TOMSK POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

N.A. Belenyuk

ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC ACADEMIC PURPOSES

(BUSINESS STUDIES)

Students book

 CONTENTS

UNIT 1. ACADEMIC READING SKILLS 3

UNIT 2. SUMMARISING, SYNTHESIS AND NOTE-TAKING 8

UNIT 3. IDENTIFYING REFERENCE IN THE TEXT. 15

UNIT 4. FEATURES OF ACADEMIC WRITING 17

UNIT 5. ACADEMIC WRITING STRUCTURE 23

UNIT 6. WRITING A LIST OF REFERENCES 28

UNIT 7. STYLE OF ACADEMIC WRITING 32

UNIT 8. LINKING IDEAS 36

UNIT 9. DESCRIBING PROCESS 40

UNIT 10. INCORPORATING DATA AND ILLUSTRATIONS 45

UNIT 11. ARGUING AND DISCUSSING 51

UNIT 12. PREPARING AND PRESENTING A SEMINAR PAPER 56

UNIT 13. WORKING IN GROUPS 60

UNIT 14. PREPARING A PRESENTATION 65

UNIT 15. PUBLIC SPEAKING INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 73

APPENDIX 78

REFERENCES 87

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 UNIT 1. ACADEMIC READING SKILLS

Lead-in

Work in groups. When starting a university course, you will have the same problem
as every other student: how to cope with the vast amount of reading given for each
course. You need to be able to read efficiently. What do you know about reading
strategies? What strategies do you use? For what purpose?

TASK I. Vocabulary
Match up the words on the left with the definitions on the right.

1 purposeful A performed by or expressing intention; deliberate

2 interactive B the way in which something is structured

3 scanning C first-look strategy

4 framing D allowing or relating to continuous two-way transfer

of information
5 skimming E title of a subdivision or subsection of a printed work

6 sub-heading F read in a superficial or cursory manner

TASK II. Reading

Read the text about efficient reading skills and strategies.

Efficient reading skills

Reading involves the use of the eyes and the brain. In order to read fast, you need to use
more of your brain. Reading fast means reading efficiently. This means not wasting time
and using your eyes and brain together well. To do this, you need to read purposefully and
interactively.
Purposeful
Reading is purposeful. The way you read something will depend on your purpose. You
read different texts in different ways. In everyday life, you usually know why you are
reading, you have a question and you read to find the answer. You usually know your way
around your favorite newspaper, so if you want to know the sports results, you go straight
to the correct page, or if you want to know what is on television tonight, you go straight to

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the television page. You do not start on the first page. When you read a novel, it is
different. You start at the beginning and slowly move towards the end. In academic
reading, you need to be flexible when you read - you may need to read quickly to find
relevant sections, then read carefully when you have found what you want. General
efficient reading strategies such as scanning to find the book or chapter, skimming to get
the gist and careful reading of important passages are necessary as well as learning about
how texts are structured in your subject.
Interactive
Reading is an interactive process - it is a two-way process. As a reader you are not
passive but active. This means you have to work at constructing the meaning from the
marks on the paper, which you use as necessary. You construct the meaning using your
knowledge of the language, your subject and the world, continually predicting and
assessing. Interpretive framing, which is essential in order to understand what you are
reading. They discuss four types of framing:
Extratextual framing - using information outside the text, your background knowledge
and experience, to understand texts.
Intratextual framing - making use of cues from the text, such as headings and sub-
headings and referential words such as "this" and "that" to understand texts.
Intertextual framing - making connections with other texts you are reading to help to
understand your text.
Circumtextual framing - using information from the cover of the book, title, abstract,
references etc. to understand the text.
You need to be active all the time when you are reading and use all the information that is
available. It is useful, therefore, before you start reading to try to actively remember what
you know, and do not know, about the subject and as you are reading to formulate
questions based on the information you have. All the information given above can be used
to help you formulate question to keep you interacting.
Useful skills for active reading are:
Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or
dictionary. You search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know what you're
looking for, so you're concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves
moving your eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. Scanning is
also used when you first find a resource to determine whether it will answer your
questions. Once you've scanned the document, you might go back and skim it. When
scanning, look for the author's use of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps, or the
words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italics, or in a different
font size, style, or color. Sometimes the author will put key ideas in the margin.
Skimming is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text. When you read the
newspaper, you're probably not reading it word-by-word, instead you're scanning the text.
Skimming is done at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading. People often
skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited amount of time. Use skimming
when you want to see if an article may be of interest in your research.
There are many strategies that can be used when skimming. Some people read the first
and last paragraphs using headings, summarizes and other organizers as they move down
the page or screen. You might read the title, subtitles, subheading, and illustrations.
Consider reading the first sentence of each paragraph. This technique is useful when
you're seeking specific information rather than reading for comprehension. Skimming

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works well to find dates, names, and places. It might be used to review graphs, tables, and
charts.
Adapted from Improving Comprehension with Think-Aloud Strategies:
Modeling What Good Readers Do by Jeffrey D. Wilhelm 2008

TASK III. Talking point

Discuss these questions in a group.

1. What does active reading mean?

2. What are the main features of active reading?
3. How many reading strategies do you know? What is their purpose?

TASK IV. Scanning

Read the following text quickly and fill in the table. What do the numbers given in the
table refer to?

1 0.4%
2 109,700
3 11.7bn
4 3.4%
5 162,038

House prices rise for sixth month in succession

Nationwide data says average value of typical UK property increases to 162,038, 2%
higher year on year.
House prices rose by 0.4% in October to return homeowners to positive territory for the
first time since last March, figures published by the UK's biggest building society showed
today.
The average value of a typical UK property increased to 162,038 2% higher year-on-
year and the sixth successive monthly rise, the Nationwide Building Society data said.
However, the figures showed a slowdown in the monthly pace of increase following the
buoyant summer months, down from 0.9% in September and 1.4% in both July and
August.
The three-monthly rate of change generally a smoother indicator of the near-term trend
also dropped back slightly, from 3.8% to 3.4%.
Nationwide said the ease in monthly growth could indicate that more properties were
coming onto the market.
Martin Gahbauer, the building society's chief economist, said: "A moderation in the rate
of house price inflation was to be expected, as the very strong monthly increases seen over
the summer months were unlikely to be sustainable over the long run.

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 "Although too early to tell for sure, it may also reflect a more natural level of stock
available for sale coming to the market, alleviating some of the extreme shortages of
property on the market seen during most of this year."
Earlier this week, the Land Registry reported a 0.9% rise in house prices in England and
Wales, an increase on the 0.5% rise in August.
But today's figures are consistent with borrowing data released yesterday, which showed
a slowdown in activity as net mortgage lending eased last month in comparison with
August.
Although the total number of mortgages
approved during the month was higher
than August's figure reaching 109,700
when remortgages, house purchases and
other loans secured against property were
taken into account the value of that
lending dropped to 11.7bn from 12bn.
Nationwide warned that the UK's failure
to lift out of recession in the third quarter
could further hamper the housing market
www.guardian.co.uk/money/2009 recovery.
A deeper and longer recession may lead to higher unemployment and subdued wages,
which could hit property prices, it said.
But the fall in third quarter gross domestic product also increased the likelihood that
interest rates would stay low for some time in a possible boost to property conditions.
"As a result, mortgage affordability will remain relatively favourable for both new and
existing borrowers this should limit the number of distressed sales and cushion the
negative impact of labour market weakness on housing demand," Gahbauer said.
Adapted from The Guardian

TASK IV. Skimming

Read the first sentence of each paragraph and express the main idea of the following
text.

Cobra Beer seeks 4.5m for Indian expansion

Lord Bilimoria, the founder of Cobra Beer, is trying to raise 4.5m to expand in India five
months after the British arm went through a controversial pre-pack administration owing
creditors 70m. Bilimoria has previously kept the British and Indian arms of the company
separate. Neither has yet made a profit.
He has hired Grant Thornton, the accountant, to work on a fundraising for the Indian
business. He plans to use the fresh finance to complete the purchase of a brewery in India
and to develop the brand.
The peer confirmed the plans this weekend, saying it was absolutely vital to raise the
money.
He said the Indian beer market had enormous potential and he was very confident of
being able to raise the funds. Bilimoria added that it remained to be seen what size stake in
the business new investors would be granted.
Cobras Indian arm generated retail sales of about 5m in the year to March but delivered
losses of 4m. Turnover is forecast to grow beyond 20m within four years.

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 The British arm, based in London, was put in administration in May and immediately
bought out by a joint venture vehicle controlled by Bilimoria and Molson Coors, the
international brewing giant.
Such arrangements, which allow struggling companies to shed their financial obligations,
are becoming increasingly common despite heavy criticism.
The pub groups Regent Inns and Orchid are among the companies that have survived by
going through pre-pack administration in the past year.
Bilimoria said that being part of a larger brewing concern would help Cobra start to make
money. Last month he promised to repay millions owed to creditors of the British business
who lost out as a result of the administration. The peer had previously said that he was
devastated by the collapse of Cobra, which was established 20 years ago and described
the pre-pack administration as the least worst option to save the company.
Adapted from The Sunday Times

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 UNIT 2. SUMMARISING, SYNTHESIS AND NOTE-TAKING

Lead-in
A summary is a shortened version of a text. It contains the main points in the text
and is written in your own words. It is a mixture of reducing a long text to a short
text and selecting relevant information. A good summary shows that you have
understood the text.

In pairs, look at theses stages for a typical summary. Write the correct phrase (A-G) in
each box.

A Select the relevant information. This depends on your purpose.

B Find the main ideas - what is important.
C Think about the purpose of the text.
D Change the structure of the text.
E Rewrite the main ideas in complete sentences.
F Check your work.
G Read and understand the text carefully.

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TASK I. Talking point
Distinguish between main and subsidiary information. Delete most details and
examples, unimportant information, anecdotes, examples, illustrations, data etc.
Simplify the text. Reduce complex sentences to simple sentences, simple sentences to
phrases, phrases to single words.

1. They believe that advances in gross domestic product are an inferior way to achieve
greater wellbeing.
2. There is no stereotypical personality, but one can identify characteristics that most
entrepreneurs share.
3. The economist Richard Layard, who puts himself forward as an authority on
happiness, says public policy should demotivate wealth creators with higher
taxation, because they exacerbate the race for status.
4. Inevitably, that is unlikely to lead to a peaceful existence.
5. Politicians will say they are upgrading our overall quality of life in order to
pursue more government intrusion, greater regulation and higher levels of
redistribution.

TASK II. Reading.

Sum up in one sentence the writers advice to people who want to cope with stress and
be happy.

Stress and risk the secret of happiness

I recently participated in a debate entitled The good society: virtues for a post-recession
world. A couple of my fellow panellists emphasized the importance of promoting
happiness rather than material wealth as a true measure of human progress. They believe
that advances in gross domestic
product are an inferior way to
achieve greater wellbeing, and
that a concept such as gross
national happiness might be a
better tool.
As I listened to their definitions
of happiness, I realized that not
many coincided with my view of
what made entrepreneurs tick. I
have spent decades partnering
entrepreneurs, trying to
understand their psychology and
motivation. I find them hugely exciting to work with, because it is only thanks to their
ambition and ingenuity that enterprises are started and fresh wants satisfied.
There is no stereotypical personality, but one can identify characteristics that most
entrepreneurs share. At heart they are highly competitive. They do not seek security as
their main goal rather, they actively seek risk, and enjoy overcoming stressful
challenges. They are not sheer gamblers, but they embrace dynamism and are willing to
invest in spite of the possibility of failure to have the chance to win.

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 For many other people a contented existence might be summed up in Max Ehrmanns
poem Desiderata, which more or less defines the opposite of the entrepreneurial life:
Go placidly amid the noise and haste ... Exercise caution in your business affairs, and so
on. By contrast, entrepreneurs are in a hurry: they stir things up and disrupt; they overturn
companies and ways of doing business; they invent better products and threaten the status
quo; they relish upheaval because it presents opportunities to supplant the existing order.
Look at how Google has used the internet to throw a huge explosive device among media
companies.
All this innovation and change is in stark contrast to the view espoused by many
philosophers and writers that happiness means stability and tranquility. To a restless,
striving entrepreneur those calm objectives represent boredom. Perhaps a relaxed life is
the right answer for the majority but to me it would be deadly dull. Where is the
stimulation in a safe career? I have rarely opted for the easy path when the alternative
offered the possibility of something with more fireworks. To me achieving something
novel and bold is meaningful, not practicing meditation.
The economist Richard Layard, who puts himself forward as an authority on happiness,
says public policy should demotivate wealth creators with higher taxation, because they
exacerbate the race for status. But he also says we must eliminate high unemployment.
And I suspect that these two objectives are intrinsically incompatible. Entrepreneurs, for
all their rivalry and dissent, are the principal engine that can create jobs. Discouraging
them will only make the problem of worklessness worse.
Societies that reject material advancement, that take a degraded view of humankind as an
exploiter, that demonize consumerism and adopt a fatalistic perspective on our system are
condemned to stagnate. Why would a world of deliberately diminished expectations lead
to increased contentment? I worry that politicians will say they are upgrading our overall
quality of life in order to pursue more government intrusion, greater regulation and
higher levels of redistribution.
Happiness is about independence and freedom, and vital engagement with ones craft in a
productive way. I have faith in humanity, and applaud those who attempt to improve their
lot. For millions, this involves something of a heroic daily struggle. Inevitably, that is
unlikely to lead to a peaceful existence.
But why should we meekly accept drudgery and disadvantage? As Teddy Roosevelt, the
former US president, said: Far better it is to dare mighty things, to win glorious triumphs,
than to rank with those poor spirits who neither enjoy much nor suffer much, because they
live in a grey twilight that knows not victory nor defeat.
Adapted from Financial Times

TASK III. Structuring

A synthesis is a combination, usually a shortened version, of several texts made into
one. It contains the important points in the text and is written in your own words.
To make a synthesis you need to find suitable sources, and then to select the relevant
parts in those sources. You will then use your summary skills to write the
information in your own words.
There is a list of synthesis stages. Match up the sentence beginnings with their endings.

1 Find texts that A accuracy and relevance.

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 2 Read and B are suitable for your assignment.

3 Find the relevant ideas in the texts, C marked very carefully

Mark them in some way
4 Make sure you identify the meaning D write down all similar information
relationships together.
5 Read what you have E you could give all similar ideas in
different texts the same number or
letter or color.
6 Organize the information you have: F - write them down, underline them
or highlight them.
7 Transfer all the information on to one G as necessary.
piece of paper,
8 Paraphrase and summarize H into one continuous text.

9 Check your notes with your original I between the words/ideas.

texts for
10 Combine your notes J understand the texts.

TASK IV. Writing

As part of an essay, you need to include a section of about 60 words on what marketing
mix really is. You find the following information from different sources:
A.

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B.
The marketing mix is generally accepted as the use and specification of the 'four Ps'
describing the strategy position of a product in the marketplace. The 'marketing mix' is a
set of controllable, tactical marketing tools that work together to achieve company's
objectives. One version of the marketing mix originated in 1948 when James Culliton said
that a marketing decision should be a result of something similar to a recipe. This version
was used in 1953 when Neil Borden, in his American Marketing Association presidential
address, took the recipe idea one step further and coined the term "marketing-mix". A
prominent marketer, E. Jerome McCarthy, proposed a 4 P classification in 1960, which
has seen wide use. The four Ps concept is explained in most marketing textbooks and
classes.
Broadly defined, optimizing the marketing mix is the primary responsibility of marketing.
By offering the product with the right combination of the four Ps marketers can improve
their results and marketing effectiveness. Making small changes in the marketing mix is
typically considered to be a tactical change. Parm Bains says, Making large changes in
any of the four Ps can be considered strategic. For example, a large change in the price,
say from $19.00 to $39.00 would be considered a strategic change in the position of the
product. However a change of $130 to $129.99 would be considered a tactical change,
potentially related to a promotional offer.
The Four Ps is also being replaced by the Four Cs model, consisting of consumer, cost,
convenience, and communication. The Four Cs model is more consumer-oriented and fits
better in the movement from mass marketing to niche marketing. The product part of the
Four Ps model is replaced by consumer or consumer models, shifting the focus to
satisfying the consumer. Another C replacement for Product is Capability. By defining

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offerings as individual capabilities that when combined and focused to a specific industry,
creates a custom solution rather than pigeon-holing a customer into a product. Pricing is
replaced by cost, reflecting the reality of the total cost of ownership. Many factors affect
cost, including but not limited to the customers cost to change or implement the new
product or service and the customers cost for not selecting a competitors capability.
Placement is replaced by the convenience function. With the rise of internet and hybrid
models of purchasing, place is no longer relevant. Convenience takes into account the ease
to buy a product, find a product, find information about a product, and several other
considerations. Finally, the promotions feature is replaced by communication.
Communications represents a broader focus than simply promotions. Communications can
include advertising, public relations, personal selling, viral advertising, and any form of
communication between the firm and the consumer.
The term 'marketing mix' however, does not imply that the 4P elements represent options.
They are not trade-offs but are fundamental marketing issues that always need to be
addressed. They are the fundamental actions that marketing requires whether determined
explicitly or by default.
From Koichi Shimizu (2003)"Symbiotic Marketing Strategy,"4th edition

TASK V. Speaking
Work in pairs or groups discussing why note-taking is important. Pay attention to the
way you usually take notes when reading.

TASK VI. Reading

Read the text and fill in the table below.
Leader of Virgin Company
Richard Branson - the founder and owner of the Virgin Group, an empire of 350
companies that includes Virgin Atlantic airlines as well as ventures in other industries like
telecommunications, trains, cosmetics and credit cards - says his goal is to turn Virgin into
the most respected brand in the world'. Branson's skill as a brand builder is one of the
reasons underlying his longevity as a business leader.
It is difficult to separate the success of the Virgin brand from the flamboyant man behind
that brand. He travels the world weekly, reinforcing his good-natured, visible, jet-setting,
billionaire reputation - a reputation like the reputation of the companies he owns.
'Generally speaking, I think being a high-profile person has its advantages,' he says.
'Advertising costs enormous amounts of money these days. I just announced in India that I
was setting up a domestic airline, and we ended up getting on the front pages of the
newspaper. The costs of that in advertising terms would have been considerable.'
What is the most important quality of a good leader? 'Being someone who cares about
people is important,' he says. 'You can't be a good leader unless you generally like people.
That is how you bring out the best in them.'
How does a man who owns 350 companies get it all done? Branson places enormous
value on time-management skills. As chairman of a large group of firms, Branson says he
spends about a third of his time on trouble-shooting, another third on new projects, both
charitable and business, and the last third on promoting and talking about the businesses
he has set up. 'As much as you need a strong personality to build a business from scratch,
you must also understand the art of delegation,' says Branson. 'I have to be good at helping
people run the individual businesses, and I have to be willing to step back. The company
must be set up so it can continue without me.'

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 In order for this process to work, employees must be happy. Branson says his philosophy
of'look for the best and you'll get the best' helped him build an empire recognized for its
young, fun culture. 'For the people who work for you or with you, you must lavish praise
on them at all times,' Branson says. 'It's much more fun looking for the best in people.
People don't need to be told where they've slipped up or made a mess of something.
They'll sort it out themselves.' Branson feels strongly that if an employee is not excelling
in one area of the company, he or she should be given the opportunity to do well in a
different Virgin Group job. Firing is seldom an option.
Motivational strategies extend to innovative ideas. The key to encouraging innovation
within the Virgin ranks, suggests Branson, is to listen to any and all ideas and to offer
feedback. Employees often leave companies, he reasons, because they are frustrated by
the fact that their ideas fall on deaf ears. Interaction between employees and managers is
fundamental.
Branson has developed a level of trust with his top managers by setting the direction and
then stepping back to let them navigate. 'I come up with the original idea, spend the first
three months immersed in the business so I know the ins and outs, and then give chief
executives a stake in the company and ask them to run it as if it's their own,' explains
Branson. 'I intervene as little as possible. Give them that, and they will give everything
back.'
From http://www.knowledge@wharton

Questions Answers

What is Branson's business aim?

It saves money on publicity.

Making his companies independent of him

How, according to Branson, can you ensure

optimum performance from staff?

How does Branson optimize performance

from his CEOs?

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 UNIT 3. IDENTIFYING REFERENCE IN THE TEXT

Lead-in
Work in pairs or groups. Talk about different sources of information you usually use to
write essays, reports etc. Why and how do you use them?

Every text has a structure. It is not just a random collection of sentences. The parts that
make up the text are related in a meaningful way to each other. Recognising the way in
which a text has been organised will help you to understand it better. In order to
understand the text, it is necessary to understand how the sentences are related. Words like
"it", "this", "that", "here", "there" etc. refer to other parts of the text. You need to
understand these connections or links
Certain items of language in English have the property of reference. That is, they do not
have meaning themselves, but they refer to something else for their meaning. In order to
understand the text, you need to know what these words refer to in the text.

TASK I. Listening
Listen to an extract from a series of study skills lectures on ways of finding and using
information, discussing the advantages and disadvantages of using different ways of
doing research.
Decide which type of research these ideas refer to: Mark them I (internet), L (library)
and FH (firsthand research).

1 can work from home 6 much information not relevant

2 difficulty of using catalogue 7 possible to ask exactly the right

questions
3 guaranteed quality 8 quiet academic atmosphere

4 high costs 9 very quick

5 huge quantity of information

TASK II. Reading

Identify the references in the following text.

President Barack Obama has welcomed the news that the US economy returned to growth
between July and September.
Official figures showed the economy grew by 3.5% during the quarter, its first expansion
in more than a year. The growth was helped by a substantial government spending plan,
including a scrappage scheme to boost car sales.

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 While Mr Obama called it "welcome news", he said the US was still a "long way" from
recovering from the "deepest downturn since the Great Depression".
The return to growth of the world's largest economy also sent shares on Wall Street
sharply higher. The main Dow Jones index closed up 200 points, or 2.1%, at 9,962.58.
Mr Obama said the figures were "an affirmation that
this recession is abating and [showed] the steps we've
taken have made a difference, but I also know that
we've got a long way to go to fully restore our
economy." There were other benchmarks for
measuring economic progress as stated, such as
"whether we are creating jobs, whether families are
able to pay their bills and whether businesses are hiring
and doing well".
Compared with the previous three months, the US
economy grew by 0.9%. In the same period, and on the same measure, the UK economy
unexpectedly stayed in recession after it shrank by 0.4%.
From www.news.bbc.co.uk

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 UNIT 4. FEATURES OF ACADEMIC WRITING

Lead-in
Work in groups or pairs. Try to give your own explanations of the words in the box
below.

complexity formality objectivity accuracy

explicitness hedging responsibility

TASK I. Reading
Read the text about the nature of academic writing.

The nature of academic writing

Writing is necessary for all students in higher education. It is a process. It starts from
understanding your task. It then goes on to doing the research and reading. The next stage
is planning and writing various drafts. This is followed by proof-reading and editing. All
this should lead to the final text.
Academic writing is a social practice. By a social practice I mean that it is what people do
together. This means that you always write with a readership in mind. You always write
with a purpose: to explain, to persuade etc. It also means that what is right and wrong,
appropriate or inappropriate is defined by the users in the social community. In your case
these are other students, lecturers or examiners. There is nothing natural about the
organisation and the way language is used in a scientific report, for example. It is as it is
because that is the way it has developed through
centuries of use by practitioners. For that reason it has
to be learned. No-one speaks (or writes) academic
English as a first language. It must be learned by
observation, study and experiment.
Academic writing is clearly defined by having a clear
audience; a clear purpose, either an exam question to
answer or a research project to report on. It is also
clearly structured.
Academic writing in English is linear: - it starts at the
beginning and finishes at the end, with every part contributing to the main line of
argument, without digression or repetition. Whatever kind of writing you are producing,
you, the writer, are responsible for making your line of argument clear and presenting it in
an orderly fashion so that the reader can follow.
Your written work should have the following sections: preliminaries, main text, end
matter. The preliminaries and end matter will depend on the kind of text you are writing.
The main text will, however, generally contain an introduction, a main body and a

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conclusion. The introduction will usually consist of some background information, which
will give the reason for the writing and explain, to some extent, how this will be done.
This must be closely connected to the essay or research question. The main body will then
contain some data - either experimental, from ideas or from reading - and some argument.
This will then lead to the conclusion, which will refer back to the introduction and show
that the purpose has been fulfilled. The actual form of the main body will depend on the
type of writing.
If we examine the text of scientific articles it is clear that there is a generally accepted
way of writing them. First of all, scientific text is formal, precise, impersonal and
objective. It typically uses the third person, the passive tense, complex terminology, and
various referencing systems.
Academic writing uses vocabulary accurately. Most subjects have words with narrow
specific meanings. Linguistics distinguishes clearly between "phonetics" and
"phonemics"; general English does not. Academic writing is explicit about the
relationships in the text. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the writer in English to
make it clear to the reader how the various parts of the text are related. These connections
can be made explicit by the use of different signaling words.
A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by linguists as a
hedge.
In any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make decisions about your
stance on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different
subjects prefer to do this in different ways. In academic writing you must be responsible
for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification for, any claims you make. You
are also responsible for demonstrating an understanding of any source texts you use.

TASK II. Talking point

Summarise the text above. Cover all the main points about the nature of academic
writing. Use 60 words exactly for your summary.

TASK III. Vocabulary

Formality
Complete the second sentence so that it has the same meaning as the first. Use a
maximum of two words. Do not repeat a word from the first sentence.

1. We'll tell you how you got on in the test in a couple of weeks.
Candidates will .......... of their results in two weeks.
2. If you're not happy with the service in the restaurant, talk to the manager.
.......... wish to complain about our service, please contact the manager.
3. You don't have to buy anything If you don't want to.
You are under .......... to purchase any of our products.
4. We thought you would cover all costs.
We .......... you to cover all costs.

18
TASK IV. Grammar

Complexity
Rewrite the underlined parts of the following sentences using a noun-based phrase
instead of the "wh" clause.

EXAMPLE:
Many futile attempts have been made to convince local people to invest money how their
up-to-date contemporaries do.
Many futile attempts have been made to convince local people to invest money in up-to-
date way.

1. Many factors must be considered in explaining how fast the population has grown in
the developing countries.
2. Classes differ greatly in how membership is established and how fast membership
changes.
3. There are advantages and declines in labour productivity and both are related to how
much the population density is increasing.
4. But even in this he is a failure as he can't remember a word, nor does he know why he
is going to be executed.
5. It is easiest to list foods and drinks according to where they are stored.
6. The week following admission appears to be when the risk is greatest.
7. When the riots occurred, 36 per cent of the workforce in Handsworth was out of work.
8. These star charts were provided to enable the deceased to tell what time it is and what
day it is.
9. How big this group is varies in different centres.

TASK V. Writing

Objectivity / Hedging
Identify the hedging expressions in the following sentences. Rewrite the following
sentences in a more academic style.

1. There is experimental work to show that a week or ten days may not be long enough
and two or even three weeks is may be the best theoretical period.
2. Conceivably, different forms, changing at different rates and showing contrasting
combinations of features, were cleared up in different areas.
3. One chance is that generalized latent inhibition is likely to be weaker than that
produced by pre-exposure to the CS itself and thus is more likely to be susceptible to
the effect of the long interval.

19
4. For our present goal, it is useful to distinguish two kinds of investment schemes,
according to whether you are an individual or an organization.
5. It seems Identify the hedging expressions in the following sentences. to establish three
categories: the first contains wordings generally agreed to be acceptable, the second
wordings which appear to have been at some time problematic but are now acceptable,
and the third wordings which remain inadmissible.

TASK VI. Vocabulary

There is a table describing features of unskilled and skilled writers. Match
corresponding skills in these two columns.

The Unskilled and the Skilled Writer at Work.

Unskilled Writers: Skilled Writers:

1 Understand the writing assignment
narrowly, primarily in terms of topic or
subject only. Choose subject and their
angle on subject only in terms of what
they think the instructor wants.
A Write quickly at early stages. Trust
inner voice, expect to make mistakes,
don't worry with punctuation or exact
words. Only gradually look back and
begin to make sense of what they've
written. Think of revision as finding
what they want to say. Revise
extensively, usually a number of
times, at the level of meaning and
structure. During later stages of
revision, move back and forth within
he writing process, frequently
'zooming' from whole essay to small
detail and back again.

2 Delay the actual writing. Try to figure
out what they are going to write in
some detail before they actually begin
writing. Fear, or perhaps welcome
'Writer's Block,' which gives them
further excuse to delay writing.
B Find an authentic voice to write
through and a place in their own
experience they can start from. Tell
the truth. Try to inform or persuade or
move their readers

3 Try to write the paper perfectly in the
first draft. Write carefully and
critically from the beginning, focusing
on punctuation and exact wording
early o n. Reading what they've written
over and over from the outset. Revise
only at the level of single words and
sentences, thinking of revision as
eliminating errors and maybe finding a
better word. Think of the writing
process as discrete and orderly steps.
C Know that it takes more effort not to
write than to simply begin writing.
Instead of delaying writing until they
know what they want to write, just
start writing, keeping a receptive
mind, ready to discover what they
have to say. Develop strategies to get
around 'Writer's Block.'

20
 4 Try to sound like they think they are D Picture someone reading their writing
supposed to sound. Try to say what and thinking about it. Actively shape
they think they are supposed to say. their writing by posing the reader's
Try to impress their readers. questions, objections, confusions.

5 Have little concept of the reader as
they write.
E Read their writing out loud. Find
readers to give them specific feedback
and read their papers against
internalized 'checklists' before handing
them in. Understand the writing
assignment within the context of
academic discourse, including
considerations of purpose, audience,
self. Choose subject and their angle on
subject based on their own
experiences and what they really care
about, within the guidelines set by the
assignment.

6 Read their writing silently to F Understand the writing assignment

themselves. Keep their writing to
themselves until they have to hand it
in.
within the context of academic
discourse, including considerations of
purpose, audience, self. Choose
subject and their angle on subject
based on their own experiences and
what they really care about, within the
guidelines set by the assignment.

TASK VII. Listening

Listen to the recording about basic elements of academic writing. Fill in the gaps with
one or two words in the text below.

There are two basic groups of elements you could focus on _1___________ which are
aimed to help you to write a definition or give examples, how to compare and contrast,
how to describe cause and effect The second group refers to the _2___________ of
your writing, such as how to give quotations, how to give references etc.
According to Tony Lynch, writing process is a series of stages. The first stage is drawing
up a preliminary _3___________ for your assignment. Next comes your research before
you write your first _4___________. Then you can revise and improve your it, and write
the final version.
The first and the most important is to understand the _5___________ . then it is worth
making a plan, where you might need to apply _6___________ technique. Then you
should start your research with _7___________ which saves a great deal of time. While
writing you need to follow the structure. When your essay is ready, it would be better to
show your draft to your tutor. You may find that this process seems to take rather a long
time. But if you _8___________, youll probably find by the third or fourth essay that

21
your writing has improved, both in speed and quality. Because we all serve an
_9___________ as writers.

TASK VIII. Writing

You should spend about 40 minutes on this task. Write about the following topic:

In recent years some countries have experienced very rapid economic development. This
has resulted in much higher standards of living in urban areas but not in the countryside.
This situation may bring some problems for the country as a whole.
What are these problems?
How might they be reduced?

Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own
knowledge or experience. Write at least 250 words.

22
 UNIT 5 ACADEMIC WRITING STRUCTURE

Lead-in
Below are the most common types of written work produced or used by students.
Complete the table to show the main purpose of each, and their usual approximate
length.

Type Purpose Length

for formal and informal usually fewer than 500
letter
communication words
notes

report

project

essay

thesis/dissertation

article/paper

TASK I. Talking point

Organization of texts
Explain the following terms in italics.

Shorter texts are normally organised:

Introduction > Main Body > Conclusion
Longer texts, e.g. dissertations and articles, may include (depending on subject area):
Abstract > Contents > Introduction > Main Body >Discussion > Findings > Conclusion >
Acknowledgements >Bibliography/References >Appendices
Books may also contain:
Dedication > Foreword > Preface > Index

TASK II. Vocabulary

Match the definitions below to one of the terms in Task I.

1. Short summary (100200 words) of the writers purpose and findings (......)
2. Section where various people who assisted the writer are thanked

23
3. Final part where extra data, too detailed for the main text, are stored (......)
4. List of all the books that the writer has consulted (......)
5. Section looking at a particular example, relevant to the main topic (......)
6. Introductory part of the book which may give the writers motives (......)
7. Alphabetical list of all topics in the text (......)

TASK III. Discussion

Work in groups and discuss the following:
What does the word paragraph mean? Why are all texts divided into paragraphs? How
long are paragraphs?

TASK IV. Reading

1. Read the following paragraph.

The way we use banks is currently changing. This is partly because of the introduction of
new technology in the last ten years. The personal computer and the internet, for instance,
allow customers to view their accounts at home and perform operations such as moving
money between accounts. At the same time banks are being reorganized in ways that
affect both customers and staff. In the past five years over 3,000 bank branches have
closed in Britain. The banks have discovered that staffing call centres is cheaper than
running a branch network.
The structure of the paragraph is:
1. topic sentence The way we use banks . . .
2. reason This is partly because . . .
3. example The personal computer . . .
4. information At the same time banks . . .
5. information In the past five years . . .
6. reason The banks have discovered . . .

2. Read the following text, from the introduction to an essay, and divide it into a
suitable number of paragraphs.

Investment
Most people want to invest for the future, to cover unexpected financial difficulties and
provide them with security. Different people, however, tend to have different
requirements, so that a 25-year-old just leaving university would be investing for the long
term, whereas a 60-year-old who had just retired would probably invest for income.
Despite these differences, certain principles apply in most cases. The first issue to consider
is risk. In general, the greater the degree of risk in investment, the
higher the return. Shares, for example, which can quickly rise or fall
in value, typically have a higher yield than bonds, which offer good
security but only pay about 5%. Therefore all investors must decide
how much risk is appropriate in their particular situation.
Diversification must also be considered in an investment strategy.

24
Wise investors usually seek to spread their investments across a variety of geographical
and business sectors. As accurate predictions of the future are almost impossible, it is best
to have as many options as possible. A further consideration is investor involvement.
Some investors opt for a high degree of involvement and want to buy and sell regularly,
constantly watching the markets. Others want to invest and then forget about it. Personal
involvement can be time-consuming and worrying, and many prefer to leave the
management of their portfolios to professional fund managers.

TASK V. Talking point

Introduction
1. An introduction is crucial, not just for what it says about the topic, but for what it
tells the reader about the writers style and approach. Unless you can introduce the
subject clearly the reader may not wish to continue.

Work in pairs or groups. What is the purpose of the introduction to an essay? Choose
from the items below.

1. to define some of the terms in the title

2.to give your opinion of the subject
3.to show that you have read some research on the subject
4.to show that the subject is worth writing about
5.to explain which areas of the subject you will deal with
6.to get the readers attention with a provocative idea
7.to show how you intend to organise your essay

2. Study the extracts from introductions below, and decide which of the functions in the
box they fulfill.

1. explain starting point for research

2. state aims/goals

3. refer to recent research in same area

4. give results of research

5. provide background information

6. concede limitations

25
 A. In many companies, the knowledge of most employees remains untapped for solving
problems and generating new ideas.
B. This paper positions call centres at the core of the mix of technologies public
administration can use to innovate e-commerce.
C. In fact, this is one of our main findings based on an extended sample period up to
1998.
D. Admittedly, the tenor of my argument is tentative and exploratory.
E. The purpose of this paper is to investigate changes in the incidence of extreme warm
and cold temperatures over the globe since 1870.

Main body
1. This and the next two units deal with the organization of the main body, the
introduction and the conclusion. In the case of longer assignments it is often better to
write the main body before the introduction. With shorter essays, for example in
exams, this is impractical, and the introduction has to be written first.

Put the following points into correct order according to the purpose of the article.
Explain your choice.

Trace the development of the factory system and describe its social impact.

1. some employers offered social benefits, e.g. housing/education

2. first factories employed unskilled workers; often women and children
3. in nineteenth century factories built near canals/railways for access to markets
4. factories originally sited to make use of water power (in eighteenth century)later

Conclusion
1. There is usually a link between the starting point, i.e. the title, and the conclusion.
If the title is asking a question the answer should be contained in the conclusion. The
reader may look at the conclusion first to get a summary of the main arguments or
points.

Read the following extracts from conclusions and match them with the list of functions
in the box.

26
 1. comparisons with other studies

2. summary of main body

3. limitations of research

4. suggestions for further research

5. practical implications and proposals

A. In this review, attempts have been made to summarize and assess the current
research trends of leading companies dealing exclusively with their clients.
B. As always, this investigation has a number of limitations to be considered in
evaluating its findings.
C. Obviously, business expatriates could benefit from being informed that problem
focused coping strategies are more effective than symptom focused ones.
D. Another line of research worth pursuing further is to study the importance of
language for expatriate assignments.
E. Our review of thirteen studies of strikes in public transport demonstrates that the
effect of a strike on public transport ridership varies and may either be temporary
or permanent . . .
F. These results of the Colombia study reported here are consistent with other similar
studies conducted in other countries.
G. To be more precise, there was a positive relation between tolerant and patient
problem solving and all four measures of adjustment: general, interaction, work
and subjective well-being.
H. To empirically test this conjecture, we need more cross-national replication of this
research.

TASK V. Writing
Below are notes for the introduction and main body of an article. Read the notes and
complete the conclusion, using your own ideas if necessary.

The term customer loyalty is used to describe the behavior of repeat customers, as well as
those that offer good ratings, reviews, or testimonials. Some customers do a particular
company a great service by offering favorable word of mouth publicity regarding a
product, telling friends and family, thus adding them to the number of loyal customers.
However, customer loyalty includes much more. It is a process, a program, or a group of
programs geared toward keeping a client happy so he or she will provide more business.
Customer loyalty can be achieved in some cases by offering a quality product with a firm
guarantee.

27
 UNIT 6 WRITING A LIST OF REFERENCES

Lead-in
Work in groups or pairs. Discuss the following:

1. Why is referencing so important?

To enable your tutor to verify your references
To protect yourself from charges of plagiarism
Both of the above
2. Which of the following is the best definition of plagiarism?
The act or process of deceiving or misleading, especially by concealing the truth.
The use of false representations to gain an unjust advantage.
The act or instance of taking and using the thoughts, writings, inventions, etc., of another
person as one's own.
3. Which of the sources below do you need to cite if you use them?
Book
Journal article
Your own thoughts and ideas
Website
4. Do you still have to cite your source if you describe someone else's idea in your own words
(paraphrase)?
True
False
5. Where do you find an in-text citation?
In the reference list or bibliography at the end of a paper
Within the text of a paper
At the bottom of the page as a footnote

TASK I. Talking point

1. Read the notes below about giving references.

A reference is an acknowledgement that you are making use of another writers ideas or
data in your writing:
There are three main reasons for giving references:
To avoid the charge of plagiarism, which is using another persons ideas or
research without acknowledgement.

28
 The reference can give more authority to your writing, as it shows you are familiar
with other research on the topic.
The reader can find the original source by using the reference section.

2. Decide which of the following need references:

A. A mention of facts or figures from another writer

B. An idea of your own
C. Some data you have found from your own research
D. A theory suggested by another researcher
E. A quotation from a work by any author
F. Something which is agreed to be common knowledge

TASK II. Reading

1. Skim the text about referencing or citation styles in order to answer the question: .
How many citation/referencing styles are there?

Citation styles can be broadly divided into styles common to the Humanities and the
Sciences, though there is considerable overlap. Some style guides, such as the Chicago
Manual of Style, are quite flexible and cover both parenthetical and note citation systems.
Others, such as MLA and APA styles, specify formats within the context of a single
citation system. These may be referred to as citation formats as well as citation styles. The
various guides thus specify order of appearance, for example, of publication date, title, and
page numbers following the author name, in addition to conventions of punctuation, use of
italics, emphasis, parenthesis, quotation marks, etc., particular to their style.
A number of organizations have created styles to fit their needs; consequently, a number
of different guides exist. Individual publishers often have their own in-house variations as
well, and some works are so long-established as to have their own citation methods too:
Stephanus pagination for Plato; Bekker numbers for Aristotle; citing the Bible by book,
chapter and verse; or Shakespeare notation by play, act and scene.
There is also The Vancouver style, which is a numeric citation system. Generally, a
reference in the body of your paper requires only a number. At the end of the essay there
is a numbered list of the references used (a bibliography).
The Harvard style is probably the most common system. This isa type of author-date
style. Generally, a reference in your paper requires only the name of the author and the
year of publication. At the end of the essay there is an alphabetical list of the references
used (a bibliography).
From Baltimore:Genealogical Pub. Co.

2. There are three main systems of reference in use in academic writing. Look through
and study the examples of in-text citation given below

A. The Harvard:
Hunter (1989) states . . . (date of publication in brackets when referring verb is
used)

29
 Women pose less security risk (Burke and Pollock, 1993)(authors and date in
brackets after summary)
B. Numbers in brackets are inserted in the text for each source, and at the end of the
chapter or article the references are listed in number order:
A survey of Fortune 500 companies found that over 70% have problems recruiting skilled
staff (1). Some analysts argue that this could be as high as 90% (2).
1. Cuervo D. 1990, Whither Recruitment? HR Journal 13, pp. 2339.
2. Segall, N. 1996, Cross-cultural studies, Harper & Row,New York pp. 1734.
C. A third system uses footnotes:
More than 80% of families own or are buying their own homes.2
In this system the references are listed at the bottom of the page:
2 Economist, 13 January 1996, pp. 278.
A full reference section is required at the end of the article or book.

TASK III. Discussion.

Here is a sample bibliography in the Harvard style. Work in pairs or groups and
discuss which type of information each reference is (e.g. a book or journal article).

Monacelli, T. (2001) New International Monetary Arrangements and the Exchange

Rate. International Journal of Finance & Economics Vol 6 (4) pp 389-400.
NASA Spacelink (undated) Chandra X-Ray Observatory. [online] Washington,
NASA. Available from:
http://spacelink.nasa.gov/NASA.Projects/Space.Science/Universe/Chandra.X-
Ray.Observatory/ [accessed 15 September 2003]
Rose, S. & Bullock, S. (1991) The Chemistry of Life 3rd ed., p. 253.
Harmondsworth, Penguin.
Anderson, J. C. (1987) Current Status of Chorion Villus Biopsy. In: Tudenhope,
D., Chenoweth, J., eds. Proceedings of the Fourth Congress of the Australian
Perinatal Society, Sept. 3-6. Queensland, Australian Perinatal Society, pp. 190-
196.

TASK IV. Vocabulary

There is one mistake in every entry. Find and correct them.

1. Belcher, D. D. (1989) How professors initiate non-native speakers into their

disciplinary discourse communities. Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education,
1, 207-225.
2. Brett, P. 1994. A genre analysis of the results sections of sociology articles.
English for Specific Purposes, 13, 47-59.
3. Bridgeman, B., & Carlson, S. B. Survey of academic writing tasks. Written
Communication, 1, 247-280.
4. Campbell, A. F. (1983). Organise your English. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
5. Clyne, M. (1983). Culture and discourse structure. In Smith L. E.(Ed.), Readings
in English as an international language (pp. 163-167). London: Prentice Hall.

30
6. M. Clyne (1987). Discourse structures and discourse expectations: Implications for
Anglo-German academic communication in English. In L. E. Smith (Ed.),
Discourse across cultures: Strategies in world Englishes (pp. 73-83). London:
Prentice Hall.
7. Collinson, D. J. (1982). Writing English. Wildwood House.
8. Dudley-Evans, A. (1984). "A preliminary investigation of the writing of
dissertation titles". In G. James (Ed.), The ESP classroom: Methodology, materials
and expectations (pp. 40-46). Exeter: University of Exeter.
9. Cookson, L. (1984). Writing. London: Hutchinson.
10. Dudley-Evans, A. (1986). Genre analysis: an investigation of the introductions and
discourse sections of MSc dissertations. In M. Coulthard, Talking about text (pp.
128-145). Birmingham: English Language Research, Birmingham University.
11. Grellet, F. (1981). Developing reading skills. Cambridge.
12. Hamp-Lyons, L. & K. B. Courter (1984). Research matters. Rowley, Mass.:
Newbury House.

31
 UNIT 7 STYLE OF ACADEMIC WRITING

Lead-in
Work in pairs or groups. Considering formality of academic writing study the style of
this paragraph and underline any examples of poor style.

A lot of people think that our economic situation is getting worse.

They say that this has been going on for quite a long time. I think that
they are quite right. Research has shown that we now get defaults and
recessions etc all the time.

TASK I. Reading
Read the text about main features of academic style of communication.
It is difficult to give rules for academic style which apply to all subject areas. When
reading books and journals in your area you should note what is acceptable. You will
probably meet exceptions to the points below as you read, but if you follow these
guidelines you should be able to develop a suitable style of your own.

1. Do not use idiomatic or colloquial vocabulary: dad, guy. Use standard English: father,
man.
2. Use vocabulary accurately. There is a difference between rule and law, or currency
and money, which you are expected to know.
3. Be as precise as possible when dealing with facts or figures. Avoid phrases such as
about a hundred or hundreds of years ago. If it is necessary to estimate numbers use
approximately rather than about.
4. Conclusions should use tentative language. Avoid absolute statements such as
education reduces crime. Instead use cautious phrases: may reduce crime or tends to
reduce crime.
5. Avoid adverbs that show your personal attitude: luckily, remarkably, surprisingly.
6. Do not contract verb forms: dont, cant. Use the full form: do not, cannot.
7. Although academic English tends to use the passive more than standard English, it
should not be overused. Both have their place. Compare:
Manners (1995) claims that most companies perform worse when . . .
It is widely agreed that most companies perform worse when . . .
In the first case, the focus is on the source, in the second on what companies do.
8. Avoid the following:
like for introducing examples. Use such as or for instance.

32
 thing and combinations nothing or something. Use factor, issue or topic.
lots of. Use a significant/considerable number.
little/big. Use small/large.
get phrases such as get better/worse. Use improve and deteriorate.
good/bad are simplistic. Use positive/negative, e.g. the changes had several
positive aspects
9. Do not use question forms such as What were the reasons for the decline in wool
exports? Instead use statements: There were four main reasons for the decline . . .
10. Avoid numbering sections of your text, except in certain reports. Use conjunctions and
signposting expressions to introduce new sections (Turning to the question of taxation .).
11. When writing lists, avoid using etc. or and so on. Insert and before the last item: The
forests of the twelfth century consisted of oak, ash and lime.
12. Avoid using two-word verbs such as go on or bring up if there is a suitable synonym.
Use continue or raise.

TASK II. Writing

In the following, first underline the examples of poor style and then rewrite them in a
more suitable way:

1. Lots of people think that living conditions are getting worse.

2. You cant always trust the numbers in that report.
3. I think that theres a big risk of more strikes, disorder etc.
4. Regrettably, the inflation in Russia led to increased poverty, illness and so on.
5. What were the main causes of the American economic recession?

TASK III. Grammar

Rewrite the underlined parts of these sentences. Instead of using 'people', 'somebody',
or 'they', write a passive sentence with an appropriate verb form.

Example: We can solve the problem. The problem can be solved.

1.Prices are stable and we maintain them in this way over generations.
2.They reformed the old dilator procedure in 1852.
3.In 1916 the government passed the General Regulations.
4.The recent local economic surveys replicate these findings.
5.We next consider a range of rival theories.
6.The rules require the subject to answer if the statement is true or false.

TASK IV. Discussion

Work in pairs or groups. Discuss the following:

1. How can you explain the word synonym?

2. Why do we use synonyms?

33
3. Do all words have synonyms? Make your own examples.

TASK V. Vocabulary
1. Fill in the gaps in the table below using words in a box.

speed up team up attach clarify cut achieve ban receive assist

keep change conduct issue think monitor begin findings idea

Formal Informal Formal Informal

1.commence 10. concept
2. join 11. retain
3. help 12. behavior
4. alter 13. result
5. explain 14. prohibit
6. reduce 15. topic
7. accelerate 16. assume
8. reach 17. collaborate
9. get 18. check

2. Find synonyms for the words and phrases in italics.

1. Professor Hicks questioned the findings of the research.

2. The statistics show a constant change in applications.
3. The sponsors idea has caused a major controversy.
4. Cost seems to be a substantial help to that system.
5. They will concentrate on the first topic.
6. This process needs to be checked.
7. The framework can be kept but the goal needs to be changed.
8. OPEC, the oil producers cartel, is to cut production to raise global prices.
9. The trend to smaller families has speeded up in the last decade.

3. Identify the synonyms in this text by underlining them and linking them to the word
they are substituting for.

EXAMPLE: agency organization

The chairman of the UKs food standards agency has said that a national advertising
campaign is necessary to raise low levels of personal hygiene. The organization is
planning a 3m publicity programme to improve British eating habits. A survey has
shown that half the population do not wash before eating, and one in five fail to wash
before preparing food. There are over 6 million cases of food poisoning in this country
every year, and the advertising blitz aims to cut this by 20%. This reduction, the food body
believes, could be achieved by regular hand washing prior to meals.

34
4. In the following text, replace all the words or phrases in italics with suitable
synonyms.

A leading French company has started a new programme to reduce costs. The companys
programme aims to reduce costs by $100 million. All staff have had pay cuts and work
longer. The company aims to increase profits by 35% next year, and promises that pay for
all staff will be increased if that happens.

TASK VI. Listening

1. Discuss in pairs or groups the strategies you learn and enrich your vocabulary.

2. You will hear Richard Hallow, English teacher, talking about the ways that learners
can increase their range of vocabulary. Listen to the interview and answer the questions
below.

Effective ways to increase your vocabulary

A. Why do we need to enrich our vocabulary?

B. What does the word mind map mean?
C. What is the idea of psychological theory concerning our brain and word
association perception?
D. How business presentations can be helpful in learning words?
E. According to Richard, what are the most effective ways of enriching vocabulary?

35
 UNIT 8 LINKING IDEAS

Lead-in

Linking phrases together so that the whole text is clear and readable is cohesion.
Work in pairs or groups. Talk about the methods of linking ideas you know.

TASK I. Reading

Pronouns
1. Study the examples of reference words and phrases given below.
Pronouns he/she/it/they
Possessive pronouns his/her/hers/their/theirs
Objective pronouns her/him/them
Demonstrative pronouns this/that/these/those
Other phrases the former/the latter/the first/the second

2. Read the following paragraph and complete the table.

Jenkins (1987) has researched the life cycle of new businesses. He found that they have an
average life of only 4.7 years. This is due to two main reasons; one economic and one
social. The former appears to be a lack of capital, the latter a failure to carry out sufficient
market research. Jenkins considers that together these account for approximately 70% of
business failures.

Reference Reference word/phrase

Jenkins he
new businesses
average life of only 4.7 years
one economic
one social
the former . . . . ., the latter . . . . . .

TASK II. Vocabulary

36
Conjunctions
1. Conjunctions are words and phrases such as and or but which join parts of a
sentence together. There are six main types of conjunctions. Study the examples below.

A. addition Furthermore, floating currency rates must be examined.

B. result Prices are rising worldwide, thus encouraging investment.
C. reason Due to the strike todays classes are cancelled.
D. time Thirdly, the efficiency of advertising will be reviewed.
E. example Various experts have examined the issue, for instance Van Exel.
F. opposition Although this study concentrates mainly on peak-time sales.

2. Work in pairs or groups. Give more examples of conjunctions for each type.

3. Choose the correct answer for each question.

A. You can come to the meeting ______ you don't say anything.

so that as long as while until as if

B. I'm not leaving ______ I get an apology from you.

so that as long as while until as if

C. I came her ______ you could give me an explanation.

so that as long as while until as if

D. Bob is very tall ______ Bill is very short.

so that as long as while until as if

E. You look ______ you've seen a ghost.

so that as long as while until as if

F. I need an office to myself ______ I can get some work done.

so so that although when since

G. Write it down ______ you don't forget.

so so that although when since

H. I need to get to work early ______ I can finish the report before the meeting.

37
so so that although when since

I. I'll tell her ______ I see her.

so so that although when since

J. ______ you left, the atmosphere in the office has not been as nice.

so so that although when since

4. Read the article below and fill in the gaps with proper conjunctions.

Sustainability: more than just a buzz-word

It needs to be remembered after all that sustainable development and sustainability were
hot originally intended as 'economic' terms. They were, and remain, essentially ethico-
political objectives, more like 'social justice' and 'democracy' than economic growth'. And
as such, their purpose or use' is mainly to express key ideas __1____ how society -
including the economy - should be governed.
The Council for the Protection of Rural England describe sustainable development as 'the
latest buzz-phrase to hit the planning profession'; indeed, it has become almost impossible
to avoid using it. Geography has certainly not been free
of its influence, as a glance round any mainstream Michael Jacobs on
publisher's catalogue, or a swift perusal of geography sustainable development
textbooks (including this one, of course!) would prove. Governments often speak of
Sustainability is __2____ quite obviously important, if aiming for sustainable growth';
one measures something's importance by the number of they mean economic growth
people talking about it. What is less clear, __3____, is without inflation rather than
whether anything much lies behind the glittery promise without environmental
of the word. degradation, and the usual
Superficially, the concept of sustainability seems very interpretation of 'sustainable' is
simple, yet it can have a wide range of meanings tasting about four years, or
attached to it. Rio Tinto 7,inc, or Shell, might speak of until the next election,
sustainability in the context of mineral extraction, but whichever is the sooner.
mean something very different to a Friends or the Earth
campaigner or someone from Nigerian Ogontland (see
Fig 1); the Chancellor of the Exchequer might speak (indeed, has spoken) of 'sustainable'
national economic management, __4____ mean something very different to a proponent
of a zero-growth economy.
Both environmentalists and conventional economic and political planners use the word
sustainability to express their own vision of how economy and environment should be
managed.
The word does not end the debate about how society should exploit non-human nature, it
simply re-labels it. Indeed, such is the power of sustainability to allow different ideas to be
smuggled forward in its ample conceptual folds that it effectively delays debate and pushes
it underground. Radical opponents of roads and other infrastructure have literally taken to
the ground (or the trees) in opposition. Their concerns have not been met by the growing
debate about sustainability and transport in the UK. For a single neat word, sustainability

38
 hides a theoretical maze of great complexity. It offers a verbal flourish, __5____ at its core
is a theoretical black hole.
Of course, it is not strictly fair to say that sustainability has
no theoretical core. Its intellectual roots lie in population
biology, ecology and economics. Through the 1920s and
1930s, biologists were developing simple mathematical
models of population growth and competition, from which,
in time, grew the notion of maximum sustainable yield, that
populations of organisms (initially fish, but the point was
generally true) could be harvested at a rate that allowed the
population to reproduce itself.
These scientific ideas about how animal populations
fluctuated, and harvest them, comprise, __6____, one
stream of biological ideas feeding into sustainability. A
second is in ecology, particularly in the concept of the
Figure 1 Ken Saro-Wiwa, ecosystem (proposed in the 1930s), and in ideas about plant
Nigerian Ogontland succession. __7____ ecology became influenced by systems
playwright, killed by the thinking in the 1960s, ideas of equilibrium in ecosystems
Nigerian State in 1996 provided a further natural science basis for ideas of
following protests about sustainability.
environmental pollution and The science of ecology seemed to show __8____ the
the oil industry in the Niger vulnerability of the environment to human impacts, __9____
Delta (much of it led by the need for those impacts to be moderated. Meanwhile,
Shell International). from economics came concepts of renewable (flow) and
non-renewable (stock) resources. These are diverse enough roots, but onto them many other
ideas were grafted from the emerging world view of environmentalism, particularly about
population growth, resource exhaustion __10____ the toxic and shocking effects of
industrialization and urbanization.
From Adams, W.M. (2000) Sustainability

39
 UNIT 9 DESCRIBING PROCESS

Lead-in
1. Work in pairs or groups. Analyze the flowchart below and describe it.

Developing a new project

2. Talk about language and grammar you use to describe a process.

TASK I. Vocabulary
1. Note the prepositions which follow the nouns and verbs in italics. Give your
explanation of these words.

A The next stage/step in the process of data collection was to send out 100
questionnaires.

B The procedure for Experiment was different from that of Experiment A,

C The application of Thoren's method produced some interesting results.

D They studied the behaviour of large corporations during periods of economic crisis.

40
E The team carried out a computer simulation of climate change over the next 30 years.

F Twenty-five subjects were selected from the first group to take part in the second
analysis.

G She designed a course to train students to utilise self-motivation strategies.

H The article sets out to unify some concepts in the theory of economic growth.

I Personal interviews were conducted to supplement the statistical data.

J The experiments were repeated, in order to verify the results observed in the original
data.

K The emergence of nation states changed Europe in the 19th century.

L The paper is a study of water consumption in Brazil during 2000.

M Ratification of the trade agreement took place in 2004. Security of supply is the most
important priority in the gas industry.

2. Fill in the gaps in the table below. Find synonyms to these linking words and phrases to
describe a process. The first is done as an example.

1. Firstly, The first step is

2. First of all,

3. To begin with,

4. ... commences with

5. Before this,

6. Previously,

7. Earlier,

8. During

9. Simultaneously,

10. While

11. Secondly, Thirdly etc

12. The next step is

41
13. In the following stage,

14. Eventually,

15. Lastly

TASK II. Writing

hoose the best word in italics to complete each sentence.

A It is sensible to unify / select / verify your results before publishing them.

B Hip replacement is usually a simple medical application / procedure / behavior.
C Many students supplement / utilise / verify their scholarships by doing some part-time
work,
D A computer stage / procedure / simulation shows what will happen if the ocean current
docs indeed change direction and start flowing from the Arctic to the West Indies.
E As the next step / behavior / application in our study we plan to carry out interviews.
F Her aim is to form / design / function a radically different type of electric engine.

TASK III. Listening

1. Work in pairs or groups. Discuss your experience concerning application process and
getting a job. Analyze the terms below.

selection competitive advantage aims and objectives interview

2. Listen to the recording about the selection process in Scottish Power, a leading
international energy company which is part of the wider Iberdrola Group in the UK.

3. Complete the following chart summarizing the information about the selection
process in Scottish Power:

42
 Step I
__________________________________________

Step II
____________________________________________

Step IIIa Step IIIb

_________________________ __________________________

Step IVa Step IVb

_______________
__________

Step V
_________________

TASK IV. Talking point

Analyze the diagram below. Prepare your description of the process shown in the
picture.

43
 www.careercoachnz.co.nz

44
 UNIT 10 INCORPORATING DATA AND ILLUSTRATIONS

Lead-in

Work in pairs or groups. Answer the following questions from your own
knowledge:
What is data?
Why is data sometimes included in academic texts?

TASK I. Reading
Read the information on the next page, which comes from a text called The facts
about UK travel and tourism. Answer the questions below:
What is the purpose of Figure 1.1?
What is the purpose of Figure 1.2?
What main conclusion can you make from the data in Figure 1.3?
What is the purpose of Table 1.5?
What main conclusions can you draw from the data in Table 1.5?

The development of the Jet Aircraft

The technological advances in aircraft design which resulted from developments
during the Second World War led to air travel becoming a reality for the masses of the
population from the 1950s onwards. The Boeing 707 jet was introduced in 1958 and
led to a surge in scheduled and charter flights, the latter being combined with
accommodation, transfers and courier
services to form the 'package holiday' that
is so familiar to us in the early twenty-first
century (See Figure 1.1).

The Introduction of the package tour

The 1960s saw the beginning of the rapid

increase in the number of package holidays
sold.
Figure1.1.
Destinations such as the coastal areas of Southern Spain, the Balearic Islands and Greece
were favourite locations for British and other European travellers. The convenience of an all-
inclusive arrangement, coupled with the increased speed which the new aircraft brought,
caught the imagination of the British travelling public. The age of mass tourism had truly
arrived.

45
 Travel and Tourism Today
Tourism is now commonly referred to as 'the world's biggest industry'. According to the
World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), in 1990 the industry.
Generated an annual turnover equivalent to 5.9 per cent of the world GNP
Employed 118 million people worldwide
Accounted for over 6.7 per cent of the world's capital investment
Contributed over 5.6 per cent to total tax payments worldwide

Figure 1.2 below shows the growth in travel and tourism gross output (sales generated)
between 1987 and 1993.
The growth in total world tourist arrivals 1970-93 is illustrated in Table 1.5.
Table 1.5 World international tourist arrivals 1970-93 Source; Youeli, R. (1995) Leisure
& Tourism, Longman GNVQ.

Rate of 1981 290.1 0.8

Arrivals
Year growth
(Millions) 1982 289.5 -0.2
(%)
1970 165.8 15.5 1983 292.7 1.1
1971 178.8 7.9 1984 320.2 9.4
1972 189.1 5.7 1985 329.6 2.9
1973 199.9 5.1 1986 340.6 3.3
1974 205.6 3.4 1987 366.7 7.7
1975 222.3 8.1 1988 420.0 9.6
1976 228.8 3.0 1989 431.2 7.3
1977 249.2 8.9 1990 458.4 6.3
1978 267.1 7.1 1991 456.7 -0.4
1979 283.1 6.0 1992 481.8 5.4
1993 500.1 3.9
1980 287.8 1.7

46
 The Trend in Overseas Visitors to Britain
Figure 1.3 shows that, despite the world recession of the early 1980s and the downturn in
the economy in the late 1980s, together with the lingering effects of the Gulf War (1991),
the numbers of overseas visitors to Britain showed healthy growth between 1981 and 1993
(the latest year for which figures are currently available).

TASK II. Vocabulary

1. Look back at the text (task I). Find and highlight the language used in the text to refer
to the figures and tables, e.g. 'See Figure 1.1'.

2. Illustrations (graphs, tables and charts) are used to make a point in reports so they
must be clear, simple and relevant to the objectives of the report. The commentary must
be accurate and varied.

47
Look at the following graph and put one of the numbers next to the given
words.

( ) trough ( ) a gradual fall

( ) erratic movements ( ) a plateau

( ) a gradual rise ( ) to take a plunge

( ) to level off ( ) a steady increase

( ) a dramatic fall ( ) to leap upwards

( ) fluctuations ( ) a decline

( ) to reach a peak ( ) to slump

( ) a sharp recovery

3. Adjectives can be used to describe the degree of change. Work in pairs or groups.
Identify the corresponding adverbs.

A dramatic fall to fall

A sudden decline to decline

A moderate grow to grow

48
 A slight increase to increase ..

A rapid drop to drop

An abrupt rise to rise ..

A gradual decline to decline

A steady recover to recover

Erratic sales to sell ..

A constant levelling off to level off

TASK III. Listening

1. Read the article below about the USA economy. Fill in the gaps using the terms
given above.

US Says Economy Grew 3.5 Percent in Third Quarter

Early estimates show that the United States economy began to __1____ again in July,
August and September. The three-and-a-half percent growth was the first expansion in
more than a year, and the strongest in two years. The government said __2____ in
consumer spending and exports and improvements in business investment led the growth.
So did increased federal spending and housing investments.
But high unemployment could limit growth for some
time.
President Obama had this reaction to Thursday's
report on the gross domestic product -- a wide
measure of goods and services in the economy.
BARACK OBAMA: "This is obviously welcome
news and an affirmation that this __3____ is abating
and the steps we've taken have made a difference. But
I also know that we've got a long way to go to fully
The economy is growing again,
restore our economy and recover from what's been the
but when will jobs follow? Job
longest and deepest __4____ since the Great
seekers attend a jobs fair in
Depression."
Little Rock, Arkansas, Tuesday.
That downturn was partly caused by bankers and
others taking irresponsible risks to earn huge payments. So say their critics. Criticism of
Wall Street pay is nothing new. But never before has the government used hundreds of
billions of dollars to rescue companies that made risky investments.
In June, the Obama administration appointed lawyer Kenneth Feinberg as the "special
master" on executive pay -- also known as the pay czar. Congress gave him power over
compensation of the twenty-five highest-paid employees at seven companies most
indebted to taxpayers. This week, he gave lawmakers a progress report.
KENNETH FEINBERG: "We greatly reduced the amount of cash that would be made
available to these senior officials. We __5____ that cash by approximately ninety
percent."

49
 The seven companies are in the financial and auto industries. Now Kenneth Feinberg
must consider their next seventy-five highest paid officials.
But some management experts warn that __6____ pay could make it harder for taxpayers
to get their money back. Edward Lawler at the University of Southern California says
these companies may now have difficulty getting and keeping high-quality employees.
But he agrees that in recent years, many companies have tied pay to short-term
performance, instead of their long-term health. He also says boards of directors need to do
more to control pay.
EDWARD LAWLER: "We could have boards that do a much better job of designing
compensation plans. If we had good boards, I think they could certainly do a better job of
that than the government can."
Last week, the Federal Reserve proposed to examine pay policies at thousands of banks.
The central bank would reject policies that it thought might cause bankers to take too
much risk.

2. Listen to the economics report and check your answers.

50
 UNIT 11 ARGUING AND DISCUSSING

Lead-in
Look at the spidergram below. Work in pairs or groups. Give your associations with
the words arguments and discussion.

arguing/discussing

TASK II. Reading

1. Read the text below about the main methods of presenting an argument.

In academic life, arguing and discussing is often part of a larger part of writing or
speaking. In arguing and discussing, you are expected to present two or more points of
view and discuss the positive and negative aspects of each case. On the basis of your
discussion, you can then choose one point of view and persuade your readers that you are
correct. This means giving your opinions (positive and negative) on the work of others and
your own opinions based on what you have learned. You need to evaluate arguments,
weigh evidence and develop a set of standards on which to base your conclusion.
As always, all your opinions must be supported - you should produce your evidence and
explain why this evidence supports your point of view. It is important to distinguish
between your claim (proposition, thesis) - your point of view, what you believe; your
evidence (support or grounds) - the facts, data and examples that support your point of
view - and your reasons (warrant or argument) - why you believe what you do, how the
evidence you have provided leads to the claim your are making. There are two main

51
methods of presenting an argument, and in general the one you choose will depend on
exactly how the essay title is worded.
The balanced view
In this case you present both sides of an argument,
without necessarily committing yourself to any opinions,
which should always be based on evidence, until the final
paragraph. At its simplest your essay plan will be as
follows. First you need to introduce the argument to the
reader, e.g. why it is a particularly relevant topic
nowadays or refer directly to some comments that have
been voiced on it recently. After that be ready to give
reasons against the argument and state your position,
evidence and the reasons. The next step is to give reasons
in favor of the argument affirming the position, the
evidence and the reasons as well. After summarizing the
two sides, state your own point of view, and explain why you think as you do.
The persuasive essay
This second type of argumentative essay involves stating your own point of view
immediately, and trying to convince the reader by reasoned argument that you are right.
The form of the essay will be, in outline, as follows. To commence with, introduce the
topic briefly in general terms, and then state your own point of view. Explain what you
plan to prove in the essay. Afterwards you should give your reasons against and for the
argument with evidence, reasons and examples. Dispose briefly of the main objections to
your case. In conclusion do not repeat your opinion again. End your essay with something
memorable e.g. a quotation or a direct question.

2. Summarize the information in the text and complete the chart below.

52
TASK III. Vocabulary

1. Look through the phrases below. Decide which word comes next in these phrases.
A the pros and ................. E that's all very well ..................
B at the same ............ ..... F the extent to. __ ...........
C and so on and so .. .............. G in addition .............................. .......
D having said ................. H as well...................

2. Use phrases from the box to replace phrases from the paragraph with the same
meaning.

nevertheless the degree as well as provided that

advantages and disadvantages for instance furthermore

There are a number of pros and cons to take into account when considering the purchase of a
hybrid (gasoline-electric) car. Such cars are, for example, undoubtedly better for the
environment in the sense that they cause less air pollution. Moreover, the extent to which
they rely on oil, a natural resource which is rapidly becoming depleted, is much less than is the
case with conventional cars. Nonetheless, hybrid cars are not without their problems. Cost
may be an issue and also the technical complexity of this relatively new type of engine. As
long as you take these factors into account, there is no reason net to buy a hybrid car.

TASK IV. Video watching

1. Work in pairs or groups. Talk about the reasons why financial crisis affected small
business entrepreneurs so much. Make a list of the reasons you make.

2. Match the words with their definitions.

1 realign (v) A something hazarded or risked in an adventure; stake

2 venture (adj) B to remove or take out; get rid of

3 mainstreet (n) C to support or assist

4 back up (v) D to assign or allot for a particular purpose

5 eliminate (v) E to encourage, assist, or improve

53
 6 allocate (v) F to change or put back to a new or former place or
position

7 boost (v) G the practice of a politician walking about the streets

of a town or city to gain votes and greet supporters

3. Watch the video report that focuses on the worlds of America small business
entrepreneurs. Summarize the information in the report according to the scheme given
in TASK II (2).

TASK V. Talking point

You and your colleagues are stuck in the office lift on the top floor of the building; the
emergency alarm doesnt work, and there is no signal for your mobile phones. Its
Friday evening, and nobody will come to the office before Monday morning. Have a
nice weekend!

1.You can have only eight of the objects below to help you survive the weekend decide
together which eight objects you will choose.

a giant 1kg packet of potato a telephone directory

crisps a packet of dried milk
a large pot of cold coffee a pair of scissors
a bottle of cheap white wine a CD player with a Frank Sinatra
from last years office party CD
some balloons, also left over a first-aid kit
from the office party a cigarette lighter

54
 a laptop computer a roll of adhesive tape
a lab coat a spare battery for the laptop
a pencil

2. Choose a ninth object to help you survive the weekend but everyone in the group
must agree.

55
 UNIT 12 PREPARING AND PRESENTING A SEMINAR PAPER

Lead-in
Work in pairs or groups. Make a list of useful tips to prepare and present your
seminar or conference paper. Compare your results with the results of other pairs or
groups.

TASK I. Reading
Read the article about the main steps of preparing a seminar or conference paper
described by David Kahane. Decide which part of the article each of the titles below
refers to.

A Keep in mind that it's harder to follow a paper you're listening to than one you're
reading

B Format your paper so that you'll be engaged with your audience as you read

C Rehearse

D Motivate your paper

E Be realistic about how long it'll take you to say things

F Don't try to say too much!

Preparing a seminar or conference paper

In the following advice, I'm imagining that you have a paper that you've written, and now
are figuring how to convert it into an oral presentation. Much of the following will apply
as well if you're writing an oral presentation from scratch....
1. _____________________________________________
You have a fixed amount of time in which to speak, and it's probably not a whole lot. So
get a reliable indication of how long you'll have to speak (not including discussion time, of
course), and then be brutal with yourself in curtailing how much you're going to try and
get across. It'll be helpful to read a page of your paper aloud at a calm pace, to see how
many pages you'll be able to get through. Keep in mind that it's much better to convey a
simple argument clearly and calmly than to try and race through too much, too quickly.
2. _____________________________________________

56
 Practice your paper. Read it aloud (preferably to some kind friends). See how long it
takes. Your listeners and co-panelists will like and admire you if you actually finish within
the allotted time; they may get very grumpy if you go over.
3. _____________________________________________
If you're reading a paper on a page, you can set the pace, go back to clarify things for
yourself, number things in the margin, and so on. If you're listening to a paper, you're at
the mercy of the paper reader's pace, signposting, etc. So when you prepare your paper for
delivery, have your audience in mind: prefigure your argument, number your points, and
offer other signposts so that people can follow you. And, as mentioned in above, err on the
side of simplicity.
4. _____________________________________________
In most paper-giving contexts, it's a mistake to assume that everyone in the room knows a
lot about your subfield, and/or has a prior interest in your topic. So before you launch into
your painstaking dissection some bit of Quine or Aristotle or Arendt, take a minute to
situate your paper, to say why this issue matters, and why you care about it. This'll do
wonders in bringing your audience on side.
5. _____________________________________________
I'm flabbergasted when I see someone reading a paper from single-spaced, 11-point font:
if your paper's in this form, you're condemned to squinting at the page to get through it.
Your life will be much easier if you use 1.5 spacing and make the font big 14-16 point
so that you can glance up and then find you place again. I'd also encourage you to look
at the language of your paper. Long, multi-clause sentences with big words may be OK for
someone reading on a page, but they're hard to listen to and follow. So go through your
paper and make sure the language is conversational and the sentences short. Finally,
experiment with moving from full sentences and paragraphs to something in point form.
See if you can be comfortable conveying your paper in the allotted time without reading
every word off the page. If you can manage this, it will free you up to look at your
audience and speak more naturally.
6. _____________________________________________
I said this already, but it's worth saying again. Don't let your presentation to your
conference/colloquium/job talk audience be the first time you're presenting your paper
aloud. Do it a few times in advance. Get comfortable with it. You'll find that as you read
your paper out, you'll discover things that can be made simpler and clearer; phrasings that
don't work so well aloud because they're too complicated; and so on. You may also realize
that the paper's too long, and can then save yourself the nightmare of having to abbreviate
it on the fly. Best of all is reading the paper aloud to other people. They can help you to
see how it can be made clearer and more user-friendly.
From www.uofaweb.ualberta.ca

TASK II. Talking point

Work in pairs or groups. Talk about all the possible ways of raising finance to start up
a new business listing their advantages and disadvantages. Compare your results with
the other pairs or groups.

TASK III. Listening

1. Read the article about financing a new business. Find proper synonyms to the words
in italics.

57
 Financing a new business
Some new businesses need little start-up capital. An online retail business like T&T
Vision does not need substantial funds to buy premises or a large selection of stock for
display.
Other types of business require significant finance for premises, equipment and stock
before they can start trading.
The owners of any new business, whether sole trader, the partners in a partnership or the
shareholders in a limited company will be expected to give some capital. However, there
are other sources of business finance available to meet day-to-day expenses or to buy
more expensive capital things:
An overdraft. This arrangement, agreed in advance with a bank, lets a business to spend
more than the funds available in its account up to an agreed limit. The business can dip
into this pot as and when it needs to, for example, to pay a pressing bill. The flexibility
of an overdraft means the business can pay the bill immediately and the overdraft is
automatically repaid once sufficient funds are deposited in the business account.
However, a business pays interest on the amount it owes. Interest rates on overdrafts can
be higher than on other, less flexible, ways of borrowing.
A business credit card enables a business to borrow flexible amounts quickly and for a
short period of time. Banks will usually place tight limits on the amount that a new
business can borrow on a credit card. If the amount borrowed is paid back in full at the
end of each month, the business does not pay any interest. However, interest is charged on
any left over balance until the amount is repaid. Like overdrafts, these interest rates can be
higher than other ways of borrowing because of the flexibility of the arrangement.
A bank loan. Most banks offer bank loans for business. They are useful for borrowing
larger amounts, for example, to pay for set-up or expansion costs. Barclays loan for
Business is for businesses wishing to borrow
between .1,000 and .1,000,000. The loan can be
for up to 20 years and is repaid through regular
repayments including interest. The advantage of
this type of arrangement is that a business can
borrow a larger sum of money. Also businesses
can choose fixed interest rates so that repayments
are the same every month. The business owner
can also request a two-year capital repayment
holiday with Barclays where they just pay the
interest. For loans up to .25,000 they can even
request a whole repayment holiday where they
pay nothing for six months before beginning to
make repayments. Both of these repayment
holiday options help cash flow. As with any loan, the business owners are liable for the
debt if the business cannot make the repayments.
Other financing options from banks, such as commercial mortgages, are used to help
purchase business premises. The premises will be used as security for the loan and if there
is sufficient equity in the property (the difference between the mortgage value and what
the property is worth) then the business can often top up the commercial mortgage to free
cash for other business purposes. Financial help may also be available from government
agencies and charities such as The Princes Trust. Many people seek these sources of
loans and grants and the business may have to meet conditions. For example, it may have

58
to be located in an area of economic deprivation or the owner may have to be under a
certain age. One avenue not usually open to business start-ups is venture capital. As the
television programme Dragons Den shows, venture capitalists put money into an
enterprise in exchange for a share of the business. They would always expect to see some
evidence of business success before investing.
A new business is also likely to need financial advice. Banks make out that a business has
different needs to that of an employed person who has regular pay coming into a bank
account:
A business needs a means of handling payments from its customers, of making
payments to its suppliers and of managing its cash flow.
For new business start-ups, Barclays offers free banking services (for at least twelve
months) plus the hold up of a local business manager and other experts. Through its Local
Business brand, it aims to provide support to help businesses prosper in their first trading
months and years.
www.barclays.co.uk/business

2. Listen to the recording and check your answers.

TASK IV. Writing

Prepare your summary of the article above. Make it exactly 60 words.

TASK V. Talking point

Make a short report using your summary. Then exchange your works with your
partners and analyze them using the tips from TASK I and the criteria given below.

1. Your speaking style should be less formal and more personal than the written style.
This style will be much easier to achieve if you speak from notes rather tan reading a
prepared talk.
2. Read your paper carefully and make notes.
3. Concentrate only on the main points.
4. Make your notes logically connected with each other.
5. Write out your notes so you can use them easily. Use large writing, bold headings
and colors, clear indentations, highlighting, bullet points and numbering.
6. In the presentation, speak from the outline notes. But bring your original paper to
the meeting, in case it is needed. Do not read your original paper directly.
7. Hold your notes in one hand at between waist and shoulder level, where they can
be seen easily.
8. First look at your notes and read the appropriate part silently. Remember one
important idea.
9. Never speak while you are still reading. You lose eye-contact and natural speech
rhythms.
10. While you look at your audience, try to judge what they are thinking. Are they
following you?
11. Make sure your timing is right.

59
 UNIT 13 WORKING IN GROUPS

Lead-in
In nearly every discipline in the University you will encounter group assignments.
Generally this is a compulsory part of your course. Students who are not used to this
approach sometimes feel anxious about managing the group work process, and
indeed, it is often difficult to keep a team together.

Work in pairs or groups. Discuss the following points. Suggest more points to the lists
below.

A. Successful group work requires the following attributes:

tolerance
consultation
inclusivity
assertiveness
sensitivity to other cultures and values
...
B. Group assignments are set to prepare you for your professional future, to give you a
chance to tackle significant projects, and to enable you to demonstrate teamwork skills.
For a group assignment to work well, you will need to:
get to know each other
know how to get in contact with each other
make sure that everyone in the team knows what is going on
establish clear goals from the outset
work out your time frame
...
C. Common problems that occur in group assignments:
Misunderstandings about responsibilities
(Perceived) lack of commitment in some group members
Personality clashes
One person doing all the work
...

TASK I. Reading
Read the information about the team role profiles suggested by Meredith R. Belbin
(1993, 2004). Try to find one that fits you well.

M. Belbin analyzed successful teams in business and came to the conclusion that
successful teams contained the following roles:
Implementer (IMP)

60
 Implementers are hard working, practical people. They make ideas and plans work in
practice. They see what needs to be done and what will probably work in the future and
they do it. They are well organized and efficient in carrying out the plans of the group.
Co-ordinator (CO)
Co-ordinators are the organizers of the teams. They control the way in which a team
reaches its objectives. They are very good at making the best use of the resources of the
team. They clearly see what each group member can contribute and ensure that the best
use is made of each team member's potential.
They encourage people to talk when they have something valuable to contribute. They are
interested in all the views of the team but they see where the strengths and weaknesses of
the teams lie and so easily make up their minds. They persuade people to agree.
Shaper (SH)
Shapers take the lead in shaping the way in which the team effort is applied. They focus
the attention of the team on the setting of objectives and priorities and make sure that no
time is wasted. They are therefore impatient with those who obstruct the progress of the
group. They want to impose some shape or pattern on the group discussion and on the
outcome of the group activities. They are often seen as forceful and authoritative when
they challenge the views of others.
Plant (PL)
Plants are the creative members of the group. They introduce new ideas and strategies to
the discussion, especially regarding important issues. They may not be clear on minor
points and may not follow the argument well. They are sometimes poor at explaining and
clarifying their ideas to others and may get frustrated when this happens.
Resource Investigator (RI)
Resource investigators explore and report on new ideas, developments and resources from
inside or outside the group. They create external contacts that may be useful to the team
and conduct negotiations. They talk a lot and open up the discussion. They respond to
challenges but they may get bored easily.
Monitor-Evaluator (ME)
Monitor-evaluators are logical thinkers. They analyze problems and evaluate ideas and
suggestions. They enjoy comparing different points of view and therefore help the team to
make balanced decisions. They offer alternative suggestions and can give good reasons for
these alternatives, but they can be too critical.
Teamworker (TW)
Teamworkers are good at listening and give support to the other members of the group.
For example, they may support good suggestions, help members to support their ideas,
improve communication between members and help the group to work well together in
general. They find it difficult to lead from the front. They are not very good at defending
their own opinions and can be easily influenced by others.
Completer-Finisher (CF)
Completer-Finishers ensure that the team is protected from mistakes. They pay attention
to suggestions that do not work and make sure that the team does not omit something
important. They actively search for aspects of work that need more attention than usual.
They also maintain a sense of urgency within the team and make sure that the team does
not fall behind schedule and finishes on time. They like things done properly and worry
over detail and therefore prevent careless mistakes.
Specialist (SP)

61
 Specialists have the important specialist knowledge. They are single-minded and
dedicated. They provide the knowledge and skills which are in short supply. However they
can only contribute in a narrow way, may spend too much time on technical matters and
might not see the overall picture.
These roles can be divided into three main groups:
those roles concerned with action - Shaper, Implementer, and Completer
Finisher
those more related to people - Co-ordinator, Teamworker and Resource
Investigator
and the roles that involve use of the brain - Plant, Monitor Evaluator and
Specialist.

TASK II. Discussion

Work in groups, discuss how mobile people are in your country is it difficult to move
people to a new site several hundred kilometres away? Why / Why not?

TASK III. Reading

1. Read the background information about Autoplastica. Why is Research and
Development (R&D) so important? Why is Autoplasticas current R&D organisation
unsatisfactory?

Autoplastica was founded in 1952 in a garage in Biella, a small town in the hills of
northern Italy.
Today, the company has sixteen plants
and 3,000 employees in nine countries
and produces plastic parts for car
manufacturers all over the world.
Because the automobile sector is fast-
moving, highly competitive and
vertechnical, Autoplastica spends seven
and a half per cent of its revenue on
Research and Development.
Autoplastica has a difficult decision to
make. Currently its 400 Research and
Development staff are divided between
three teams on three different sites:
Rome, the administrative headquarters
Bari, the largest production site
Biella, the oldest site, between Turin
and Milan
There are many advantages in centralizing R&D but where?
There are also significant disadvantages to consider.

2. Work in groups of four. You are going to take part in a meeting to decide which
solution to choose. Each take a role: A, B, C or D.

62
A Head of R&D, Bari
(31 years with Autoplastica)
You are completely hostile to the idea of
centralization. The present system works
perfectly well, why change it? You are
worried that you could lose your job if
R&D is centralized. Although you are the
most experienced head of R&D, your age
could be a problem.
You have a nice house by the sea near
Bari, your teenage children go to a good
school and your partner works for the
town council. You cannot imagine
moving away from Bari and you are sure
most of your best engineers will have the
same reaction.
C Head of R&D, Biella
(15 years with Autoplastica)
You believe that centralization is
essential for the future of the company.
You are strongly in favor of a new
purpose-built R&D facility and you think
you have a good chance of becoming the
director of the new centre.
You have a house in Biella, but you are
getting divorced so you want to move.
Your new partner lives near Milan, so
you would like the new site to be there.
You believe it will be easier to recruit
good young engineers in the industrial
north than in Bari or Rome. However, if
you are the new centre director, you are
ready to negotiate.
3. With a similar choice to make, the French company Plastic Omnium decided to build
a new 20 million-euros R&D centre on a green-field site close to Lyon airport. Read the
article. Do you think the company made the right decision?
B Head of R&D, Rome
(3 years with Autoplastica)
You are prepared to move, but only to a
major city you like city life and you hate
the country. You are not married and its
easier to meet people in a big city. You are
younger and have less experience than the
other heads of R&D you are worried that
you will have less influence in a centralized
organization. However, if the other heads
of R&D leave the company, it could be an
opportunity for promotion for you.
D International Director of R&D
(2 years with Autoplastica)
Centralizing R&D is your top priority. It is
your job to chair the meeting and to make
sure that everyone understands all the
arguments and expresses their opinions.
Above all, you want to obtain agreement
between your three heads of R&D on how
and where to centralize. Your office is in
Rome. You will need to visit the new
centre frequently, so good communications
and easy access are essential for you, but it
is important that you appear completely
objective. You have not yet decided who
will be the new centre director.
63
In 2002, Plastic Omnium opened Sigmatech, its new international research and
development centre near Lyon. The 15,000-square-metre, 20 million-euro site houses
engineering and design offices as well as state-of- the-art laboratories. Sigmatech is
located on a Greenfield site close to
Lyons international airport and high
speed train station, just a few miles from
Frances densest motorway network.
R&D teams moved from Oyonnax,
Langres and Levallois to the new site,
which offers 450 staff and their families
easy access to Frances second city as
well as excellent quality of life in the
surrounding countryside.

TASK III. Listening

Listen to the conversation between two managers talking about starting-up a new
company.

1. Look through the terms in the box below and explain them.

Labor costs Fraction of the cost World class

Initial capital Angel investors Strike while the iron is

hot
Conservative estimate Peaked my curiosity Outsourcing

2. Listen to the 1 part of the conversation and check your answers.

3. Listen to the 2 part of the conversation and express your view upon the subject of
starting up a new company. Compare your answers in pairs or groups.

64
 UNIT 14 PREPARING A PRESENTATION

Lead-in
Work in pairs or groups. What makes a good presentation? List all the things you
think make a good presentation. Compare your list with the other groups. Use the
rhyme below to help you.

Want to have fun, Be Child - like,

If you want to learn, Be Child - like.

Don't try to win, just have fun,

Dont keep score, just enjoy the run.

Serious is boring, Ego is sin,

A touch of humor, will always win.

Create suspense, Show some style,

Do some magic, make us smile.

Walk with power, Smile and Calm,

Let your hand flow, with open palm.

Whatever you aim, the God will grant,

You should be clear, in what you want.

What you speak, definitely rate,

How you speak, can make you great.

If time is must, prepare in blocks,

Add or delete, to beat the clocks.

Dont quote books, don't talk theory,

To make them move, tell a true story.

Eye-Contact is an excellent art,

Use it and reach to every heart.

Speak with love, speak with tact,

Speak from heart, it will have impact.

Leave the cage, go fly high,

It's your day, touch the sky.
www.angelfire.com/ab/speakers/song.htm

65
TASK I. Listening
1. Introduction

Imagine that you are starting a presentation. What phrases might you use? Choose
phrases in the box below.

Now listen to two ways of opening presentations. As you listen, see if you can hear
some of the phrases above.

2. Main body
Decide what phrases might you use to draw your audiences attention to these slides.

Now listen to two examples of people giving presentations. As you listen, see if you can
hear some of the phrases above.

3. Questions
Imagine it is the end of your presentation and you are asking if there are any questions.
Make a list of phrases might you use or hear.

66
 .
.

Now listen to someone asking if there are any questions. As you listen, try to hear some
of the specific phrases.

TASK II. Reading

Read the article written by Randall P. Whatley, President of Cypress Media Group,
about types of presentations. Choose from the list A-D the heading which best suits each
part of the article. Explain your choice.

Types of Presentations

A Persuasive
B Decision-making
C Arousing
D Instructional

1. _______________________________________________
Your purpose is to give specific directions or orders. Your presentation will probably be a
bit longer, because it has to cover your topic thoroughly. In an instructional presentation,
your listeners should come away with new knowledge or a new skill. Explain why the
information or skill is valuable to the audience Explain the learning objectives of the
instructional program. Demonstrate the process if it involves something in which the
audience will later participate using the following method. Demonstrate it first without
comment. Demonstrate it again with a brief explanation. Demonstrate it a third time, step-
by-step, with an explanation
2. _______________________________________________
Your purpose is to make people think about a certain problem or situation. You want to
arouse the audience's emotions and intellect so that they will be receptive to your point of
view. Use vivid language in an arousing presentation-- project sincerity and enthusiasm.
Gain attention with a story that illustrates (and sometimes exaggerates) the problem. Show
the need to solve the problem and illustrate it with an example that is general or
commonplace. Describe your solution for a satisfactory resolution to the problem.
Compare/contrast the two worlds with the problem solved and unsolved. Call the audience
to action to help solve the problem. Give the audience a directive that is clear, easy, and
immediate
3. _______________________________________________
Your purpose is to convince your listeners to accept your proposal. A convincing
persuasive presentation offers a solution to a controversy, dispute, or problem. To succeed
with a persuasive presentation, you must present sufficient logic, evidence, and emotion to
sway the audience to your viewpoint. Create a great introduction because a persuasive
presentation introduction must accomplish the following:
Seize the audience's attention
Disclose the problem or needs that your product or service will satisfy

67
 Tantalize the audience by describing the advantages of solving the problem or
need
Create a desire for the audience to agree with you by describing exactly how
your product or service with fill their real needs
Close your persuasive presentation with a call to action
Ask for the order
Ask for the decision that you want to be made
Ask for the course of action that you want to be followed
4. _______________________________________________
Your purpose is to move your audience to take your suggested action. A decision-making
presentation presents ideas, suggestions, and arguments strongly enough to persuade an
audience to carry out your requests. In a decision-making presentation, you must tell the
audience what to do and how to do it. You should also let them know what will happen if
the don't do what you ask. Gain attention with a story that illustrates the problem. Show
the need to solve the problem and illustrate it with an example that is general or
commonplace. Describe your solution to bring a satisfactory resolution to the problem.
Compare/contrast the two worlds with the problem solved and unsolved. Call the audience
to action to help solve the problem and give them a way to be part of the solution.

TASK III. Listening

Listen to an extract from an Export Department meeting at Helsingor Foods, a Danish
ice-cream producer. Catalina (Cati) is giving a presentation to her manager, Nils, and
to Paul and Tanya, European sales managers based in London.

1 Work in pairs or groups, before you listen, discuss: What do you imagine are the
opportunities and dangers for a company trying to break into the ice-cream market in a
different country?

2. Listen and complete these notes with up to three words in each gap.

................... Total 1 last year. 23 billion yuan (

2.3 bn) and 2 of 10% p.a.
Five companies have 57% of 3 (30%
foreign companies, 27% national companies).
Average of 4 ice-cream: 1 liter per capita
(companies with 23 liters in the USA)
Largest national producer, Yili, says it plans to
- increase 5
- reduce 6
- tailor products to 7
to capture market share, all companies have
been involved in a 8
main products cost 1-2 yuan (10-20 cents)

68
 3. Complete these charts by labeling the gaps (1 -5) with information from the notes
in TASK III.2.

Chart 2 - China: 5 ..

4. Decide whether these statements about Catalina's presentation are true or false and
say why. (You can look at the transcript for track 15 at the back of the book.)

A. She starts her presentation with a brief introduction.

B. She speaks in a quite formal style.
C. She uses formal vocabulary.
D. At the end of her talk, she offers conclusions.
E. She structures her talk, so we know where she has reached in her presentation.
F. She makes clear which part of Paul's question she's answering.

TASK IV. Video watching

Watch a video episode that contrasts 2 presentations on a new hybrid car.

1. Before you watch, look at the slides below. Make your slide analysis. Compare your
solutions in a group.

69
 Presentation 1 Presentation 2
1

70
4

2. Watch the video and decide which presentation is more effective and why.

TASK V. Talking point

1. Work in a group. Read about the competition and decide:
what project would best suit the building.
what employees need and how your idea would benefit them.
what is required to make your project succeed, e.g. staff, finance, building work,
facilities and equipment.

The company you work for has decided to create a new centre for its employees. (It could
be a centre for sport, learning and personal development, relaxation, etc.) They are
inviting people to submit projects and a committee will choose the winner.
The company is offering a grant of 1.5m euros for the project and the centre will be
located in the building where you are now.

2. Draw a simple floor plan of the employees centre and label the rooms and areas.

3. Now prepare a short presentation to persuade the committee to adopt your project.
Each member of the team should present one aspect of the project. Try to create
maximum impact using pauses, repetition and rhetorical questions, and prepare visual
aids to help you get your message across.

71
4. Use the Performance Evaluation Sheet below to analyze and assess other groups
presentation.

72
 UNIT 15. PUBLIC SPEAKING. INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Lead-in
Many books about multicultural management suggest that the world can be divided
into three geographical groups:
1 North America; 2 Europe, Latin America, Middle East; 3 Japan, China, East Asia

Try to match the groups to the descriptions below. Write the number 13 in the box.

Company values
a Group harmony, long-term
relationships, loyalty, company
reputation.
b Trust between individuals,
compromise, personal reputation. People
work to live.
c Competition between individuals,
achievement, action, risk-taking,
directness, informality, innovation.
People live to work.
Meetings
a Objective is to gather information.
Communication style is often
monologue pause monologue rather
than dialogue.
Arguments are often indirect, and there
are no sudden changes of viewpoint in
meetings.
Decisions are made by group consensus
over a long time period.
b Objective is to make a deal or
decision.
Communication style is direct, factual,
informal and at times confrontational.
Decisions are based on facts, and are
often made instantly in the meeting.
c Objective is to establish relationships,
build understanding, clarify, and issue
Business relationships
a Friendly and informal, but a continuing
personal relationship is not so important.
Much business is done over the phone.
b Done on a group basis, although
relationships based on mutual respect are
important. There is an older authority figure
who rarely appears but has power.
c Personal relationships are very important.
Some time is needed to build trust before
business can begin. Preference for doing
business face to face.
Presentations
a Complicated language may be used to
show education. Audience expects formality
and a logical structure, but a touch of
imagination is also appreciated. May want a
more personal extra talk afterwards where
you tell them the truth.
b Indirect, conservative language.
Audience appreciates a quiet, formal
presentation with visual aids and lots of
opportunity to ask questions and check
understanding. They expect separate
handouts, prepared for different people, by
job function.
c Direct, simple language. Audience
expects jokes, modernity, logic, slogans,
informality and a hard sell. Audience may
ask questions or interrupt while someone is

73
instructions. speaking, and will
Communication style depends on openly question inconsistent facts.
national culture. Decisions are made by
key individuals, outside the meeting.

Work in pairs or groups. Discuss the questions below:

Did you get the same answers as other people? If you did, does it mean the
differences are real?
Does your own country match the description of its particular group? How is it
different?
How do individual countries in your geographical group differ from each
other?
In which ways is globalization making business more similar, reducing cultural
differences? Which cultural
differences remain strong, resisting the effects of globalization?
Is globalization just a polite way of saying Americanization?

TASK I. Talking point

1. Work in pairs. Decide if each piece of advice below is:
A) Probably a good idea in all countries
B) Usually a good idea in my country, but maybe not a good idea in some others
C) Not a good idea in my country, but probably a good idea in some others
D) Not a good idea in any country

You should start the presentation at the set time, even if some people still
havent arrived
If someone comes in late, my suggestion is to stop your presentation until they
have sat down
You should leave at least half an hour at the end of the presentation free
because there will be lots of questions
I recommend telling people to keep all questions until the end because
otherwise you will never finish your presentation
Its best to make eye contact with the audience as you speak to them
Its generally a good idea to pause after each section and check if everybody
understood
I would advise you to tell as many jokes as possible to keep people interested
If there is silence from the audience, I would suggest asking them if everything
is okay
When you want to show you are really getting serious, my advice would be to
take off your jacket and roll up your shirt sleeves
If I were you, Id finish at the set time even if there are still questions from the
audience
If I was in your place, Id watch peoples body language carefully and be
worried if people cross their arms
Whatever you do, smile all the time

74
 Why dont you give the presenter a round of applause when they finish the
presentation? In my opinion, its the most polite thing to do.
You could try writing all measurements in metres and feet so that everyone in
the audience can understand.
Make sure you aim your talk at the most important person in the room.
One idea is to write your presentation out in full and then just read it out to
your audience

2. Work in pairs or groups, take turns telling other students which option you chose
and why for one of the sentences above. The other people should guess which sentence
you are talking about and discuss if they agree and why.
Find language of advice in the sentences above (e.g. You should)

TASK II. Reading

Read the text below about some useful tips for speaking to foreign audiences.
Make a list of tips for foreign public speakers coming to Russia.

Public Speaking: focusing on humor

Public speaking audiences are becoming more and more diverse. It is your responsibility
as a public speaker to be aware of and acknowledge significant portions of the audience
that come from differing backgrounds. The response to humor is quite different for
different cultures.
When speaking to foreign audiences you must
check your humor carefully so you don't
accidentally offend someone. In some countries
you may hear people openly joking on
television or in public about subjects that would
be taboo in your home country. That doesn't
mean you can attempt to joke about the same
subjects in your presentation.
Even if your speaking humor is OK, you need
to become familiar with other customs in the
country in which you are speaking. Customs are
quite different around the world. It is easy to
make mistakes when you are in a totally new environment. You'll never get the audience
to laugh if you accidentally do something offensive.
Here's just a few serious mistakes that could easily be made during a speaking
engagement that would offend:
1. In Columbia if you wanted to show the height of an animal you would hold your arm
out palm down and raise it to the appropriate height. If you are trying to show the height
of a person, you do the same thing, but your palm is on edge. So, if you meant to show the
height of a person, but you did it palm down, you would have either insulted the person by
treating he or she like an animal or you would have confused your audience because they
would now think that you were actually talking about an animal that had the name of a
person. See how crazy this can get.
2. In Hong Kong, Indonesia and Australia you would never beckon someone by putting
your hand out and curling your index finger back and forth (like you might do to coax

75
someone on stage with you). This gesture is used to call animals and/or ladies of the night
and would be offensive to your audience.
3. In Latin American and the Middle East people stand much closer while conversing. If
you were interacting with a person from one of these cultures during a public speaking
engagement and you backed away to keep a normal U.S. personal space, you would be
sending a very unfriendly message. Asians, however typically stand farther apart. Your
understanding of this will keep you from chasing them all over the stage. Keep this in
mind too if you go into the audience to interact with them. Since they are seated, you
control the interpersonal space.
Sometimes your mistakes are funny. Hermine Hilton, the well known memory expert in
the USA, tells of a speaking engagement in Nigeria where she tried to pronounce the
names of members of the audience and innocently added sexual innuendo. She said
everyone was falling on the floor with laughter. Most foreign audiences do appreciate
your effort to speak their language.
Here's a few more international public speaking tips:
1. You might think you are putting your audience to sleep in Japan, but don't worry. In
Japan it is common to show concentration and attentiveness in public by closing the eyes
and nodding the head up and down slightly. -- Then again, maybe you really are boring.
2. Applause is accepted as a form of approval in most areas of the world. In the United
States the applause is sometimes accompanied by whistling. If you hear whistles in many
parts of Europe, you better run because it is a signal of disapproval.
3. If you were finishing a speaking engagement in Argentina and you waved goodbye, the
members of the audience might all turn around and come back to sit down. To them the
wave means, 'Hey! Come back.' In other parts of Latin American and in Europe the same
wave means 'no.'
Words
Terminology is different in most areas of the world even if the country is English based.
Highly tested humor that would work anywhere in the U.S. may fall flat in another
country simply because the audience doesn't understand one of the words. For example, in
Australia, public speaking break out sessions are called syndicates. If you were making a
joke that used the word syndicate, you may totally confuse the audience and they won't
laugh. People from most other countries will not relate easily if you mention miles per
gallon or miles per hour. You should avoid speaking about seasons, sports figures or
celebrities that don't have world-wide name recognition. Rethink all humor you normally
use and try to find problematic words. This is difficult to do by yourself. Try to find a
person familiar with the local culture to help you.
When using translators, humor is tougher because timing and word play don't translate
well. You might have to slow down considerably because of interpretation. Some speakers
use half sentences to keep up the pace. This is very difficult and requires practice.
Even when the audience speaks English they may not be able to understand your accent.
Check with locals to see if you can be easily understood. You may have to adjust your
normal delivery and rate of pitch slightly.
Art Gliner, a long- time humor trainer, gave me this tip: He learns how to say Happy New
Year in the different languages represented in his audience. That technique always gets a
laugh and the further away it is from New Years, the better. He also tells me a word of
welcome in the native language works well too.
A few additional tips from around the world:

76
 * In general, Asians tend not to show excitement. Thais are an exception. They want to
have fun while they learn. Be sure to take lots of small gifts to give out and be prepared to
receive some too.
* Do not expect standing ovations when speaking in public in Australia. It doesn't seem to
be part of their culture.
* South of the border people don't like us to refer to ourselves as Americans. We must
remember that we are not the only ones. There are North Americans, Central Americans
and South Americans.
* In Japan you should never use self-effacing humor during your public speaking
engagement which is well received in American culture. Actually, the Japanese don't like
humor in seminars at all. Conversely, Australians love humor.
The point is that every culture has its likes and dislikes when it comes to humor. They
also have customs that can be very different from our own. Your knowledge in this area
will help you create a connection with your international audience. You must do your
homework, but it is worth it because a laugh sounds the same and produces the same good
feelings in any language.

77
 APPENDIX

USEFUL PHRASES AND VOCABULARY

PRESENTATION PHRASES

Challenging
Well . maybe . possibly .
Yes, but don't you think .?
I can see your point, but ..
I think that's debatable.
Perhaps, but don't you think that ..
I see what you mean but ..
I agree to some extent, but ....
I see what you mean, but ..
But isn't it really a question of ..
I tend to think ....
I don't think I'd say that.
I'm not so sure about that.
You may be right.
But all the evidence suggests that ..
I'm afraid I can't agree with . on this matter.
I wouldn't say that.
I don't agree at all.
I can't accept that.

Changing the subject/moving on

I think we've finished that item.
If we can now turn to ....
Can we move on to the next point now.
I'd like now to move on to ..
Moving on now to.
Having looked at ., I'd now like to consider ..
I now want to turn to ....
The next point is ..
Another interesting point is ..
The next aspect I'd like to consider is ..
I'd now like to turn to ..
What do you think about X?

Checking that people are following

Is that clear?
Is everyone following?
All right?
All right so far?
Are you with me?
Do you see what I mean?

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Checking that you have understood
So you're telling me that I can't ..
So what you're saying is that ..
So you mean that ..
Are you saying that .?
Am I correct in assuming that .?
Let me just make sure - your point is that .
If I have understood you correctly, your point is that .

Concluding
So ..
We've seen that ..
First we looked at . and we saw that ..
Then we considered . and I argued ..
In short ..
To sum up, ..
In conclusion, I'd like to emphasise that ..
That completes my presentation.

Controlling the discussion

Let's start by looking at ....
So, I think we have agree that ....
Well, I think that covers everything.
Does anyone disagree with this?
Does anyone have any comments or questions?
So is this the same as your experience?
So, Y, what is your opinion of this?
X, what do you think?
Don't you agree, X?
Do you agree with what X has just said?
Does anyone else have any opinions.

Dealing with difficult questions

. is important but it's too complex for us to deal with here.
I think the aim of this talk is to focus on . rather than ..
It's too early for us to say whether ..
We don't have enough evidence to show that ..
That's not something I've had time to deal with, but ..
I'd prefer to deal with that point later.

Defining
X is ....
X is called ....
X is known as ....
X may be defined as ....
X is a type of Y that/which ....
A type of Y which ... is X.
We call ... ....

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We define ... ....

Describing aims and objectives/intentions

What I'd like to do is to discuss ..
What I intend to do is to explain ..
In my talk today, ..
My topic today is ..
Today, I'm going to talk about ..
I'm going to talk to you about ..
My colleagues and I are going to give a short presentation on ..
Today I want to consider ..
In this talk, I would like to concentrate on ..
The subject of this talk is ..
The purpose of this talk is to ..
This talk is designed to ..

Describing function
What is the function of X?
What does X do?
What is X used for?
The thermostat controls the temperature.
The thermostat is used for controlling the temperature.
We use a thermostat to measure the temperature.
The function of the thermostat is to control the temperature.
The thermostat serves to control the temperature.
A thermostat is an instrument for measuring temperature.
A thermostat enables the researcher to measure the temperature accurately.
The function of advertising is to market products and services to potential buyers in an
effective and persuasive manner.

Describing procedures
I'm going to deal with three aspects of the subject ..
I'm going to divide my presentation into three sections.
I've divided my presentation into three sections.
I thought it would be useful to divide my talk into three sections.
This subject can be looked at under the following headings: ..
I'll take about ... minutes.
The talk should last about ... minutes.
I'll be happy to answer questions at the end
If you have any questions, I'll try to answer them afterwards.
If you have any questions, please feel free to interrupt.

Describing processes, developments and changes

I'd like to show you how to ....
There are three main steps in this process....
The first/second/third step is ...

Disagreeing

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But don't you think that .?
I see what you mean, but ..
But isn't it really a question of ..
But what about .?
But surely .?
I take your point, but ..
Yes, but on the other hand ....
But all the evidence suggests that ..
I'm afraid I can't agree with . on this matter.
I wouldn't say that.
I don't agree at all.
I can't accept that.

Expressing doubt and reservation

Well . maybe . possibly .
I'm not so sure about that.
You may be right.
I don't think I'd say that.
Yes, but don't you think .?
I can see your point, but .
I think that's debatable.
Perhaps, but don't you think that .
I see what you mean but .
I agree to some extent, but ...
It seems to me ...
I tend to think ...

Encouraging
That's a good idea.
Good.
Why don't you ...?
Go on.

Emphasising a point
I want to stress ....
I want to highlight ....
I'd like to emphasise ....
I'd like to put emphasis on ....
It's important to remember that ....
We should bear in mind that ....
Don't forget that ....
The crucial point is ....
The essential point is ....
The fundamental point is ....
Furthermore, ....
What's more, ....
This supports my argument that, ....
It follows, therefore, that ....

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What (in effect) we are saying is ....

Evaluating
That's a good idea.
That's a very good point.
You've got a good point there.
I agree entirely.
That's exactly what we need.
I'm not sure what you mean by ....
That's an interesting point, but ....
You might be right.
That's all very well, but ....
I'm not so sure about that.
Yes, but don't you think ....
I can see your point, but ....
You seem to have forgotten ....
Very interesting. How exactly do you propose to ..?
I don't see how you can argue that ...
I can't accept that at all.

Exemplification - giving examples

For example, ..
For instance, ..
And as proof of that, ..
Remember .
You only have to think of ..
To illustrate my/our point ....

Expressing method and means

To open the door, turn the handle.
Turn the handle so as to open the door.
Turn the handle in order to open the door.
The radio may be turned on by pressing the on/off switch.

Following up a question
That's not really what I was asking. My question is about ..
Perhaps I didn't make my question clear. In fact what I asked was .
I think you've answered a slightly different question. What I would like to know is .
I understand that but what I actually had in mind was .
Sorry, I'm still not clear about .

Giving instructions
First of all you ....
The first thing you have to do is ....
After you've done that, you ....
The next thing to do is ....
Make sure you remember to ....
Be careful not to ....

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Expressing manner - how something is done
... in such a way that...
... slowly, carefully, etc
... with care/precision
... in a careful way/manner

Expressing purpose - why something is done

... so as to .
... so as not to .
... so that .
... in order to .
... in order not to .

Giving further information

An additional point is ....
Another point is ....
A further point is ....
A similar point is ....
In addition, ....
Similarly, ....
Apart from ..., ....
Not only ., but ....
We can add ....
I could add that ....
Further, ....
Besides, ....
..., as well.
..., too.
..., also.

Giving background information

As we know, ....
As we have already seen, ....
As we have all read, ....
It's clear that, ....
It goes without saying, ....
We all understand, ....
It is understood, ....
You'll remember, ..

Giving opinions.
I definitely think that....
I'm sure that....
I'm convinced that....
I really do think that....
I'm of the opinion that ...
As I see it, ....

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 ACADEMIC VOCABULARY LIST

1. abbreviate 45. citation 89. critique

2. abstract 46. cite 90. crucial
3. according 47. claim 91. cumulative
4. acronym 48. clarify 92. debate
5. address 49. class 93. deduce
6. affect 50. clue 94. defend
7. alter 51. code 95. define
8. always 52. coherent 96. demand
9. analogy 53. common 97. demonstrate
10. analysis 54. compare 98. depict
11. analyze 55. compile 99. derive
12. annotate 56. complement 100. describe
13. anticipate 57. complete 101. detail
14. application 58. compose 102. detect
15. apply 59. composition 103. determine
16. approach 60. conceive 104. develop
17. appropriate 61. concise 105. devise
18. approximate 62. conclude 106. diction
19. argue 63. conclusion 107. differentiate
20. argument 64. concrete 108. dimension
21. arrange 65. conditions 109. diminish
22. articulate 66. conduct 110. direct
23. aspects 67. confirm 111. discipline
24. assemble 68. consequence 112. discover
25. assert 69. consider 113. discriminate
26. assess 70. consist 114. discuss
27. associate 71. consistent 115. distinguish
28. assume 72. consistently 116. domain
29. assumption 73. constant 117. draft
30. audience 74. constitutes 118. draw
31. authentic 75. consult 119. edit
32. background 76. contend 120. effect
33. body 77. context 121. elements
34. brainstorm 78. continuum 122. emphasize
35. brief 79. contradict 123. employ
36. calculate 80. control 124. equal
37. caption 81. convert 125. equivalent
38. category 82. convey 126. essay
39. cause 83. copy 127. essential
40. character 84. correlate 128. establish
41. characteristic 85. correspond 129. estimate
42. characterize 86. credible 130. evaluate
43. chart 87. credit 131. event
44. chronology 88. criteria 132. evidence

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133. exaggerate 181. integrate 229. outline
134. examine 182. intent 230. pace
135. example 183. intention 231. paraphrase
136. excerpt 184. interact 232. participation
137. exclude 185. intermittent 233. passage
138. exercise 186. interpret 234. pattern
139. exhibit 187. introduce 235. perform
140. explain 188. introduction 236. perspective
141. explore 189. invariably 237. persuade
142. expository 190. investigate 238. place
143. extract 191. involve 239. plagiarism
144. fact 192. irony 240. plan
145. factor 193. irrelevant 241. plausible
146. feature 194. isolate 242. plot
147. figurative 195. italics 243. point
148. figure 196. judge 244. point of view
149. focus 197. key 245. portray
150. footer 198. label 246. possible
151. foreshadow 199. likely 247. preclude
152. form 200. list 248. predict
153. format 201. literal 249. prefix
154. former 202. locate 250. prepare
155. formulate 203. logical 251. presume
156. fragment 204. main 252. preview
157. frame 205. margin 253. previous
158. frequently 206. mean 254. primary
159. general 207. measure 255. prior
160. genre 208. metaphor 256. probably
161. graph 209. method 257. procedure
162. graphic 210. model 258. process
163. header 211. modify 259. produce
164. heading 212. monitor 260. profile
165. highlight 213. motivation 261. project
166. hypothesize 214. narrative 262. prompt
167. identify 215. narrator 263. proofread
168. illustrate 216. never 264. property
169. imitate 217. notation 265. propose
170. imply 218. note 266. prose
171. inclined notice 267. prove
172. include 220. objective 268. purpose
173. incorporate 221. observe 269. quotation
174. indicate 222. occur 270. quote
175. indirect 223. opinion 271. rank
176. infer 224. oppose 272. rare
177. influence 225. optional 273. rarely
178. inform 226. order 274. reaction
179. inquire 227. organize 275. recall
180. instructions 228. origins 276. reduce

85
277. refer 305. show 333. survey
278. reflect 306. signal 334. symbolize
279. regular 307. significance 335. synonym
280. relate 308. simile 336. synthesize
281. relationship 309. skim 337. table
282. relevant 310. solve 338. technique
283. rephrase 311. source 339. term
284. report 312. spatial 340. test
285. represent 313. specific 341. theme
286. representative 314. speculate 342. thesis
287. request 315. stance 343. timeline
288. require 316. standard 344. tone
289. requisite 317. state 345. topic
290. respond 318. statement 346. trace
291. responsible 319. strategy 347. trait
292. restate 320. structure 348. transition
293. results 321. study 349. translate
294. reveal 322. style 350. typically
295. review 323. subject 351. unique
296. revise 324. subjective 352. utilize
297. root 325. subsequent 353. valid
298. rule 326. substitute 354. variation
299. scan 327. succinct 355. vary
300. score 328. suggest 356. verify
301. sequence 329. sum 357. viewpoint
302. series 330. summarize 358. voice
303. set 331. summary
304. setting 332. support

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