if not most, the facility maintenance department

is not consulted or given a role in the design of new facilities. It is
important that the maintenance department be aggressive early on
in a new project. Your views must be made clear to the design firm
responsible for the mechanical design. In many cases you will get
what the engineer designed the last time unless you are aggressive.
Since time is money, an engineering firm will use as much as is

practical of their standard specification. they will also specify the
same manufacturers they have been using. There is strong resistance
to researching and analyzing new products that they are not familiar
with. This is uncharted ground for a conservative-minded group. It
is to your benefit to make it clear to an engineering firm what your
thoughts are regarding any mechanical standards you have
developed, the make or type of mechanical equipment you want in
your facility and the level of efficiency you expect on equipment
such as fans, boilers, chillers, cooling towers, air conditioning
equipment, and many others.
The maintenance department in a facility can make or break a

company. In many companies the maintenance department is
considered a major player in the generation of profits. However, in
others it is a necessary evil. Frequently the maintenance of
production equipment is the primary responsibility of the
maintenance department. The care and maintenance of the facility is
performed by contractors and service companies.
3 NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 7-1
Division
CHILLERS AM) COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual for Conscruufion Energy
NOTES ')
In either case, the maintenance department is still responsible for

the operation and cost of the facility maintenance.
A capable, well-administered maintenance department can be

the most valuable asset a company has. The down time of
production equipment, the cost of operating a facility, the efficiency
of maintenance, the cost of energy, the life cycle cost of mechanical
equipment are all costs of doing business and are major factors in the
cost of the product or service provided by a company.
Chapter 7-2
Division
CHlLLERS A N D COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP
A Manual for Conscwation Enerav GI
Nc D e p a " of Commerce
3
Fig. 7-1
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH C A R O W A ENERGY DIVISION

Chapter 7-3
Bibliography
Cen Tra Vac Controls. The Trane Company, December 1985, Form PL-RF-CTV-000-
TS-12-1285.
Cen Tra Vac Liquid Chillers. The Trane Company, January 1988, PL-RF-CTV-000-
DS-1-983.
Landman, William J. The Search for Chiller Efficiency. Heating, Piping and Air
Conditioning, July 1983.
Marella, James. Corrosion, Scale and Fouling - Operating and Maintaining a
Refrigerated Facility. Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration News, Sept.
11, 1989.
Packaged Hermetic Centrifugal Liquid Chiller D-1000 Series 50/60 Hz. Carrier
Heating and Cooling, Sept. 1988, Form #19DK, DM-lPD, Form #17DK,
DM-1PD.
Trane Air Conditioning Centravac Chillers Two-Stage Centrifugal Liquid Chillers, 80 to
1630 Tons, August 1977.
Trane Air Conditioning Psychometric Chart, 1960.
Variable Flow Chilled Water Systems. Trane Air Conditioning Engineering News-
letter, June 1983, Volume 12, Number 5, and October 1983, Volume 12,
Number 8.
Winter Maintenance. Brady Trane Service Update, Fall 1984.
79

ENERGYPREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE COST REDUCTION

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ENERGYPREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE COST REDUCTION

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ENERGYPREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

COST REDUCTION PROGRAM

0 ver 2,000 North Carolina

Histo y and Purpose

t ,] Energy Conservation Programs

The Low-Income Weatherization Program provides for the purchase and

Chapter 3. CHILLER OPTIMIZATION AND FREE COOLING

Chapter 4. CHILLED WATER SYSTEMS

Chapter 5. AIR HANDLERS / COOLING COILS

Chapter 6. COOLING TOWER PIPING

Chapter 7. COST OF OWNERSHIP

REDUCING ENERGY CONSUMPTION

CHILLERS AND WATER TOWERS

A water-cooled chiller is a mechanical device that uses a

The motor-driven impeller imparts its energy to the refrigerant

A centrifugal chiller has a centrifugal compressor, a condenser,

The capacity of the chiller is controlled by the inlet vanes to the

The compressor motor under a restricted flow of refrigerant gas

CENTRAVAC OPERATING CYCLE:

Inaddition tothrottling, inlstguide

Compressor Operation Schematic

The amount of water circulated through a chiller is generally

The design inlet and outlet temperatures of a chiller are

Condenser water design inlet temperature to the chiller is

One ton of air conditioning is 12,000 BTU. The specific heat of

Therefore, BTU = gpm x temp diff x 500

So it is necessary to circulate 2.4 gpm through the evaporator

The design of the chiller will determine the pressure drop of

In the design of a chiller, manufacturers use minimum and

The selection of the condenser and the evaporator are a

The cost of operating the system will be affected by the selection

If the pressure drop through a chiller could be reduced 50

If a 20-ft heat required 5 brake HP,

Figures 1.5 and 1.6 show the relationship of some different

COMPRESSOR MOTORS PRODUCE HEAT

In most centrifugal chillers the motor is cooled by refrigerant

The compressor motor as well as the bearings add heat to the

One of the first ways that manufacturers used to reduce the KW

The efficiency of the thermal transfer through a chiller tube is a

The tube is rifled internally in a spiral fashion to increase surface

As we have indicated, most chillers are designed for about a 100 F

Once a chiller is designed and manufactured, the temperature

If the chiller performance or use is to be modified, it is wise to

3 NORTH CAROLINASTATEUNIVERSITY - w r r THE

ROLINA STATE UMVERSlTY - WITH THE NOmH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION

UNISHELL CONDENSER UNISHELL COOLER

FLOW RATE (GPM I 001

CHILLER DESIGN KW PER TON

HOW HAS CHILLER PERFORMANCE BEEN IMPROVED SO

There are several things that were done. The performances of

The design of condensers and evaporators has been improved to

The flow of refrigerant through the chillers has been improved

The design of motors has been improved to increase their

stage. The second stage impeller

The search for chiller efficiencv

Available options to increase the efficiency

both technical and economic. rich-

2 Typical values of Ucbased on optimistic heat

T h e search for chiller efficiency

- WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION

cient refrigerant in common use,

T a w P-ReIathe theoretical KW per ton values for various m-