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The Organisms
That Build Reefs
Coral reefs are made of vast amounts of cal-
cium carbonate (CaCO3), limestone, that is
deposited by living things. Of the thousands of
species in coral reef communities, only a frac-
tion produce the limestone that builds the reef.
The most important of these reef-building or-
ganisms, as you might guess, are corals.
Reef Corals
Coral is a general term for several different
groups of cnidarians, only some of which
help build reefs (Table 14.1). In reef-building,
or hermatypic, corals the polyps produce
Table 14.1
Major Groups of Corals and Related Cnidarians on Coral Reefs
IMPORTANCE AS
COMMON NAME REEF BUILDERS NOTES
ANTHOZOANS (GROUP THAT INCLUDES SEA ANEMONES; LACK MEDUSA STAGE AND LIVE ONLY AS POLYPS)
Scleractinian corals The main reef builders Produce a calcareous skeleton; nearly all have zooxanthellae.
Soft corals Not reef builders Common on coral reefs (Fig. 14.28); most have zooxanthellae but
do not produce a rigid calcareous skeleton.
Organ-pipe corals Minor Named for pipe-like structure of skeleton; have zooxanthellae and
(Tubipora) produce a calcareous skeleton.
Blue coral (Heliopora) Significant in some places Named for distinct blue color of skeleton; has zooxanthellae and
produces a calcareous skeleton.
Gorgonians Not reef builders Sea fans (Fig. 7.10) and sea whips; hard skeleton is made mostly of
protein and not calcareous; some have zooxanthellae.
Precious corals Gorgonians with a pink, red, or gold calcareous skeleton used for
jewelry; occur mainly in deep water rather than on coral reefs and
do not contribute to reef growth; lack zooxanthellae.
Black corals Not reef builders Used to make jewelry and sometimes called precious corals but
are a different group from gorgonian precious corals; hard skeleton
is made of protein and is not calcareous; commonly occur in deep
and cold surface waters as well as on coral reefs.
HYDROZOANS (GROUP THAT INCLUDES JELLYFISHES; HAVE BOTH MEDUSA AND POLYP STAGES BUT ARE SEEN ON REEF ONLY AS POLYPS)
Fire corals (Millepora) Significant in some places Named because touching them produces a burning sensation from
their powerful nematocysts; have zooxanthellae and produce a
calcareous skeleton.
Lace corals Insignificant Named for delicate, branched colonies; lack zooxanthellae but
produce a calcareous skeleton; commonly occur in deep and cold
surface waters as well as on coral reefs.
(a) (b)
Figure 14.2 Cutaway view of one of the polyps in a coral colony and of the calcium
carbonate skeleton underneath. The polyps are interconnected by a very thin layer of tissue.
288 Part 3 Structure and Function of Marine Ecosystems www.mhhe.com/marinebiology
Coral Reproduction
Corals are amazingly adaptable animals. They however, are broadcast spawners and re-
come in all shapes and sizes and have many lease eggs and sperm into the water.
ways to feed themselves. It should come as no The most spectacular form of sexual
surprise, then, that they also have more than reproduction in corals is mass spawning,
one way to reproduce. in which many different coral species on a
One form of reproduction in corals is es- reef all spawn at the same time. Mass
sentially the same as growth. As individual spawning was first reported from the Great
polyps reproduce vegetatively by dividing Barrier Reef, where it takes place for a few
into new polyps, the colony as a whole nights a year between October and early
grows. The process is taken a step further December just after a full moon. At a given
when a piece of a coral colony breaks off and place the time of the mass spawning event
grows into a new daughter colony. This re- can usually be predicted down to the night.
production by fragmentation seems to be Since its discovery on the Great Barrier Reef
quite important for some coral species, which mass spawning has been observed on many
may even be adapted to break easily to pro- other reefs around the world.
duce more fragments. The growth of broken Spawning corals release their eggs and
coral fragments into new colonies is also an sperm through the mouth. In some species
important part of the recovery of reefs from the gametes are packaged into little bundles,
storm damage and other disturbances, and which may contain both eggs and sperm or
transplanting fragments is one way that sci- only one or the other. The bundles float to
entists and conservation groups help restore the surface and break up, allowing the eggs
The release of sperm and egg
damaged reefs (see Restoration of Habitats, and sperm to mix.
bundles during the mass coral
p. 407). Nobody knows why the corals all spawn
spawning on the Great Barrier Reef.
Corals can also reproduce sexually. Like together. Maybe egg predators get so full
Photographs courtesy of the Great
other animals, they produce eggs and sperm, that most of the eggs go uneaten. Maybe it
Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority.
which fuse and develop into planula larvae, has something to do with the tides. There
the characteristic larvae of cnidarians. Some coral species have may be an explanation that no one has thought of. Another inter-
separate sexes, but about three-quarters are hermaphrodites and esting thing is that although mass spawning happens on some
make both eggs and sperm. The method of fertilization also reefs it does not occur on others. Is there something different
varies. In some corals, whether or not they are hermaphrodites, about these reefs? Finding answers to these questions is likely to
the egg is fertilized and develops inside the polyp. Most corals, occupy coral reef biologists for some time to come.
such organisms, or bioerosion, tends to wear ments that determine where reefs develop. water and do not need light, but these corals
the reef away, although some of the sediment Reefs are rare on soft bottoms, for example, do not contain zooxanthellae or build reefs.
they create does get reincorporated into the because coral larvae need to settle on a hard Corals also prefer clear waters, since water
reef structure. Many other organisms surface. clouded with sediment or plankton reduces
including sponges, clams, polychaete and light penetration.
other worms, and algaecause bioerosion by Light and Temperature Corals can Reef-building corals are limited to warm
burrowing into or through the reef limestone, grow only in shallow water, where light can water and can grow and reproduce only if
either scraping it away to form sediment or penetrate, because the zooxanthellae on the average water temperature is above about
dissolving it. A reef grows only if corals, which they depend need light. Calcareous 20C (68F). Most reefs grow in considerably
coralline algae, and sediment-forming and algae require sunlight as well. Particular warmer areas. Figure 14.10 illustrates the re-
-binding organisms accumulate limestone types of coral and algae have different depth lationship between coral reefs and water
faster than the bioeroders wear it away. limitssome can live deeper than others temperature.
but reefs rarely develop in water deeper than
Conditions for Reef Growth about 50 m (165 ft). Because of this, coral
Corals need light and warm temperatures, so
Other organisms may be important, but coral reefs are found only on the continental
reefs do not develop without reef-building shelves, around islands, or on top of reefs grow only in shallow, warm waters.
corals. Corals have very particular require- seamounts. Many types of coral live in deep
Coral Reefs Chapter 14 291
Hard substrate
(a)
Figure 14.9 This calcareous green alga
(Halimeda) is one of the main sediment-
forming organisms on most reefs. About 95%
Loose sediment
and coral rubble
of the plants weight is calcium carbonate, and
there is only a thin layer of live tissue on the
outside. When the tissue dies the segments
separate, each leaving a piece of limestone.
60 60
Pacific
Persian Gulf Ocean Bermuda
30 30
Red
Sea Hawaiian West
Guam Marshall Islands Indies
Maldive Islands Belize
Islands Papua
New Guinea Galpagos Atlantic
0 Suvadiva n R. 0
Islands a zo Ocean
Indonesia Am Brazil
Indian
Fiji
Great French
Ocean Barrier New
Caledonia Polynesia
30 Reef 30
Coral reefs Reef-building corals Average 20 isotherm Warm current Cold current
Figure 14.10 The distribution of reef coral communities, including those that do not form structural reefs. Note that the distribution of reef
corals, like that of kelps, is related to temperature. Reef corals require warm water, however, while kelps need cold water. Compare the distribution
of reefs with that of kelps shown in Figure 13.21. Note that because of warm surface currents corals extend further north and south on the east
sides of continents than on the west sides.
El Nio (see The El NioSouthern Os- p. 394). On the other hand, bleaching is nat- Salinity, Sediments, and Pollution
cillation Phenomenon, p. 336), brings un- ural and past events probably often went unre- Most corals are quite sensitive to reduced
usually warm water to many parts of the ported because many reefs are in remote loca- salinity and do not do well near river mouths,
ocean. Widespread coral bleaching and mor- tions. Today scientists continually monitor sea for example, where there is a lot of freshwater
tality also occur during El Nio events. Dur- surface temperatures by satellite and can use input. This is not only because of the lowered
ing the unusually strong El Nio of 199798, the Internet to immediately report bleaching salinity but also because rivers bring in a lot
severe bleaching occurred on many reefs when it occurs. El Nio is also a natural event, of silty sediment, which is generally unfavor-
around the world, probably as a direct result and the unusually strong recent El Nios that able to corals. It clouds the water, cutting
of the unusually warm water. In some places, have brought such widespread coral bleaching down light for the zooxanthellae. Sediment
including the Caribbean and parts of the are to some extent probably just normal, ran- on the colony surface can smother the coral
Great Barrier Reef, bleaching did not kill dom fluctuation. Temperature records stored or cause disease, though the coral can clean
many corals, and reefs quickly recovered after in the oxygen isotopes of fossil corals, in fact, itself to some extent by sloughing off mucus
the water cooled. In other areas, such as the show that the most intense El Nio events of that carries the sediment away.
Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia, and the far the last millennium took place in the mid-17th Some corals tolerate high levels of sedi-
western Pacific, many corals died after century, long before the smokestacks of the in- ment and build reefs in silty environments,
bleaching and some reefs were severely dam- dustrial revolution began belching huge quan- where some even feed on the organic-rich
aged. Many of these reefs have recovered tities of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and other sediment particles. Most reefs, however, de-
slowly or not at all. greenhouse gases. Nonetheless, the sea has velop in clear, low-sediment waters and are
High water temperatures have led to other steadily warmed in many reef areas over at vulnerable to high levels of sediment unless
major, though more localized, bleaching least the last 50 to 100 years, and climate sci- there is enough wave or current action to
events since the 199798 El Nio. Reef scien- entists predict that with global warming this wash the sediment away (Fig. 14.12). Many
tists are increasingly concerned that bleaching trend will continue. Combined with other reefs around the world have been damaged
is becoming more frequent and more intense human-induced stresses (see Coral Reefs, by human activities like mining, logging, con-
as a result of global climate change (see Living p. 391), this warming threatens coral reefs struction, and dredging that greatly increase
in a Greenhouse: Our Warming Earth, around the world. the flow of sediment onto the reef.
Coral Reefs Chapter 14 293
Fringing Reefs
Sediment and
Fringing reefs are the simplest and most com- rubble
mon kind of reef. They develop near shore
throughout the tropics, wherever there is
some kind of hard surface for the settlement Figure 14.14 Typical structure of a fringing reef. Fringing reefs, like this one in the Bismarck
of coral larvae. Rocky shorelines provide the Archipelago in the southwest Pacific (photo), can grow right up to the shore.
best conditions for fringing reefs. Fringing
reefs also grow on soft bottoms if there is
even a small hard patch that lets the corals
get a foothold. Once they get started, the
corals create their own hard bottom and the
reef slowly expands.
As their name implies, fringing reefs grow
in a narrow band or fringe along the shore
(Fig. 14.14). Occurring close to land, they are
especially vulnerable to sediment, freshwater
runoff, and human disturbance. Under the
right conditions, however, fringing reefs can
be impressive. In fact, the longest reef in the
world (though not the one with the largest
coral area) is not the famous Great Barrier
Reef in Australia but a fringing reef that runs
some 4,000 km (2,500 mi) along the coast of
the Red Sea. Part of the reason this reef is so
well-developed is that the climate is dry and
there are no streams to bring in sediment and
fresh water.
The typical structure of a fringing reef is
shown in Figure 14.14. Depending on the Figure 14.15 The upward growth of most reefs is limited by the tides. When extreme low
place, the shore may be steep and rocky or tides occur, shallow areas like this reef flat on the Great Barrier Reef are exposed. If the corals are
have mangroves or a beach. The reef itself only exposed for a short time, they can survive, but they will die if exposed for too long. It is this
consists of an inner reef flat and an outer occasional exposure at extreme low tides that keeps reef flats flat because all the corals above a
reef slope. The reef flat is the widest part of certain depth are killed. Photograph courtesy of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority.
the reef. It is shallow, sometimes exposed at
low tide (Fig. 14.15), and slopes very gently colonies nor as many different species as on the densest cover (Fig. 14.16) and the most
toward the sea. Being closest to land, it is the the reef slope. Seaweeds, seagrasses, and soft species of coral, because the slope is away
part of the reef most strongly affected by sedi- corals may also occupy the reef flat, some- from shore and therefore away from the ef-
ments and freshwater runoff. The bottom is times in dense beds. fects of sediment and fresh water. Also, the
primarily sand, mud, or coral rubble. There The reef slope can be quite steep, nearly waves that bathe the slope provide good cir-
are some living corals, but neither as many vertical in fact. It is the part of the reef with culation, bring in nutrients and zooplankton,
296 Part 3 Structure and Function of Marine Ecosystems www.mhhe.com/marinebiology
Atolls
An atoll is a ring of reef, and often islands or
Figure 14.19 Spur-and-groove formations at Kure atoll in the northwestern Hawaiian sand cays, surrounding a central lagoon
Islands. The dark elevated ridges are the coral spurs; the light-colored grooves (arrows) channel (Figs. 14.21 and 14.22). The vast majority of
sand down the reef slope. The northwestern Hawaiian Islands include 70% of the coral reef in atolls occur in the Indo-West Pacific region,
United States waters and are one of the largest relatively pristine reef areas in the world. that is, the tropical Indian and western Pacific
298 Part 3 Structure and Function of Marine Ecosystems www.mhhe.com/marinebiology
oceans. Atolls are rare in the Caribbean and in pure blue ocean water, atolls display spec- How Atolls Form When atolls were dis-
the rest of the tropical Atlantic Ocean. Un- tacular coral growth and breathtaking water covered, scientists were at a loss to explain
like fringing and barrier reefs, atolls can be clarity. They are a divers dream. them. It was known that corals can grow only
found far from land, rising up from depths of in shallow water, yet atolls grow right in the
thousands of meters or more. With practi- Atoll Structure Atolls range in size from middle of the ocean, out of very deep water.
cally no land around, there is no river-borne small rings less than a mile across to systems Therefore, the atoll could not have grown up
silt and very little freshwater runoff. Bathed well over 30 km (20 mi) in diameter. The from the ocean floor. If the reefs grew on
Coral Reefs Chapter 14 299
Sand cay
Reef flat
Lagoon
Fore-reef Wind
(outer) Back-reef
slope (inner) slope
Spur and
groove
Back-reef
(inner) slope
Algal
Pinnacle ridge
Fore-reef
(outer)
slope
some kind of shallow structure that was al- hypotheses, none of which held up. Finally The Ecology of Coral Reefs
ready there, like a seamount, why is there no scientists found conclusive evidence that Dar-
sign of it? The islands on atolls are simple win was right. Unlike other hypotheses for Coral reefs may be impressive to geologists,
sand cays that have been built by the accu- atoll formation, Darwins hypothesis predicted but to the biologist they are simply awesome.
mulation of reef sediments and would not that, below the thick calcium carbonate cap They are easily the richest and most complex
exist without the reef. They are products of formed by the reef, there should be volcanic of all marine ecosystems. Literally thousands
the reef and could not provide the original rockthe original island. In the 1950s the of species may live on a reef. How do all
foundation for reef growth. Finally, why do United States Geological Survey drilled several these different species live? How do they af-
atolls always form rings? deep holes on Enewetak atoll in the Marshall fect each other? What is their role in the reef
The puzzle of atoll formation was solved Islands. These cores revealed exactly what ecosystem? These and countless other ques-
by Charles Darwin in the mid-nineteenth cen- Darwin predicted: volcanic rock far beneath tions fascinate coral reef biologists.
tury. Darwin is most famous, of course, for the calcium carbonate of the reef. The thick- Our ability to answer the questions, how-
proposing the theory of evolution by natural ness of the carbonate cap is impressive. The ever, is surprisingly limited. This is partly be-
selection, but his theory of atoll formation was volcanic island underlying Enewetak is cov- cause reefs are so complicated. Just keeping
another important contribution to science. ered by more than 1,400 m (4,600 ft) of cal- track of all the different organisms is hard
Darwin reasoned that atolls could be ex- cium carbonate!
plained by reef growth on a subsiding island. Scientists now believe almost unanimously
The atoll gets its start when a deep-sea vol- that Darwins hypothesis of atoll formation is
The trade winds, the steadiest winds on
cano erupts to build a volcanic island. Corals correct. There are, of course, a few details to earth, blow from latitudes of about 30
soon colonize the shores of the new island, be added to the picture, in particular the ef- toward the Equator.
and a fringing reef develops (Fig. 14.23a). As fects of changes in sea level (see Climate and
with most fringing reefs, coral growth is most Changes in Sea Level, p. 32). When sea level Chapter 3, p. 53; Figure 3.20
vigorous at the outer edge of the reef. The is low, atolls may be left above the surface. The
Subsidence The slow sinking into the
inner reef is strongly affected by sediment corals die and the reef is eroded by the wind
mantle of a part of the earths crust that
and runoff from the island. and rain. If sea level rises rapidly, the atoll may contains a landmass.
Surprisingly, Darwins explanation of atoll be drowned, unable to grow in deep water. In
formation was pretty much ignored for a cen- either case, corals recolonize the atoll when Chapter 11, p. 226
tury while scientists proposed various other the sea level returns to normal.
300 Part 3 Structure and Function of Marine Ecosystems www.mhhe.com/marinebiology
Island
Fringing reef
Barrier reef
Lagoon
(a)
Atoll
(b)
Predators
fishes, squids, snails Herbivory
Predation
Detritus feeding or export
Contribution to detritus pool
Consumers Grazers Detritus feeders Coral and coral mucus feeders Plankton feeders
fishes, urchins, snails, sea cucumbers, worms, fishes, sea stars, crabs fishes, sea fans, feather stars
chitons amphipods, soft corals
From other
communities Plankton
(estuaries, Detritus
subtidal, especially
mangroves and
seagrass beds)
Figure 14.26 A generalized coral reef food web. Coral reefs are extremely diverse, and most components include many organisms in addition
to those listed here.
a short, thick turf on the reef flat. A great is fascinating; what remains to be learned will neighbors off from the light. Other corals
many fishes, sea urchins, snails, and other be even more so. take a more direct approach and actually at-
animals graze on these seaweeds. The tack their neighbors (Fig. 14.27). Some use
turf algae may perform more photosynthesis Competition Space is at a premium on their mesenterial filaments for this. When
on the reef than the zooxanthellae, but biolo- coral reefs, as it is in the rocky intertidal (see they contact another coral, they extrude the
gists are not sure. The Battle for Space, p. 232). Corals, sea- filaments and digest away the tissue of the
weeds, and many others need a hard place on other coral. Still other corals develop special
Zooxanthellae and turf algae are probably the which to anchor themselves. Corals and sea- long tentacles, called sweeper tentacles, that
weeds need not just space but space in the are loaded with nematocysts and sting neigh-
most important primary producers on coral
sunlight. The reef is crowded, and most of boring colonies. Corals differ in their aggres-
reefs. sive abilities. The most aggressive corals tend
the available space is taken. As a result the
sessile organisms, those that stay in one to be slow-growing, massive types, whereas
Cyanobacteria, some other bacteria, and place, must compete for space. the less aggressive forms are usually fast-
coralline algae are also primary producers on growing, upright, and branching. Both strate-
coral reefs. They probably account for less gies have their advantages, and both kinds of
primary production than do zooxanthellae Sessile coral reef organisms must compete for corals thrive on the reef.
and turf algae. space. Corals and seaweeds compete for light
as well.
The two main ways in which corals compete
Coral Reef Communities
for space are by overgrowing their neighbors
With so many species on coral reefs, the in- Corals compete for space in different
teractions among them are exceedingly com- ways. The fast-growing ones tend to grow up- and by directly attacking them.
plex. What is known about these interactions ward and then branch out, cutting their
Coral Reefs Chapter 14 303
no scientists around to see them. Geologists for example, a popular dive spot or a scien-
found fossil evidence of crown-of-thorns out- tific research site. Otherwise, they allow the
breaks dating back thousands of years, and in outbreak to run its course.
some places there are old stories and other
historical evidence for past outbreaks. The The crown-of-thorns sea star has undergone
outbreaks, then, may be a natural part of the
population explosions on many Pacific reefs.
reef ecosystem. A leading hypothesis is that in
unusually wet years river runoff naturally There is still debate about what causes the
brings more nutrients into the sea than nor- outbreaks and what should be done about
mal. According to this hypothesis, the extra them.
nutrients increase the growth of phytoplank-
ton that are food for sea star larvae. It may Figure 14.33 The long-spined black sea
also be that periodic population explosions Grazing Grazing on algae by herbivores is urchin (Diadema antillarum) is one of the most
are a natural part of the sea stars biology. at least as important in coral reef ecosystems important grazers on Caribbean reefs. Closely
The evidence for past outbreaks of the as is predation on corals. Many fishes, espe- related species are found on reefs in other
crown-of-thorns, however, is hotly disputed. cially surgeonfishes (Acanthurus), parrot- parts of the world.
Some scientists are convinced that the fishes (Scarus, Sparisoma), and damselfishes
plagues result from some human activity that (Pomacentrus, Dascyllus) graze intensively on
has altered the ecological balance of reefs. reefs. Among the invertebrates, sea urchins slack for the fishes, and seaweed populations
Even if outbreaks did occur in the past, they (Diadema, Echinometra) are especially impor- remained more or less stable. In 1983, how-
seem to be happening more often. If occa- tant. Many microherbivores, small inverte- ever, a disease wiped out populations of the
sional peaks in nutrient inputs cause natural brates like snails, chitons, crustaceans, and urchin over much of the Caribbean. Sea-
outbreaks, nutrients from fertilizers, sewage, polychaete worms, also eat algae. weeds, released from grazing pressure, be-
and other human sources may be making Many seaweeds grow rapidly and have the came much more abundant on many reefs, at
them worse. Another hypothesis is that fish- potential to outcompete and overgrow corals. the expense of corals. In Jamaica they took
ers have caught too many fishes that eat Under natural conditions they are kept in over many reefs almost completely, and the
young sea stars, allowing more to survive to check by grazers, and to some extent by nu- formerly rich coral reefs are now more sea-
adulthood. Some biologists have suggested trient limitation. Caging experiments (see weed bed than coral reef.
that plagues occur because shell collectors Transplantation, Removal, and Caging Ex- Many reef scientists fear that such
have removed the triton shell, a large snail periments, p. 236) have been used to changes are becoming more and more com-
that preys on adult crown-of-thorns. Others demonstrate the importance of grazers. For mon as fishing pressure on reefs escalates be-
argue that even without shell collectors the example, seaweeds are abundant on sand flats cause of increasing populations and demand
triton shell has always been naturally rare and next to many Caribbean reefs but relatively for tasty reef fish. There is often a double
unlikely to control sea star populations. They scarce on the reef itself. To test the hypothe- whammy. Coastal development often leads
also point out that crown-of-thorns outbreaks sis that reef fishes were responsible for this, not only to more intensive fishing, but also
continue to occur in areas where collecting biologists transplanted seaweeds from the to greater release of nutrients from sewage
triton shells has been banned for years. sand flat to the reef. If left unprotected, they and agricultural fertilizer. Thus, seaweed
The mystery of what causes crown-of- were soon eaten by fishes. When protected growth may be artificially enhanced by eu-
thorns plagues remains unsolved. The ques- by cages, they grew even faster than on the trophication at the same time that the grazers
tion has practical implications for the man- sand flat! The seaweeds are perfectly capable that keep the seaweeds under control are re-
agement and protection of reefs. If the of living on the reef, therefore, but are rare moved. This is one of the main global threats
plagues are caused by humans and threaten there because they get eaten. Caging experi- to coral reefs.
reefs, then we should probably try to do ments on the Great Barrier Reef have had
something to stop them. On the other hand, similar results. Grazers help prevent fast-growing seaweeds
the plagues may be a natural, potentially If grazers are removed, seaweeds can flour-
from overgrowing other sessile organisms on
important, part of the ecosystem. We might ish and take over space from corals and other
do more harm than good by interfering in a organisms. In many parts of the Caribbean, the reef.
system we dont understand. The managers of for example, grazing reef fishes have become
the Great Barrier Reef have taken a middle less common because of fishing. When this In addition to controlling how much algae
road. They have developed an effective happened another important grazer, a sea there is, grazers affect which particular types
method to kill sea stars by injecting them urchin (Diadema antillarum; Fig. 14.33), be- of seaweed live on the reef and where.
with a poison. They use the poison, however, came more common. The urchin apparently Coralline algae, for example, are abundant
only if a crown-of-thorns outbreak is threat- benefited from the reduced competition. For because the calcium carbonate in their tissues
ening a particularly valuable part of the reef, years, the urchin seems to have picked up the discourages grazers. Other seaweeds produce
Coral Reefs Chapter 14 307
noxious chemicals that are poisonous or taste geonfishes gobble up the algae, clearing space
bad; these seaweeds also tend to be abun- for other organisms. Thus, the community in- Symbiotic relationships are very important in
dant. Seaweeds that lack such defenses are side the territory is very different from that coral reef communities. Coral reefs probably
most heavily grazed and thus tend to be rare. outside. One interesting point is that have more examples of symbiosis than any
Even so, they generally grow rapidly and are cyanobacteria, which are nitrogen fixers, are
other biological community.
an important food source. much more common inside damselfish terri-
Damselfishes provide some interesting ex- tories than outside. Thus, damselfishes may
amples of the effects of grazing on reefs. indirectly have an important role in the nutri- We have already seen how mutualism be-
Many damselfishes graze on seaweeds inside ent balance of the reef. tween corals and their zooxanthellae is the es-
territories that they vigorously defend, chas- sential feature of reef formation. Many other
ing away other fishes that happen to venture
inside. Many such damselfishes actually Living Together Among the vast number
farm their territories. They weed out un- of species that live on coral reefs, many have
Chitons Molluscs whose
palatable algae, pulling them up and carrying evolved special symbiotic relationships. There shells consist of eight
them outside the territory. What is left in the are far too many cases of symbiosis on the reef overlapping plates on their
territory is a dense mat of tasty seaweeds, to describe here. In fact, coral reefs probably upper, or dorsal, surface.
usually fine, filamentous types. Protected by have more different symbiotic relationships
the damselfish, these algae grow very rapidly than any habitat on earth. The few examples Chapter 7, p. 129
and outcompete corals and coralline algae. discussed here will give you some idea of how
Outside the territory, parrotfishes and sur- fascinating these relationships are.
308 Part 3 Structure and Function of Marine Ecosystems www.mhhe.com/marinebiology
Do-It-Yourself Summary pp. 3057. A fabulous tour of the between latitudes. Oceanography and
The Online Learning Center provides a fill- earths largest reef area. Marine Biology: An Annual Review,
in-the-blank summary that allows you to vol. 36, pp. 6569.
Maragos, J. and D. Gulko (Editors),
review and check your understanding of
2002. Coral reef ecosystems of the Munday, P. L. and G. P. Jones, 1998. The
this chapters subject material.
northwestern Hawaiian Islands: Interim implications of small body size among
results emphasizing the 2000 surveys. coral-reef fishes. Oceanography and
Key Terms U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Marine Biology: An Annual Review,
All key terms from this chapter can be Hawaii Department of Land and vol. 36, pp. 373411.
viewed by term, or by definition, when Natural Resources, Honolulu, Hawaii,
studied as flashcards in the Online Spalding, M. A., C. Ravilious and E. P.
46 pp.
Learning Center. Green, 2001. World Atlas of Coral Reefs.
Marshall, J., 1998. Why are reef fish so University of California Press, Berkeley,
colorful? Scientific American Presents, 424 pp.
Critical Thinking
vol. 9, no. 3, Fall 1998, pp. 5457. The
Wilkinson, C. (Editor), 2002. Status of
1. What factors might account for the fact often gaudy colors of reef fish serve to
Coral Reefs of the World: 2002. Australian
that the vast majority of atolls occur in attract mates, fend off rivals, and deter
Institute of Marine Science, Townsville,
the Indian and Pacific oceans and that predators.
378 pp.
atolls are rare in the Atlantic?
Pain, S., 1997. Swimming for dear life. New
2. Scientists predict that the ocean will Scientist, vol 155, no. 2099, 13 See It in Motion
get warmer and the sea level will rise September, pp. 2832. The tiny larvae Within this chapter, this icon
as a result of an intensified greenhouse of coral reef fishes are champion represents an underwater videoclip that
effect (see Living in a Greenhouse: swimmers. They have to be. helps illustrate a specific topic being
Our Warming Earth, p. 394). How discussed. These videoclips can be
might this affect coral reefs? Ross, J. F., 1998. The miracle of the viewed within the Online Learning Center
reef. Smithsonian, vol. 28, no. 11, for this chapter.
3. There are only a few reefs off the February, pp. 8696. Scientists study
northeast coast of Brazil (see map in mass coral spawning on reefs in Florida.
Fig. 14.10), even though it lies in the Marine Biology on the Net
tropics. How would you explain this? To further investigate the material
IN DEPTH discussed in this chapter, visit the Online
Baker, A. C., 2003. Flexibility and Learning Center and explore selected
For Further Reading
specificity in coral-algal symbiosis: web links to related topics.
Some of the recommended readings
listed here may be available online. These Diversity, ecology, and biogeography Coral reefs
are indicated by this symbol and will of Symbiodinium. Annual Review of
Class Anthozoa
contain live links when you visit this page Ecology and Systematics, vol. 34,
in the Online Learning Center. pp. 661689. Color bleaching
Hedley, J. D. and P. F. Sale, 2002. Are Mangroves
GENERAL INTEREST populations of reef fish open or closed? Community ecology
Trends in Ecology and Evolution, vol. 17,
Benchley, P., 2002. Cuba reefs. National Competition
pp. 422428.
Geographic, vol. 201, no. 2, February,
Parasitism, predation, and herbivory
pp. 4467. The reefs and coral keys Kennedy, D. M. and C. D. Woodroffe,
of Cuba are home to spectacular 2002. Fringing reef growth and Biodiversity
gardens of sponges, fishes, and morphology: A review. Earth Science Food webs
other organisms. Reviews, vol. 57, pp. 255277.
Chadwick, D. H., 2001. Kingdom of coral: Miller, M. W., 1998. Coral/seaweed Quiz Yourself
Australias Great Barrier Reef. National competition and the control of reef Take the online quiz for this chapter to
Geographic, vol. 199, no. 1, January, community structure within and test your knowledge.