You are on page 1of 13

J Bus Ethics

DOI 10.1007/s10551-013-1842-8

Karma-Yoga: The Indian Model of Moral Development


Zubin R. Mulla Venkat R. Krishnan

Received: 30 April 2012 / Accepted: 13 July 2013


Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

Abstract A comprehensive model of moral development structures. Hence, management educators and business
must encompass moral sensitivity, moral reasoning, moral executives have unanimously rated leadership as the most
motivation, and moral character. Western models of moral important topic in organizational behavior (Rahim 1981). The
development have often failed to show validity outside the two normative theories of leadership, which describe good
culture of their origin. We propose Karma-Yoga, the leadership in terms of ethical or moral leadership, are James
technique of intelligent action discussed in the Bhagawad MacGregor Burnss theory of transformational leadership and
Gita as an Indian model for moral development. Karma- Robert K. Greenleafs theory of servant leadership. According
Yoga is conceptualized as made up of three dimensions to Burns, the crucial task of transformational leaders is to raise
viz. duty-orientation, indifference to rewards, and equa- the awareness and consciousness of their followers to higher
nimity. Based on survey results from 459 respondents from levels of conduct and morality (Burns 1978, p. 20). Hence, a
two large Indian organizations, we show that the dimen- critical outcome in transformational leadership is the moral
sions of Karma-Yoga are related to moral sensitivity, moral development of followers.
motivation, and moral character. Moral development is important for the study of lead-
ership and organizations in two waysfirst, the moral
Keywords Bhagawad Gita  Indian culture  development of the leader is seen as an antecedent of
Karma-Yoga  Leadership  Moral development effective leadership, and next, the moral development of
the follower is seen as an outcome of leadership. A starting
point for the inquiry into the relationship between moral
Organizational leaders are being subject to increasing scrutiny development and leadership is to define moral development
about their ethics and moral obligations to society. Leaders in in the organizational context.
an organization are expected to provide direction, exercise Any growth or development implies movement from a
control, and influence other organizational members to work lower state of existence to a higher, more preferred state of
toward the organizations objectives in an ethical manner existence in line with the ideals and aspirations of a group of
(Kanungo and Mendonca 1996). The direct influence of people. These ideals are derived from a peoples culture,
leaders is through their personal example and instructions to which represents their deepest assumptions and beliefs about
subordinates, while indirectly leaders influence organiza- the nature of humankind, nature of the world, and the goals of
tional behavior through the design of policies, processes, and life (Krishnan 2003). Cross-cultural studies of moral devel-
opment have shown the limitations of a universal model of
moral development for all societies (Eckensberger 1994;
Z. R. Mulla (&)
School of Management and Labour Studies, Tata Institute of Narvaez et al. 1999; Shweder et al. 1987; Snarey 1985). In the
Social Sciences, Mumbai, India Indian context, the Gita is the scripture, which provides
e-mail: zubinmulla@yahoo.co.in answers to the basic questions of who we are and what our
goals ought to be and has inspired generations of Indians
V. R. Krishnan
Great Lakes Institute of Management, Chennai, India (Prabhavananda 1960; Vivekananda 1972). The path recom-
e-mail: rkvenkat@temple.edu mended by the Gita is Karma-Yoga, or the technique of right

123
Z. R. Mulla, V. R. Krishnan

action (Vivekananda 1972, Vol. 1, p. 53; Vol. 5, p. 246, 249). cultural research. Typical research questions include the
Hence, achieving excellence in Karma-Yoga constitutes the universal existence of Kohlbergs stages (viz. pre-conven-
pinnacle of moral development for a person having an Indian tional, conventional, and post-conventional moral reason-
worldview. This paper investigates if Karma-Yoga constitutes ing; Crain 1985) the universal nature of the sequence of the
a valid model for moral development in the Indian context by stages, impact of societal culture on moral development,
showing a relationship between the dimensions of moral and the rate at which development occurs in different
development and empirically validating the same based on cultures (Eckensberger 1994). Even though Kohlberg
data from 459 respondents in two Indian organizations. originally described his theory as universal, it has shown
some limitations in its application across different cultures
(Eckensberger 1994) especially in the higher stages of
What is moral development? moral development (Snarey 1985). Some studies have also
focused on the interaction of moral development, political
In the context of leadership outcomes, Burns (1978) ideology, and religious ideology on attitudes toward real
defined moral development by drawing on the works of life issues (Narvaez et al. 1999).
social scientists like Adler, Maslow, Piaget, Erikson, Moral reasoning differs in different cultures along five
Rokeach, and Kohlberg. Specifically, he described three dimensions. First, cultures differ on the relative emphasis
interrelated frameworks along which the transformation given to self-derived principles and collective solidarity.
occurredthe hierarchy of needs, the structure of values, For example, a study of school students in the Bahamas
and the stages of moral development (p. 428). (White et al. 1978) showed that the Bahamian school
According to James R. Rests four-component model of system at all levels emphasized obedience to rules and
human behavior, moral behavior is the result of at least consequently moral development consisted of learning the
four-component processes: (i) moral sensitivity (interpret- rules. Similarly, studies of the leaders in rural communities
ing the situation and identifying a moral problem); (ii) (Harkness et al. 1981; Tietjen and Walker 1985) did not
moral judgment (figuring out what one ought to do and find any evidence of the highest stages of reasoning based
formulating a plan of action that applies the relevant moral on self-derived principles. In a study comparing Chinese
standard or ideal); (iii) moral motivation (evaluating how and Canadian children (Fu et al. 2007), it was found that
the various courses of action serve moral or non-moral Chinese children preferred not to tell a truth when telling
values and deciding which action a person actually will the truth would help an individual but harm a group, while
attempt to pursue); and (iv) moral character/implementa- Canadian children had the opposite preference. A com-
tion (executing and implementing the moral course of prehensive review of 45 studies in 27 countries (Snarey
action). The development of moral reasoning, which is 1985) provided sufficient evidence that Kohlbergs inter-
often confused with moral development, is thus just one of view is reasonably culture fair from Stages 1 to 4. An
the determinants of moral behavior (Narvaez and Rest observation across studies was that principled reasoning
1995; Rest et al. 1997a; Thoma et al. 1991) and hence is was found only in urban or middle-class populations and
only weakly related to moral behavior outcomes. was totally absent in all folk cultural groups. Instead, tra-
The four components are not personality traits instead; they ditional folk cultures or working-class communities
represent internal processes involving different kinds of seemed to stress more on values like collective solidarity
cognitiveaffective interactions, which together predict moral (Snarey 1985; Snarey et al. 1985; Tietjen and Walker
behavior. Individuals may be proficient or deficient in one or 1985). Hence, it is highly likely that moral development at
more of these components. For example, one person may the higher stages is culture-bound (Snarey 1985).
show great sensitivity but poor judgment skills while another Second, some cultures consider moral behavior as an
may have excellent judgment but will fail to have the ego- aspiration or personal choice while others may consider it
strength to follow through, and yet a third may have great an obligation or duty. For example, achievement in school
tenacity to implement simple-minded judgments (Narvaez is judged by American children to be a matter of duty, but
and Rest 1995). Rests four-component model of moral judged by Japanese children to be a matter of aspiration
development is the most comprehensive model of moral (Hamilton et al. 1990). Also, as compared to Americans,
development and is used as the basis for further discussion. Indians were found to be more likely to view helping a
stranger who is not in dire need as an objective obligation
rather than a matter of personal choice (Miller et al. 1990).
Does moral reasoning differ in different cultures? One of the explanations for this is that as socioeconomic
status improved, individuals changed their orientation by
Like all other areas of human behavior, the theory of moral treating their social responsibilities more as a personal
reasoning has also been subjected to extensive cross- choice rather than a moral obligation (Miller et al. 1990).

123
Karma-Yoga: The Indian Model of Moral Development

Third, some cultures may prescribe alternative post- other hand, Indian groups often treated social practices
conventional codes such as those relating to interpersonal related to food, sex role, and clothing as universal moral
responsibilities rather than justice obligations. Kohlbergs obligations whereas Americans judged them as social
theory of moral development is based on the Kantian conventions (Shweder et al. 1987). This was explained in
assumption of an autonomous asocial individual who is the terms of an ethics of divinity where the self is concep-
starting point of society. On the other hand, the Hindu tualized as a spiritual entity striving to avoid pollution and
Indian culture considers social units and social duties the attain purity and sanctity (Shweder et al. 1997). Hence,
starting point of society (Shweder et al. 1987). Perhaps for actions are to be judged as good or bad in terms of the
this reason, Indians are found to possess a post-conven- pollution or purity they add to the agent. In this manner,
tional moral code in which interpersonal responsibilities avoiding harmless offenses can be abhorred on the
are perceived to be as principled as justice obligations and ground that they pollutes the agent. According to Indian
may be given precedence over justice obligations (Miller philosophy, actions are judged based on their effects on the
and Bersoff 1992). Another illustration of this principle is agent not on the recipient. All actions and motives, which
that Indians were found to be more likely than Americans create gross mental impressions, are called sins because
to be tolerant of breaches of justice due to a persons they prevent the individual from realizing his or her own
vulnerability to contextual influences (Bersoff and Miller divine identity. Thus, any act whereby the mind pursues
1993). objects with a motive of joy or satisfaction is likely to
Fourth, depending on their view of the nature of man, create mental agitations, which adversely affect the spiri-
society, and the world cultures may differ in the extent to tual progress of the individual. Hence, such actions are
which they distinguish between moral norms and social known as sins (Chinmayananda 1989).
conventions. In cultures where the social order is the same Karma-Yoga satisfies all the five criteria along which
as the natural order, the concept of a conventional obli- moral reasoning differs in different cultures. Karma-Yoga
gation may be completely alien and it may be seen instead emphasizes collective solidarity, considers moral behavior
as part of the nature of things (Shweder et al. 1990). Hence, a duty, emphasizes interpersonal responsibilities and social
some traditional societies may view social norms as having conventions, and is justified based on the benefit it yields to
absolute validity and the dominant criteria for moral the practitioner of Karma-Yoga.
judgment (Nisan 1987). Even though children from dif-
ferent cultures may be able to distinguish conceptually
between moral and social conventions (Song et al. 1987) Karma-Yoga
the value they accord to the social conventions may dras-
tically differ across cultures. For example, a study com- The system of ethics and religion in the Indian context is
paring white and black adolescents in South Africa (Ferns Karma-Yoga (Vivekananda 1972, Vol. 1, p. 109) which is
and Thom 2001) found that while white adolescents pro- described in The Bhagwad-Gita. The Bhagwad-Gita or
gressed according to the Kohlbergs stages up to Stage 5 Song of God is the most popular work in all the religious
(internalized moral principles), black adolescents did not literature of India and it has influenced Indian life through
go beyond Stage 4 (law and order orientation). One the generations (Prabhavananda 1960, p. 95). It is part of
explanation for this was that black adolescents were the Indian epic the Mahabharata and is written in the form
socialized to become interdependent members of the of a dialogue between Krsna and the great warrior Arjuna
community while the focus of socialization for white when the latter expressed his confusion in the midst of a
adolescents was to make them self-actualizing individuals great battle. The doctrine of Karma-Yoga is based on the
(Ferns and Thom 2001). fundamental beliefs of the Indian weltanschauung.
Finally, cultures differ in their perception of the ultimate
beneficiary of moral action. While some cultures decide the The Indian Weltanschauung
moral status of actions depending on harm to others, other
cultures base their judgments of morality based on the The Indian worldview is characterized by three funda-
harm done to the agent. There are a number of acts such as mental beliefs, which are common to all the six systems of
flag desecration, sexual perversion, and mistreatment of Indian philosophy (Dasgupta 1922/1991, p. 71; Prabhava-
corpses, which fall under the category of harmless nanda 1960, p. 201). First, the belief in the karma theory,
offenses. These are harmless because they do not violate i.e., all actions that are done have the power to ordain for
the interests of others. For western philosophers, morality their doers joy or sorrow in the future depending on whe-
is primarily an interpersonal issue and hence the moral ther the action is good or bad. Often, individuals may be
status of such acts is not described under the conventional required to take birth in another body to experience fully
theories of moral development (Haidt et al. 1993). On the the joy or suffering that is due to them because of their past

123
Z. R. Mulla, V. R. Krishnan

actions. The second belief is in the existence of a perma- What is Karma-Yoga?


nent entity, the soul (atma), which is our true unknown
nature, pure and untouched by the impurities of our The word karma comes from the Sanskrit root kri, which
ordinary life. The third belief is about the doctrine of sal- means doing, affairs, or activity and includes all actions
vation (mukti). Since actions lead us through this endless that a person performs whether they are of body, speech, or
cycle of birth and death, if we could be free of all such mind. The word yoga comes from the Sanskrit root yuj,
emotions or desires that lead us to action, there would be which means, to join. However, in the Mahabharata it is
no fuel (in the form of joys or sorrows to be experienced) to used in three ways: as a special skill, device, intelligent
propel us into another birth and we would be free of this method, or graceful way of performing actions (Gita
eternal cycle. Chap. 2, Verse 50); as equability of mind toward success or
The doctrine of karma is perhaps the most widely known failure (Gita Chap. 2, Verse 48); and as the device for
and misunderstood aspect of the Indian weltanschauung eliminating the natural tendency of karma to create bond-
(Mahadevan 1958) and is equivalent to the belief in a just age (Gita Chap. 2, Verse 50). Since the later two definitions
world (Connors and Heaven 1990; Hafer and Begue 2005) of yoga speak of the relationship of yoga with action, the
which states that individuals get what they deserve (Con- terms yoga and Karma-Yoga are used interchange-
nors and Heaven 1990). Karma extends the concept of ably at various instances in the Gita (Tilak 1915/2000). For
justice to other worlds and other births, thereby implying the purpose of this study, we will use the Tilaks definition
that all good and bad deeds of all previous lives are of the word yoga to mean device or intelligent
accounted for cumulatively. Accordingly, in every life one method and hence the term Karma-Yoga would be a
reaps what one has sown in ones previous lives (Radha- technique for intelligently performing actions.
krishnan 1926). Similar to the belief in a just world, belief Here the world intelligent is used by Tilak in a spe-
in karma reaffirms ones faith in natural justice and makes cific sense to denote an action which is conducive to ones
every person responsible for his or her own well-being and end goals and since the ultimate goal of all beings is to free
suffering. Thus, positive deeds are believed to lead to good the soul from the cycle of birth and death, any method that
outcomes, while tragic happenings are explained as an enables release from this perpetual cycle is preferable to
outcome of negative deeds done in the past (Agrawal and any other method that is likely to bind the human soul to
Dalal 1993; Dalal and Pande 1988). the cycle. Hence, whether we define Karma-Yoga as a
The law of karma is not a blind mechanical framework technique for intelligently performing actions or a
in which man is trapped for eternity. In the Rg-Veda, the technique for performing actions in a manner that the soul
soul or self is denoted by the word atma (Ghanananda is not bound by the effects of the action we mean the
1958). The soul is the eternal subject which is free from all same thing (Tilak 1915/2000).
impurities like sin, old age, death, grief, hunger, and thirst.
The soul is complete and hence, it is free from all forms of Dimensions of Karma-Yoga
desires (Radhakrishnan 1940). Freedom of the soul from
the cycle of karma is possible and is the ultimate goal and Mulla and Krishnan (2006) identified the dimensions of
destiny of every being (Mahadevan 1958). This freedom Karma-Yoga using a contemporary version of the Gita
from the cycle of birth and death is termed as moksha or (Gandhi 1946/2001). Each verse was content analyzed and
liberation. It results when the bonds of ignorance have been classified into three categories viz. activities prescribed to
broken and is a state which is free from all imperfections reach the ideal state (69 verses); description of the ideal
and limitations (Prabhavananda 1960). state of a person (145 verses); and outcomes on achieving
the ideal state (76 verses). Since Karma-Yoga is the path to
Karma-Yoga: The Technique of Intelligent Action reach the ideal liberated state through work, Mulla and
Krishnan (2006) further analyzed the types of activities
When one is convinced of the law of universal cause and prescribed to reach the ideal state and found that five types
effect, the existence of an eternal soul, and the objective of of activities were described in the Gita: devotion to god or
life as liberation of the soul from the eternal cycle of birth seeing god in all beings (22 verses); performing actions
and death, one seeks opportunities for eternal salvation. without attachment (16 verses); meditation or focusing on
Indian philosophy suggests that the path to be selected for the soul (10 verses); being neutral to opposites, or keeping
liberation must be suited to the temperament and disposi- senses under control (10 verses); and doing ones duty in
tion of the seeker. Karma-Yoga provides one such path for society (8 verses). These five activities were then matched
freedom from the cycle of birth and death, which is suited with the four equivalent paths to reach the ideal state viz.
for people with an active temperament who have chosen to the path of meditation (Raja-Yoga), the path of knowledge
remain in the world and aspire for liberation. (Jnana-Yoga), the path of devotion (Bhakti-Yoga), and the

123
Karma-Yoga: The Indian Model of Moral Development

path of action (Karma-Yoga). In this manner, Mulla and unfulfilled desire to experience or avoid a certain experi-
Krishnan (2006) categorized devotion to god as the path ence is the essential fuel, which drives a soul to being
of devotion and meditation or focusing on the soul as the reborn again in a body most suited to its experiencing its
path of meditation or the path of knowledge. From this they latent unfulfilled desires. In this manner, the cycle of birth
deduced that Karma-Yoga must be described by one or and death is repeated to eternity. The cycle can be broken
more of the remaining three items viz. performing action in three ways. First, an individual may chose to avoid all
without attachment, doing ones duty, and being neutral to interaction of his or her senses with external objects.
opposites. However, in the case of an active person, this path is not
The essence of Karma-Yoga is given in the Gita (Ra- suitable. Hence, the only two ways of breaking the cycle of
dhakrishnan 1948/1993) Chapter 2, Verse 47, which says, birth and death are to endure pleasure and pain with
To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its equanimity and to be indifferent to the rewards (and pun-
fruits; let not the fruits of action be thy motive; neither let ishments) of ones actions (Tilak 1915/2000).
there be in thee any attachment to inaction. This verse of
the Gita is also mentioned by Tilak (1915/2000, p. 895) as Breaking the cycle of birth and death through equanimity
giving the entire import of Karma-Yoga in a short and and indifference to rewards
beautiful form. Later in the Gita (Radhakrishnan 1948/
1993, Chap. 3, Verses 12, 13, 16), Arjuna is told that One way out of this perpetual cycle of desire is to be able
persons who survive on this earth and use its resources to control in ones mind the experience of pain and hap-
without working are living in sin, and hence man is obliged piness, i.e., being neutral to the experiences of our senses
to work selflessly in order to fulfill his duty toward the (Tilak 1915/2000). According to the Gita, when one does
world. Hence, based on the results of Mulla and Krishnans what one has to do, with perfect mental control and after
(2006) content analysis and the interpretation of the Gita giving up the desire for the result and with a frame of mind
verses, we have conceptualized Karma-Yoga as made up of that is equal toward pain and happiness, there remains no
three dimensions: duty-orientation, indifference to rewards, fear or possibility of experiencing the unhappiness of
and equanimity. actions. If one can perform actions with such a spirit, it
The metaphysical explanation of Karma-Yoga is does not become necessary to give up actions. Hence, the
explained in Fig. 1. The eternal cycle of birth and death Gita recommends that we keep our organs under control
driven by reincarnation and the karmic law is defined in the and allow them to perform the various activities, not for a
form of a three-step procedure (Tilak 1915/2000). The first selfish purpose, but without desire, and for the welfare of
step is the interaction of the five senses with external others (Tilak 1915/2000).
objects; this in turn leads to a perception of pain or hap- In addition, since the outcomes of ones actions are
piness in the mind of the agent of the action (Gita Chap. 2, dependant on an elaborate chain of cause and effect, all that
Verse 14). Perceiving pleasure or pain further leads to a is in the individuals control is performance of that action.
desire to experience again what has been experienced (in Hence, one ceases to have a feeling of ownership toward
the case of happiness) or a desire to avoid what has been ones actions and believes that the actions happen naturally
experienced (in the case of pain). The presence of an and the bodily organs are just an instrument for their

Fig. 1 Metaphysical
explanation of Karma-Yoga

123
Z. R. Mulla, V. R. Krishnan

execution. This lack of ownership for actions coupled with Hypothesis 3 Karma-Yoga: equanimity will be posi-
the sense of obligation to others creates a complete disin- tively related to moral character.
terest in the mind of the seeker for any form of material or
The relationship between the duty-orientation aspect of
social rewards (Tilak 1915/2000).
Karma-Yoga and moral judgment has not been hypothe-
sized because moral judgment in the Indian context is
Duty-Orientation as a precursor to developing equanimity
significantly different from the model for moral judgment
and indifference to rewards
conceptualized by Kohlberg and Rest using a western
philosophical framework.
A question that is often asked ishow is it possible for an
individual to maintain equanimity to pleasure/pain and be
indifferent to rewards? By integrating elements of the Indian
Methods
worldview and developing duty-orientation, it is possible to
develop equanimity and indifference to rewards.
Data was collected from 459 respondents from two orga-
The belief in the law of cause and effect makes us
nizations. Both the organizations were in the manufactur-
realize that we are placed in a particular situation because
ing industry related to the automotive sector and forming
of unfulfilled past obligations on our part and we develop a
part of large diversified business houses and having annual
sense of connectedness with all beings. In order words,
turnovers of Rs. 8.3 billion and 115 billion, respectively.
irrespective of the situation that we are placed in, we can
The respondents were employed in factories and offices
look upon those around us as our creditors in our past lives
located in industrial towns in Western and Eastern India
to whom we are obliged to discharge certain obligations
such as Mumbai, Nashik, Vadodara, Cochin, Kolkata, and
(which were unfulfilled earlier). The belief in the law of
Durgapur.
cause and effect coupled with the belief in the doctrine of
The sample comprised of 420 males and 33 females (6
salvation makes us strive to discharge our obligations to
undisclosed) of ages from 22 years to 61 years (Med-
those around us. In this manner, all actions become a
ian = 39 years) and having work experience ranging from
repayment of a debt and the actor is free of any motive for
8 months to 45 years (Median = 16 years). The work
the actions.
experience of the respondents with their current organization
ranged from 2 months to 40 years (Median = 12 years).
Karma-Yoga and moral development
Measures
The three dimensions of Karma-Yoga are related to the
four components of moral development. The first dimen- Moral Sensitivity
sion, i.e., duty-orientation is the basis for moral sensitivity
as well as moral judgment. A Karma-Yogi, who feels a Moral sensitivity concerns the receptivity to social situa-
sense of duty or obligation toward others, is likely to be tions and being able to interpret the situation in terms of
empathetic to the needs and feelings of others. The sense of what actions are possible, the impact of those actions on
duty may also provide the basis for moral judgment. By others, and the reactions of others to ones actions. The
empathetically responding to the needs of the situation and most critical characteristic for this dimension of moral
the time, the Karma-Yogi may identify his or her appro- development is empathy (Narvaez and Rest 1995). Empa-
priate duty as the right course of action. The second thy has been described as the disposition to adopt a broad
dimension of Karma-Yoga, indifference to rewards may moral perspective, to take the moral point of view
provide moral motivation using which a Karma-Yogi can (Hogan 1969, p. 307). One of the most popular measures of
perform actions selflessly without any expectation of empathy with demonstrated reliability and validity is
extrinsic or intrinsic rewards. The third dimension of Daviss (1980; 1983) Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI)
Karma-Yoga, equanimity, may enable the Karma-Yogi to consisting of four seven-item subscales. All four scales
stick to the decided moral course of action without being have been found to have satisfactory internal and test
carried away by troubles and temptations in the path of retest reliabilities (internal reliabilities range from .71 to
duty and thus it constitutes moral character. .77; testretest reliabilities range from .62 to .71; Davis
1980). For measuring moral sensitivity, the two subscales
Hypothesis 1 Karma-Yoga: duty-orientation will be
of perspective taking (tendency to adopt the perspectives of
positively related to moral sensitivity.
other people and seeing things from their point of view)
Hypothesis 2 Karma-Yoga: indifference to rewards will and empathic concern (feelings of warmth, compassion,
be positively related to moral motivation. and concern for others) were used. Both the dimensions of

123
Karma-Yoga: The Indian Model of Moral Development

perspective taking and empathic concern have been found Thoma 1985), collegiate participation (King and Mayhew
to have strong positive relationships with measures of 2002), age, and educational, occupational, or social class
sensitivity to the feelings and experiences of others (Davis standing (Snarey and Lydens 1990).
1983). Together these subscales account for both affective The first improvement of the DIT as compared to
and cognitive aspects of empathy, which characterize the Kohlbergs interview is the use of multiple-choice items.
dimension of moral sensitivity. The other two dimensions This insures access to the implicit knowledge, which is not
of empathy viz. fantasy and personal distress are unrelated consciously accessible to the subject and does not depend
to moral sensitivity and hence they were not used in this on the subjects verbal ability. Secondly, unlike Kohlbergs
study. A study using the IRI in the Indian context (Mulla stages, Rest and his colleagues emphasize schemas (gen-
and Krishnan 2008) has shown that the entire scale as well eral knowledge structures residing in long-term memory).
as the two dimensions of empathic concern and perspective The items in the DIT seek to evoke and stimulate these
taking taken together are reliable (Cronbach alphas = .75 schemas in the subjects mind. Unlike Kohlberg, Rest and
and .69, respectively). This scale was self-report and was his colleagues do not claim either a strictly developmental
administered to all respondents. structure for their schemas, and neither do they claim
universality across cultures (Rest et al. 1999b). An attempt
Moral Judgment to improve the predictive validity of the DIT index is the
introduction of the new index N2 by Rest and his col-
A contemporary theory of moral reasoning based on neo- leagues (Rest et al. 1997b). While the original P index
Kohlbergian thinking is proposed by Rest and his col- measured only the extent of principled (Stages 5 and 6)
leagues (Rest et al. 1999a). The theory follows Kohlberg in reasoning, the new N2 index also incorporates information
certain four key aspects viz. (i) it emphasizes the role of from the lower stages and hence shows significantly better
cognition; (ii) it highlights the personal construction of the validity than the earlier index. The latest version of the
epistemological categories; (iii) it portrays change over DIT, the DIT2 is an improvement over the original version
time in terms of development; and (iv) it characterizes the in terms of updated dilemmas and items, an improved
developmental change of adolescents and adults in terms of algorithm for indexing, and a better method of detecting
a shift from conventional to post-conventional moral unreliable participants (Rest et al. 1999b).
thinking (Rest et al. 1999b). However, the key difference in The original form of the DIT contains six dilemmas. For
Rests theory as compared to Kohlberg lies in its mea- measuring moral judgment in this study, we used the
surement of moral reasoning. shortened form of the DIT (Rest 1979/1990) with one
Traditionally, the assessment of moral reasoning had additional dilemma i.e., four dilemmas. The four dilemmas
been done using the procedure adopted by Kohlberg when used were Heinz and the drug, escaped prisoner, the doc-
he first developed his theory. Subjects exposed to a hypo- tors dilemma, and newspaper. The shortened version of
thetical moral dilemma indicate what ought to be done and Rests (1979/1990) DIT was used in a similar study on
justify their course of action. The interviewer tries to probe transformational leadership and moral reasoning by Turner
and elicit the subjects views without suggesting anything et al. (2002). This instrument was self-report and was
different from the subjects own spontaneous thinking administered to all respondents.
(Rest et al. 1974). In reality, however, most moral judg-
ments are not evolved de novo. Instead, individuals are Moral Motivation
influenced by conclusions and advice of others and often
the main task involves defining the crucial issue of a Moral motivation is the motivation to select a moral value
problem. Rest et al. (1974) suggest using the Defining over other values (Narvaez and Rest 1995). Rokeach (1973)
issues test (DIT), which consists of a list of statements, considered terminal values to be of two kindsthose that are
which are presented to the subject for each hypothetical self-focused called personal values, and those that are others-
moral dilemma. The subject is then asked to rank and rate focused called social values. Krishnan (2001) showed that
the relative importance of each of the statements while transformational leaders gave higher importance to others-
resolving the dilemma. The level of moral development is focused social values like a world at peace, a world of
measured by the P score which is the importance attributed beauty, equality, national security, and social rec-
to principled (Stages 5 and 6) moral statements. The P ognition. Like the terminal values, instrumental values are
score has been found to differentiate between student also of two kindsthose which when violated arouse pangs
groups of varied advancement on Kohlbergs scale in of conscience or feelings of guilt for wrongdoing called
cross-sectional as well as longitudinal studies (Rest 1975). moral values, and those which when violated lead to feelings
Some factors which have been found to relate to moral of shame about personal inadequacy called competence or
development arethe level of formal education (Rest and self-actualization values (Rokeach 1973).

123
Z. R. Mulla, V. R. Krishnan

For the purpose of measuring moral motivation in this Karma-Yoga


study, we used the Rokeach Value Survey (Rokeach 1973).
This scale is self-report and was administered to all For Karma-Yoga, we used the 18-item scale developed by
respondents. Mulla and Krishnan (2006, 2007). The scale for Karma-
Yoga consists of three subscales of six items each viz.
Moral Character/Implementation duty-orientation, indifference to rewards, and equanimity.
Reliabilities for the Karma-Yoga dimension of duty-
Moral character or implementation calls for self-confi- orientation have been found to be adequate with Cronbach
dence, self-efficacy, perseverance, and tenacity in being alphas ranging from .69 to .73 (Mulla and Krishnan 2007,
able to work around problems and unexpected difficulties 2008). Reliabilities for the Karma-Yoga dimension of
in implementing the desired course of action. Implemen- indifference to rewards have been found to be adequate
tation includes being able to resist distractions and keep with Cronbach alphas of about .68 (Mulla and Krishnan
sight of the final goal (Narvaez and Rest 1995). 2007). The reliability of the Karma-Yoga dimension of
Conscientiousness, as defined in Merriam-Websters equanimity had been found to be low (Cronbach
Online Dictionary is an adjective meaning that one is alpha = .50; Mulla and Krishnan 2007) and hence the
governed by or confirming to the dictates of conscience items have been modified for the purpose of this study. The
i.e., the sense of moral goodness or blameworthiness of full scale for all the dimensions of Karma-Yoga has been
ones own conduct, intentions, or character together with a provided in the Appendix.
feeling of obligation to do right or be good (Merriam-
Webster Online Dictionary 2007). The personality factor of
conscientiousness which is a part of the Big-Five model of Results
personality (Goldberg 1990; McCrae and Costa 1985, 1987)
comprises of the facets of competence, order, dutifulness, Reliability of Scales
achievement striving, self-discipline, and deliberation
(Costa and McCrae 1995). Some authors (Barrick and Mount The reliabilities for the scales measuring the dimensions of
1991; Judge et al. 1997; Stewart et al. 1996) have used Karma-Yoga viz. duty-orientation, indifference to rewards,
conscientiousness as a broad trait, and have described con- and equanimity were .58, .62, and .43, respectively. The
scientious individuals as purposeful, strong willed, deter- scale for conscientiousness was found to be reliable (Cron-
mined, punctual, and reliable (Judge et al. 1997). These bach alpha = .78). The two scales measuring dimensions of
authors have described conscientiousness as either a stable empathy viz. empathic concern and perspective taking
tendency to be organized, efficient, goal-oriented or persis- showed reliabilities of .48 and .51, respectively.
tent (Stewart et al. 1996) or characterized by personal com- The DIT scores were checked for inconsistency and for
petence, dutifulness, self-discipline, and deliberation (Judge M scores. A high M score represents a respondents
et al. 1997). The factor of conscientiousness is associated tendency to endorse statements for their pretentiousness
with volition or will power and is a critical factor in getting rather than their meaning. There were 36 respondents
things implemented (Barrick and Mount 1991). Hough whose M scores were greater than 15 % and these were
(1992) reported that the personality constructs of achieve- removed from the sample. Also, there were 14 respondents
ment and dependability (which were equivalent to the factor who had more than three inconsistencies in their responses
conscientiousness in the Five Factor Model) showed the and these were also removed from the sample. Finally,
highest positive correlation with law abiding behavior there were about 23 respondents for whom it was not
(r = 0.42 and 0.58, respectively) and the highest negative possible to calculate the consistency of their responses
correlation with irresponsible behavior (r = -0.19 and because they had not responded to all the items in the DIT
-0.24, respectively). Similarly, the personality factor of and these were also eliminated from the sample. Hence, in
conscientiousness was found to be negatively related to all 73 of the DIT responses were eliminated from the data.
absenteeism, late coming, and overall delinquency (r = This accounts for about 15.9 % of the total sample and is in
-0.26, -0.19, and -0.22, respectively; Ashton 1998). Thus, line with the expected reduction in sample as per the DIT
the personality factor of conscientiousness is a good measure manual.
of moral character and a good predictor of moral behavior. Table 1 shows the means, standard deviations, and inter-
For the purpose of measuring moral character in this correlations amongst the beliefs in Indian philosophy,
study, we used the 20 items from the full scale of the Karma-Yoga, moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral
personality factor of conscientiousness (International Per- character, and demographic variables.
sonality Item Pool 2001). The scale is self-report and was The results show that duty-orientation is significantly
administered to all respondents. related to the dimensions of moral sensitivity, viz.

123
Karma-Yoga: The Indian Model of Moral Development

Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations amongst Karma-Yoga, and dimensions of moral development
M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1. Duty-orientation 3.23 0.47 (0.58)


2. Indifference to rewards 2.54 0.59 .25** (0.62)
3. Equanimity 2.16 0.62 0.17** 0.24** (0.43)
4. Conscientiousness 3.18 0.39 0.47** 0.22** 0.16** (0.78)
5. Empathic concern 2.52 0.50 0.15** 0.11** 0.02 0.07 (0.48)
6. Perspective taking 2.64 0.50 0.29** 0.16** 0.23** 0.24** 0.19** (0.51)
7. P score 27.44 12.30 -0.07 -0.02 0.00 0.03 0.06 0.05
8. Gender (Male = 1 & 1.07 0.26 -0.08 -0.01 -0.07 -0.03 0.10* -0.02 0.12**
Female = 2)
9. Age 39.61 9.27 0.16** 0.19** 0.15** 0.22** 0.06 0.06 -0.01 -0.08

10. Qualification 2.92 1.61 0.02 -0.03 -0.06 0.08 0.06 -0.00 0.17** 0.09* -0.07
11. Work experience 17.28 9.14 0.19** 0.19** 0.15** 0.20** 0.09* 0.09* -0.02 -0.04 0.92** -0.10*
12. Work experience in 12.53 8.94 0.07 0.17** 0.17** 0.11** 0.05 0.06 -.07 -0.03 0.68** -0.20** 0.65**
the current organization

N varies from 386 to 456. p \0 .10, * p \ 0.05, ** p \0 .01


Figures in brackets along the diagonal are Cronbach alphas

empathic concern and perspective taking. Thus, Hypothesis most of the dimensions of Karma-Yoga. Even though this
1 is supported. Similarly, the output of the correlation study was done on Indian executives, its findings are likely
analysis shows that equanimity is significantly related to to be representative of the Indian society or at least the
moral character measured as conscientiousness. Thus, Indian workforce, since belief in the law of karma and the
Hypothesis 3 is supported. ideal of Karma-Yoga is quite deeply rooted in the Indian
In order to test the relationship between the dimensions ethos.
of Karma-Yoga and moral motivation (measured as ter- As expected, moral judgment measured by P scores was
minal and instrumental values), the entire sample of not related to Karma-Yoga. Instead, a regression analysis
respondents was divided into two halves for each of the showed that the Stage 4 scores of individuals could sig-
dimensions of Karma-Yoga. Thus for each dimension of nificantly (p \ .001) predict duty-orientation. Since Stage
Karma-Yoga, the differences in value rankings for high 4 scores measure conventional moral reasoning (e.g.,
Karma-Yoga individuals and low Karma-Yoga individuals conformity to social norms), this finding is consistent with
were calculated using the nonparametric Wilcoxon rank earlier studies, which have shown that Kohlbergs model of
sum test. The results of this analysis are reported in moral development may have some limitations when it is
Table 2. Individuals who were rated high on indifference to applied in non-western cultures (Eckensberger 1994;
rewards gave a higher priority to the values of an exciting Harkness et al. 1981; Tietjen and Walker 1985). Even
life, equality, wisdom, forgiving, and responsi- though this study does not propose the mechanism by
ble and gave a lower priority to a comfortable life, which moral reasoning takes place in the Indian context, it
happiness, mature love, national security, and provides some support for the hypothesis that moral rea-
pleasure. Individuals who scored high on indifference to soning in the Indian context is not the same as moral rea-
rewards gave a higher priority to other-oriented values and soning in the west.
a lower priority to self-oriented values. Hence, Hypothesis
2 is supported. Limitations of the study

The four components of moral development were opera-


Discussion tionalized using empathy, terminal/instrumental values, P
scores, and conscientiousness, respectively. Except for P
Karma-Yoga shows promise as an alternative model of scores, the other three measures were used in this manner
moral development for Indian managers. Three dimensions for the first time in this study and hence could be a sig-
of moral development viz. moral sensitivity, moral moti- nificant source of error in the assessment of moral devel-
vation, and moral character are related to Karma-Yoga. opment. Specifically, the reliabilities of the scales for
Individuals who scored high on empathic concern, per- measurement of moral sensitivity were found to be very
spective taking, and conscientiousness also scored high on low. Future researchers must explore each of the

123
Z. R. Mulla, V. R. Krishnan

Table 2 Summary of
Values rated more important Values rated less important
nonparametric Wilcoxon test to
by followers who were rated by followers who were rated
study the relationship between
high on Karma-Yoga high on Karma-Yoga
moral motivation and Karma-
Yoga Duty-orientation An exciting life (Z = 2.37**) Freedom (Z = -1.97*)
Social recognition (Z = 2.13**) Happiness (Z = -2.08*)
Mature love (Z = -1.86)

Clean (Z = 1.74 )
Honest (Z = 1.63)
Indifference to rewards An exciting life (Z = 2.11*) A comfortable life (Z = -1.68)
Equality (Z = 3.07**) Happiness (Z = -2.42**)
Wisdom (Z = 3.37**) Mature love (Z = -1.68)
National security (Z = -1.78)
Pleasure (Z = -2.14*)
Forgiving (Z = 2.02*) Ambitious (Z = -1.69)
Responsible (Z = 2.20*) Loving (Z = -1.78)
Equanimity Equality (Z = 2.01*) A comfortable life (Z = -2.58**)
Wisdom (Z = 3.16**) Family security (Z = -1.94*)
Happiness (Z = -2.13*)
Broadminded (Z = 1.64)
Courageous (Z = 1.90*)
Helpful (Z = 1.85)
N = 406. p \ .10; * p \ .05; Self-controlled (Z = 2.39**)
** p \ .01

dimensions of moral development in more detail by trying respondents were urged to be honest with their responses
multiple measures for each dimension so that such mea- and they were assured that only aggregate data would be
surement biases can be eliminated. shared with their organization. Despite these precautions, it
The new construct introduced in this research was is likely that respondents tried to project themselves more
Karma-Yoga whose reliability was less than satisfactory. favorably than they actually were.
Reliabilities of the dimensions of Karma-Yoga have been
highly inconsistent across the studies in which the scales
have been developed and validated (Mulla and Krishnan Conclusions
2006, 2007, 2008). The low reliabilities could be because
of the tendency of Indians to hold inconsistent beliefs The main proposition of this paper is that Karma-Yoga
(Sinha et al. 2010). In any case, measuring such a complex constitutes a holistic model for moral development in the
construct by means of an 18-item scale is quite ambitious Indian context. Karma-Yoga or the technique of intelligent
and hence one is sure to miss some of its richness. Hence, action can be best described in the form of three interre-
alternative approaches to conceptualization and measure- lated constructs viz. duty-orientation, indifference to
ment of this constructs must be explored. For example, rewards, and equanimity. Each of these dimensions of
Mulla and Krishnan (2011) measured Karma-Yoga using Karma-Yoga is related to moral sensitivity, moral moti-
the relative rank given to the values of hardworking and vation, and moral character. Even though constructs like
ambitious in a set of instrumental values. conscientiousness have some commonality with one of
The questionnaires were administered to a sample drawn three crucial dimensions of Karma-Yoga (duty-orientation,
from two large organizations. At each of the locations, we indifference to rewards, and equanimity), none of those
had used the help of the human resources managers to constructs is similar to the composite construct of Karma-
select the teams and organize the infrastructure for Yoga. Karma-Yogas uniqueness is about merging those
administration of the questionnaires. In order to commu- three dimensions into a composite whole.
nicate that our study was an independent research and the According to Sumantra Ghoshal (2005, p. 76) by
responses would be kept confidential, the respondents were propagating ideologically inspired amoral theories, busi-
made to insert the completed questionnaires into a brown ness schools have actively freed their students from any
paper envelope, which was then sealed with glue. In sense of moral responsibility. In order to reverse the
addition, prior to filling up the questionnaires, the damage caused by these theories and to reinstitute ethical

123
Karma-Yoga: The Indian Model of Moral Development

or moral concerns in the practice of management, Ghoshal 2. While working, I keep thinking about what I will get in
called for teaching theories, which would help build moral/ return (negatively scored).
ethical organizations. The doctrine of Karma-Yoga is one 3. I work only when I see that there is some personal
such theory rooted in Indian philosophical beliefs of the benefit for me (negatively scored).
law of cause and effect (karma), the divinity of every being 4. I cannot work when I know that I will not get anything
(atma), and freedom from the cycle of birth and death in return for my efforts (negatively scored).
(moksha). Karma-Yoga emphasizes collective solidarity, 5. When I am given a task, I first think about how I will
considers moral behavior a duty, emphasizes interpersonal benefit from it (negatively scored).
responsibilities and social conventions, and is justified 6. When I do something well, I expect recognition from
based on the benefit it yields to the practitioner of Karma- others (negatively scored).
Yoga. Thus, Karma-Yoga also satisfies the five criteria
Scale for Karma-Yoga (equanimity)
along which moral reasoning differs in different cultures.
Businesses having employees of Indian origin can use this 1. I am neutral toward success and failure.
understanding to build systems and cultures consistent with 2. Compared to others, I get less depressed if I fail on a
Karma-Yoga. task.
The attitude of greed and selfishness encouraged by 3. Compared to others, I get less excited by my success.
some segments of the society has always been a cause for 4. I can work well only when my environment is
concern. Several evils in business and society have been comfortable (negatively scored).
attributed to such an attitude. Karma-Yoga presents itself 5. I do not get distracted by physical discomforts when I
as an excellent solution to address this problem. Karma- am working.
Yoga shifts individuals focus away from their rights to 6. I can remain concentrated on my work even if I am
their duties. A morally developed society will be one in uncomfortable.
which individuals are socialized to be keenly aware of their
duties toward others. When individuals focus on their
duties toward others, they will not be hankering after the
personal outcomes of their actions; they would therefore be References
totally devoted to the means of action, thereby enhancing
the quality of the process and outcomes. Being duty-ori- Agrawal, M., & Dalal, A. K. (1993). Beliefs about the world and
ented and not hankering after personal outcomes will make recovery from myocardial infarction. The Journal of Social
the individuals more calm and equanimous, resulting in a Psychology, 133, 385394.
Ashton, M. C. (1998). Personality and job performance: The
higher quality of life. It is only such individuals who can importance of narrow traits. Journal of Organizational Behavior,
become leaders of business and society. Leadership 19, 289303.
requires concern for others and thinking about others. Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The Big Five personality
Karma-Yoga will provide the right foundation for leader- dimensions and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel
Psychology, 44, 126.
ship to emerge. Bersoff, D. M., & Miller, J. G. (1993). Culture, context, and the
development of moral accountability judgments. Developmental
Psychology, 29, 664676.
Appendix Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.
Chinmayananda, S. (1989). The Bhagavad Geeta: Chapter I & II.
Scale for Karma-Yoga (duty-orientation) Mumbai: Central Chinmaya Mission Trust.
Connors, J., & Heaven, P. C. L. (1990). Belief in a just world and
1. I am aware of my obligations to others. attitudes toward AIDS sufferers. The Journal of Social Psychol-
ogy, 130, 559560.
2. I feel it is my duty to contribute to others.
Costa, P. T, Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1995). Domains and facets:
3. I hesitate to do what is expected of me (negatively Hierarchical personality assessment using the revised NEO
scored). Personality Inventory. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64,
4. I willingly do whatever task is assigned to me. 2150.
Crain, W. C. (1985). Kohlbergs stages of moral development. In
5. I gladly perform all duties, which are allotted to me.
Theories of development (pp. 118136). Prentice Hall. Retreived
6. Once I agree to do a task, I make sure that I complete on October 17, 2006 from http://faculty.plts.edu/gpence/html/
it. kohlberg.htm
Dalal, A. K., & Pande, N. (1988). Psychological recovery of accident
Scale for Karma-Yoga (indifference to rewards) victims with temporary and permanent disability. International
Journal of Psychology, 23, 2540.
1. I expect to be rewarded for whatever work I do Dasgupta, S. (1991). A history of Indian philosophy (Vol. 1). Delhi:
(negatively scored). Motilal Banarasidas. (Original work published 1922).

123
Z. R. Mulla, V. R. Krishnan

Davis, M. H. (1980). A multidimensional approach to individual Zezulka-Mailloux (Eds.), Culture and the State, Volume 4
differences in empathy. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in (Alternative Interventions) (pp. 164173). Edmonton: Canada
Psychology, 10, 85. Research Chairs Humanities Studio, University of Alberta,.
Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Mahadevan, T. M. P. (1958). The religio-philosophic culture of India. In
Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Person- S. Radhakrishnan, H. Bhattacharyya, R. C. Majumdar, S. K. Chat-
ality and Social Psychology, 44, 113126. terji, H. Kabir, S. K. De, et al. (Series Eds.) & S. K. Chatterji, N.
Eckensberger, L. H. (1994). Moral development and its measurement Dutt, A. D. Pusalker, & N. K. Bose (Vol. Eds.), The cultural heritage
across cultures. In W. J. Lonner & R. Melpass (Eds.), of India: Vol. 1. The early phases (2nd ed., pp. 163181). Kolkata,
Psychology and culture. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. India: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.
Ferns, I., & Thom, D. P. (2001). Moral development of black and white McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T, Jr. (1985). Updating Normans
South African adolescents: Evidence against cultural universality in adequacy taxonomy: Intelligence and personality dimensions
Kohlbergs theory. South African Journal of Psychology, 31, 46. in natural language and its questionnaires. Journal of Personality
Fu, G., Cameron, C. A., Xu, F., Heyman, G., & Lee, K. (2007). Cross- and Social Psychology, 49, 710721.
cultural differences in childrens choices, categorizations, and McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T, Jr. (1987). Validation of the five-factor
evaluations of truths and lies. Developmental Psychology, 43, model of personality across instruments and observers. Journal
278293. of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 8190.
Gandhi, M. K. (2001). The gospel of selfless action. (M. Desai, Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. (2007). Retrieved May 18,
Trans.). Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. (Original 2007, from http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/
work published 1946). Miller, J. G., & Bersoff, D. M. (1992). Culture and moral judgment:
Ghanananda, S. (1958). The dawn of Indian philosophy. In S. How are conflicts between justice and interpersonal responsibil-
Radhakrishnan, H. Bhattacharyya, R. C. Majumdar, S. K. Chat- ities resolved? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62,
terji, H. Kabir, S. K. De, et al. (Series Eds.) & S. K. Chatterji, N. 541554.
Dutt, A. D. Pusalker, & N. K. Bose (Vol. Eds.), The cultural Miller, J. G., Bersoff, D. M., & Harwood, R. L. (1990). Perceptions of
heritage of India: Vol. 1. The early phases (2nd ed., pp. 333344). social responsibilities in India and in the United States: Moral
Kolkata, India: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. imperatives or personal decisions. Journal of Personality and
Ghoshal, S. (2005). Bad management theories are destroying good Social Psychology, 58, 3347.
management practices. Academy of Management Learning and Mulla, Z. R., & Krishnan, V. R. (2006). Karma Yoga: A conceptu-
Education, 4, 7591. alization and validation of the Indian philosophy of work.
Goldberg, L. R. (1990). An alternative description of personality: Journal of Indian Psychology, 24(1/2), 2643.
The Big Five factor structure. Journal of Personality and Social Mulla, Z. R., & Krishnan, V. R. (2007). Karma-Yoga: Construct
Psychology, 59, 12161229. validation using value systems and emotional intelligence. South
Hafer, C. L., & Begue, L. (2005). Experimental research on just- Asian Journal of Management, 14(4), 116136.
world theory: Problems, developments, and future challenges. Mulla, Z. R., & Krishnan, V. R. (2008). Karma-Yoga, the Indian work
Psychological Bulletin, 131, 128167. ideal, and its relationship with empathy. Psychology and
Haidt, J., Koller, S. H., & Dias, M. G. (1993). Affect, culture, and Developing Societies, 20(1), 2749.
morality, or is it wrong to eat your dog? Journal of Personality Mulla, Z. R., & Krishnan, V. R. (2011). Is Karma-Yoga possible? Can
and Social Psychology, 65, 613628. we be hardworking without being ambitious? Great Lakes
Hamilton, V. L., Blumenfeld, P. C., Akoh, H., & Miura, K. (1990). Herald, 5(2), 4655.
Credit and blame among American and Japanese children: Narvaez, D., Getz, I., Rest, J. R., & Thoma, S. J. (1999). Individual
Normative, cultural, and individual differences. Journal of moral judgment and cultural ideologies. Developmental Psy-
Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 442451. chology, 35, 478488.
Harkness, S., Edwards, C. P., & Super, C. A. (1981). Social roles and Narvaez, D., & Rest, J. R. (1995). The four components of acting
moral reasoning: A case study in a rural African community. morally. In W. Kurtines & J. Gewitz (Eds.), Moral behavior and
Developmental Psychology, 17, 595603. moral development: An introduction (pp. 385400). New York:
Hogan, R. (1969). Development of an empathy scale. Journal of McGraw-Hill.
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33, 307316. Nisan, M. (1987). Moral norms and social conventions: A cross-
Hough, L. M. (1992). The Big Five personality variables- cultural comparison. Developmental Psychology, 23, 719725.
Construct confusion: Description versus prediction. Human Prabhavananda, S. (1960). The spiritual heritage of India. Hollywood,
Performance, 5, 139155. CA: Vedanta Society of Southern California.
International Personality Item Pool. (2001). A scientific collaboratory Radhakrishnan, S. (1926). The Hindu view of life. HarperCollins
for the development of advanced measures of personality traits Publishers India.
and other individual differences. Retrieved August 18, 2005, Radhakrishnan, S. (1940). Indian philosophy: Vol. 1. London: George
from http://ipip.ori.org/. Allen & Unwin.
Judge, T. A., Martocchio, J. J., & Thoresen, C. J. (1997). Five-factor Radhakrishnan, S. (1948/1993). The Bhagvadgita. HarperCollins.
model of personality and employee absence. Journal of Applied Publishers India.
Psychology, 82, 745755. Rahim, A. (1981). Organizational behavior courses for graduate
Kanungo, R. N., & Mendonca, M. (1996). Ethical dimensions of students in business administration: Views from the tower and
leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. battlefield. Psychological Reports, 49, 583592.
King, P. M., & Mayhew, M. J. (2002). Moral judgment development Rest, J. R. (1975). Longitudinal study of the Defining Issues Test of
in higher education: Insights from the Defining Issues Test. moral judgment: A strategy for analyzing developmental change.
Journal of Moral Education, 31, 247270. Developmental Psychology, 11, 738748.
Krishnan, V. R. (2001). Value systems of transformational leaders. Rest, J. R. (1990). Manual for the defining issues test-third edition.
Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 22, Center for the Study of Ethical Development, University of
126132. Minnesota. (Original published in 1979).
Krishnan, V. R. (2003). Modernization without demolishing cultural Rest, J. R., Cooper, D., Coder, R., Masanz, J., & Anderson, D. (1974).
roots: The role of transformational leadership. In J. Gifford & G. Judging the important issues in moral dilemmasAn objective

123
Karma-Yoga: The Indian Model of Moral Development

measure of development. Development Psychology, 10, Snarey, J. R. (1985). Cross-cultural universality of social-moral
491501. development: A critical review of Kohlbergian research. Psy-
Rest, J. R., Narvaez, D., Bebeau, M. J., & Thoma, S. J. (1999a). A chological Bulletin, 97, 202232.
neo-Kohlbergian approach: The DIT and schema theory. Edu- Snarey, J., & Lydens, L. (1990). Worker equality and adult
cational Psychology Review, 11, 291324. development: The Kibbutz as a developmental model. Psychol-
Rest, J. R., Narvaez, D., & Thoma, S. J. (1999b). DIT2: Devising and ogy and Aging, 5, 8693.
testing a revised instrument of moral judgment. Journal of Snarey, J. R., Reimer, J., & Kohlberg, L. (1985). Development of
Educational Psychology, 91, 644659. social-moral reasoning among Kibbutz adolescents: A longitu-
Rest, J. R., & Thoma, S. J. (1985). Relation of moral judgment dinal cross-cultural study. Developmental Psychology, 21, 317.
development to formal education. Developmental Psychology, Song, M., Smetana, J. G., & Kim, S. Y. (1987). Korean childrens
21, 709714. conceptions of moral and conventional transgressions. Develop-
Rest, J. R., Thoma, S. J., & Edwards, L. (1997a). Designing and mental Psychology, 23, 577582.
validating a measure of moral judgment: Stage preference and Stewart, G. L., Carson, K. P., & Cardy, R. L. (1996). The joint effects
stage consistency approaches. Journal of Educational Psychol- of conscientiousness and self-leadership training on employee
ogy, 89, 528. self-directed behavior in a service setting. Personnel Psychology,
Rest, J. R., Thoma, S. J., Narvaez, D., & Bebeau, M. J. (1997b). 49, 143164.
Alchemy and beyond: Indexing the Defining Issues Test. Journal Thoma, S. J., Rest, J. R., & Davison, M. L. (1991). Describing and
of Educational Psychology, 89, 498507. testing a moderator of the moral judgment and action relationship.
Rokeach, M. (1973). The Nature of Human Values. New York, NY: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 659669.
Free Press. Tietjen, A. M., & Walker, L. J. (1985). Moral reasoning and
Shweder, R. A., Mahapatra, M., & Miller, J. G. (1987). Culture and leadership among men in a Papua New Guinea society.
moral development. In J. Kagan & S. Lamb (Eds.), The Developmental Psychology, 21, 982992.
emergence of morality in young children (pp. 190). Chicago: Tilak, B. G. (2000). Srimad Bhagavadgita-Rahasya, (B. S. Sukhantar,
University of Chicago Press. Trans.). Poona: Kesari Press. (Original work published 1915).
Shweder, R. A., Mahapatra, M., & Miller, J. G. (1990). Culture and moral Turner, N., Barling, J., Epitropaki, O., Butcher, V., & Milner, C.
development. In J. W. Stigler, R. A. Shweder, & G. Herdt (Eds.), (2002). Transformational leadership and moral reasoning. Jour-
Cultural psychology. Essays on comparative human development, nal of Applied Psychology, 87, 304311.
(pp. 130204). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Vivekananda, S. (1972). The complete works of Swami Vivekananda
Shweder, R. A., Much, N. C., Mahapatra, M., & Park, L. (1997). The (eight volumes). Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama.
Big Three of morality (autonomy, community, divinity), and White, C. B., Bushnell, N., & Regnemer, J. L. (1978). Moral
the Big Three explanations of suffering. In A. Brandt & P. development in Bahamian school children: A 3-year examina-
Rozin (Eds.), Morality and health. New York: Routledge. tion of Kohlbergs stages of moral development. Developmental
Sinha, J. B. P., Singh, S., Gupta, P., Srivastava, K. B. L., Sinha, R. Psychology, 14, 5865.
B. N., Srivastava, S., et al. (2010). An exploration of the Indian
mindset. Psychological Studies, 55, 317.

123

You might also like