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CHAPTER 2

QUANTUM THEORY
OUTLINE

Homework Questions Attached

SECT TOPIC

1. Interpretation and Properties of

2. Operators and Eigenvalue Equations

3. Operators in Quantum Mechanics

4. The 1D Schrdinger Equation: Time Dependent and Independent Forms

5. Mathematical Preliminary: Probability Averages and Variance

6. Normalization of the Wavefunction

7. Mathematical Preliminary: Even and Odd Integrals

8. Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues

9. Expectation Values: Application to an Harmonic Oscillator Wavefunction

10. Hermitian Operators

11. Orthogonality of Wavefunctions

12. Commutation of Operators

13. Differentiability and Completeness of the Wavefunctions

14. Dirac "Bra-Ket" Notation


Chapter 2 Homework

1. Which of the following functions are normalizable over the indicated intervals?
Normalize those functions which can be normalized.
(a) exp(-ax2) (-,); (b) ex (0,); (c) ei (0,2); (d) xe-3x (0,)

2. Determine whether each of the following functions is acceptable as a wavefunction over


the indicated interval.
(a) 1/x (0,); (b) (1-x2)-1 (-1,1); (c) e-xcos(x) (0,); (d) tan-1(x) (0,)

3. Which of the following operators are Hermitian


(a) i (b) * (take complex conjugate) (c) eix (d) -id/dx
(e) i2d/dx (f) d2dx2 (g) id2/dx2

4. True or False
(a) Nondegenerate eigenfunctions of the same operaor are orthogonal.
(b) All Hermitian operators are real.
(c) If two operators commute with a third, they will commute with each other.
(d) d/dx must be continuous as long as the potential, V(x), is finite.
(e) If a wavefunction is simultaneously the eigenfunction of two operators, it will
also be an eigenfuncion of the product of the two operators.

5. Consider the following hypothetical PIB wavefunction: ( x) Ax(a x) 0 xa


2 2
Calculate: (a) A; (b) <x >; (c) <p>; (d) <p >

6. Consider the functions: 1 = 1; 2 = x; 3 = x2 - 1/3 .


Show that all three functions are orthogonal over the interval [-1,1].

d d
7. Calculate the commutator: , x
dx dx

8. Calculate the commutator: [ px , x 2 ]

9. Classify the following operators as linear or nonlinear:


(a) 3x2d2/dx2; (b) ( )2 (square the function); (c) ( )dx (integrate the function;
(d) exp ( ) (exponentiate the function)

10. Which of the following functions are eigenfunctions of d2/dx2 ?


For those that are eigenfunctions, determine the eigenvalues.
(a) e2x; (b) x2; (c) sin(8x); (d) sin(3x) - cos(3x)
11. Which of the following functions (defined from - to ) would be acceptable one-
dimensional wavefunctions for a bound particle.
(a) exp(-ax); (b) xexp(-bx2) ; (c) iexp(-bx2) ; (d) sin(bx)

DATA

h = 6.63x10-34 Js 1 J = 1 kgm2/s2
= h/2 = 1.05x10-34 Js 1 = 10-10 m
c = 3.00x108 m/s = 3.00x1010 cm/s kNA = R
NA = 6.02x1023 mol-1 1 amu = 1.66x10-27 kg
k = 1.38x10-23 J/K 1 atm. = 1.013x105 Pa
R = 8.31 J/mol-K 1 eV = 1.60x10-19 J
R = 8.31 Pa-m3/mol-K
me = 9.11x10-31 kg (electron mass)

2
e x dx
0 2

n!
0
x n e ax dx
a n 1

d2
p 2 (oper ) 2
dx 2

Some Concept Question Topics

Refer to the PowerPoint presentation for explanations on these topics.

Interpretation of in one and three dimensions

Required properties of a well-behaved wavefunction

Linear operators

Use of time dependent vs. time independent Schrdinger Equation

Significance of whether or not is an eigenfunction of an operator

Significance of Hermitian operators

Wavefunction orthogonality
Linear combinations of degenerate wavefunctions

Operator commutation and its significance

Differentiability of the wavefunction, and its exception(s)

Completeness of a set of wavefunctions


Chapter 2

Quantum Theory

Slide 1

Outline
Interpretation and Properties of
Operators and Eigenvalue Equations
Operators in Quantum Mechanics
The 1D Schrdinger Equation: Time Depend. and Indep. Forms
Math. Preliminary: Probability, Averages and Variance
Normalization of the Wavefunction
Math. Preliminary: Even and Odd Integrals
Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues
Expectation Values (Application to HO wavefunction)
Hermitian Operators

Continued on Second Page Slide 2

1
Outline (Contd.)
Orthogonality of Wavefunctions
Commutation of Operators
Differentiability and Completeness of the Wavefunctions
Dirac Bra-Ket Notation

Slide 3

First Postulate: Interpretation of

One Dimension

Postulate 1: (x,t) is a solution to the one dimensional Schrdinger


Equation and is a well-behaved, square integrable function.

The quantity, |(x,t)|2dx = *(x,t)(x,t)dx, represents


the probability of finding the particle between
x and x+dx.

x x+dx

Slide 4

2
Three Dimensions

Postulate 1: (x,y,z,t) is a solution to the three dimensional Schrdinger


Equation and is a well-behaved, square integrable function.

The quantity, |(x,y,z,t)|2dxdydz = *(x,y,z,t)(x,y,z,t)dxdydz,


represents the probability of finding the particle between
x and x+dx, y and y+dy, z and z+dz.

z Shorthand Notation

dz
dy y
dx
Two Particles

Slide 5

Required Properties of

Finite X

Single Valued (x)

Continuous (x)

And derivatives must


be continuous x
Slide 6

3
Required Properties of

Vanish at endpoints 0 as x
(or infinity) y
z

Must be Square Integrable

or
Shorthand notation

Reason: Can normalize wavefunction

Slide 7

Which of the following functions would be acceptable


wavefunctions?

OK

No - Diverges as x -

No - Multivalued
i.e. x = 1, sin-1(1) = /2, /2 + 2, ...

No - Discontinuous first derivative


at x = 0.

Slide 8

4
Outline
Interpretation and Properties of
Operators and Eigenvalue Equations
Operators in Quantum Mechanics
The 1D Schrdinger Equation: Time Depend. and Indep. Forms
Math. Preliminary: Probability, Averages and Variance
Normalization of the Wavefunction
Math. Preliminary: Even and Odd Integrals
Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues
Expectation Values (Application to HO wavefunction)
Hermitian Operators

Slide 9

Operators and Eigenvalue Equations


One Dimensional Schrdinger Equation

Operator Eigenvalue Eigenfunction

This is an Eigenvalue Equation

Operator Eigenvalue Eigenfunction


Slide 10

5
Linear Operators
A quantum mechanical operator must be linear

Operator Linear ?
x2 Yes
No

log No

sin No

Yes

Yes

Slide 11

Operator Multiplication

^ ^
First operate with B, and then operate on the result with A.

Note:

Example

Slide 12

6
Operator Commutation
?

Not necessarily!! If the result obtained applying two operators


in opposite orders are the same, the operators
are said to commute with each other.

Whether or not two operators commute has physical implications,


as shall be discussed later, where we will also give examples.

Slide 13

Eigenvalue Equations

f Eigenfunction? Eigenvalue

3 x2 Yes 3

x sin(x) No

sin(x) No

sin(x) Yes -2 (All values of


allowed)
Only for 2 (i.e. 2)
= 1

Slide 14

7
Outline
Interpretation and Properties of
Operators and Eigenvalue Equations
Operators in Quantum Mechanics
The 1D Schrdinger Equation: Time Depend. and Indep. Forms
Math. Preliminary: Probability, Averages and Variance
Normalization of the Wavefunction
Math. Preliminary: Even and Odd Integrals
Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues
Expectation Values (Application to HO wavefunction)
Hermitian Operators

Slide 15

Operators in Quantum Mechanics


Postulate 2: Every observable quantity has a corresponding
linear, Hermitian operator.

The operator for position, or any function of position,


is simply multiplication by the position (or function)
^ etc.

The operator for a function of the momentum, e.g. px, is


obtained by the replacement:

I will define Hermitian operators and their importance in


the appropriate context later in the chapter.

Slide 16

8
Derivation of the momentum operator
Wavefunction for a free particle (from Chap. 1)

where

Slide 17

Some Important Operators (1 Dim.) in QM

Quantity Symbol Operator


Position x x

Potential Energy V(x) V(x)

Momentum px (or p)

Kinetic Energy

Total Energy

Slide 18

9
Some Important Operators (3 Dim.) in QM

Quantity Symbol Operator


Position

Potential Energy V(x,y,z) V(x,y,z)

Momentum

Kinetic Energy

Total Energy

Slide 19

Outline
Interpretation and Properties of
Operators and Eigenvalue Equations
Operators in Quantum Mechanics
The 1D Schrdinger Equation: Time Depend. and Indep. Forms
Math. Preliminary: Probability, Averages and Variance
Normalization of the Wavefunction
Math. Preliminary: Even and Odd Integrals
Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues
Expectation Values (Application to HO wavefunction)
Hermitian Operators

Slide 20

10
The Schrdinger Equation (One Dim.)
Postulate 3: The wavefunction, (x,t), is obtained by solving the
time dependent Schrdinger Equation:

If the potential energy is independent of time, [i.e. if V = V(x)],


then one can derive a simpler time independent form of the
Schrdinger Equation, as will be shown.

In most systems, e.g. particle in box, rigid rotator, harmonic


oscillator, atoms, molecules, etc., unless one is considering
spectroscopy (i.e. the application of a time dependent electric
field), the potential energy is, indeed, independent of time.

Slide 21

The Time-Independent Schrdinger Equation


(One Dimension)
I will show you the derivation FYI. However, you are responsible
only for the result.

If V is independent of time, then so is the Hamiltonian, H.

Assume that (x,t) = (x)f(t)

On Board

= E (the energy, a constant)

Slide 22

11
= E (the energy, a constant)

On Board

Time Independent
Schrdinger Equation

Note that *(x,t)(x,t) = *(x)(x)

Slide 23

Outline
Interpretation and Properties of
Operators and Eigenvalue Equations
Operators in Quantum Mechanics
The 1D Schrdinger Equation: Time Depend. and Indep. Forms
Math. Preliminary: Probability, Averages and Variance
Normalization of the Wavefunction
Math. Preliminary: Even and Odd Integrals
Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues
Expectation Values (Application to HO wavefunction)
Hermitian Operators

Slide 24

12
Math Preliminary: Probability, Averages & Variance
Probability

Discrete Distribution: P(xJ) = Probability that x = xJ

If the distribution is normalized: P(xJ) = 1

Continuous Distribution: P(x)dx = Probability that particle has position


between x and x+dx

If the distribution is normalized:


P(x)

x x+dx

Slide 25

Positional Averages

Discrete Distribution:

If normalized If not normalized

If normalized If not normalized

Continuous Distribution:

If normalized If not normalized

If normalized If not normalized

Slide 26

13
Continuous Distribution:
If normalized If normalized

Note: <x2> <x>2

Example: If x1 = 2, P(x1)=0.5 and x2 = 10, P(x2) = 0.5


Calculate <x> and <x2>

Note that <x>2 = 36

It is always true that <x2> <x>2

Slide 27

Variance
Below is a formal derivation of the expression for Standard Deviation.
This is FYI only.

One requires a measure of the spread or breadth of a distribution.


This is the variance, x2, defined by:

Variance Standard Deviation Slide 28

14
Example
P(x) = Ax 0x10 Calculate: A , <x> , <x2> , x
P(x) = 0 x<0 , x>10

Note:

Slide 29

Outline
Interpretation and Properties of
Operators and Eigenvalue Equations
Operators in Quantum Mechanics
The 1D Schrdinger Equation: Time Depend. and Indep. Forms
Math. Preliminary: Probability, Averages and Variance
Normalization of the Wavefunction
Math. Preliminary: Even and Odd Integrals
Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues
Expectation Values (Application to HO wavefunction)
Hermitian Operators

Slide 30

15
Normalization of the Wavefunction

For a quantum mechanical wavefunction: P(x)=*(x)(x)

For a one-dimensional wavefunction to be normalized requires that:

For a three-dimensional wavefunction to be normalized requires that:

In general, without specifying dimensionality, one may write:

Slide 31

Example: A Harmonic Oscillator Wave Function


Lets preview what well learn in Chapter 5 about the
Harmonic Oscillator model to describe molecular vibrations
in diatomic molecules.

The Hamiltonian: = reduced mass


k = force constant

A Wavefunction:

Slide 32

16
Outline
Interpretation and Properties of
Operators and Eigenvalue Equations
Operators in Quantum Mechanics
The 1D Schrdinger Equation: Time Depend. and Indep. Forms
Math. Preliminary: Probability, Averages and Variance
Normalization of the Wavefunction
Math. Preliminary: Even and Odd Integrals
Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues
Expectation Values (Application to HO wavefunction)
Hermitian Operators

Slide 33

Math Preliminary: Even and Odd Integrals


Integration Limits: 0 Integration Limits: -

Slide 34

17
Find the value of A that normalizes the Harmonic Oscillator
oscillator wavefunction:

Slide 35

Outline
Interpretation and Properties of
Operators and Eigenvalue Equations
Operators in Quantum Mechanics
The 1D Schrdinger Equation: Time Depend. and Indep. Forms
Math. Preliminary: Probability, Averages and Variance
Normalization of the Wavefunction
Math. Preliminary: Even and Odd Integrals
Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues
Expectation Values (Application to HO wavefunction)
Hermitian Operators

Slide 36

18
Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues
Postulate 4: If a is an eigenfunction of the operator with
eigenvalue a, then if we measure the property A for
a system whose wavefunction is a, we always get
a as the result.

Example
The operator for the total energy of a system is the Hamiltonian.
Show that the HO wavefunction given earlier is an eigenfunction
of the HO Hamiltonian. What is the eigenvalue (i.e. the energy)

Slide 37

Preliminary: Wavefunction Derivatives

Slide 38

19
To end up with a constant times ,
this term must be zero.
Slide 39

E = = h
Because the wavefunction is an
eigenfunction of the Hamiltonian,
the total energy of the system
is known exactly.
Slide 40

20
Is this wavefunction an eigenfunction of the potential energy operator?

No!! Therefore the potential energy cannot


be determined exactly.

Is this wavefunction an eigenfunction of the kinetic energy operator?

No!! Therefore the kinetic energy cannot


be determined exactly.

One can only determine the average value of a quantity if the


wavefunction is not an eigenfunction of the associated operator.
The method is given by the next postulate.

Slide 41

Eigenfunctions of the Momentum Operator

Recall that the one dimensional momentum operator is:

Is our HO wavefunction an eigenfunction of the momentum operator?


No. Therefore the momentum of an oscillator
in this eigenstate cannot be measured exactly.

The wavefunction for a free particle is:

Is the free particle wavefunction an eigenfunction of the momentum


operator?
Yes, with an eigenvalue of h \ , which is just the de Broglie
expression for the momentum.
Thus, the momentum is known exactly. However, the position is
completely unknown, in agreement with Heisenbergs
Uncertainty Principle.
Slide 42

21
Outline
Interpretation and Properties of
Operators and Eigenvalue Equations
Operators in Quantum Mechanics
The 1D Schrdinger Equation: Time Depend. and Indep. Forms
Math. Preliminary: Probability, Averages and Variance
Normalization of the Wavefunction
Math. Preliminary: Even and Odd Integrals
Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues
Expectation Values (Application to HO wavefunction)
Hermitian Operators

Slide 43

Expectation Values
Postulate 5: The average (or expectation) value of an observable
with the operator is given by

If is normalized

Expectation values of eigenfunctions

It is straightforward to show that If a is eigenfunction of


with eigenvalue, a, then:
<a> = a
<a2> = a2
a = 0 (i.e. there is no uncertainty in a)

Slide 44

22
Expectation value of the position

This is just the classical expression for calculating the


average position.

The differences arise when one computes expectation values


for quantities whose operators involve derivatives, such
as momentum.

Slide 45

Consider the HO wavefunction we have been using in


earlier examples:

Calculate the following quantities:

<x> <p> xp (to demo. Unc. Prin.)

<x2> <p2> <KE>

x2 p2 <PE>

Slide 46

23
Preliminary: Wavefunction Derivatives

Slide 47

<x>

<x2>

Also:

Slide 48

24
<p>

Slide 49

<p2>

Also:

Slide 50

25
Uncertainty Principle

Slide 51

<KE>

<PE>

Slide 52

26
Consider the HO wavefunction we have been using in
earlier examples:

Calculate the following quantities:

<x> = 0 <p> = 0

<x2> = 1/(2) <p2> = 2/2

x2 = 1/(2) p2 = 2/2

xp = /2 (this is a demonstration of the Heisenberg


uncertainty principle)
<KE> = = h

<PE> = = h
Slide 53

Outline
Interpretation and Properties of
Operators and Eigenvalue Equations
Operators in Quantum Mechanics
The 1D Schrdinger Equation: Time Depend. and Indep. Forms
Math. Preliminary: Probability, Averages and Variance
Normalization of the Wavefunction
Math. Preliminary: Even and Odd Integrals
Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues
Expectation Values (Application to HO wavefunction)
Hermitian Operators

Slide 54

27
Hermitian Operators
General
Definition: An operator is Hermitian if it satisfies the relation:

Simplified
Definition (=): An operator is Hermitian if it satisfies the relation:

So what?
Why is it important that a quantum mechanical operator be Hermitian?

It can be proven that if an operator satisfies the simplified definition,


it also satisfies the more general definition.
(Quantum Chemistry, I. N. Levine, 5th. Ed.)

Slide 55

The eigenvalues of Hermitian operators must be real.

Proof: and

a* = a
i.e. a is real

In a similar manner, it can be proven that the expectation values


<a> of an Hermitian operator must be real.
Slide 56

28
Is the operator x (multiplication by x) Hermitian? Yes.

Is the operator ix Hermitian? No.

Is the momentum operator Hermitian? Yes: Ill outline


the proof
You are NOT responsible for the proof outlined below, but
only for the result.
Math Preliminary: Integration by Parts

Slide 57

Is the momentum operator Hermitian?

?
The question is whether:

?
or:

The latter equality can be proven by using Integration by Parts


with: u = and v = *, together with the fact that both and * are
zero at x = . Next Slide

Slide 58

29
?
?
or:

Let u = and v = *:

Because and *
vanish at x =

?
Therefore:

Thus, the momentum operator IS Hermitian

Slide 59

By similar methods, one can show that:

is NOT Hermitian (see last slide)

IS Hermitian

IS Hermitian (proven by applying integration by


parts twice successively)

The Hamiltonian: IS Hermitian

Slide 60

30
Outline (Contd.)
Orthogonality of Wavefunctions
Commutation of Operators
Differentiability and Completeness of the Wavefunctions
Dirac Bra-Ket Notation

Slide 61

Orthogonality of Eigenfunctions

Assume that we have two different eigenfunctions of the same


Hamiltonian:
If the two eigenvalues, Ei = Ej, the eigenfunctions (aka wavefunctions)
are degenerate. Otherwise, they are non-degenerate eigenfunctions

We prove below that non-degenerate eigenfunctions are


orthogonal to each other.

Proof: Because the Hamiltonian


is Hermitian

Slide 62

31
Thus, if Ei Ej (i.e. the eigenfunctions are not degenerate,
then:

We say that the two eigenfunctions are orthogonal

If the eigenfunctions are also normalized, then we can say that


they are orthonormal.

ij is the Kronecker Delta, defined by:

Slide 63

Linear Combinations of Degenerate Eigenfunctions

Assume that we have two different eigenfunctions of the same


Hamiltonian:

If Ej = Ei, the eigenfunctions are degenerate. In this case, any linear


combination of i and j is also an eigenfunction of the Hamiltonian

Proof:

If Ej = Ei ,

Thus, any linear combination of degenerate eigenfunctions is also


an eigenfunction of the Hamiltonian.
If we wish, we can use this fact to construct degenerate eigenfunctions
that are orthogonal to each other.
Slide 64

32
Outline (Contd.)
Orthogonality of Wavefunctions
Commutation of Operators
Differentiability and Completeness of the Wavefunctions
Dirac Bra-Ket Notation

Slide 65

Commutation of Operators
?

Not necessarily!! If the result obtained applying two operators


in opposite orders are the same, the operators
are said to commute with each other.

Whether or not two operators commute has physical implications,


as shall be discussed below.

One defines the commutator of two operators as:

If for all , the operators commute.

Slide 66

33
x x2 0 Operators commute

3 0 Operators commute

-i Operators DO NOT commute

And so??
Why does it matter whether or not two operators commute?

Slide 67

Significance of Commuting Operators


^ ^
Lets say that two different operators, A and B, have the
same set of eigenfunctions, n:

This means that the observables corresponding to both


operators can be exactly determined simultaneously.

Then it can be proven**


that the two operators commute; i.e.
Conversely, it can be proven that if two operators do not
commute, then the operators cannot have simultaneous
eigenfunctions.
This means that it is not possible to determine both
quantities exactly; i.e. the product of the uncertainties
is greater than zero.
**e.g. Quantum Chemistry (5th. Ed.), by I. N. Levine,
Sect. 5.1
Slide 68

34
We just showed that the momentum and position operators do not
commute:

This means that the momentum and position of a particle cannot


both be determined exactly; the product of their uncertainties is
greater than 0.

If the position is known exactly ( x=0 ), then the momentum


is completely undetermined ( px ), and vice versa.

This is the basis for the uncertainty principle, which we demonstrated


above for the wavefunction for a Harmonic Oscillator, where
we showed that px = /2.

Slide 69

Outline (Contd.)
Orthogonality of Wavefunctions
Commutation of Operators
Differentiability and Completeness of the Wavefunctions
Dirac Bra-Ket Notation

Slide 70

35
Differentiability and Completeness
of the Wavefunction
Differentiability of
It is proven in in various texts** that the first derivative of the
wavefunction, d/dx, must be continuous.

This wavefunction would not be acceptable



because of the sudden change in the
derivative.

x
The one exception to the continuous derivative requirement is
if V(x).
We will see that this property is useful when setting Boundary
Conditions for a particle in a box with a finite potential barrier.
** e.g. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics in Chemistry, M. A. Ratner
and G. C. Schatz, Sect. 2.7
Slide 71

Completeness of the Wavefunction

The set of eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian, n , form a complete set.

This means that any well behaved function defined over the
same interval (i.e. - to for a Harmonic Oscillator,
0 to a for a particle in a box, ...) can be written as a linear combination
of the eigenfunctions; i.e.

We will make use of this property in later chapters when we


discuss approximate solutions of the Schrdinger equation for
multi-electron atoms and molecules.

Slide 72

36
Outline (Contd.)
Orthogonality of Wavefunctions
Commutation of Operators
Differentiability and Completeness of the Wavefunctions
Dirac Bra-Ket Notation

Slide 73

Dirac Bra-Ket Notation


A standard shorthand notation, developed by Dirac, and termed
bra-ket notation, is commonly used in textbooks and
research articles.

In this notation:

is the bra: It represents the complex conjugate part


of the integrand

is the ket: It represents the non-conjugate part


of the integrand

Slide 74

37
In Bra-Ket notation, we have the following:

Scalar Product
of two functions:

Orthogonality:

Normalization:

Hermitian
Operators:

Expectation
Value:

Slide 75

38

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