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Merits of space exploration within the federal budget

Patrick OConnor Deleted:

Abstract: In the mid-twentieth century, the development of rockets allowed humans to Formatted: Font:Bold
Deleted: Abstract
transition from simply observing space to the physically studying. This new field of space

exploration has been a source of competition and collaboration between nations, from probes to

manned spaceflights. Over the last decade, interest in space tourism has renewed excitement in

space exploration after decreased attention post-Cold War. In recent years, economic strain and

scientific illiteracy have made space exploration a target for federal budget cuts in the United

States. Here I show that space exploration provides key universal benefits on a national and Deleted: we

worldwide level. At the local level, space exploration leads to further economic opportunities such

as asteroid mining, improved energy generation techniques, and innovative consumer technology.

At the global scale, space exploration innovates and uses advanced technologies that provide

protection against climate change, asteroidal impact, and hazardous space weather. This analysis

illustrates the continued importance of government-funded space exploration, such as the National

Aeronautics and Space Administration, in a post-Cold War era. Furthermore, both the private and

public sectors of space exploration work together symbiotically to the benefit of society.

Introduction: In 1958, United States President Eisenhower established the National Formatted: Font:Bold
Deleted: Page Break
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in response to the Soviet Unions first satellite,
Economic Opportunities ... [1]

Sputnik I (Hagerty, 1958). The resulting contest between the two countries, referred to as the space

race, sparked a series of remarkable engineering and scientific advancements. The 1969 landing

on the moon by the United States highlighted this era of progress by officially making humankind

an interplanetary species, and pioneering the way for the modern age of exploration and discovery

beyond Earth. Since the end of the space race in 1975, NASAs budget has been reduced from
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4.41% of federal spending in 1966 to a mere 0.48% in 2016 (Office of Management and Budget).

Lack of interest and understanding of NASAs contributions has made them a target during budget

cuts, subsequently limiting federally funded space exploration. Despite neglect from the

government and public, space exploration drives economic opportunities, technological Deleted: more

advancements, and worldwide prosperity, making government investment beneficial to all. Deleted: not only
Deleted: , but vital
Economic Opportunities: When debating the need for space exploration funding, it is Deleted: Economic Opportunities ... [2]
Formatted: Font:Bold
important to consider the economic benefits generated by such ventures. Near-Earth asteroids

(NEAs) consist of many raw materials needed on both the ground and in space, making asteroid Deleted: s

mining a potentially productive industry. The metallic core of asteroids contains metals such as Deleted: prolific
Deleted: has
gold and the platinum-group metals as well as important semiconductors (Ross, 2001). Exploiting Deleted: many precious
Deleted: Au
these resources would build an estimated 10 50 billion dollars market annually and reduce the Deleted: ,
Deleted: Pt
costs of high value elements, allowing growth in research and application of these metals (Kargel, Deleted: (Pt, Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, and It), Re, and Ge (Ross,
2001). In addition to precious metals,
1996). NEA resource extraction has the added benefit of assisting space industrialization. Space Deleted: vital
Deleted: , such as Ag, In, Co, Ga, and As, are also found in
industrialization needs metals for construction, volatiles for propellants, and raw mass for radiation large quantities in the metallic core
Deleted: has
shielding (Sonter, 1997). One of the foremost issues facing space markets is the launch cost of Deleted: market that generates
Deleted: ing
materials from Earth, which can exceed $10,000/kg (Sonter, 1997). Pulling a NEA into Low-Earth Deleted: Equally essential to terrestrial use is the benefit of
Deleted: to
Orbit (LEO) and obtaining materials directly in space removes this cost, significantly decreasing
Deleted: unprocessed

the capital investment in space ventures. NEA mining would give us a fresh source of some of our

rarest elements while making space exploration more economically feasible.

Beyond asteroids, abundant amounts of He-3, an isotope of helium that could revolutionize

energy production, are held in the lunar regolith. The value of He-3 comes from its scarcity on

Earth and the potential to fuel nuclear fusion reactors (Mckay and Sullivan, 1991). Using He-3 as

fusion fuel in lieu of deuterium (H-2) allows a fusion reaction without producing unruly neutrons
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or radioactivity (Treske, 2011). Drawbacks to nuclear fission, the current method for generating

nuclear energy, include concerns over toxic radioactive waste, meltdowns, and contamination

(Lewis, 1980). Fusion reactors, in comparison, do produce long-lived nuclear waste or pollutants Deleted: not result in

and are without the risk of meltdown, all while releasing more energy than the process of fission

(Abdou, 1999). The only known terrestrial source of He-3 to fuel this ample, clean energy system

comes from the decay of tritium, a nuclear byproduct that poses environmental and health concerns

(Treske, 2011). With the cost of energy production via fossil fuels reaching tens of billions of

dollars annually, estimates show that a single He-3 extraction expedition could supply United Deleted: can

States energy usage for a year while removing the environmental consequences of hydrocarbon-

based energy (Mckay and Sullivan, 1991). Lunar mining is potentially an economically, as well as

environmentally, profitable option in the ever-growing energy market.

The moon, and other regions of space, are also an opportunity for direct energy extraction Deleted: is

from the sun. The issues experienced with terrestrial solar power are inconsistent solar radiation

exposure and low efficiency of both photovoltaic and thermal power methods. Of the 70% of solar

energy that is not reflected into space (Wood, 2014), photovoltaic and thermal power methods are

only able to produce power at 20% efficiency (Seboldt, 2004). However, in space there is no Deleted: In space, h

atmosphere, thus reducing the risk of diffuse solar radiation and deteriorating equipment (Wood, Deleted: which has the issues

2014). Furthermore, a proposed method of energy collection by satellites through transmitting

energy via microwaves would have an efficiency rate of 80% from microwaves to DC electricity

(Seboldt, 2004). While launch and investment costs prevent immediate large-scale use, space solar Deleted: An added benefit is the absence of a day and night
period in space, making solar power from satellites a more
consistent power source than solar power collected on our
power applications are already being developed that are technically and economically achievable planet.

(Straub, 2015). Space solar power systems are a practical long-term solution to our energy crisis

without economic compromise.

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Technological Advancements: The most noticeable benefits of space exploration to society Deleted: Technological Advancement

come from the technological leaps into the future. Spinoff, a NASA publication outlining

commercial technologies stemming from missions and research, averages 50 new technologies

annually (NASA, 2017). One notable result of NASAs ingenuity is memory foam, originally used

as a padding for airplane seats (NASA, 1976). Most commonly associated with mattresses and

pillows, memory foam has also found use in all forms of transportation, prosthetics, and safety

equipment (NASA, 1976, 1995). In addition to tangible technologies, NASA has also developed

first-class software with a wide range of applications. Computer programs sold through NASAs Deleted: Their c
Deleted: ,
Computer Software Management and Information Center (COSMIC) have applications in many Deleted: at relatively low cost,

areas including structural analysis, photo/video enhancement, and artificial intelligence software

(NASA, 1997, 2005, 2017). In 2010, NASA developed one of the earliest open-source, cloud-

based computing platforms to increase accessibility and avoid building expensive data centers

(Valentine, 2010). Additionally, NASA paved the way for a technology used by billions, digital

imaging. NASA invented the CMOS sensor, known as a camera on a chip, for interplanetary Deleted: When
Deleted: needed
missions (NASA, 2010). Most digital imaging markets including cellphones, DSLR cameras, and Deleted: a miniature camera
Deleted: , they invented the CMOS sensor,
medical imaging use this sensor (NASA, 2010). These frequent breakthroughs occur because Deleted: known as a camera on a chip
Deleted: Spinoff
confronting problems in an extraterrestrial environment forces innovation through necessity and
Deleted: Spinoff

benefit the economy as much as their missions.

Not only does space exploration develop new consumer technologies, technological

derivatives from NASAs space exploration program has had many life changing, even saving,

consequences. Because of the immense temperatures experienced during reentry into the Earths

atmosphere, NASA had to find a method of fire resistance that would hold up to the heat (NASA, Deleted: Spinoff

2006). Up to the challenge, they created a thin insulating coating material that swells in response Deleted: n
 5

to heat (NASA, 2006). This subtle feature provides up to four hours of fire protection, preventing Deleted: , but applied in a thickness of a few millimeters as
to not affect the aesthetic or shape of the steel

premature collapse of buildings and allowing for greater evacuation times (NASA, 2006). Along Deleted: Spinoff
Deleted: Spinoff
the same vein, better firefighting equipment, including improved tanks, harnesses, and regulators,

designed by NASA has saved both firefighters and victims of fires alike (NASA, 1976). Similarly, Deleted: Spinoff

space explorations need for robotic advancements later promoted the development of more

capable artificial limbs (NASA, 2004) with a more natural and comfortable experience for the Deleted: Spinoff

wearer (NASA, 2005). NASAs contribution to technological advancements has not only led to a Deleted: Spinoff

better quality of life, but safer as well.

Worldwide Prosperity: Satellites, NASAs greatest contribution, give information about Deleted: Worldwide Prosperity
Deleted: However,
Earth and space important to protecting life on Earth. NASAs satellites measure and monitor Deleted: , satellites
Deleted: s
numerous Earth activities, including clouds, the ocean, and, arguably the most prominent, gases in Deleted: that allows them
Deleted: all terrestrial
the atmosphere (Allen, 1996). NASA has recorded global temperatures rising and the Deleted: forms
Deleted: all of
consequences in the form of rising sea levels, shrinking ice sheets, extreme weather events, and
Deleted: s
Deleted: processes
ocean acidification (GISTEMP Team, 2017; Tenenbaum, 2017). This knowledge may lead to
Deleted: &

political and socioeconomic changes that will ensure the continued prosperity of humanity. Deleted: NASA has also correlated rising temperatures to
the increases in CO2 levels since the Industrial Revolution
(Tenenbaum, 2017).
Looking out, space exploration has revealed extraterrestrial factors that pose a danger to

our lives, and life itself. In 1998, NASA began the Centre for Near-Earth Object Studies (CNEOS) Deleted: Strong evidence suggests asteroids caused
extinction events, and possibly cyclical in nature (Rampino
and Caldeira, 2015).
project to measure objects near Earth greater than one kilometer in diameter, later reduced to

objects greater than 140 meters in 2005 (Chodas, 2017). NASA has recorded 7,646 NEA greater Deleted: As of 10 May 2017,

than 140 meters, with new ones continually being discovered (Chodas, 2017). For perspective, a

NEA 30 meters in diameter would release the energy of 100 nuclear bombs close to the Earths

surface and a NEA two kilometers in diameter would likely destroy civilization (Chapman, 2004).

Given modern space technologies and several years of preparation, we could deflect a NEA less
 6

than 200 meters in diameter, with hopes that further funding will increase the size of NEA we can

reliably block (Smith et al., 2004). Despite discovery of many, no NEA of significant mass is on

a collision path with Earth within the next century (Chapman, 2004). Thanks to NASAs continual

monitoring of the night sky, we can sleep soundly without fear of asteroidal extinction.

Geomagnetic storms, on the other hand, pose a more acute space hazard to civilization. Deleted: however
Deleted: pose
Coronal mass ejections, a large emission of magnetized plasma from the sun, create a solar wind Deleted: acute
Deleted: space presents to life on Earth
that disrupts the Earths magnetosphere (Frazier, 2016). A strong geomagnetic storm would cause

extensive damage to power grids, radio communications, and satellites, leading to widespread

power outages that would require trillions of dollars and a considerable amount of time to repair

(National Research Council of the National Academies, 2008). Luckily in 2007, NASA began
Solar Shield, a project to watch space weather and alert power companies of dangers to reduce
damage (Pulkkinen, 2017). With funding, NASA will continue to closely monitor and protect us
Deleted: The Office of Risk Management and Analysis
describes how the consequences would wreak havoc on the
energy, transportation, communications, banking, and
finance sectors, as well as government services and
emergency response capabilities, (2011).

from harmful space weather.

Importance in Budget: Within recent years, people have been reluctant to support space Deleted: Relevance in Budget
Deleted: the strained economy makes
exploration in favor of more pressing problems such as homelessness, energy, and war. It stands Deleted: seem like an expendable ambition

to reason that we should take care of issues on our home planet before we start looking out.

However, extraterrestrial aspirations lead to terrestrial solutions. As demonstrated, space

exploration in the 60s developed many technologies widely used today and new economic

possibilities have begun to take hold. Space exploration is already grossly underfunded in favor of Deleted: Not only does s
Deleted: deserve a place in the budget, it
futile pursuits such as defense. The United States defense budget for the 2016 fiscal year is over

$540 billion (Office of Management and Budget, 2016). Compared with China and Russia, the

U.S. spends ~3.7 and ~8.2 times more respectively on defense (Stockholm International Peace

Research Institute, 2017). The last state-sponsored attack on American soil was Pearl Harbor in
 7

1941, making military spending beyond World War II an offence budget, not defense. Diverting a Deleted: past

fraction of this spending to more honorable pursuits, such as space exploration, would benefit Deleted: noble

society greatly.

While government-funded exploration of space has been the working model in the past, Deleted: Privatization

the lack of support on a political level has begun to push the space sector towards privatization

with moderate success. Privatized space companies, such as Orbital ATK and SpaceX, have

already obtained commercial resupply service contracts and begun to create modules for the

International Space Station (Garcia, 2016). Privatization will amortize the cost of space ventures,

making space exploration more fiscally attainable. However, we must embrace privatization in

addition to, and not replace, federally funded space exploration because the goals of the private

sector and public sector are different. While the public sector is willing to fund a probe into space Deleted: , whose interests lie in profit,
Deleted: , whose aim is society betterment,
just for the pursuit of knowledge, a business would be less inclined to because their interests lie in

profit. Together, privatization and government-funded programs are symbiotic and will magnify

the benefits of space exploration.

Conclusion: In a short amount of time, space exploration has been useful in creating Formatted: Justified, Indent: First line: 0.5", Line spacing:
double, No widow/orphan control

lucrative opportunities, advancing technologies, and protecting our existence. As seen from Deleted: Conclusion
Deleted: has proven a champion of
NASAs performance in the space race, funding is proportional to the benefits drawn from state- Deleted: Growth in privatization will amplify these benefits
while making space technologies more economically
feasible.
sponsored space exploration. Perhaps equally significant is the intangible satisfaction of learning

more about our place in the universe and the wonder of space. The United States was born and

built by generations of adventurers, explorers, and risk-takers, making space the natural

progression in our culture of pursuing the unknown. As a nation, we must further support space

exploration in the federal budget to reap its benefits of universal welfare and vitality. Deleted:
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Introduction

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Economic Opportunities