I H C V I N H

TH V I N

I H C Q U C G I A H NI
512.5071
NG-H/00 NGUYN HU VIT HNG
IDT. 001158

AI S TUYN TNH

NH XUT BN I HC QUC GIA H NI

 I H C Q U C G I A H NI

NGUYN HU VIT HNG

I S TUYN TNH

NH XUT BN I HC Quc GIA H NI 2000



 MC L C

Mc lc 3
Li ni u
Ch dn v Lch s 10

Chng 0: Kin thc chun b 14

1. Tp hp 14
2. Quan h v nh x 18
3. Lc lng ca tp hp 22
4. Nhm, Vnh v Trng 25
5. Trng s thc 32
6. Trng s phc 36
7. a thc 41
Bi tp 46

Chng : Khng gian vct 51

1. Khi nim khng gian vct 51
2. c lp tuyn tnh v Ph thuc tuyn tnh 57
3. C s
v S chiu ca khng gian vct 63
4. Khng gian con - Hng ca mt h vct 70
5. Tng v Tng trc tip 73
6. Khng gian thng 76
Bi tp 79

Chng 2: Ma trn v nh x tuyn tnh 85

1. Ma trn 85
2. nh x tuyn tnh 92
3. Ht nhn v nh ca ng cu 102
4. Khng gian vct i ngu 108
Bi tp 114

Chng 3: nh thc v H phng trnh tuyn tnh 122

1. Cc php th 122

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 2. nh thc ca ma trn 125
3. nh x a tuyn tnh thay phin 131
4. nh thc ca t ng cn 135
5. Cc tnh cht su lum ca nh thc 138
(). nh t hc v Hng cua ma trn 144
7. H phng tr nh tuyn tnh - Quy tc Cramer 146
8. H phng tr nh tuyn tnh - Phng php kh Gauss . . . . 149
9. Cu trc nghim ca h phng tr nh tuyn tnh 155
Bi tp 157

Chng 4: Cu trc ca t ong cu 167

1. Vct ring v Gi tr ring 167
2. Khng gian con n nh ca cc t ng can thc v phc 173
3. T ng can cho hoa c 175
4. T ng cu ly linh NO
5. Ma trn chun Jordan ca t ng cu 184
6. nh l Cayley - Hamilton, a thc t i tiu 191
Bi tp 197

Chng 5: Khng gian vector Euclid 206

1. Khng gian vct Euclid 206
2. Anh x trao giao 219
3. Php bin oi liu hp v Php bin i oi xng 232
4. Vi nt ve khng gian 1'iiit.rt 240
Bi tp 243

Chng ti: Dng song tuyn tnh v Dng ton phng 252
1. Khi nim Dng song tuyn tnh v Dng ton phng . . . 252
2. a dng ton phng ve dng chnh tc 255
3. Hng v Hch ca dng ton phng 262
4. Ch
s qun tnh 265
5. Dng ton phng xc nh du 270
Bi tp 272

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Chng 7: i s a tuyn tnh 279
1. Tch tenx 280
2. Cc tnh cht c bn ca tch tenx 288
3. i s tenx 287
4. i s i xng 292
5. Di s ngoi 298
Bi tp * 307

Ti liu tham kho 309

Ch dn 311

5
 "A mathematical idea should not be petrified in a formalised
axiomatic setting, but should be considered instead as flowing -
as a river."

James Joseph Sylvester

(1814 - 1897)

6
 L I NI U

Theo dng lch s, mn i s tuyn tnh khi u vi vic gii v

bin lun cc h phng trnh tuyn tnh. v sau, c t h hiu t h u
o cu trc ca t p nghim v iu kin mt h phng trnh t u y n
tnh c nghim, ngi ta xy ng nhng khi nim t r u tng h n n h
khng gian vct v nh xa tuyn tnh. N g i t cng c nhu cu kho
st cc khng gian vi nhiu thuc tnh hnh hc han, trong c t h
o di ca vct v gc gia hai vct. Xa hn, hng nghin cu
ny dn t i bi ton phn loi cc dng ton phng, v tng qut hn
phn loi cc tenx, di tc ng ca mt nhm cu trc no .
Ngy nay, i s tuyn tnh c ng ng vo hng lot lnh vc
khe nhau, t Gii tch t i Hnh hc vi phn v L thuyt biu din
nhm, t C hc, V t l t i K thut... V th, n tr t h n h mt
mon hc c s cho vic o to cc gio vin trung hc, cc chuyn gia
bc i hc v trn i hc thuc cc chuyn ngnh khoa hc c b n v
cng ngh trong t t c cc trng i hc.
c hng trm cun sch v i s tuyn tnh c xut bn trn
ton t h gii. Chng ti nhn thy c hai khuynh hng ch yu trong
vic trnh by mn hc ny.
Khuynh hng t h nht bt u vi cc khi nim ma t r n , nh
thc v h phng trnh tuyn tnh, ri i ti cc khi nim t r u tng
hn nh khng gian vct v nh x tuyn tnh. Khuynh hng n y d
tip thu. Nhng n khng cho php trnh by l thuyt v nh thc v
h phcrng trnh tuyn tnh bng mt ngn ng c ng v p .
Khuynh hng t h hai trnh by cc khi nim khng gian vct
v nh x tuyn tnh trc, ri p dng vo kho st nh thc v h
phng trnh tuyn tnh. u i m ca phng p h p ny l cao v
p trong tnh nht qun v cu trc ca cc i tng c kho st.
Nhc im ca n l khi xt tnh c lp tuyn tnh v ph thuc

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tuyn tnh, tht ra n g i ta phi i mt vi vic gii h p h n g
trnh tuyn tnh.
Cch trnh by no cng c ci l ca n. Theo kinh nghim ca
chng ti th nn chn cch trnh by t h hai cho cc sinh vin c kh
n n g t duy t r u tng t t hn v c mc ch hng t i mt mt
bng kin thc cao hn v ton.
Cun sch ny c chng ti bin son nhm mc ch lm gio
trnh v sch tham kho cho sinh vin, sinh vin cao hc v nghin cu
sinh cc ngnh khoa hc t nhin v cng ngh ca cc t r n g i hc
khoa hc t nhin, i hc s phm v i hc k thut. Cun sch
c vit trn c s cc bi ging v i s t u y n t n h ca t i trong
nhiu nm cho sinh vin mt s khoa ca t r n g i hc Tng hp (nay
l Di hc khoa hc T nhin) H Ni v ca mt s t r n g i hc s
phm.
Chng ti chn khuynh hng t h hai trong hai khuynh hng trnh
by ni trn. T t nhin, vi i cht thay i , cun sch n y c
t h dng ging i s tuyn tnh theo khuynh hung t r n h by t h
nht.
Tu tng cu trc c chng ti nhn mnh n h mt mch chnh
ca cun sch. M i i tng u c nghin cu trong m i t n g
quan vi nhm cc php bin i bo ton cu trc ca i t n g :
Kho st khng gian vcta gn lin vi nhm tuyn t n h tng q u t
GL(n, K), khng gian vcta Euclid v khng gian vct Euclid nh
hng gn lin vi nhm trc giao 0(n) v nhm trc giao c bit
SO(n), khng gian Unita gn lin vi nhm unita (n)... K t qu phn
loi cc dng ton phng ph thuc cn bn vo vic q u t r n h p h n
loi c tin hnh di tc ng ca nhm n o (tuyn t n h tng qut,
trc giao...).
Theo kinh nghim, chng ti khng th ging ht ni dung ca cun
sch ny trong mt gio trnh tiu chun v i s t u y n t n h cho sinh
vin cc trng i hc, ngay c i vi sinh vin chuyn n g n h ton.
Cc ch v m,a trn dng chun Jordan ca t ng cu, nh l
Cayey-Hamilton, a thc ti tiu, vic ua ng thi hai dng ton

8
phung v dng chnh tc, ai s tenx, i s i xng v i s
ngoi... nn dng ging chi tit cho cc sinh Mn cao hc v nghin
cu sinh cc ngnh Ton, C hc v Vt l.
Mc d cun sch c trnh by theo phng php tin , chng
ti c gng gi gn s ti mt ca trc gic, nhm nh hng t duy
v ni kt cc lp lun hnh thc. Chng ti bnh lun ngha ca
cc khi nim v u khuyt im ca cc phng php c trnh by.
Cui mi chng u c phn bi tp, c tuyn chn ch yu t cun
sch ni ting "Bi tp i s tuyn tnh" ca I . V. Proskuryakov.
nm vng kin thc, c gi nn c rt k phn l thuyt trc khi
lm cng nhiu cng tt cc bi tp cui mi chng.
Cun sch ny l phn mt ca mt b sch m phn hai ca n l
cun i s i cung ca cng tc gi, do Nh xut bn Gio dc H
Ni n hnh nm 1998 v ti bn nm 1999.
Tc gi ging gio trnh ny trong 3 nm hc 1997-1998, 1998-
1999, 1999-2000 cho sinh vin cc ngnh Ton, C, L, Hoa, Sinh, a
l, a cht, Kh tng thy vn... ca Chng trnh o to C nhn
khoa hc ti nng, i hc khoa hc T nhin H Ni. Tc gi chn
thnh cm n Ban iu hnh Chng trnh o to c nhn khoa hc
ti nng, i hc Khoa hc t nhin H Ni, c bit l Gio s m
Trung n v Gio s Nguyn Duy Tin, to mi iu kin thun
li tc gi ging dy cho sinh vin ca Chng trnh trong ba nm
qua v vit cun sch ny trn c s nhng bi ging . Tc gi trn
trng cm n TS. Phm Vit Hng, PGS. TSKH. Nguyn T Cng v
TS. Phan Don Thoi c k ton b bn tho v gp nhiu kin
qu bu. Tc gi bit n cc sinh vin ca Chng trnh o to C
nhn khoa hc ti nng gip chnh l cc li nh my v cc sai st
k thut.
Tc gi mong nhn c s ch gio ca cc c gi v ng nghip
v nhng thiu st kh trnh khi ca cun sch.

H Ni, 28/8/2000

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 CH DN V L C H s

Cho ti u th k 20, i s hc ch yu nghin cu vic gii cc

phng trnh i s: Bng chng l cch t tn nh l c bn ca i
s hc (khang nh rng mi a thc h s phc vi bc dng u c
nghim phc). Sau ny, cc nh ton hc tm cch gii thch nhiu
hin tng ging nhau xut hin nhng i tng rt khc nhau, i
s hc dn dn tr thnh khoa hc nghin cu cc cu trc i s tru
tng.
V mt lch s, vic nghin cu gii cc-phng trnh a thc c
trc vic nghin cu bn thn cc a thc. N nh du s khi u
ca ton hc sau thi k c i. Cng vi vic gii cc phng trnh
i s, khi nim s phc ra i. Pht minh ln u tin ca ton
hc trong thi k Phc hng, khng nghi ng g na, chnh l cng thc
3
gii phng trnh bc ba X pX = q. Cng thc ny c Scipione del
Ferro, gio s trng i hc Bologne, tm ra vo u th k 16. Nhng
Cardano li l ngi u tin cng b cng thc ny vo khong 1545.
Qung 1540, mt hc tr ca Cardano l Farrari thu c cng thc
gii phng trnh bc bn. Tip , vic gii phng trnh bc nm
giy v cc nh ton hc trong sut gn 300 nm, cho ti 1826 khi Abel
chng minh nh l ng kinh ngc khng nh rng khng tn ti cng
thc biu th nghim ca cc phng trinh tng qut bc > 5 qua cn
thc. Vi nm sau , Galois a ra mt tiu chun cho tnh gii c
bng cn thc ca tt c cc phng trnh a thc. Trong L thuyt
ca Galois, mi phng trnh a thc c t tng ng vi mt
nhm, sau ny c gi l nhm Galos ca phng trnh . Phng
trnh cho gii uc bng cn thc nu v ch nu nhm Galois ca
n l mt nhm gii uc. Chng hn nhm Galois ca phng trnh
5
X - = 0 l nhm xyclic cp 4, do gii c. T t nhin, phng
5
trnh X - = 0 gii c bng cn thc. Ngc li, nhm Galois ca
5
phng trnh h s hu t X - X - = 0 l nhm i xng S 5 gm

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t t c cc h o n v t r n 5 phn t . Nhm ny khng gii c, do
5
phng t r n h X X = 0 khng gii c bng cn thc. C t h
ni, bng cng t r n h x u t sc k trn, Galois chnh l ngi khi u
cho c l thuyt n h m l n l thuyt cc a thc.
Song song vi vic nghin cu gii cc phng trnh a thc l nhng
c gng n h m chng minh nh l c bn ca i s hc. Ngi ta t n
cng vn n y vo khong 1746. Trong khi c gng a ra mt chng
minh thun tuy i s, n g i ta nhn ra rng cn phi s dng cc tnh
cht tp ca n g thng s thc. Lagrange cng b mt chng
minh ca nh l c bn vo nm 1771.
V m t lch s, i s tuyn tnh c sinh ra t vic nghin cu
cc h p h n g t r n h t u y n tnh. Leibniz cp n vn ny vo
n m 1678. T i 1748 Mac Laurin a ra cng thc gii cc h phng
trnh tuyn tnh hai hoc ba n. Sau Cramer hon thin cng thc
ny cho t r n g hp tng qut vo khong 1750. T i p Vandermonde
ri Laplace c t n g nh ngha nh thc cp n bng truy chng theo
n, da t r n vic khai t r i n nh thc theo mt hng hay mt ct.
M t khc, trong t c phm "Nghin cu S hc", xc nh mt
php bin i t u y n tnh, Gauss a ra mt k hiu di dng bng:
chnh l ma t r n . Ong cng nh ngha tch ca hai ma trn. iu
ny gi cho Cauchy i t i nh l v tch ca hai nh thc, c cng
b trong m t bi bo n m 1815. Vo gia t h k 19, Cayley v Silvester
p h t t r i n l t h u y t ma trn. Cc khi nim ma trn v nh thc
ngy cng quen thuc h n vi cc nh ton hc, chng gp phn lm
chn dn trong h nhng nim v khng gian n chiu. Khong 1843 -
1845, Cayley v Grassmann vt qua c nhng t r ngi cui cng
ni v khng gian vct n chiu. Cayley tng qut hoa khi nim
toa trong hnh hc gii tch a ra khi nim dy n t h n h phn
(xi,x ,
2 ...,x ).
n V phn mnh, Grassmann c pht t r i n mt "phn
tch hnh hc" c k h nng tnh ton trn cc i lng c hng mt
cch ni t i (ngha l c lp i vi vic chn h toa ) . Theo chng
ti, y l mt tung c ngha cch mng to ln. Ong a ra
nh ngha s c l p tuyn tnh ca mt h vct v nh ngha s

li
chiu ca mt khng gian vct con. Cui cng, Pano tin e hoa
i s tuyn tnh vo nm 1888. Tuy th, cho t i 1930, quan im ma
t r n v toa vn thng th so vi quan im ni t i hn v cc khng
gian vct.
Nm 1826, trong khi tm cch xc nh cc trc chnh ca mt mt
bc hai, Cauchy a ra khi nim a thc c trng ca mt ma
t r n . Khi nim tng qut v gi tr ring ca mt t ng cu xut hin
vo t h k 18 khng phi trong l thuyt cc php bin i tuyn tnh,
m trong l thuyt h phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh h s hng, c
Lgrange nghin cu nm 1762. Di s tuyn tnh theo ngha hin i
p h t t r i n t nhng nm 1840. Vo khong 1880, l thuyt h phng
trnh tuyn tnh (h s thc v phc), l thuyt gi tr ring ca cc ma
t r n vung v vic a cc ma trn v dng chun tc c hon
t t . nh l Cayley - Hamilton xut hin trong mt bi bo ca Cayley
n m 1858, c chng minh ch cho trng hp cc ma t r n cp 2 v
cp 3. Thc ra, mi t i khong 1880 cng trnh ny ca Cayley mi
c bit t i nh vic Cauchv, Sylvester, Hermite v Weierstrass p h t
t r i n l thuyt cc dng song tuyn tnh. Lc , nghin cu ma t r n
tr thnh mt thi i . Weierstrass thu c kt qu v vic a
ma trn v dng chun tc, thng c gi l dng chun tc Jordan.
Bng nhiu cng trnh gia cc nm 1877 v 1880, Frobenius t ra l
chuyn gia hng u trong lnh vc ny trc khi i s tuyn tnh t
c s tin hoa do Pano thc hin vo nam 1888.
Khi nim dng ton phng ra i t s nghin cu cc mt nn
ca Fermat t h k 17 v sau t s nghin cu cc mt bc hai ca
Euler vo t h k 18. Nm 1826, nhm phc v cho vic ging dy t i i
hc Bch khoa Paris, Cauchy thng nht cc kt qu lin quan n
vic rt gn cc dng ton phng. Chnh vo dp ny ng t vn
nghin cu gi tr ring ca ma trn i xng thc (trong ngn ng
hin i) v chng minh tnh thc ca cc gi tr ring ca ma t r n
. T h l l thuyt v khng gian vct Euclid ra i . Bc chuyn
l thuyt ny qua s chiu v hn c thc hin ch yu nh Hilbert
vo cui th k 19,,sau nh Schmidt v Frechet vo nam 1908.

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 Nin i cc nh i s hc tiu biu
(t thi Phc hng t i
s. Ferro (1465 - 1526)
L. Ferrari (1522 - 1565)
R. Descartes (1596 - 1650)
I . Newton (1642 - 1727)
G. Cramer (1704 - 1752)
J. D'Alembert (1717- 1783)
J. Lagrange (1736 - 1813)
c. Gauss (1777 - 1855)
N . H. Abel (1802 - 1829)
w. Hamilton (1805 - 1865)
E, Galois (1811 - 1832)
A. Cayley (1821 - 1895)
L. Kronecker ( 1823 -1891)
R. Dedekind (1831 - 1916)
c. Jordan (1838 - 1922)
G. Frobenius (1849 - 1918)
w. Burnside (1852 - 1927)
D. Hilbert (1862 - 1943)
E. Noether (1882 - 1935)
H. Weyl (1885 - 1955)
13
u t h k X X ) :
G. Cardano (1501 - 1576)
F. Vite (1540 - 1603)
P. Fermat (1601 - 1665)
G. Leibniz (1646 - 1716)
L. Euler (1707- 1783)
A. Vandermonde (1735 - 1796)
P. Laplace (1749 - 1827)
A. Cauchy (1789 - 1857)
c. Jacobi (1804 - 1851)
H. Grassmann (1809 - 1877)
J. Sylvester (1814 - 1897)
c. Hermite (1822- 1901)
B. Riemaiin (1826 - 1866)
L. Sylow (1832 - 1918)
s. Lie (18.42 - 1899)
F. Klein (1849 - 1925)
H. Pincar (1854 - 1912)
E. Cartau (1869 - 1951)
I . Schur (1885 - 1941)
E. Artin (1898 - 1962)
 Chng 0

KIN THC C H U N B

Nhim v ca chng ny l trnh by d i dng gin lc nht mt

s ki n thc ehun b cho phn cn li ca cun sch: T p hp, quan
h, nh xa, nhm, vnh, trng, a thc... Trng s thc s c xy
dng cht ch 5. Nhng v cc tnh cht ca n r t quen thuc vi
nhng ai hc qua chng trnh trung hc ph thng, cho lin chng
ta vn ni t i trng ny trong cc v d cc t i t 1 - 4.

Tp hp
Trong t i t ny, chng ta trnh by v tp hp theo quan i m ca "L
thuyt tp hp ngy th".
C t h , tp hp l mt khi nim "nguyn t h y " , khng c nh
ngha, m c hiu mt cch trc gic nh sau: M t tp hp l mt s
qun t cc i tng c cng mt thuc tnh n o ; nhng i tng
ny c gi l cc phn t ca tp hp . ( T t nhin, m t ni trn
khng phi l mt nh ngha ca tp hp, n ch din t khi nim
tp hp qua mt khi nim c v gn gi hn l "qun t " . Tuy vy,
bn t h n khi nim qun t l i cha c nh ngha.)
Ngi ta cng thng gi t t tp hp l "tp" D c mt s v d,
chng ta c t h xt tp hp cc sinh vin ca mt t r n g i hc, tp
hp cc xe t i ca mt cng ty, tp hp cc s nguyn t ...
Cc tp hp thng c k hiu bi cc ch in hoa: A, B,c,X,Y,
z...
Cc phn t ca mt tp hp thng c k hu b i cc ch in
thng: a, 6, c, ...,,?/, z...
ni X l mt phn t ca tp hp X, ta vi t X X v c l "x
thuc H". Tri li,' ni y khng l phn t ca X , ta v i t y X , v
u
c l y khng thuc X". -

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 xc nh m t t p h p , ngi ta c th lit k t t c cc phn t
ca n. Chng hn,

A = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}.

Ngi ta cng c t h x c nh mt tp hp bi mt tnh cht c t r n g

v(x) n o ca cc phn t ca n. T p hp X cc phn t X c tnh
cht v{x) c k hiu l

X = {x\V(x)},

hoc l
x = {x: V{x)}.

V du:

N = {x\ X l s t nhin},
z = {x\ X l s nguyn } ,
Q = {x\ X l s hu t } ,
R = {x\ X l s thc}.

Nu mi phn t ca tp hp A cng l mt phn t ca tp hp

X th ta ni A l mt tp hp con ca X, v vit A c X. Tp con A
gm cc phn t X ca X c tnh cht v(x) c k hiu l

A-={xeX\ V(x)}.

Hai t p hp X v Y c gi l bng nhau nu mi phn t ca

tp hp n y cng l mt phn t ca tp hp kia v ngc l i , tc l
X c Y v Y c X. K h i ta vit X =Y.
T p hp k h n g cha mt phn t no c c k hiu bi 0, v
c gi l tp rng. Ta quy c rng 0 l t p con ca mi t p hp.
T p hp rng r t t i n l i , n ng vai tr nh s khng trong khi lm
ton vi cc t p hp.
Cc p h p t o n hp, giao v hiu ca hai tp hp c nh ngha
nh sau. ^

15
 Cho c c t p h p v B .
Hp ca A v B c k h i u b i Au B va c n h ngha n h
sau

Au B = {x\ X e A hoc X e B}.

Giao ca A v B c k h i u b i An B va c n h ngha n h sau

A n B = {x\ X e A v X B}. '

Hiu ca A v B c k h i u b i A \ B v c n h ngha n h sau

A\B = {x\ X e A vkxB}.

N u B c A t h A \ B c gi l phn b ca B t r o n g v c k
h i u l C (B).
A

C c p h p t o n h p , giao v h i u c c c t n h cht s c p sau y :

K t hp: (AUB)\jC = U (5 C),
(AnB) n = An (5 n).
Giao h o n : Au B = BUA,
AnB = An A
P h n phi: in(Buc) = (i4 n 5 ) u (;4 n ) ,
-iu(Bn) = (u)n(Au).
C n g t h c De Morgan: X\( 4UB) J = (X \ A) n {X \ B),
X\(AnB) = (X\A)U{X\B).
G i s Ai l m t t p h p v i m i thuc m t t p ch s / (c t h
h u h n hay v h n ) . K h i , h p v giao ca h t p h p {Ai)i c
n h ngha n h sau:

{J Ai = {x\ X E Ai v i m t n o t r o n g /},
te/
Pl Ai = {x\ X G Ai v i m i G / } .
te/
Ta c d n g t n g q u t ca cng t h c De Morgan:

*\(4) = Q(*\A),
te/ te/
- A'\(fA) = U(*\A).
ie/ iel

16
 Vic s dng qu rng ri khi nim tp h p dn ti mt s
nghch l. M t trong s l nghch l Cantor sau y.
Ta ni tp hp X l bnh thng nu X X. Xt tp hp

X {X\ X l tp bnh thng}.

Nu X 6 X th theo nh ngha ca X, n l mt tp bnh thng. Do

, theo nh ngha tp bnh thng, X X. Tri l i , nu X X, th
X l mt tp khng bnh thng, v do X e X. C hai trng hp
n dn t i mu thun.
e trnh nhng nghch l loi nh vy, ngi ta s khng dng khi
nim tp hp ch "nhng thc t h qu ln". Ta s ni "lp tt c
cc tp hp", ch khng ni "tp hp tt c cc tp hp". Theo quan
nim ny X ch l mt lp ch khng l mt tp hp. V th, ta t r n h
c nghch l ni trn.

Phn cn l i ca t i t ny c dnh cho vic trnh by s lc v

lng t ph bin v lng t tn t i .
Ta thng cn phi pht biu nhng mnh c dng: "Mi phn
t X ca tp hp X u c tnh cht V(x)". Ngi ta quy c k hiu
mnh ny nh sau:
Vx e X, V(x).
Dy k hiu trn c c l "Vi mi X thuc X, r
V{x) . Nhiu khi,
dy k hiu cng c vit nh sau: V(x), Vx X.
K hiu V c gi l lu ang t ph bin.
Tng t, ta cng hay gp cc mnh c dng: "Tn ti mt phn
t X ca X c tnh cht V(x)". Mnh ny c quy c k hiu
nh sau:
3xeX, V(x).
Dy k hiu c c l "Tn ti mt X thuc X, V(x)".
K hiu 3 c gi l lng t
tn ti.
Mnh "Tn tai duy nht mt phn t X ca X c tnh cht V(x)"
c vit nh sau:
3 X E X , V ( x ) .

17
 Lng t ph bin v lng t tn ti c mi quan h quan trng
sau y.
Gi V l ph nh ca mnh V. Ta c

VxeX,P{x) = 3xeX,V{x),
3x X, V) s Va-eA',?(x).

Chng ti ngh c gi t chng minh nhng khang nh trn xem

nh mt bi tp.

2 Quan h v Anh x
Tch trc t ip (hay t ch Descart es) ca hai tp hp X v Y l tp hp
sau y:
XxY = {{x,y)\ xeX,yeY).
Trng hp c bit, khi X = Y, ta c tch trc t ip X X X ca tp X
vi chnh n.

inh ngha 2.1 Mi t p c o n TI c a t p h p t c h X X X c g i l

mt quan h hai ngi trn X. Nu (re, y) 6 1Z th t a ni X c quan h
1Z vi y, v vit xly. Ngc li, nu (x, y) TZ th ta ni X khng c
quan h TI vi y, v vit xRy.

Chng hn, nu li {(rr, y) z X z| X chia ht cho y}, t h 672.2,

nhng 5TZ3.

inh ngha 2.2 Quan h hai ngi TI trn X c gi l mt quan h

tng ung nu n c ba t nh cht sau y:

(a) Phn xa: xTlx, Va; e X.

(b) i xng: Nu xTZy, th y1Zx, Va;, y 6 '.

(c) Bc cu: Nu x7ly,y7Zz, t h x72.2, Vx,y,z G '.

Be ] i n
18
 Cc quan h t n g n g thng c k hiu b i du ~ .
Gi s ~ l mt quan h tng n g trn X. Lp t n g n g
theo quan h ~ ca mt phn t X 6 X c nh ngha n h sau:

[x] = {yeX\ x~y}cX.

B 2.3 Gi s ~ l mt quan h tng ng. Khi , vi mi

x,y X , cc lp [x\ v [y\ hoc trng nhau, hoc ri nhau (tc l
[]n[y]=0j.

C h n g m i n h . Gi s [x] n y) 0. Ta s chng minh rng \x\ \y\.

L y mt phn t 2 [x\ n []. Ta c X ~ z v y ~ z.
Do t n h i xng ca quan h t n g ng, X ~ z ko theo z ~ X.
Gi s G [x], tc l X ~ . Do tnh bc cu, z ~ v a; ~ ko theo
2 ~ . T i p theo, / ~ 2 V 2 ~ ko theo / ~ . Ngha l G [y]. Nh
vy, [re] c []. Do vai t r n h nhau ca cc lp \x\ v [y], ta cng c bao
hm thc ngc l i , \y\ c [x\. V y \x\ = y\.
Theo b ny, nu y 6 [x\ th / 6 [x\ n [/] 0, do \x\ = \y}.
V t h , ta c t h dng t lp tng ng ch lp t n g n g
ca b t k phn t no trong lp . M i phn t ca mt lp t n g
n g c gi l mt i biu ca lp t n g n g ny.
D d n g thy rng X l hp r i rc ca cc lp t n g n g theo
quan h ~ . (Ni cch khc, X l hp ca cc lp tng n g theo
quan h ~ , v cc lp ny r i nhau.) Ngi ta cng ni X c phn
hoch b i cc lp tng n g .

i n h ngha 2.4 T p hp cc lp tng n g ca X theo quan h ~

c gi l tp thng ca X theo ~ v c k hiu l

V d 2.5 Gi s n l mt s nguyn dng b t k. Ta xt trn tp

X = z quan h sau y:

~ = {(x,y) e X z| X - y chia ht cho ri}.

19
R rng l mt quan h tng ong. Han na X ~ y nu v ch
nu X v y c cng phn d trong php chia cho n. V th, Z/~ l mt
tp c ng n phn t :

Z/~={O],l],...,[n-l]}.

N c gi l tp cc s nguyn modulo n, v thng c k hiu l

z/n.

inh ngha 2.6 Gi s < l mt quan h hai ngi trn X. N c

gi l mt quan h th t nu n c ba tnh cht sau y:

(a) Phn x: X < X, Va; 6 X.

(b) Phn i xng: Nu X < y v y < X th X y: Vx,y 6X.

(c) Bc cu: Nu X < y, y < z, th X < z, Va;, y, z 6 X.

Tp X c trang b mt quan h th t c gi l mt tp uc sp.

Nu X < y, ta n i X ng trc y, hay X nh hn hoc bng y.

Ta ni X c sp ton phn (hay tuyn tnh) bi quan h < nu

vi mi X, y X, th X < y hoc y < X. Khi < c gi l mt quan
h th t ton phn (hay tuyn tnh) trn X.
Chng hn, trng s hu t Q l mt tp c sp ton phn i
vi quan h th t < thng thng. Mt v d khc: nu X l tp hp
tt c cc tp con ca mt tp A no , th X c sp theo quan
h bao hm. y khng phi l mt th t ton phn nu tp A cha
nhiu hn mt phn t.

By gi ta chuyn qua xt cc nh x.
Ngi ta thng m t cc nh x mt cch trc gic nh sau.
Gi s X v Y l cc tp hp* Mt nh x f t X vo Y l mt
quy tc t tng ng mi phn t X X vi mt phn t xc nh
y = f(x) Y. nh x c k hiu bi / : X y Y.

20
 T t nhin m t ni t r n khng phi l mt nh ngha cht ch, v
ta khng b i t t h no l m t quy tc. Ni cch khc, trong nh ngha
ni t r n quy tc ch l m t tn gi khc ca nh x.
Ta c t h khc phc i u bng cch a ra mt nh ngha chnh
xc n h n g hi cng knh v n h xa nh sau.
M i t p con Ti ca tch t r c t i p X xY c gi l mt quan h gia
X v Y. Quan h 72. c gi l mt nh x t X vo Y nu n c t n h
cht sau: v i mi X 6 X c m t v ch mt y 6 Y cho (x, y) TZ.
Ta k hiu phn t duy n h t l y = f(x). K h i

n={(xj(x))\ xex).

nh x n y t h n g c k hiu l / : X > Y v quan h TI c gi

l th ca n h x / .
Cc t p X v Y c gi l n lt l tp ngun v t p ch ca n h
x / . T p hp f ( X ) = { f ( x ) \ X G X} c gi l tp gi tr ca / .
G i s A l mt t p con ca X. Khi , f(A) = {/(a:)| X e } c
gi Yk nh ca A bi f . N u B l mt tp con ca y , th f~ (B) l
{x 6
x\ J{x) e B} c gi l nghch nh ca B bi / . T r n g hp c
bit, t p B {y} ch gm m t i m / e y , ta vit n gin f ~ ( y ) l

1
thay c h o / - ({}).

i n h ngha 2.7 (a) n h x / : X * Y c gi l mt n nh n u

vi mi X ^ x', (x,x' 6X) th f ( x ) ^ ) .

(b) nh x / : X * Y c gi l mt, ton nh nu v i mi y e Y

tn t i (t n h t ) m t phn t X X sao cho f ( x ) = y.

(c) n h x / : X > Y c gi l mt song nh (hay mt tng ng

mt-mt) nu n va l mt n nh va l mt t o n n h .

Gi s / : X * Y l mt song nh. Khi , vi mi y Y tn t i

duy nht phn t X 6 X sao cho f(x) = . Ta k hiu phn t X
nh sau: X = l
f ~ ( y ) - N h t h , t n g ng y H-* X / _ 1
(/) X i
* c
nh'

21
 1
mt nh x, c k hiu Va, f" : Y X v c gi l nh x ngc
ca / . Hin nhin, / _ 1
cng l mt song nh, h n na = /.
Cho cc nh x / : X * Y v g : Y z. K h i nh x h : X -* z
c xc nh b i

h(x) = g(f(x)), VxeX,

c gi l nh x tch (hay nh x hp) ca / v g v c k hiu f

l h = gf hoc h = g o / .
Chng ti ngh c gi t chng minh hai mnh sau y,

M n h 2.8 Hp thnh ca hai n nh li l mt n nh. Hi.

thnh ca hai ton nh li l mt ton nh. Hp thnh ca hai song
hh li l mt song nh.

Gi id ' X > X l nh x ng nht trn X, c xc nh nh

sau
dx{x) = X, Vx 6 X .

M n h 2.9 (i) Gi s f : X > Y v g : Y * z l cc nh x.

Khi , nu gf l mt n nh th f cng vy; nu gf l mt ton
nh th g cng vy.

() nh x f : X Y l mt song nh nu v ch nu ton ti mt
nh x g : Y * X sao cho gf id, fg idy-

3 L c l n g ca t p h p
i vi cc tp hp hu hn, khi cn xt xem tp no c nhiu phn t
hn, ngi ta m s phn t ca chng. Nhng ng tc n gin y
khng thc hin c i vi cc tp c v hn phn t. e so snh
"s lng phn t " ca cc tp v hn, ngi ta t r l i vi cch lm
ca ngi nguyn thy khi cha bit m . C t h l, nu mun xem
s ru tay c cho mi ngi mt chic hay khng ngi ta p h t cho
mi ngi mt chic ru, tc l lp mt tng ng gia tp hp n g i
v tp hp ru.

22
nh ngha 3.1 Ta ni tp hp X cng lc lng vi tp hp Y nu
tn t i mt song nh t ' vo Y.

R rng quan h cng lc lng l mt quan h t n g ng.

Gi s tp c n phn t. iu ny c ngha l c mt t n g ng
mt-mt gia cc phn t ca A vi cc s t nhin 1,2,3,..., n. Ni
cch khc, A c n phn t nu v ch nu n cng lc lng vi tp
hp { 1 , 2 , 3 , r i } .
Sau y chng ta s kho st lp cc tp hp v hn c "t phn t
nht", l cc tp m c.

i n h ngha 3.2 Tp X c gi l m tcc nu n cng lc lng

vi tp hp N cc s t nhin.

Chng hn, z l mt tp m c. Tht vy, nh x / : N z xc

nh bi cng thc

/ ( 2 n - 1) = -71+1,
f(2n) = li (n= 1,2,3,...) .

l mt song nh.
Tng t, tp hp cc s t nhin chn v tp hp cc s t nhin
l u l cc tp m c.
Cc v d trn cho thy mt t p v hn c t h c cng lc lng vi
mt tp con tht s ca n. Ta c

. M n h 3.3 Mi tp con v hn ca mt tp m, c cng l mt

tp m c.

C h n g minh. Gi s A {ai, a , a ,...} l mt tp m c, v B

2 3

l mt tp con v hn ca A. Gi l s t nhin nh nht sao cho

d, B, i 2 l s t nhin nh nht sao cho a i2 B \ {Ojj}. M t cch quy
np, in l s t nhin nh nht sao cho Oj B \ { a j j , a , , n 2 ...,di _ }...
n l

Bng cch , cc phn t ca B c xp thnh mt dy v hn

B , j ,j -,...}.
2 n

23
Ni cch khc, c mt song nh N B t n t n g ng vi d . Nh
t h B m c.

M n h 3.4 Tch trc tip ca hai tp m u c cng l mt tp

m c.

C h n g m i n h . Khng gim tng qut, ta ch cn chng minh N X N l

m c.
Ta xp t t c cc phn t (a, ) ca N X N t h n h mt dy v hn bng
cch sau. Trc ht ta xp cp (a, 6) vi a + b = 2. Gi s xp xong
cc cp (a, 6) v i a + b = n , ta xp tip cc cp (o, b) vi a + b = n,
trong cp (a, b) c xp trc cp (a', ) nu a + b = a! + b' = n v
a < a'.
N h vy, N X N l mt tp m c.

H q u 3.5 Tp hp Q cc s hu t l mt tp m c.

C h n g m i n h . Ta s chng minh tp hp Q +
cc s hu t dng l
m c. Do Q = Q ~ U { 0 } U Q cng lc lng vi Z = N " U { 0 } U N ,
+

trong T l t p hp cc s hu t m v N~ l tp hp cc s nguyn
m . V t h Q l m c.
M i s h u t dng c biu th duy nht d i dng mt phn
E
s , trong p, q N v cp p, q nguyn t cng nhau. T n g ng
2
*~+ PI) l m
t s o n
nh t Q +
ln mt tp con ca tch trc tip
+
N X N. Do , theo hai mnh tr n th Q l mt tp m c.
C h n g ta t h a nhn k t qu sau y, v mun chng minh n ta cn
mt h i u b i t su sc hn v cc s thc.

M n h 3.6 Tp hp R cc s thc l mt tp khng m uc.

N g i ta ni tp hp cc s thc c lc lng continum.

24
4 N h m , Vnh v Trng
Cc khi nim nhm, vnh v trng c gii thiu trong t i t n y ch
dng mc dng cho cc din t trong phn sau ca cun sch.
Gi s G l mt tp hp. M i nh x

o : G x - > G

c gi l mt php ton hai ngi (hay mt lut hp thnh) t r n G.

nh ca cp phn t (x,y) G X G bi nh x o s c k h i u l
X oy v c gi l tch hay hp thnh ca X v y.

i n h ngha 4.1 M t nhm l mt tp hp khc rng G c trang b

mt php ton hai ngi o thoa mn ba iu kin sau y :

( G I ) P h p ton c tnh kt hp:

(x o ) o z = X o (y o z), \/x,y,zG.

(G2) C mt phn t e e G, c gi l phn t trung lp, v i t n h

cht
xoe = eox = x, Vx.

(G3) V i mi X 6 , tn t i phn t x' e G, c gi l nghch o

ca X, sao cho
X o x' = 1
X o X e.

Nhn xt:
Phn t trung lp ca mt nhm l duy nht. T h t vy, n u e v e'
u l cc phn t trung lp ca nhm G th

e = e = .

Vi mi X G, phn t nghch o x' ni mc (G3) l duy n h t .

T h t vy, nu' x\ v x' l cc phn t nghch o ca X th
2

x\ = x\ o e = x[ {x o x' ) = (x[ o x) o x' = e o x' =

2 2 2 x' .
2

25
 Trong nhm c lut gin c, tc l

xay = x z y z,
X oz y o z => X y.

Tht vy, c lut gin c, ch cn nhn hai v ca ng thc

X o y = X o z vi nghch o x' ca X t bn tri, v nhn hai v ca
ng thc X o z = y o z vi nghch o z' ca 2 t bn phi.
Nu php ton o c tnh giao hon, tc l

xoy = y ox, Vx,y G,

th G c gi l mt nhm giao hon (hay abe).

Theo thi quen, lut hp thnh o trong mt nhm abel thng c
k hiu theo l i cng " + ". Hp thnh ca cp phn t (x, y) c k
hiu l X + y v c gi l tng ca X v y. Phn t trung lp ca
nhm c gi l phn t khng, k hiu . Nghch o ca X (xc nh
bi iu kin (G3)) c gi l phn t i ca X, k hiu ( x ) .
Trng hp tng qut, php ton o trong nhm thng c k hiu
theo l i nhn " ". Hp thnh ca cp phn t (x,y) c k hiu l
X y, hay n gin xy, v c gi l tch ca X vy. P h n t trung lp
ca nhm c gi l phn t n v. Phn t nghch o ca X c
1
k hiu l x~ .
V d:

(a) Cc tp hp s z, Q, R lp thnh nhm abel i vi php cng.

(b) Cc tp z* = {1},Q* = Q \ {0},K* = R \ {0} lm t h n h nhm

abel i vi php nhn.

(c) Ta nh ngha php cng trong z / n nh sau:

M + [y= [z + /]-

D kim tra rng php ton ny khng ph thuc i biu ca cc

lp t n g n g [x\ v [y\. Hn na, z/n cng vi php cng ni
trn lp t h n h mt nhm abel.

26
 (d) M i song nh t tp hp { 1 , 2 , ...,n} vo chnh n c gi l mt
php th (hay php hon v) trn ri phn t. Tp hcrp S n t t c
cc php t h trn n phn t lm thnh mt nhm i vi php
hp thnh cc nh x

Ca P){i) = Va, e 5 , 0 < < n.

n

Sn c gi l nhm i xng trn n phn t. y l mt nhm

khng abel khi li > 2. (Xem chi t i t Chng 3.)

(e) Trong Chng 2 chng ta s kho st mt lp nhm khng abel

r t quan trng i vi mn i s tuyn tnh, l nhm GL(V)
cc bin i tuyn tnh khng suy bin trn khng gian vct V.

nh ngha 4.2 Gi s G v G' l cc nhm (vi php ton vit theo

li nhn). nh x cp : G c gi l mt ng cu. nhm nu

(p(xy) = (p(x)>(y), Vx,yeG.

N h n x t : ng cu nhm <p chuyn n v e ca G thnh n v e'

ca :
(p(e) = e'.

N cng chuyn phn t nghch o ca X thnh phn t nghch o

ca ip(x):
l
(p(x- ) = ip(x)-\ VrreG.

nh ngha 4.3 (a) M t ng cu nhm ng thi l mt n nh

c gi l mt n cu nhm.

(b) M t ng cu nhm ng t h i l mt ton nh c gi l mt

ton cu nhm.

(c) M t ng cu nhm ng thi l mt song nh c gi l mt

ng cu nhm.

27
 N u c m t n g c u n h m gia G v t h ta ni G n g c u v i
v vit G .
V d:

(a) Php n h n g : z Q n h ngha bi c n g t h c - X l m t

n cu nhm.

(b) Php c h i u pr : z * z / n x c n h bi c n g t h c pr(x) = x\ l

mt t o n cu nhm.

+ x
(c) nh x m exp : R R , exp(x) = e l mt n g cu t n h m
+
cng cc s thc R vo nhm nhn cc s thc dng R .

B y gi t a c h u y n sang k h o s t cc v n h v t r n g .

n h n g h a 4.4 M t v n h l m t t p h p R 0 c t r a n g b hai
p h p t o n h a i ngi, gm p h p cng

+ : R x R ^ R , (re, y) t-> X + y,

v p h p n h n

: Rx R > R, (x, y) t-> xy,

t h o a m n ba i u k i n sau y :

(RI) R l m t n h m abel i v i p h p cng.

(R2) P h p n h n c t n h c h t k t hp:

(xy)z = x(yz), Vx,y,z e R.

(R3) P h p n h n p h n p h i v hai p h a i v i p h p cng:

(x + y)z = xz + yz,

z(x + ) = zx + zy, Va;, y,z e R.

28
 Vnh R c gi l giao hon nu php nhn ca n c t n h giao
hon:
xy = yx, Vx, y R.

Vnh R c gi l c n v nu php nhn ca n c o n v, tc l

c phn t G R sao cho:

x = xi = X, \fx 6 R.

V d:

(a) Cc tp hp s Z,Q l cc vnh giao hon v c n v i vi

cc php ton cng v nhn thng thng. Tp hp s t nhin N
khng l mt vnh, v n khng l mt nhm i v i p h p cng.

(b) Ta nh ngha php nhn trn nhm cng z/n cc s nguyn mod
ulo n nh sau:
\x][y} = \xy}, Vx,y e z/n.

Php nhn ny khng ph thuc i biu ca cc l p [rr] v [y].

N bin nhm cng l ri t h n h mt vnh giao h o n v c n v,
c gi l vnh cc s nguyn modulo n .

(c) Trong Chng 2 ta s xt mt lp vnh c bit quan trng i

vi mn i s tuyn tnh, l vnh Mn X n, K) cc ma t r n
vung cp n vi cc phn t trong trng K.

i n h ngha 4.5 Gi s R v R' l cc vnh. nh x (p : R * R! c

gi l mt ng cu vnh nu

p{x + y) = <p(x)+ip(y),
<p(xy) = <p(x)<p(y), Va;, / 6 R.

Cc khi nim n cu vnh, ton cu vnh, ng cu v n h c

nh ngha t n g t n h i vi trng hp nhm.
Chng hn, php nhng z c Q l mt n cu vnh. P h p chiu
pr : z * z/n l mt ton cu vnh.

29
 Phn t X trong mt vnh c n v R c gi l kh nghch nu
tn t i phn t x' 6 R sao cho

xx' = x'x = 1.

D chng minh rng phn t x' c t n h cht n h vy n u tn t i th

l
duy nht. N c k hiu l x~ .

i n h ngha 4.6 M t vnh giao hon, c n v 0 sao cho mi phn

t khc 0 trong n u kh nghch c gi l mt trng.

Vnh Q l mt trng. Vnh s nguyn z khng l m t trng, v

cc s khc 1 u khng kh nghch trong z.

i n h ngha 4.7 Gi s < l mt quan h t h t t r n t r n g K. Khi

K c gi l mt trng c sp i v i t h t < n u cc iu
kin sau y c thoa mn:

(a) Nu X < y th X + z < y + z, vi mi Z 6 I ;

(b) Nu X < y v 0 < z th xz < yz.

Trng s hu t Q l mt trng c sp i vi t h t thng

thng.
Di y ta s xt xem khi no th vnh z / n l m t trng.

i n h ngha 4.8 Nu vnh R cha cc phn t a 0) b 7^ 0 sao cho

ab 0 th ta ni R c c ca khng.

Tri l i , nu t ng thc ab = 0 (vi a, b G R) suy ra hoc a = 0

hoc 6 = 0, th vnh R c gi l khng c c ca khng.
Vnh Z/6 c c ca khng, ben v [2] 7^ 0, [3] 7^ 0 v

[2][3] = [6] = 0] = 0.

Ni chung, nu n l mt hp s t h z / n c c ca khng. T h t vy,

v Ti l mt hp s cho nn n rs trong 0 < r, s < ri. K h i ,
[r\ 0, \s\ 0 v \r\\s\ = [n) = [0] = .

30
Mnh 4.9 Mi trng u l mt vnh khng c c ca khng.

Chng m i n h . Gi s K l mt trng, a v b l cc phn t thuc K

vi ab = 0. Nu a 7^ 0 th a kh nghch. Ta c
_1 _1 _1
b = 16 = (a a)6 = a (a&) = o 0 = 0.

Vy K khng c c ca khng.

Mnh 4.10 z / n l mt trng nu v ch nu TI l mt s nguyn

t.

Chng minh. Nu n l mt hp s th z / n c c ca khng, do

khng l mt trng.
Gi s n = p l mt s nguyn, t. Mi phn t khc khng trong
z/p. u c dng [q\ trong i biu q thoa mn iu kin 0 < q < p.
Khi p v q nguyn t cng nhau, v th c cc s nguyn k v sao
cho kp + iq = . Hay l

M?] = [ 1 ] - M = [l
trong z/p. iu ny c ngha l [q\ kh ngch, v [ ] = - 1

Trng z/p thng c k hiu l Fp.
Trong vnh z/n c hin tng sau y:

1+ H 1-1=0.
> V '
n

Chuyn ny khng xy ra trong cc vnh z v Q. Ta i ti nh ngha

sau y.

nh ngha 4.11 Cho R l mt vnh c n v. Nu c s nguyn

dng n sao cho + + + 1 = 0, th s nguyn dng nh nht c

tnh eht c gi l c s ca vnh R. Ngc li, nu khng c
s nguyn dng n no nh th th ta ni R c c s bng 0. c s
ca R c k hiu l Char(R).
31
V d: Vkar(z) = Char(q) = 0,
Char(z/n) = n, vi mi s nguyn dng n.

M n h 4.12 Nu K l mt trng th Char(K) hoc bng 0 hoc l

mt s nguyn t.

C h n g minh. t m = + + + e K . Gi s n = Char(K)
m
l mt hp s vi phn tch n = rs (0 < r, s < r). D thy rng
ra . = (r l ) ( s 1) = 0. V trng K khng c c ca khng, nn hoc
r 1) = 0 hoc (s 1) = 0. iu ny mu thun vi nh ngha ca c
s, v r v s l cc s t nhin nh hn n.

5 T r n g s t h c
T t c cc hc t r t t nghip trung hc ph thng u tnh ton
thun thc vi cc s thc. T h nhng, nu hi h "S thc l g?" th
chc chn h s khng t r li c. T h t ra, l mt vn r t kh.
Trong t i t ny, chng ta s xy dng trng s thc R nh l mt
"b sung" ca trng s hu t Q, nhm gii quyt tnh trng kh x
m Pythagore gp t hn 2000 n m trc, l: Nu ch dng cc
s hu t th ng cho ca mt hnh vung n v s khng c
2
di. Ni cch khc, khng tn t i s hu t a thoa mn h thc - = 2.

T h t vy, gi s a c dng phn s t i gin , vi p, q e z, 7^ 0, khi
E 2 2 2
( ) = 2. Hay l p = 2q . T suy ra p l mt s chn. Ta t
2
p = 2pi trong Pi E z. ng thc trn t r t h n h 2p = q . Do
q c ng l mt s chn. i u ny mu thun vi gi thit ni rng 2
l
mt phn s t i gin.
nh ngha sau y c gi t mt nhn xt trc gic l: mi lt
ct vo "ng thng s thc" u "chm" phi mt s thc duy nht.

i n h ngha 5.1 (Dedekind). T p hp Q c Q c gi l mt lt ct

(trong Q) nu:

(a) a T 0, a ^ Q,

32
 (b) N u r ' a, v s e Q, s < r, th sea,

(c) a: khng c phn t ln nht.

Chng hn, tp hp sau y (c k hiu b i 2) l mt lt ct

trong Q:

V2:= {re Ql r 2
< 2}.

i vi mi s hu t r, ta xt lt ct sau y

r* = {s E Q| s < r } .

e rng r = min(Q \ r * ) .

nh ngha 5.2 G i s a l mt lt ct. N u c s nh nht trong tp

hp Q \ a th Oi c gi l mt lt ct hu t. Tri l i , n u khng c
s nh nht trong tp hp Q \ a th a c gi l mt lt ct v t.

T t nhin, mi lt ct hu t u c dng r* vi mt s hu t r
no .
T p hp cc lt ct c sp t h t theo quan h < sau y.

nh ngha 5.3 Gi s a,/3 l cc lt ct. Ta ni a < /3 (hay p > a)

nu \ a ^ 0. Ta ni a < (3 (hay p > a) n u a < p hoc a = 3. M t
lt ct c gi l dng hay m tuy theo n ln hn hay nh hn lt
ct 0*.

P h p cng cc lt ct c nh ngha nh sau.

nh ngha 5.4 G i s a, p l cc lt ct. K h i lt ct sau y c

gi l tng ca Cu v , k hiu l a + 3:

a + = {r + s\ r ea,s 6 /?}.

D dng k i m tra l i rng tp hp a + trong nh ngha ni t r n l

mt lt ct trong Q.

33
 V i mi lt ct Oi tn t i duy nht mt lt ct, c k hiu l Q,
sao cho a + (a) = (cu) + cu 0*. Lt ct n y c nh ngha nh
sau:

a = {r r (Q \ a), r khng l s nh n h t trong Q \ } .

Chng ta gp mt s kh khn v k thut khi nh ngha tch hai

lt ct. D t r n h nhng kh khn , chng ta a ra khi n i m gi tr
tuyt i .

i n h ngha 5.5 Gi tr tuyt i (cn gi t t l tr tuyt i) ca lt

ct a l lt ct sau y:

a nu a > 0,
Oe n u Q.< 0.

T t nhin \a\ > 0 vi mi , hn na I or I = 0 khi v ch khi a = 0.

Gi s a v /? l cc lt ct vi a > 0*,p > 0*. K h i t p hp sau
y l mt lt ct, c gi l tch ca a v /?, v c k hiu l a3\

a/3 = Q" u {rs\ r e a,r > 0, s e (3,s> 0}.

By gi tch ca hai lt ct bt k c nh ngha n h sau:

i n h ngha 5.6 Gi s a, p l cc lt ct. K h i lt ct sau y c

gi l tch ca a v /?, k hiu l p:

\a\\p\ nu a > 0*,/? > 0* hoc a < 0*,p < 0* ,

-(|a||/?|) nu a < 0*,p > 0* hoc a > 0* J3 < 0* .

nh ngha 5.7 Ta k hiu bi R t p hp t t c cc lt ct trong Q.

nh l sau y c chng minh khng m y kh k h n , n h n g i

hi mt lao ng t m .

i n h l 5.8 Tp hp E uc trang b hai php ton cng v nhn ni

trn l mt trng c c s bng 0. Trng ny uc sp i vi th
t <. nh x Q * R, r I r* l mt n cu trng bo ton th
t.

34
 Trn c s nh l ny, mi lt ct trong Q c gi l mt s thc.
Mi lt ct hu t r* c ng nht vi s hu t r. Mi lt ct v
t c gi l mt s v t.
So vi trng s hu t Q th trng s thc R u vit hn tnh
. din t tnh ca R ta cn nh ngha lt ct trong E. Bn
c hy so snh nh ngha sau y vi nh ngha 5.1 v lt ct trong
Q. '
inh ngha 5.9 Tp hp a c R c gi l mt lt ct (trong R) nu:
(a) Q J 0, a R,

(b) Nu r Oe, v s e R, s < r, th s a,

(c) a khng c phn t ln nht.

Theo nh ngha, lt ct a trong Q l hu t hay v t tuy theo tp
hp Q \ a c phn. t nh nht hay khng. Ni mt cch trc gic, cc
lt ct v t khng "chm" phi phn t no ca Q. Mt trong nhng
biu hin ca tnh ca trng s thc l mi lt ct trong R u
"chm" phi mt s thc no . C th, ta c
nh l 5.10 (Tnh ca trng s thc). Vi mi lt ct a trong
K, phn b ca n K \ a lun lun c phn t nh nht.
Chng minh. t := a Q . Khi l mt lt ct trong Q. Ni
cch khc, l mt s thc. D dng chng minh rng vi mi s a
v mi R \ a, ta c s < < t. Kt hp iu vi s kin a khng
c phn t ln nht, ta suy ra . a. V th = min(R \ a).
Chng ta tr li vi bi ton o di ca ng cho ca hnh
vung n v. S (lt ct) v t
2
V2 := {r e.Ql r < 2}
2
chnh l s thc thoa mn phng trnh X = 2.
Mt cch tng qut, c th chng minh c rng nu chn mt
n v di th mi on thng u c di l mt s thc no .
Ngc li, mi s thc u l di ca mt on thng c hng no
.

35
6 Trng s phc
M u t i t trc, chng ta chng minh rng p h n g t r n h X 2
2
= 0
khng c nghim hu t. chnh l i m k h i u cho vic xy dng
trng s thc R nh l mt "b sung" ca t r n g s h u t Q, nhm
tm nghim cho phng trnh .
2
C mt tnh trng tng t l p h n g t r n h X + 1 = 0 khng c
nghim thc, bi v bnh phng ca mi s thc u khng m .
thot ra khi tnh trng ny, ta cn "m rng" t r n g s thc R bng
cch xy dng thm "cc s mi".
Ta gi l mt k hiu hnh thc (tc mt "s m i " ) l nghim ca
phng trnh ni trn, tc l

I ": 2
i = -i.
Ta mun thc hin c mi php t o n cng, t r , n h n v chia (cho cc
s khc 0) sau khi ghp thm vo t r n g s thc R. iu n y dn
ta t i vic chp nhn cc "s mi" dng a + bi, trong a, b R. T p
hp cc s nh vy khp kn i vi bn p h p t o n ni trn. T h t vy,
2
s dng h thc ta c:

(a + bi) (c + di) = (a + c)(b + d)i,

(a + b)(c + di) (cbd) + (ad + bc)i,
a + bi (a + ri)(c di)
= 2
c + di " c + d?
c + b (be ad)i
2 2 + 2
c + d c*+d '
(vi c + di 0, tc l c 0 hoc d 0)-

Tuy nhin, vn cn mt cu hi: "Vy l ci g ?".

trnh tnh trng kh s ny ta h y ng n h t a + bi v i cp s
thc (a, b). Nhng p h n tch trn dn ta t i nh ngha sau y.

nh ngha 6.1 M t cp c t h t hai s thc (a, b) c gi l mt

s phc. Tp hp t t c cc s phc c k hiu b i C:

c = {(a,b)\a,be R}.

36
Ta nh ngha cc p h p t o n cng v nhn cc s phc nh sau:

(a, &) + (c,d) = (a + c, b + d),

(a, 6)(c, d) = (c bd^ad + be).

Mnh sau y c k i m tra mt cch d dng.

M n h 6.2 Tp cc s phc c cng vi hai php ton cng v nhn

nh ngha trn lp nn mt trng c c s bng khng.

Phn t trung lp i v i p h p cng l 0 = (0,0). n v ca php

nhn l = (1,0). Nghch o ca s phc (a, b) 0 l

( a 6 r l = (
' ^ ' ^ T ^ -
N h n x t : Theo nh ngha, hai s phc (, b) v (c,d) bng nhau nu
v ch n u a c,b = .
Ta c
(o,0) + (6,0) = (a + ,0),
(o,0)(6,0) = (a,0).
Ni cc!} khc, n h x

L : K -> c,
a H-> (a, 0)

l mt n cu vnh. V t h , ta c t h ng nht s thc o l vi O

phc c dng (a, 0). K h i t p hp cc s thc R c ng nht vi
tp hp cc s phc dng { ( a j 0 ) | a K } . Ngi ta ni trng s thc
R l mt t r n g con ca t r n g s phc c.
t = (0,1) e . Ta c i 2
= (0,1)(0,1) = ( - 1 , 0 ) = - 1 . Nh th,
ta c "vt l i u " xy dng "s mi" . Ta gi l n v o.
M i s phc z (a, 6) c t h vit d i dng

z = (a,6) = (a,0) + (6,0)(0,1) = a + w.

37
trong a, b R. l dng i s ca s phc. Ta gi a l phn thc
ca z, k hiu a Rez, cn b l phn o ca z, k h i u mz.
S phc 2 m Imz = 0 chnh l mt s thc. S phc z c Rez 0
c gi l mt s thun o.
By gi ta xt biu din hnh hc ca cc s phc.
Trn mt phang xt mt h trc toa Descartes vung gc Oxy.
S phc z a + bi c biu din trn mt phang b i i m M c toa
(a, b), hoc bi vc t OM i t im gc toa o t
i im M.
Cng cc s phc chnh l cng cc vct t n g ng v
i chng.

z = M(a,b)

0 a

M t phang toa c gi l mt phang phc. Cc s thc c

biu din trn trc Ox, c gi l trc thc. Cc s thun o c
biu din trn trc Oy, c gi l trc o.
Php i xng qua trc thc c gi l p h p lin h p phc. C
i h hn, ta c

Dinh ngha 6.3 S phc z = a b c gi l lin hp ca s phc

z = a + bi, trong a, b l cc s thc.

38
 Ta d dng kim tra li rng

z + t = z + ,
zt = zi.

Phn cui ca tit ny c dnh cho vic kho st dng lung gic
ca s phc. Dng lng gic c bit thun tin cho vic nng ln ly
tha v khai cn cc s phc.
Gi s z = a + bi^0 (tc l a + bV 0). Ta c 2

a b

2 2
Ta t r = V a + b v nhn xt rng tn ti gc ) xc nh sai khc
2kn (k 6 z ) sao cho
a . b
cos ) = . = = sin CP = ,
r 2 2 Y 2 2
Va + b ' Va + b
Khi z = r(cos? + isiip).

nh ngha 6.4 S thc khng m r = y/a + b c gi l mun 2 2

ca s phc z = a + bi, k hiu r = \z\; cn gc > c gi l argument

ca z, k hiu <> = arg z. Argument ca s phc z = 0 khng c nh
ngha.

Gi s z = |z|(cos< + sin /?), = lKcosi/) + sin VO- Khi

zt = \z\\t\[(cos(p cosIp sin(fisinp) + i(siu(pcosp + cos>sinIp)]

= \z\\t\(cos(> + Ip) + isin((f + j)).

Ni cch khc
\zt\ = \z\\t\,
arg(zt) = arg{z) + afg(t),

trong iu kin c ng thc cui l arg(z) v arg(t) c nh

ngha.
Ni ring, ta c
n n n
z = (\z\(cosip + isin})) |z| (cosny? + isnnip).

39
c bit, vi \z\ , ta c cng thc Moivre:

(cos <p + sin i f ) ) n

= COS TH + s i n rp.

T i p theo, ta xt bi ton khai cn bc n ca s phc z, tc l t m

n
t t c cc s phc u sao cho u = z.
Nu z = 0 th u = 0 l l i gii duy nht.
Nu z / 0, ta t z = |.z|(cos(> + isin<>) v tm u d i dng u
Iu| (cos 9 + i sin ). Ta c

n n
It = z \u\ (cos n9 + sin n) = z\(cos ) + i sin ip)

\ <

\u\
=

=
ki,

y> + 2A;7T (/c e

\J\z\ (cn s hc),

z)

9 = (kez).

Nh vy, c n g n cn bc n ca mi s phc z / 0 , ng vi cc gi
tr k = 1,2, . . . , n 1. Cc cn ny lp nn n nh ca mt a gic u
n cnh vi t m t i gc toa .
Ni ring, "c n g n cn bc n ca n v , l

. . 2ibr
2ki .,
Ufc = cos h i sin (K = 0, , ...,n 1).
u n
Cn cfc c gi l mt cn nguyn thy bc n ca n u mi cn bc
Ti ca u l mt ly tha no ca Uk iu ny xy ra khi v ch
khi ; v n nguyn t cng nhau.
T t c cc cn bc n ca mi s phc z u nhn c bng cch
nhn mt cn nh t h vi t t c cc cn bc TI ca n v.
Vic kho st cc cn phc cho thy trng s phc "phong ph"
hn r t nhiu so vi trng s thc. Tr li xt phng trnh x 2
+1 = 0,
ta bi t rng n c ng hai nghim phc ( i ) , l cc cn bc hai ca
(1). Trong t i t sau ta s thy trng s phc cung cp " nghim"
cho t t c cc a thc h s phc.

40
7 a t h c
1
'hng ta trnh by y mt cch hiu trc gic nht v a thc.
Gi s K l mt trng. Biu thc hnh thc
n n x
f(X) = a x n i a_x- n x +... + a x + a, x

trong ao, ], ..,a n G K, c gi l mt a thc ca n X (hay bin

X ) vi h s trong K.
Nu o / 0 th ta ni / ( X ) c bc /, v vit egf(X) n; cn a n

c gi l h s bc cao nht, ca f ( X ) . Nu ao = d =- = a = 0
th f ( X ) c gi l a thc 0, v c coi l c bc bng oo.
T p hp cc a thc n X vi h s trong K c k hiu l Kx\.
Ta trang b cho tp hp ny hai php ton cng v nhn nh sau:
Php cng:

v
[a x
n + + ao) + {b X
m
m
+ --. + b):=a X n
n
+ --> +
m + 1 m
+ 1 + 1 X + (a m + 6 ) A ' + + (<, + o ) ,
m

(khng gim tng qut, ay ta gi s n > in).

Php nhan:
n
(a ,x r + .. + o )(6 .Y
0 w
m
+ + bo) : = c n m X n + m
+ + Co,

trong c k .- Ej+jv.fcOjfcj.

M n h 7.1 K X cn i /lai p/p ton ni rn /p nn m i n/

/ao /lon, c n v, khng c c ca khng vi c s CharKX
CharK.

C h n g minh. Nhn xt rng i vi cc a thc f ( X ) v g(X) ta c

deg(f(X)g(X)) = degf(X) + egg).

Tnh cht ny dn t i s kin KX khng c c ca khng.

Cc khng nh cn li ca mnh u d kim tra.
Ta tha nhn nh l sau ay.

41
nh l 7.2 (Php chia Euclid vi d). Gi SIC f ( X ) v g{X) ^ 0 l
cc a thc ca vnh Kx]. Khi tn ti duy nht cc a thc q(X)
v r(X) trong K[X] sao cho

f ( X )= g(X)q(X)+r(X),

trong degr(X) < degg(X).

Cc a thc q(X) vkr(X) c gi t n g ng l thu ong v phn du

trong php chia f ( X ) cho g(X). Nu r{X) = 0, tc l f ( X ) = g(X)q{X),
ta ni f ( X ) chia ht cho g(X) trong Kx}, hoc g(X) l mt c ca
/ ( X ) trong KX).
n
Phn t c G K c gi l mt nghim ca a thc f ( X ) a X n +
+ d\X + ao nu

f ( c ) = OnC n
+ + a-C + ao = 0 e K.

Ta c nh l sau y lin h gia nghim v tnh chia ht ca a

thc.

Dinh l 7.3 (Bezout). a thc f { X ) K[X} nhn c 6 K l mt nghim

nu v chi nu tn ti mt a thc q{X) Kx\ sao cho

f ( X )= (X-c)q(X).

C h n g minh. Nu f ( X ) = (X-c)q(X) th f(c) = (c-c)q(c) = 0 e K.

Do c l mt nghim ca f ( X ) .
Ngc l i , gi s c l mt nghim ca f ( X ) . Ta chia f ( X ) cho a
thc khc khng (X c):

f ( X ) = ( X - c)q(X) + r(X),

trong q{X),r(X) 6 K[X} v egr(X) < deg(x - c) = 1 . Nh t h ,

degr(X) hoc bng 0 hoc bng oo. Trong c hai trng hp r(X)
u l a thc hg, r(X) r 6 K. Ta c

c c c c
0 = /( ) - ( - ) ( ) + r = r.

V
y r = 0. T f ( X ) = {X - c)q{X).

42
 i n h ngha 7.4 Phn t c K c gi l mt nghim bi k ca a
k
thc f ( X ) nu f ( X ) chia ht cho (X c) , nhng khng chia ht cho
+
(X - c) trong KX}.

2
V d: Da thc f { X ) = X(X ) c cc nghim X 0 vi bi v
X = vi bi 2.

i n h ngha 7.5 a thc f ( X ) G K [ X ] c gi l 6 / quy trn K

nu n c bc dng v nu n khng tha nhn mt p h n tch no c
dng f { X ) = g(X)h(X), trong cc a thc g{X), hc) K[X] u
c bc nh hn degf(X). M t a thc c gi l kh quy trn K nu
n khng bt kh quy trn K.

Ni cch khc, a thc f ( X ) 6 K[X] l bt kh quy trn K nu

n c bc dng v ch chia ht cho cc a thc bc dng c dng
k f ( X ) e Kx\, trong k K \ { 0 } .
V d:

(1) Mi a thc bc nht u bt kh quy.

(2) a thc bc hai bt kh quy trn K nu v ch nu n v nghim

trong K.

(3) a thc bc ln hn c nghim trong K th khng bt kh quy

trn K

2
(4) a thc X 2 bt kh quy trn Q nhng kh quy trn K.

2
(5) a thc X + bt kh quy trn E, nhng kh quy trn c.
Chng ta tha nhn nh l sau y, ni v tnh ng i s ca
trng s phc.

n h l 7.6 (nh l c bn ca i s hc).

Mi a thc bc dng vi h s phc u c nghim phc.

43
 Ni cch khc, mt a thc h s phc l bt kh quy trn c khi v
ch khi n l mt a thc bc nht.
N h vy, nu f ( X ) e C[X c bc n th n tha nhn phn tch

f ( X )= a ( X - z ) - - - ( X - z )
n l n

trong a n ^ 0 l h s bc cao nht ca f { X ) , v Zi, ...,z n l cc s

phc n o .
Cho t i nay, moi chng minh bit ca nh l ny u mang bn
sc T p , Hnh hc hoc Gii tch. Cha c mt chng minh thun tuy
i s n o cho nh l ny.
2
Nhc l i rng tam thc bc hai h s thc aX + bX 4- c khng c
nghim thc nu v ch nu bit thc ca n A = b Aac < 0. 2

M t ng dng ca nh l c bn ca i s hc l khng nh sau

y.

D i n h l 7.7 Mt a thc h s thc l bt kh quy trn K nu v ch

nu n hoc l mt a thc bc nht hoc l mt a thc bc hai vi
bit thc m. Hn na, mi a thc f ( X ) G R[X] u tha nhn phn
tch

k k 2 t 2
f(X)=a {X-x ) *---(X-x ) '(X
n l r + b x+c ) *-"
l l ( X + bx + s *,

trong a l h s bc cao nht ca f ( X ) , XX=1fc*+ 5^J=1 t ~ n =

n

egf(X), Xi,...,x l cc s thc v cc tam thc bc hai h s thc

r

2
( X + bX + C) u khng c nghim th
c.

C h n g m i n h . R rng mi a thc h s thc bc nht hoc bc hai

vi bit thc m u bt kh quy trn R. Khng nh ngc l i c
bao h m trong p h n tch cn tm cho mi a thc f ( X ) ni trong nh
l.
Gi X i , ...,x r l t t c c c n g h i m t h c cua. {X) vi b i t n g n g
bng k i , k r . Ta c

1 k
f ( X ) = a (X n - Xi)* . . . ( X - x ) 'P(X),
r

44
t r o n g P(X) l m t a t h c h s t h c n h n g k h n g c n g h i m t h c .
G i s Z\ l m t n g h i m p h c ca P{X), k h i Z\ c n g l m t n g h i m
ca P(X). T h t vy, P(X) c d n g

m
. P(X) = dmx + -" + dxX+ do,

t r o n g d , ...,do
m l c c s t h c , t c l d d. D t h y rng

0 = P(zi) = d z?m + d{zi do

dmZ + + dZi + do

= d z
m + -{ d + do

= />(*,).

r
Theo n h l Bezout P ( ) = ( X - z )P (X). l l T

P(l) = ( Z l - 2 l ) P l ( l ) = 0.

V 2! k h n g p h i l s t h c , n n (Z Z\) 0- Do P\{z\) = 0. p
d n g n h l Bezout m t l n n a cho P\{X) t a n h n c

ppo = (* - - i)QP0,

trong Q ( X ) l mt a thc. N h n xt rng

( X - z 1 ) ( X - z l ) =. ' ? + . * ! ) * +
2 2
= X - 2 ( f l e ( Z ) ' + |zi|
l

l m t t a m t h c bc hai h s t h c n h n g k h n g c n g h i m t h c . D o t n h
2 2
duy n h t ca p h p chia a t h c P(X) cho a t h c X '2{Re{Z\)X + \z\ |
t r o n g c c v n h R\x\ v c[x\, t a k t l u n Q{X) cng l m t a t h c
h s t h c . N k h n g c n g h i m t h c v P(X) cng v y . Nh th,
c t h l p l i n h n g l p l u n t r n v i ( - Y ) thay cho P{X). B i v
d e g Q ( Y ) < d e g P ( X ) , cho n n t a n h n c p h n t c h c a f { X ) n h
ni t r o n g n h l b n g c c h quy n p theo degP(X).
C h n g t a k t t h c t i t n y bng mt ch thch ngn v cc a t h c
n h i u n , i t n g m t a s d n g t i trong Chi r n g 7.

45
 M i t n g h n h t h c v i h u h n s hng

f(X l t X 2 t ...,X )=k a ... x[ix?.--x*.

iui2 ik

h >*2>">

t r o n g Oi J i . . . i
2 f c 6 K, c gi l m t a t h c ca c c n (hay cc
bin) X i , X k v i h s t r o n g K. C c p h n ti'r d j j i ... 7 k c g i l cc
h s ca a t h c .
Bc ca a t h c f ( X i , l s n g u y n k h n g am

degf(Xi,...,X ) k = max{ii + i 2 4- h i (k i- ,...,i

u z k }-

N u t t c c c h s ca a t h c u b n g 0 t h f ( X i , x k ) c gi
l a t h c 0; a t h c n y c bc b n g co.
P h p cng v p h p n h n a t h c c n h ngha n h sau:

ill(t 'li l

= K,..i* + fc. .jAt-.-At,

ti *

1
( E ",..,^ ( E. Af)
1,)* Jll-Jfc

XI ( f l
'l,-
,
- jl,-jJ^ ' 1 + J l
-^
l.--.l >- J *

G i K X i , A~2, Afc] l t p h p t t c cc a t h c ca cc n - V ,
Afc v i h s t r o n g K. K h i K\X,X-2,A'fcl l m t v n h i v i hai
p h p t o n cng v n h n a t h c ni t r n . D t h y r n g v n h n y giao
h o n , c n v v k h n g c c ca k h n g .

Bi t p
1. C h n g m i n h c c t n h chat k t hp, giao h o n , phan p h i ca cc
p h p t o n h p v giao t r n t p h p . Chng n n h cng t h c i
n g u De Morgan cho h i u ca h p v giao ca m t h t u y c c
tp hp.

46
2. Chng minh rng

(a) { \ B) u (B \ ) A = B,
(b) A = (A*\ 5 ) u (i4 n B),
(c) ( ^ \ B ) U ( 5 \ ) = (iU5)\(An),
(d) ^ n ( 5 \ ) = ( r i B ) \ (A n ) ,

(e) A U ( B \ A ) = (AUB),

() A \ (A \ B) - A n B.

3. Chng minh rng

(a) (A X B) n ( 5 X A) 0 l B / ,

(b) X ) n (5 X >) = (A n B ) X (C n Z)).

4. Gi s f : X >Y l mt nh x v A, B c X. Chng minh rng

(a) f(AUB) = f(A)Uf(B) t

(b) f(AnB)cf(A)nf(B),
(c) f ( A \ B ) D f ( A ) \ f ( B ) .

Hy tm cc v d chng t rng khng c du bng cc mc

(b) v (c).

5. Cho nh x / : X Y v cc tp con A,B c Y. Chng minh

rng

l l
(*) tHAuB)^ f- (A)Uf- (B),
l l
(b) r {nB) = f- (A)nf- {B),
(c) f-\A\B) = t\A)\f-*(B).

6. Chng minh hai mnh v nh x cui 2.

2
7. Xt xem nh x. / : K K xc nh\)i cng thc f(x) = x 3x+2
c phi l mt n nh hay ton nh hay khng. Tm / ( R ) , / ( 0 ) ,
x
/ - ( 0 ) , /([0,5]),

47
8. Gi s A l mt tp gm ng ri phn t. Chng minh rng tp
hp V(A) cc tp con ca A c ng 2" phn t.
f
9. Chng minh rng tp hp R cc s thc dng c lc lng
continum.

10. Cho hai s thc a,b vi a < b. Chng minh rng khong s thc
(a, b) -- {x 6 R a < X < b) c lc lng continum.

11. Mt s thc c gi l mt s i s nu n l nghim ca mt

phng trnh a thc no vi cc h s nguyn. Chng minh
rng tp cc s i s l mt tp m c. T suy ra rang
tp hp cc s thc khng phi l s i s l mt tp vo hn
khng m vrc.

12. Lp bng cng v bng nhan ca vnh z// vi li -- 12 v li -- l).

Da vo bng. tm cc phn t kh nghch i vi php nhn trong
hai vnh .
:
'\

13. Gi (z/n)* l tp hp cc phn t kh nghch i vi php nhan

trong z/n. Chng minh rng
(z/n)* = {.r|| X v li nguyn t cng nhau}.

14. Cho R l mt vnh c em v. Gi R* l tp hp cc phn t kh

nghch di vi php nhn trong R. Chng minh rng R* l mt
nhm i vi php nhn ca R.

l. Cho R l mt vnh c em v - 0 v cc phn t x,y E R.

Chng minh rng

(a) Nu xy v yx kh nghch th X v y kh nghch.

(b) Nu R khng c c, ca khng v xy kh nghch th X v /
kh nghch.

16. Cho R l mt vnh hu hn. Chng minh rng

4H
 (a) Nu R khng c c ca khng th n c n v v mi phn
t khc khng ca R u kh nghch. (Gi : Cc php nhn
bn phi hoc bn tri vi mt phn t c nh khc khng
u l cc song nh R * R.)

(b) Nu R c n v th mi phn t kh nghch mt pha trong

R u kh nghch.

17. Chng minh rng tp hp cc s thc

Q(y/2) = {a + b2\ a, b }

lp nn mt trng vi cc php ton cng v nhn thng thi rng.

18. Chng minh rng cc trng Q{\/2) v Q(\/3) khng ng cu vi

nhau.

] 9. Chng minh rng nu s phc z . R th trng gm cc phn t

c dng

R(z) = {a + bz\ a,b e R}

trng vi trng s phc c.

20. Chng minh rng cc trng c v Z//5, vi p nguyn t, khng l

trng c sp ton phan i vi bt k t h t no.

21. Chng minh rng nh x tp : R > c * xc nh bi cng thc

If(x) - cos T + s i m l mt ng cu t nhm R vi php cng
vo nhm c* vi php nhn. Tm tp gi tr ca ip. ng cu >
c phi l mt ton cu hay mt em cu khng?

22. Chng minh rng i vi s phc z:

z - GI,
z z 2 l thun o.

23. Khi no th tch ca hai s phc l mt s thc? Khi no th tng

v tch ca hai s phc u l s thc?

49
 n
24. T n h i 7 7
,i",- 5 7
,7; , n
( + i) vi 6 Z .

25. C h n g m i n h c c n g t h c
8 n 4 n
(l+i) = 2 ,
4 n 2 n
(l+z) " = (-l) 2 , (nZ).

26. C h n g m i n h r n g n u z + z~ l
= 2cosy? t r o n g R th z n
+
2~ n
= 2 cos THp, v i m i n G N.

27. Tnh
W n
, . 1 - , M (1-0 r , ( + vri)
4 + 3i' v
' ( - Vi)"' v 7
( + ?:)"+!

28. (a) T m d n g l n g gic ca s phc ( + it.gtp)/( itgtp),

(b) T r n m t phang phc, t m t p h p c c d i m t n g n g v i

{z ----- ( + t i ) / ( i - i)| e R}.

n
29. n g t h c sau y c n g k h n g \ f --- y/z, trong 2 e c,

30. (a) T m c c c n b c ba ca + i, v \/3i .

(b) T m c c c n b c n ca , , v + y/3i .

3 1 . C h n g m i n h r n g t n g ca t t c c c c n b c 71 c a m t s p h c
b t k u b n g 0.

32. P h n t c h c c a t h c sau y t h n h c c n h n t b t k h q u y
t r o n g c c v n h R[X] v C[X]:

2
(a) X 3
+ sx + 5X + 3,
3 2
(b) X - X - X - 2 .

3m 3 p + 2
33. C h n g m i n h r n g a t h c x + x 3 n + 1
+ x chia h t cho a
2
thc X + X + , v i mi m , n , p nguyn d n g .

3 m
34. T m t t c c c b
ba n g u y n d n g ra, n , p sao cho a t h c x
2
X3n+1 + X3p+2 c h i a h t c h o a t h c x - x + l .

50
 Chng
KHNG G I A N VCT

i tng ban u ca mon i s tuyn tnh l vic gii v bin

lun cc h phng trnh tuyn tnh. Tuy vy, c th hiu thu o
iu kin m bo cho mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh c nghim v
cu trc nghim ca n, ngi ta a ra khi nim khng gian vct
v khi nim ny tr thnh mt trong nhng tr ct ca mn i s
tuyn tnh. Khng gian vc t sau c s dng ph bin trong
mi lnh vc ca ton hc.

Khi nim khng gian vct

Trong sut chng ny, ta lun gi s K l mt trng.

inh ngh 1.1 Tp hp V 0 c gi l mt khng gian vct trn

K riu n c trang b hai php ton, gm

(a) Php cng vct:

+ : VxV->V
(a, 0) 1 - tt + / ? ,

(b) Php nhn vct vi v hng:

: K X V -* V
(a, Oi) t oa;

Cc php ton ny thoa mn nhng iu kin (hoc tin ) sau y:

51
 ( V I ) (a + p) + 7 = + ifi + 7), V , 0 , 7 e V,
(V2J30 < V : 0 + a = a + 0 = , Va V,
(V3) Va e V, 3 ' e V : a + a' = a' + a = 0,
(V4) a + = p + a, Va, V,
a b f V V a & e K V a e v
(V5) (a + ft)a = + ' ' ' '
(V6) 0(0 + /?) = aa + a/?, Va K, Va, /? E v;
(V7) a(ba) = (ab)a, Va, 6 6 K,V 6 V,
(V8) l a = a, Vo e V.

Cc phn t ca V c gi l cc vct, cc phn t ca K c

gi l cc v hu ng.
Bn tin u ni rng V l mt nhm abel i vi php cng.
Cc tin (V) - (V7) ni rng php nhn vi v hng c tnh phn
phi i vi php cng v hng, phn phi i vi php cng vector v
c tnh cht ca mt "tc ng". Tin (V8).ni rng php nhn vi
v hng c chun hoa.
M t khng gian vct trn K cn c gi l mt K-khng gian vct,
hay om gin: mt khng gian vct, nu K r.
Khi K R, V c gi l mt khng gian vct thc. Khi K = c, V
c gi l mt khng gian vct phc.

V du 1.2 (a) Cc vct t do trong hnh hc s cp vi cc php

ton cng vct v nhn vector vi s thc lp nn mt khng gian
vct thc.

(b) T p hp cc a thc K\x\ (ca mt n X, vi h s trong K)

vi php cng a thc v php nhn a thc vi v hng thng
thng lp nn mt khng gian vct trn trng K.

(c) K l mt khng gian vct trn chnh n i vi php cng v php

nhn ca trng K. K va l mt Q-khng gian vct va l mt

52
 R - k h n g gian v c t . c l m t k h n g gian v c t n g t h i t r n cc
t r n g Q, R v c.

(d) T p h p {0} gm ch m t v c t 0 l m t k h n g gian v c t t r n

m i t r n g K, v i c c p h p t o n t m thng

0 + 0 = 0,
ao = 0, Va K.

() G i Kn l t p h p g m t t c c c h n g n - t h n h p h n (xi, ...,)
v i Xi e K. N l p n n m t K - k h n g gian v c t v i hai p h p t o n
sau y :

{xi,...,x ) n + (y ,...,y )
l n = (xi +yi,...,x n + 2/ ), n

a(x, ...,a: ) n = (axu ...,ax ),

n a e K.

an \
n
( f ) Gi K l t p h p gm t t c c c ct n - t h n h p h n , VI

V Xn
Xi 6 K. N cng l p n n m t K - k h n g gian v c t v i hai php
t o n sau y :

/ y i \ / Xi + /1 \ Si \
ax\ \

+ a

V n
x
) \Vn ) \ x n + XJn \ x n . \ ax n J

Xi \

t r n h b y cho gn, c h n g t a s i k h i k h i u v c t

\ x n
bi (x ...,x y.
l n

(g) M t ma t r n m h n g , n ct v i c c p h n t t r o n g K l m t b n g
c d n g

53
 / n 12 a
i n

a i 2 a 2 2

y Q>ml Ci 2
m ... flmn y

t r o n g djj- K. G i M(m X n , K ) l t p h p t t c c c ma trn

ra h n g , n ct v i c c p h n t t r o n g K. N l p n n m t K - k h n g
gian v c t vi hai p h p t o n sau y :

(%')mxn {bij)mxn (^ij bij)mxni

C h n g t a s n g h i n c u k h n v c c ma t r n c h n g sau.

(h) T p h p 6'[a, 6] c c h m t h c Hn tc t r n o n [a, 6] c R l m t

k h n g gian v c t t h c v i c c p h p t o n t h n g t h n g

+ 9)(x) - f(x)+g(x),

(af)(x) = af(x).

(i) G i s V v w l c c K - k h n g gian v c t . K h i , V X w c n g l
m t K - k h n g gian v c t i v i cc p h p t o n n h ngha n h sau

(v, V) + ()', w') = (v + v',w + w')

a(v,w) = (tru, au>),

t r o n g a e K, ', v' 6 M l, t' w. Khng gian V X w c gi

l tch trc np ca c c k h n g gian V v w

G i s V l m t k h n g gian v c t . C c t n h c h t sau y c suy

ngay t n h ngha ca k h n g gian v c t .

54
(1) P h n t t r u n g l p ca p h p cng 0 E V l duy n h t . N c g i
l vct khng.

T h t vy, g i s Oi cng l m t p h n t t r u n g l p ca p h p cng

t r o n g V. Khi

0 + Oi = O (V 0 l t r u n g l p ) \
= 0 (v O l t r u n g l p ) . /

Vy 0 - Oi. /

(2) V i m i v c t a E V. p h n t i a' thoa m n t i n ( V 3 ) l

duy n h t . N s c k h i u l'(oi).

T h t vy, g i s a'j cng l m t p h n t i ca a. K h i

( o ' + a) + a[ =
= 0 + a[ = a\ (v ft' l m t p h n t i )
= ft' -f (a + o i ) (theo t i n ( V I ) )
= <y + 0 = a' (v 1 l m t p h n t i ) .

N h vy, a' a\.

Ta n h ngha: a p a + (0).

(3) Ta c c c quy t c g i n c v c h u y n v :

+ 7 = 0 + 7 =** =
a 4 9 - ft - 7 /?.

T h t vy, cng (7) v o hai v ca n g t h c o + 7 / + 7 v

cng (/?) v o hai v ca n g t h c a + 6 = 7 t a t h c i u
p h i chng m i n h .

(4) Oa = 0 v ao = 0.

Tht. vy,
Oa + 0 = Oa = (0 + 0)a = 0 + Oft.

55
 T , theo l u t g i n c , Oa = 0. T n g t ,

ao + 0 = ao = a(0 + 0) = aO + aO.

C n g theo l u t g i n c, t a c aO = 0.

(5) N u ao; = 0 ( v i a e K , a 6 V ) , t h hoc a = 0 hoc a = 0.

T h t vy, g i s a / 0, n h n hai v ca n g t h c cho v i

1
a~ 6 K t a c

1 _ 1 - 1
a l a = (a~ a)a a (a) = a 0 = 0.

(6) ( - a ) a = a(-a) = -(oa), Va K , a 6 V .

T h t vy,

aa + (a)a = (a + (a))a = Oa; = 0.

T , (a)a = ( a o ) . T n g t ,

aa + a(a) = a ( a + ()) = aO = 0.

Do , a(a) = (oa).

(7) T i n ( V I ) cho p h p n h ngha t n g i+a -\ 2 Va n ca mt

s h u h n v c t a a i , . . . , a n e V m k h n g cn ch r p h p cng
n o c l m t r c . Ta c:
m Ti m TI

i==.l j=l j = l j = l

n g t h c n y c t h c chng m i n h b n g quy n p theo m v

n , t r n c s s d n g c c t i n (V) v ( V 6 ) .

56
2 Dc lp tuyn tnh v P h thuc tuyn
tnh
Trong sut t i t ny ta lun gi s V l mt khng gian vct trn trng
K.

nh ngha 2.1 ( T hp tuyn tnh, biu th tuyn tnh)

(a) M t t hp tuyn tnh ca cc vct c*i,...,a n e V l mt biu

thc dng
n
a a
2 i i
a
l a
l H + a
n a
n ,
i=l
trong d K.

(b) Gi s a = a\i + + aa n n V. ng thc c gi l

mt biu th tuyn tnh ca a qua cc vct a i , a n (hoc qua h
vct ( ! , . . . , a ) ) . K h i c ng thc , ta ni a biu th tuyn
n

tnh c qua a i , ...,a . n

Nhn xt: M t vct c t h c nhi u biu th tuyn tnh khc nhau

qua mt h vct.
Ta ni h ( a i , . . . , Q ) b i u th tuyn tnh c qua h / )
m

nu mi vct Oi, trong < < n, biu th tuyn tnh c qua

(/?!,..., A n ) .

Gi s h ( a j , . . . , a ) biu th tuyn tnh c qua h

n pm),
v h (A>JPm) biu th tuyn tnh c qua h (7i,...,7fc). K h i ,
r rng ( a i , a n ) cng biu th tuyn tnh c qua h ( 7 1 , 7 f c ) .

nh ngha 2.2 (c lp tuyn tnh v ph thuc tuyn tnh.)

(a) H ( a i , . . . , a ) c gi l c lp tuyn tnh nu h thc

n

aiOti + + aa n n = 0

ch xy ra khi ai = = a n = 0.

57
 (b) H ( ! , ... a )
n c gi l ph thuc tuyn tnh nu n khng c
lp t u y n tnh.

N u h ( a i , ...,a!n) c l p (hoc ph thuc) tuyn tnh, ta cng ni

cc vct a i , Q n c lp (hoc ph thuc) tuyn tnh.
ng thc di CH + + a a n n = 0 c gi l mt rng buc tuyn
t n h gia cc vct ai,...,a . n Nu ai = = a n 0 th' ta gi rng
buc l tm thung. Theo nh ngha, h ( - < * ! , a ) c lp tuyn n

t n h n u v ch nu mi rng buc tuyn tnh gia a i , a n u l rng

buc t m t h n g . H ( a i , a n ) ph thuc tuyn tnh khi v ch khi c
cc v h n g a i , a n K khng ng t h i bng 0 cho

aii - + aa
n n = 0,

ngha l c mt rng buc tuyn tnh khng tm thng gia cc vct

a i , ...,a .
n

V du 2.3 (a) Trong khng gian cc vct t do ca hnh hc s cp,

h 2 vct l c lp tuyn tnh nu v ch nu ch ng khng ng
p h n g , h 3 vct l c lp tuyn trit khi v ch khi chng
k h n g ng phang, h 4 vct bt k lun lun ph thuc tuyn
tnh.

(b) Trong khng gian R , cc vct e

2 x = (l,0),e 2 = (0,1) c lp
t u y n tnh. T h t vy, h thc

a\t\ + a e = (ai, a ) (0,0)

2 2 2

x y ra khi v ch khi ai = a 2 = 0.

V m i a R2, cc vct ei,e2,c* ph thuc tuyn tnh. Tht

vy, n u a = (a, b) th

a ae be-2 = 0.

58
 (c) Hy xt xem cc vc t sau y c lp hay ph thuc t u y n t n h
trong c : 3

ai = (5,3,4),
a 2 = (3,2,3),
3 = (8,3,1).

Ta mun tm xem c hay khng mt rng buc t u y n t n h k h n g

t m thng gia cc vct , tc l c hay khng cc s phc
Xi, X2,X3 khng ng t h i bng 0 sao cho:

Xi (5,3,4) + z ( 3 , 2 , 3 ) + r r ( 8 , 3 , 1 ) = (0,0,0).
2 3 '

P h n g trnh vct t n g n g vi h phng t r n h

{ 53?! + 3X2 + & r

3x
4xi
+ 2x2 +
+ 3x 2 + x
x
%3

3
3 =
=
=
0
0
0.

H phng trnh ny c t h gii bng cch kh t h n g t h n g .

Trc ht, nhn phng trnh cui ln lt vi (8) v (3) r i
cng vo cc p h n g trnh t h nh
t v t h hai, ta thu c :

-27x l - 21ar 2 = 0

-9xi - 7 x 2 = 0
4xi + 3x 2 + x 3 = 0.
Hai phng trnh u ca h ny t n g n g vi nhau. Do ,
mt nghim khng t m thng ca h ny l:
Xi = 7,x = 9, rr = - 1 . 2 3

Nh vy, ba vct cho ph thuc tuyn tnh.

N h n x t : T v d trn ta th
y rng vic xt xem mt h vector c
lp hay ph thuc tuyn tnh c a v vic gii mt h p h n g t r n h

59
tuyn tnh thun nht. T n g t , vic x t xem m t v c t c b i u t h
t u y n t n h c hay k h n g qua m t h v c t c a v vic g i i m t
h p h n g t r n h t u y n t n h (ni chung k h n g t h u n nht).
L t h u y t t n g q u t v h p h n g t r n h t u y n t n h s c trnh
b y C h n g 3 ca cun s c h n .
C c t n h c h t sau y l h q u t r c t i p ca cc n h ngha.
Cc tnh cht:

, (1) H m t v c t (ri) p h thuc t u y n t n h n u v ch n u a = 0.

Tht vy, v - 0 = 0 l m t r n g buc t u y n t n h k h n g t am

t h n g , nen h (0) p h thuc t u y n t n h . N g c l i , g i sir ( r i )
p h t h u c t u y n t n h , t c l c a 0 s a o c
fr a a
- 0- N h a n hai
v v i a~ x
t a c

l - 1
a = {a~*a)a a" (an) - (7 0 --- 0.

(2) V i n > , h ( 1 , r t ) p h t h u c t u y n t n h n u v ch n u m t .
v c t n o ca h b i u t h t u y n t n h c qua c c v c t cn
l i ca h .

T h t v y , g i s c m t r n g buc t u y n t n h k h n g t m thng

fl] a + + a n n = 0.

N u (l - 0, ta n h n hai v ca n g t h c t r n v i a, 1
v thu c

(ti = -]T(aj l
"j) J- n

N g c l i , n u (t b i n t h t u y n t n h c qua h ,...,<"*,.. ,
* i - t - i , c v ) , t c l c cc v In r n g b sao
n cho

c*j = b j a i + Vi- l t , - 1 + 6 , v ] f v + ) + - + ba , n

t h t a c r n g buc t u ven t n h k h n g t m thng

hai + + 6,-1/-] 4 ( - l ) t t j -+ b,. d. - - b a n n = 0.

Do , h ( ! , . . . , a ) n p h thuc t u y n tnh.

60
(3) M i h con ca m t h c l p t u y n t n h cng l m t h c l p
t u y n t n h .

T h t vy, gi s ( a i , a n ) l m t h c l p t u y n t n h . X t m t
r n g buc t u y n t n h b t k

GtjjOij, + + a>i O!i = 0 k k

gia c c v c t ca m t h con ( f t j j , ) . Ta coi n l m t r n g

k

buc tuyn tnh Yii d (V = 0 gia cc vct ( * ! , a ) bng cch n

chn ai = 0 v i m i ii,...,2fc. B i v h ( i , . . . , Q ) c l p
n

t u y n t n h , n n t t c c c h s ca r n g buc u b n g 0:

ai = 02 = = a n = 0.

Do , h con , a i k ) c l p t u y n t n h .

M t c c h p h t b i u k h c ca t n h c h t t r n l n h sau:

(4) M i h v c t cha m t h con p h thuc t u y n t n h c n g l m t

h p h thuc t u y n t n h . Ni r i n g , m i h cha v c t a 0 u p h
thuc t u y n t n h .

(5) G i s h ( V i , . . . , ) c l p t u y n t n h . K h i h ( a i , O f ,
n n p)
p h thuc t u y n t n h n u v ch n u /? b i u t h t u y n t n h c
qua ( a i , . . . , n ) . Trong t r n g h p , b i u t h t u y n t n h n y l
duy n h t .

T h t vy, n u ( a i , a n , /3) p h thuc t u y n t n h , t h c m t r n g

buc t u y n t n h k h n g t m t h n g

a\Ot + + a O n n + bi = 0.

K h i , b ^ 0, v n u t r i l i t h c m t r n g buc t u y n t n h k h n g
t m t h n g ai*i + + a a n n 0 gia c c v e t ca h c l p

61
 tuyAnh ( a i , a ) . n iu ny v l. V b 0, nn ta c biu
th tuyn tnh sau y ca /3 qua ( a i , . . . , ) :

0=- (b- a )c* .
i i i

i=l

Ngc l i , mi biu th tuyn tnh nh th

T

j=i

u dn t i mt rng buc tuyn tnh khng tm thng !cr=i fcjtti -

/3 = 0 gia cc vt ca h ( 1 , ...,a ,/?). . Do , h n y ph

n

thuc tuyn tnh.

G i s c hai biu th tuyn tnh ca p qua h (ai,...,):

p - iOi H h 6(V -

= aH + b' a .
n n

K h i 0 = (6i - b' )al l - - (b - b' )a .

n n n Do ( 1 , . . . , a ) c lp
n

tuyn tnh, nn h thc trn ko theo

bi = b[, A = 6^.

N h n x t 2.4 Cc khi nim t hp tuyn tnh, biu th tuyn tnh,

c lp tuyn tnh, ph thc tuyn tnh c m rng cho h vct
b t k (c t h c v hn vector) nh sau.
G i s (a)g/ l mt h vct tuy ca K-khong gian vct V. M t
t hp tuyn tnh ca h ny l mt tng ]Ciej a
i a
i trong (l G D, v
hu ht (c t h t r mt s hu hn) Ui u bng 0. Nh t h , tng ny
t h t ra l mt tng hu hn, v do c ngha trong V.
Trn c s , cc khi nim biu th tuyn tnh, c lp tuyn tnh,
ph thc tuyn tnh c nh ngha i vi h vct bt, k.

V du: Trong khng gian vct cc a thc K\X], h v hn vct

2
(, x,x ,...) l mt h c lp tuyn tnh.

62
3 C s v S c h i u ca k h n g gian v c t
S chiu ca mt khng gian vct l ch s o "ln'', "thoi mi"
ca khng gian vct .

i n h n g h a 3.1 (a) Mt h vct ca V irc gi l mt, h sinh'ca

V n u moi vct ca V u bi u thi tuy n tnh c quaJag-dcL

(b) M t h vctg ca V c gi l mt c s cua_K n u moi vcta

ca V u b i e i r t h i tuy n tnh duy nht qua h ny,

Nh vy, mi ca s u l mt he sinh. Di y ta s nghin cu

su hn mi quan h gia cc khi nim h sinh, c s v c lp t u y n
tnh.
Ta cn thut ng sau y: M t h vct ca khng gian V c gi
l c lp tuyn tnh cc i n u n c lp tuy n tnh v n u t h m b t
k vct no ca V vo h th h mi thu c tr thnh ph thuc
tuyniinh.

i n h l 3.2 Cho h hu hn cc vct (!,...,<*) ca V. Khi cc

khng nh sau y l tng tng:

(i) ( ! , . . . , a ) l mt c s ca V.
n

() (ai, . . . , a ) l mt h sinh c lp tuyn tnh ca V.

n

(in) (1, . . . , ) l mt h vct c lp tuyn tnh cc i ca

n V.

C h n g minh. () () : (ai,..., n)
v l mt c s ca V nn n l m t
h sinh ca V. Hn na, vct 0 c biu th tuy n tnh duy nht qua
((*!,...,a ): n

0 = 0 ! + + 0o.

Ni cch khc, h thc ai a i + + a a n n - 0 t n g n g vi ai =

a 2 = = a n = 0. iu ny c ngha l h (c*i, . . . , a ) c lp t u y n
n

tnh.

63
 (u) =>, .{iii) : Moi vector /? e V u biu th tuyn tnh c qua
(!,..., a ) , cho nn h (1,.... a , /?) ph thuc tuyn tnh.
n n

(Ui) () : V h (1,...,) c lp tuyn tnh cc i nn mi

vct /3 V u biu th tuyn tnh qua (!,...,). Ni cch khc, h
ny sinh ra V. Biu th tuyn tnh ca mi vct /? V qua h c lp
tuyn tnh ( 1 , a ) l duy nht.
n

nh nghi 3.3 Khng gian vct V c gi l hu hn sinh tiu n

c mt h sinh gm hu hn phn-t.

i n h l 3.4 Gi s V 7^ {0} l mt khng gian vct hu hn sinh.

Khi , V c mt c s gom hu hn phan h. Hn na, mi c s
ca V u c s phn t bng nhau.

Trn c s kt qu ny, t i n nh ngha sau y.

inh ngha 3.5 (a) S phan t"ca mi c s ca K-khng gian vct

hu hn sinh V {0} c gi l s chiu (hay th nguyn) ca
V trn trng Ky v c k hiu l dim V, hoc r hn dim*' V,
Nu V = {0}, ta quy c dim V - 0.

(b) Nu V khng c mt, c s no gm hu hn phan t th n c

gi l mt khng gian vector v hn chiu.

e chun b cho vic chng minh nh l trn, ta cn b sau y.

B e 3.6 Trong khng gian vct. V, gi s h v.r.t (], ..,,,.) c

lp tuyn tnh v biu th
tuyn tnh dc qua h ( 0 \ , B , ) . Khi
r < s.

C h n g minh. Theo gi thit, c mt biu th tuyn tnh

ai - ai/?] + + a.,#, (a, 6 K),

64
V h ( a i , . . . , o y ) c l p t u y n t n h , n n ai 0- Do , c t n h t m t
vo h n g ai 0- K h n g g i m -tng q u t , t a g i s CL\ 0. K h i , p
b i u t h t u y n t n h c qua h (cvi, , 2 ...,0s):

=2

N h vy, h (rvi, . . . , a ) b i u t h t u y n t n h qua h (/?!, ...,/?); h t h ; hai

r

l i b i u t h t u y n t n h qua h {1,02, ...,Ps). H q u l ( r t i , O v ) biu

t h t u y n t n h qua (ot\,02,...f0s).
Ta s c h n g m i n h r n g ( a i , . . . , f t ) b i u t h t u y n t n h qua
r ( a i , Q ,
I,...,3 )
i+ s vi mi i < m h i { r , . s } (sai k h c m t p h p n h s l i c c
vct 0 1 , B s ) . T h t vy, t r n ta chng m i n h k h n g n h n y cho
1. G i s k h n g n h c chng m i n h cho . Ta s c h n g m i n h
n c n n g cho + , n u s n y < m i n { ? \ s } . Theo g i t h i t quy np,
,... b i u t h t u y n t n h qua ( a i , , , /?(+!,...,/?.,):

CY.Vl - 6l>l + + >,j + C j l A + + !++

C t n h t m t v h n g Cj 7^ 0, b i v n u t r i l i t h tt-H biu th
t u y n t n h qua ( a i , . . . , O i ) , i u n y t r i v i g i t h i t h ( a i , . . . , t t ) r c
l p t u y n t n h . N u cn t h n h s l i c c v c t QiTi, ...,0S, t a c t h gi
s m k h n g g i m t n g q u t Cx 1 ^ 0 . K t hp i u ny vi n g thc
t r n t a c m t b i u t h t u y n t n h c a /?,+1 qua ( d , P i + 2 , ) /?).

V ( * ! , a ) r b i u t h t u y n t n h qua ( f t j , r t j , , h ny li
b i u t h t u y n t n h qua ( 1 , O t + I , A+2> "' s), "n ( i> a
) V
r) b i u th
t u y n t n h qua ( a i , a , - + i , Pi+2,Ps).
N u ' > s, p d n g i u v a c chng m i n h v i .9, t a khng
n h ( r t i , . . . , f t ) b i u t h t u y n t n h qua ( r v i , i u n y
r mau thun
v i t n h c l p t u y n t n h ca h ( 1 , a r ) . N h vy, t a c r < s.

65
C h n g m i n h nh l 3.4.
Gi s (71, . . . , 7 s ) l mt h sinh hu hn ca V. V V 7^ { 0 } , nn c
vct ai ^ 0 trong V. H gm mt vct khc khng (ai) c lp tuyn
tnh. Nu h ny khng c" lp tuyn tnh cc i , th c h (1,0:2)

c lp tuyn tnh.
Gi s ( a i , a ) l mt h c lp tuyn tnh trong V. H n y biu
r

th tuyn tnh qua ( 7 1 , 7 s ) . Theo B 3.6, ta c r < s. Nh t h qu

trnh chn cc vct a i , 0:2,... thu c mt h c lp t u y n tnh
phi dng l i sau mt s hu hn bc. Ta c mt h vct ( a i , . . . , )
c lp tuyn tnh cc i trong V, vi n < s. Theo nh l 3.2, h n y
l mt c s ca V.
Gi s (/?!>An) cng l mt c s ca V. V ( a i , . . . , a ) c lp
n

tuyn tnh v biu th tuyn tnh c qua (/?!, ...,0 ), m nn theo B

3.6, ta c n < m. Tro i vai tr ca hai c s ni trn, ta cng c
m <n. Nh vy, m l.

V du 3.7 (a) K" l mt K-khng gian vct li chiu. Cc vct sau

y lp nn mt c s, c gi l c s chnh tc ca khng gian

1

0

1
/ O A
0
ei = e
2 = 1 6 n

u l1 /
T h t vy, vct 0 6 K" l vct c mi t h n h phn bng 0 6 VI

t h h thc

/ o, \ 0 \
a
2
0
ae
x x + 4 ae
n n

V a n V O /
xy ra khi v chi khi ai = a 2 = = o n = 0. Nh vy, h
(ei, e<2,e ) n c lp tuyn tnh trong n
. H ny sinh ra K , b i n

66
 v m i v c t 8 -- &2, . . . , & ) ' (foil c b i u t h l u y n ti

t b i l>2< 2 I r,

(b) c l mt C-kliig gian vcX c h i n v i C H s (1). Dng i l l n c

cng l mt R-king g i a v o t a 2 chiu vi VI s ( , ), troujr
v
V
lMcyn v o . ' i u n y suy t c h m i s p h c z ( l u c b i u t h
duy n h t d i d n g e I &i. t r o n g d a,b E R.
M t c c h r n g C i i t . c" l m t k h n g gian vet. t h c 2?i c h i u .

S ( >
(<) n g t h n g t h c s l m i k h n g gian vi'cUr vo h n c h i l l i t r n
t r n g s h u t Q. Thai vy. i s phan ehiit ( a . . .... (!,.) l
m t c s ca R t r n Q. Mi phau t /? 6 SI-c h i n th t u y n t n h
duy n h t f U)(\ / n v i /Vi c T i r < n j g ' n g K > Q . n

? t> ( , , . . . , ) l m i song n h . Do d R c lire lii m (tc.

i u v l n y b c b gi thit, p h n chng.

M n h 3.8 Ch Sit V l mt khng giai) u.cl hu hn sinh. Khi, ,

mi h sinh ca u cha mi r .s. Mi h doc lp tuy ni tnh trong
V u c th. h sung d tr thnh mi ca n ra \' Nn dim V li,
th mi h c lp luyn lnh. gom li vc t ca " don. l mt ra s.

C h n g m i n h . ( M sir r l mt he sinh c a r. (li r l mt. h d c l p

t u y n t n h o r e i t r o n g r. K h i r b i u t h tuy*Ml t n h qua V. v (lo
d r c n g b i u t h t u y n t n h qua P'. N h th* I " l mt h sinh c
l p t u y n t n h , t c l mt. 0 s ca V . (Theo Bo de .'Mi. ' co h u h n
p h n t . C the han, s p h n t c n ' k i lng VI ri q u so p h n t en la
m i h sinh h u h n cua V . )
( l i a sir ( t t , . . . , r t , ) l mt h c l p t u y n t n h trong \ N u h
ny khng c lp t u y n t n h cc d i t h c t h bo siiUfT cc vct
a
i T15 <>;-2> e h t i m c van c l p t r i y u l i n h . Q u t r n h n y p h i
d n g l i sau m t s h u han bi r c , hi v theo i i h l 3.4. d i m V < oe.

fi7
Ta thu c h ( ! , . . . , a ) c lp tuyn tnh cc i trong V, tc l
n

mt c s ca V.
Nu dim V = n, th mi h c lp tuyn tnh gm ri vcta (/?],...,/?)
u cc i . T h t vy, gi s phn chng c t h thm vo h mt
vct / ? i no ca V sao cho h thu c vn c lp tuyn tnh.
n+

Khi , h (/?!, . . . , / ? i ) biu th tuyn tnh qua mt c s

n+ (tti,a ) n

no ca V, cho nn theo B 3.6, ta c n + < TI. Diu v l ny

bc b gi t h i t phn chng. Vy, theo nh l 3.2, (/?!,..., n) l mt
c s ca V.
Trong sut gio trnh ny, nu khng ni g ngc l i , chng ta chi,
nghin cu cc khng gian vct hu hn chiu.
N h n x t : Ngi ta chng minh c rng, trong mt khng gian v.ct
v hn sinh (tc l khng hu hn sinh), hai c s bt k u c cng
lc lng. Nhng mt h vcta c lp tuyn tnh c cng lc lng
vi c s th khng nht thit l mt c s.
2
Chng hn, h vector ( , X, X ,...) l mt c s ca K-khrig gian
vct K\X\. 2
H (X, X , X ,...) 3
c lp tuyn tnh v c cng lc lng
2
vi c s (,x, X, . . ) , nhng khng phi l mt c s ca Kx\, b i v
a thc khng biu th tuyn tnh c qua h .
Gi s (cvi,...,a ) l mt c s ca khng gian vct V. M i vct
n

Q 6 V c biu th tuyn tnh duy nht

a = + h aa,
n n ai e K.

i n h n g h a 3.9 (Toa ) . B v hng (ci,...,a ) n xc nh bi i u

a a
kin a = S i i i c gi l toa ca vct a trong c s ( a i , a n ) .
V hng d c gi l toa th ca Oi trong c s .

Gi s a v /3 c toa trong c s ( ! , t t ) n t n g ng l
( a i , a ) v (bi,6 ).
n n Khi , t tinh c lp tuyn tnh ca ( 1 , ( * )
suy ra rng a = 0 nu v ch nu ( a i , . . . , a ) ( 6 j , . . . , ) . T h t vy,
n n

a = /3 khi v ch khi

Oi - B = (ai - i ) H + {an b )c n n = 0.

68
iu n y x y ra n u v ch n u ai . i , a n = 6 . n

H n na, a + /? c toa l ( a t + 6 1 , a n + 6 ) v Att c toa l

n

{ka u ka ),
n (k K ) . t r o n g h ca s ( a 1 ? a n ) .
R y g i ta x t xem toa c a m t v c t t r o n g n h n g c s k h c
nhau c lin h v i nhau n h t h n o .
G i s ( / ? ! , 0 n ) cng l m t cor s ca k h n g gian v c t V. Mi
v c t 8j b i u t h t u y n t n h c qua c s ( ( * ! , . . . , ) , tc l c c c
vo h n g Cj cho

0j - Y^CijHi' Li = 1. " )
7=1

Gi s o c toa l ( a i , . . . , a ) v ( i , . . . . . n ) t n g n g t r o n g c c c
n

s ( o i , . . . , f t ) v (/3i,...,6 ). n Ta c

TI TI

j = l --1
ri n n
= c ) i = 51 a<.
i j J

i j=i =-I

Do t n h duy n h t c a toa ca a t r o n g ca s ( f Y j , t t ) , ta n h n c n

ri
a r 7
i - Y^cijbj, "" '")

.Ngi t a gi h t h c n i t r n l c n g </?.'//r i o khi i c s.

Ma trn c - ( C t j ) n x n c gi l /na / r n chuyn t c s (ai,...,cv)
sang c s ( i , f j n ) .
C n g t h c i toa s c d i n t d i mt. h n h t h c de t i p
n h n hau n h k h i n i m tch ca c c ma t r n , s c n g h i n c u
chi rong sau.

69
4 K h n g gian con - Hang ca m t h v c t
G i s V l mt khng gian vct trn trng K. Chng ta quan tam
n nhng t p con ca V c tnh cht l chng cng lp nn nhng
khng gian vct i vi cc php ton l thu hp ca nhng php ton
t n g ng t r n V. Ta c nh ngha hnh thc sau y:

i n h n g h i 4.1 T p can khng rng w c V c gi l mt khng

gian vct con ca V nu w khp kn i vi hai php ton trn V,
ngha l n u
+.pew, Ma,l3eW,
aa e w, Va G K , V f t w.

N h n x t : K h i , w vi hai php ton l hn ch ca hai php ton

t r n V cng l mt khng gian vct trn K. T h t vy, cc tin ( V I ) ,
(V4), (V5); (V6), (V7), (V8) nghim chng vi mi phn t ca V, nen
cng nghim n g vi mi phn t ca w. Ta ch cn kim tra li cc
tin (V2), (V3) ni v s tn t i ca cc phn t 0 v phn t i .
V w 0) nn c t nht mt phn t a 6 w. Khi 0 Oa e w.
Phn t 0 V ng vai tr phn t 0 G w. mt khc, vi mi a w,
ta c (Oi) = (l)a G w. cng chnh l phn t i ca a trong w.

V d u 4.2 (a) {0} v V l hai khng gian vct con ca V. Chng

c gi l cc khng gian vct con tm thu ng ca V.

(b) ng thng s thc R l mt R-khong gian vct con ca mt

phang phc c.

(c) T p hp cc a thc bc < n l mt khng gian vct con ca

K * .

l
(d) K h n g gian c [a, b cc hm kh vi lin tc trn [o, b} l mt khng
gian vct con ca khng gian cc h m Hn tc C[a, b.

70
 (e) Gi s TO < n. Khi tp hp cc vct c dng

X
)

0 '

0
V /
trong Xi, ...,x m K, l mt khng gian vcta con c s chiu
n
bng ra ca khng gian K .

M n h 4.3 Nu w l mt khng gian vct. con ca V th dim w <

dim V. ng thc dim w dim V xy ra khi v ch khi w V.

C h n g minh. V w l mt khng gian vct con ca V, nn m i h

c lp tuyn tnh trong w th cng c lp tuyn tnh trong V. Do
dim w < dim V. ng thc dim w = dim V xy ra khi v ch khi
mi c s ca w cng l mt c s ca V. in ny t n g xig vi
w = V.
M n h 4.4 Giao ca mt ho bt k (c th v hn) cc khng gian
v.ct con ca V li l mt khng gian vector con ca V.

C h n g minh. Gi s {V} =/ l mt h cc khng gian con ca V.

it V
mi V khp kn i vi php cng vct v php nhn vtet vi v
hng, nen giao ca chng n / V ' j cng c tnh cht .
it

i n h n g h i 4.5 Gi s X l mt, tp con ca khng gian vectg V. Gi ao

ca t t c cc khng gian vector con ca l /'htra X cc gm_lkjdwrig_
gian vct con ca V sinh bi X v c k hiu l C(X).
1
*- - ' " ~"

T nh ngha suy ngay ra rng C(X) l khng gian vctxr con n h

nht ca V cha X.
Hai trng hp c bit l ( 0 ) = {0} v C{W) = w i vi mi
khng gian vct con w ca V.

71
M n h 4.6 Gi s X 0. Khi C(X) l lp hp cc t hp tuyn
tnh ca cc phn t ca X. Ni ring, nu X = { 7 1 , 7 f r } th
k
{li,-,lk) = {Y^anMi K}.
i-
C h n g minh. Tp hp cc t hp t u y n tnh ca cc phn t ca X
tt nhin l mt khng gian vct con cha X. M t khc, mi t hp
tuyn tnh ca cc phn t ca - u nam trong mi khng gian vct.
con cha X. Vy tp hp cc to hp t u y n tnh ca cc phan t ca A'
chnh l khng gian vct con b nht ca V cha '.

i n h n g h i 4.7 S_chi'u ca khng gian CXj c gi l hang ca

tp (hoc h) vcA._X_vh dc ky hin l rankLY .

Ta gi mt tp con ca A' l c lp tuyn nnh cc ai trong ' nen

tp c lp tuyn Lnh v nn thm b t k vector n o ca X vo tp
th ta thu c mt tp ph thuc t u y n tnh.
Mnh e sau y ch ra cch tnh hng da mt tp vc trong th
c
hnh.

M n h 4.8 Hng ca tp vc.i. X bng H vc.t ca mi tp con

c lp tuyn tnh cc i trong X.

C h n g minh. Nu tp con A dc lp tuyn tnh c

c a i trong A' th
mi phn t ca A' biu th tuyn tnh (pin A. o d mi phn t ca
C(X) cng vy. Ni cch khc A cng l dc lp t u y n tnh cc i
trong >{X). Vy s phn t ca .4 l s chiu ca khng gian vct
C(X). '

H qu 4.9 Hai tp con c lp tuyn tinh cc i trong X c cng H

phn t
.

TI
N h n x t : Trong C h u n g 3, Nhn xt 8.2, chng ta s gii thiu mt
p h n g p h p n gin, d thc hnh tnh hng ca mt h vct
n
trong K n hoc K . P h n g p h p n y da trn nhn xt l hng ca mt
h vct khng thay i sau cc php bin i s cp. Ngi ta dng
cc php b i n i s cp a h vct cho v dng "tam gic
t r n " . S cc phn t khc 0 t r n ng cho ca "tam gic" ny chnh
l hng ca h vct.

5 Tng v Tng trc tip

Gi s W \ , W m l cc khng gian vct con ca V. Tp hp

Wi- \-Wm = { 1 + H a | i e W,i

m = l,...,m}

hin nhin lp nn mt khng gian vct con ca V.

nh n g h a 5.1 K h n g gian vct Wi - hW m c gi l tng ca

cc khng gian W \ , W m . N rng c k hiu bi ^L W.

M i vct ca W + + W m c t h vit d i dng

a - 1 + 1- ot ,
m di W.

Cch vit n y ni chung khng duy nht. Chng hn, nu W-^nWa {0},
th m i vct a G W n w 2 \ {0} c hai biu th a = Oi + 0 = 0 + a,
trong vct t h n h t trong tng thuc Wy cn vct t h hai trong
t,ng thuc w.
2

nh ngha 5.2 N u mi vct trong tng W\ - hW m u vit c

duy n h t d i dng a = a i 4- + a , m vi tt e W (i = , . . . , r a ) th
W-[ H hw m c gi l tng trc tip ca cc khng gian W , W m ,
v c k hiu l W @'W . m

i n h l 5.3 Wi - - W m l tng trc tip ca W , W m nu v chi

nu mt trong hai iu kin tng ng sau y c thoa mn:

73
 () W n (E iJtj W,) --, { 0 } , ( -1,in),

() v v ; n { ( ) } . (r i

C h n g minh. G i s IFj + V;,, l mt tong trc tip. Khi

iu kin (i) c thoa mn Tht vy, gi ST phn chng c ch -s /
sao cho
- n ( X > i - ) / {()}.

Gi " l mt vct ca giao . V -) 6 V ? f j IVJ. nen 7:c th' VA.

d i dng . f

Ta t*7j"= 7, v thu c hai cch bin thi khc nhau ca 0 d i

dng tng ca nhng p h n t ca l i ' ; :

0 -V 7,
,: Oi--- l.

iu v l ny bc b gi thit phn chng.

R rng iu kin (i) ko theo in kin (li).
Gi s iu kin (ii) c thoa mn. Nu n e W\ l i ' , , , c hai
biu th
o - Oi - + o m --- d I

vi nr,-, /?, 6 vv,-, th

1 - ft - -(<Vj - /?,) 6 IV, n ( li',) {0}.

Do a i - fl v o 2 + <\, 8-2- + !
Lp li qu trnh lp lun trn e r (\ 2 -- 8-2 , o, #,. Vy
W'l + + W m l mt tong trc rip.

i n h l 5.4 6"i m o w l cc khng gian v.r.l con ca mi khng

gian v.ct hu hn chiu V. Khi

dim l .4 dim w im(/' 4 l i ' ) + i m ( r n IV).

74
C h n g minh. Gi s ( a i , ...,a ) r l mt c s ca ri w. (Nu n
ir = { 0 } , th ta coi r = 0.) Ta b sung h ny c mt c s
( n i , a r , / ? ! , 0 a ) ca / v mt c s ( * ! , a , 7 i , 7 t ) ca w . r Ta
s chng t rng ( a i , a , / ? i , . . . , / ? , 7 ! , 7 t ) l mt c s ca L +
r s w.
R rng ( a i , a r , Pi, 7 i , ,7t) l mt h sinh ca l + H^. e
chng minh l mt h c lp t uyn t nh, t a gi s c mt rng buc
tuyn t nh

aii + h arctr + bi0i H + b0

s s + Ci7 H - Ct7t = 0,

t r o n g Oi, 6j, Cfc K. Vct

ai O i ! H - a cv + r r b p i H 1-6.,/?., - - C i 7 i c 7t

va thuc u (do biu thc v tri), va thuc w (do biu thc v

phi), nn n thuc n w, v do biu th t uyn t nh qua ai, ...,o,.:

-Ci7i - Ce7 = rfiCki + + d a .

r r

Ta vit l i ng thc ny nh sau

iVi + h drar + Cj7i + ' + c 7t = 0.

t

V h ( 1 , a r , 7i,7t) c lp t uyn t nh, nn C = ,c< = di

= d r = 0. Do

0 1 ! + + a,.n; + r bi0i - - bsPs = 0.

H vct ( a i , * r , / ? . , ) cng c lp t uyn t nh, cho nn ai -

= Or = &1 = - bs 0. K t hp iu ny vi cc h thc
c, = = C = 0 ta suy ra h vct ( 1 , t t r , 01,03,7i, ...,7t) c
lp t uyn t nh, v do n l mt c s ca / + w.
m s vct ca cc c s xy dng cho /, w, / n w, [ + H^, ta
c

im{ + W) = r + 8+t= (r + s) + (r+ t ) - r

= im+ imW-m(u nW).

75
H qu 5.5

dim(/ $ W) = dim l + dim w.

i n h n g h a 5.6 N u V V @w th w c gi l mt phn b tuyn

tnh ca [ trong v , v dim IV = dim V dim u c gi l i
r
chiu
ca u trong V.

Gi s V - V w . Khi mi v c t a V G V c the vi t duy nht

di dng t = u + /;, trong d ti 6 / , ?tf G l i ' . Ta nh ngha mt nh
x

pr - /,
pr {v)
- li.

N c gi l php chi n ca V len r r

theo p h n g w.
-
Php chi u p? ^ ca V ln l i * theo p h n g c nh ngha tcmg
r

t.
Php chi u c cc tnh cht sau:

pr (v i ti') = pV/(i') + V i f , u ' e V ,

pr- (av)
-- apr {v),
V K , n V.

6 K h n g gian t h n g
Gi s w l mt khng gian vct con ca khng gian V . Ta nh ngha
quan h ~ trn V nh sau:

a ~ /? rv - e w.

D dng kim tra l i rng ~ l mot, quan h t n g m i g , tc l mt

quan h c ba tnh cht phn x, i xng v bc cu.
Tp thng ca V theo Cuan h ~ vrc k hin l V/W. Lp tng
ng cia phn t <y G V c k hiu l oi, hoc rv + w.

76
 T a t r a n g b cho V/W h a i p h p t o n sau y ;

lai + \0\ = a + 0\, V a , e V,

a} [ao], VaeK,eV.

M n h 6.1 Hai php ton ni trn c nh ngha khng ph thuc

vo vic chn i biu. Hn na, V/W c trang b hai php ton
l mt K-khng gian vct.

i n h n g h a 6.2 K h n g g i a n vctcy V/W c g i l khng gian thung

ca V theo k h n g gian con w.

Chng minh Mnh 6.1. G i s rt = K I , /?l = /?'], ngha l

a a' E w, 3 ' 6 w. K h i , v w l m t k h n g gian v c t con, cho
nen
(a + 0 ) - (' + /?') = (* - ft') + (/? - 3') e w.
iu n y c h n g t r a n g \a + R -- \ct' \
T i r n g t , n u [a] .ft', t c l a a' e w, th

a f t aa' - a(a '-.ft'), 6 w.

i u n y c ngha l a j | a ' .
P h n t t r u n g l p ca p h p c n g t r o n g V/W c h n h l |0 - 0 + w.
P h n t i ca [or] c h n h l V. D d n g k i m t r a r n g c c t i n
k h c v k h n g gian v c t a i r e t h o a m n cho k h n g gian V/W.
H a i t r n g h p c bit, ca k h n g gian t h n g l

v/v = {0},

17(0} - V.

n h l 6.3
r
dim V/W -- d i m v dim w.

77
C h n g m i n h . Gi s ( i , . . . , r t ) l mt ccy s ca w. r (Nu w -
{0} th ta coi r = 0.) Ta b sung h vector ni trn c mt c s
( a i , a , 01,Ba)
r ca V. Ta s chng minh rng (AK--1 l mt
c s ca V/W.
G i s c mt rng buc tuyn tnh

M A I + + = [01.

iu n y c ngha l 6i/?i + + 6.,/?s w. V th vct b i u th

t u y n t n h qua c s chn ca W:

b \ B \ -\ 1- = aa { } + +- o. o .
r r

V h ( a i , . . . , a , / ? i ,
r ...,ps) c lp tuyn tnh, nn ai = = a r = &1 =

. . . 6 = 0. N h th, h ([/i,/?s]) c lp tuyn tnh.

S

M t khc, r rng ( / ? i , \ 0 s \ ) l mt h sinh ca khng gian V/W.

T h t vy, m i vct a V biu th tuyn tnh qua ( ! , . . . , ttr,

= Cxtti H + CrC*,. + O/?! + + ( C j , rfj e K).

V CiCXi + + v a 6 w , cho nn
r

[a] = [ d x P x + + t] = di [AI + +

N h vy, m i vcta [a] -V/W u biu th tuyn tnh c qua

([A],..., [ft]).

m s vct ca cc ca s xy dng cho w, V, V/W ta c

dim V/W = s = (r + s) - r = dim V - dim w.

Ta nh ngha nh x

i:V -* V/W,
r(a) [a] a + w,

78
v gi n l p h p c h i u t V ln V/W. P h p c h i u c n h n g t n h c h t
sau y:

7 T ( a + .) = T T ( Q ) + T(p), Va, /3eV,

T(aa) - aT(a), VaeK,/3eV.

T r o n g c h n g sau c h n g t a s n g h i n c u m t c c h c h t h n g n h n g
n h x c hai t n h c h t n h t h . C h n g c g i l c c n h x tuy n
tnh.

Bi t p

. X t xem c c t p h p sau y c l p t h n h K - k h n g g i a n v c t hay

khng i v i cc p h p ton t h n g t h n g (c n h ngha theo
tng t h n h phn):

(a) T p h p t t c
c c d y ( x i , ...,x ) n G Kn thoa m n i u k i n
X + 4- xn 0.

(b) T p h p t t c
c c d y ( 2 : , ...,x ) n 6 K thoa m n i u k i n
Xi + + x n - .

(c) T p h p t t c
c c d y ( x i , . . . , x ) G Kn thoa m n i u k i n
n

Xi - xn = - 1 .

(d) T p h p t t c
cc d y ( x i , ...,x ) n e Kn thoa m n i u k i n
Xi = 3 = x b = x2 = x 4 = Xa -

(e) T p h p c c ma t r n v u n g (a,ij) nxn i xng c p n, n g h a l

c c ma t r n thoa m n Ojj = dji, v i < , j < ri.

2. T p h p t t c c c d y ( . T i , ...,x ) n 6 K v i t t c
c c t h n h p h n
Xi,...,xn u n g u y n c l p t h n h m t M-khng g i a n v e c t hay
khng?

. 79

3. V i c c p h p t o n t h n g t h n g , Q c l m t E - k h n g gian v c t
hay khng? R c l mt C-khng gian vct hay khng?

4. C h n g m i n h r n g n h m z k h n g n g c u v i n h m cng ca b t
k m t k h n g gian v c t t r n b t k t r n g n o .

5. C h n g m i n h r n g n h m abel A i v i p h p c n g + c t h t r
t h n h m t k h n g gian v c t t r n t r n g Fp n u v ch n u

px = X + X H + X = 0, Va: A.
V

6. X t xem c c v c t sau a y c l p hay p h t h u c t u y n t n h t r o n g

R: 4

(a) e x = (-1,-2,1,2), e 2 = (0,-1,2,3), e 3 = (1,4,1,2), e 4 =

( - 1 , 0 , lv3);

(b) <*! = ( - 1 , 1 , 0 , l ) , a 2 = ( , 0 , 1 , 1 ) , 3 = (3, , 2, - 1 ) .

7. C h n g m i n h r n g hai h v c t sau y l c c c s c a c . 3 Tm
ma t r n c h u y n t c s t h n h t sang c s t h h a i :
ei = ( 1 , 2 , 1 ) , e 2 = ( 2 , 3 , 3 ) , 6s = ( 3 , 7 , 1 ) ;
e\ = ( 3 , 1 , 4 ) , 2 = (5,2,1), 4 = (1,1,-6).

8. C h n g m i n h r n g hai h v c t sau y l c c c s ca c . 4 Tm
m i lin h g i a toa ca c n g m t v c t t r o n g h a i ca s :
ej = ( 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 ) , e 2 = (1,2,1,1), e 3 = (1,1,2,1), e 4 = (1,3,2,3);
ei = ( 1 , 0 , 3 , 3 ) , = (2,3,5,4), = (2.2,5.4), r i = (2,3,4,4).

9. X t xem c c t p h p h m s t h c san v c l p t h n h k h n g gian

v c t i v i c c p h p t o n t h o n g t h n g hay k h n g ? N u c. h y
t m s c h i u ca c c k h n g gian .

(a) T p R\X c c a t h c ca m t n X.

(b) T p (K) cc h m thc k h vi vo hn t r n R.

80
 (c) T p C(R) cc h m thc lin tc trn R.

(d) T p cc h m thc b chn trn R.

(e) Tp cc h m / : R R sao cho s u p j \ f ( x ) \ < 1.

x

( f ) T p cc h m / : R R thoa mn iu kin / ( 0 ) = 0.

(g) T p cc h m / : K * R thoa mn iu kin / ( 0 ) 1.

(h) T p cc h m thc n iu trn R.

10. Dinh ngha hai p h p t o n cng v nhn vi v hng trn tp hp

V = {{x,y) E B X \ y > 0}

n h sau:

(x,y) + (u,v) = (x+u,yv), V(x,y), (u, v) e V,

a
a(x,y) =. (ax,y ), Vo.E R,(x>y) e V.

Xt xem V c l mt k h n g gian vct thc i vi hai php ton

k h n g . N u c, h y tm mt c s ca khng gian y.

11. Ma t r n chuyn t mt c s sang mt c s khc thay i t h

n o nu:

(a) i ch hai vct trong c s t h nht?

(b) i ch hai vct trong ca s t h hai?

(c) t cc vct trong m i c s theo t h t hon ton ngc

li?

2 n
12. Cho a l m t s thc. Chng minh rng hai h"vct(, X, X , x )
2 n
v ( , (X a), (X a ) , ( X - a ) ) l cc c s ca khng gian
R[X] n cc a thc h s thc vi bc khng vt qu ri. T m ma
t r n chuyn t c s t h n h t sang c s t h hai.

13. T m cc toa ca a thc f ( X ) = ao + Q\X + + OnX n

trong
hai c s ni t r n .

81
14. Cho k h n g gian vector con L ca k h n g g i a n R[X\, Chng minh
rng nu L cha t nht mt a thc bc ; vi m i k 0, , r i
n h n g khng cha a thc n o vi bc ln hon Ti t h L chnh l
k h n g gian con R [ X n t t c cc a t h c v i b c k h n g v t q u
n.

15. C h n g m i n h r n g t p h p c c v c t (x\, ...,x )

n G R n thoa m n h
n
t h c X i + 2X2 H 1" Xn = 0 l m t k h n g g i a n v c t con ca R .
n

T m s c h i u v m t c s cho k h n g g i a n v c t con .

16. T m t t c c c F j r k h o n g gian v c t con m t v h a i c h i u ca ^2-

G i i b i t o n t n g t i v i k h n g gian Fp, t r o n g p l m t
s n g u y n t.

17. C h n g m i n h r n g c c ma t r n v u n g i x n g c p TI v i cc phn

t t r o n g t r n g K l p t h n h m t k h n g g i a n v c t a con c a Mn X
n , K ) . T m s chiu v m t c s cho K - k h n g g i a n v c t con .

18. C h n g m i n h r n g c c ma t r n v u n g ( a j j ) n x n phn i xng cp

TI, ngha l c c ma t r n thoa m n Ojj - ctji. v i < , j < ri, l p
t h n h m t k h n g gian v c t con ca M(n X n , &). T m s c h i u
v m t c s cho K - k h n g gian v c t con .

19. G i s V c Vi l c c k h n g gian vector con c a V. C h n g minh

r n g d i m V] < d i m Va, n g t h c x y r a k h i v ch k h i V v. 2

K h n g n h cn n g hay k h n g n u V\ v v 2 l c c k h n g gian
v c t con b t k ca V

20. G i s V, V2 l c c k h n g gian v c t a con ca V. Chng minh

r n g n u d i m V + d i m Vi > d i m V t h V] n V-2 c h a t n h t mt
vct khc khng.

21. V i g i t h i t n h bi t p trc, chng m i n h r n g n u d i m ( l ' i 4

v)
2 = d i m (Vi n V2) 4- t h Vi + V-2 t r n g v i m t t r o n g h a i k h n g
gian con cho, cn V n Vi t r n g v i k h n g g i a n con c n l i .

82
 T m h n g c a c c h vc t a sau y :

22. tt, = ( 1 , 2 , 0 , 1 ) , O a - (1,1,1,0), 3 = (1,0,1,0),

tt4 =- ( 1 , 3 , 0 , 1 ) .

23. ft, = ( 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 ) , 2 = ( 1 , 3 , 1 , 3 ) , 3 = ( 1 , 2 , 0 , 2 ) ,
f>4 = ( 1 . 2 , 1 , 2 ) , tt 5 - (3,1,3,1).

T m c s ca t o n g v giao ca cc k h n g gian v c t con sinh b i

cc h vector O i , O f c v ...,/?/ sau y :

24. Q, = ( 1 , 2 , 1 ) , 2 = ( 1 , 1 , - 1 ) , CY. = ( 1 , 3 , 3 ) ,

., =. ( 2 , 3 , - 1 ) , /?2 = ( 1 , 2 , 2 ) , 03 = ( 1 , 1 , - 3 ) .

25. O i (1,2,1,-2), 2 - ( 2 . 3 , 1 , 0 ) , O a r. ( 1 , 2 , 2 , - 3 ) ,
= ( 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 ) , h = ( 1 , 0 , 1 . - 1 ) , 0-A (1,3,0,-4).

26. rt, - ( 1 , 1 , 0 , 0 ) , O a = ( 0 , 1 , 1 , 0 ) , rt 3 = (0,0,1,1),

./?, ( 1 , 0 , 1 , 0 ) , 2 = ( 0 , 2 , 1 , 1 ) , 03 = ( 1 , 2 , 1 , 2 ) .

27. C h n g m i n h r a n g v i m i k h n g gian v c t con Vi ca V t n t i

m t k h n g gian vector con V ca V sao cho V V] V- K h n g
gian v 2 c x c n h duy n h t hay k h n g ?

2H. C h n g m i n h r n g k h n g gian c l t n g t r c t i p ca k h n g g i a n
v o t con V x c n h b i p h n g t r n h 3" + x-2 + + x n 0
v k h n g gian vctcr con V x c n h b i p h n g t r n h X - x2 =
= .r T| T m h n h chin ca c c vector t r o n g ca s c h n h t c c a
;
C, len r theo p h n g V v ln V theo p h n g V.

29. Cho K l m t t r n g c c s k h c 2. C h n g m i n h r n g k h n g
gian M ( . X T i , K ) c c ma t r n v u n g c p li l t n g t r c t i p c a
k h n g gian $(n) g m cc ma t r n i x n g v k h n g gian A(n)
gm c c ma t r n p h n i x n g . T m h n h c h i u c a ma t r n
( ' e M(n X ?/., K ) len S(n) theo phvrng ;4(7/.) v ln A{n) theo
phng Sin).

83
30. G i &(% K-'khong gin v c t t r c c d a thc- vi h s t r o n g K c
bc < n. T m k h n g gian t h n g KiA'jn/KjA'lr,, v s c h i u c a n
k h i ra < n.

HA
 Chng 2
M A TRN.
V NH X T U Y N TNH

Cu t r c ca cc khng gian vct ch l r khi chng ta nghin cu

chng khng phi nht nhng i tng ring r, m tri li t chng
trong mi lin h vi nhan. Cng c dng xc lp mi lin h gia
cc khng gian vct l cc n h x tuyn tnh. Ngon ng gip cho vic
m t c t h cc nh x t u y n tnh l cc ma trn.

Ma trn
Gi s X l mt. trng tuy .

nh ngha 1.1 M i bng c dng

1
an da ... a ln

A -- ,

^ Am (t
ni2 a
rnn

trong Oij 6 K ( < i < tri, < j < n), i rc S1 l mt ma trn tri
hng (hay dng) l ct. vi cc phn t trong K. Nu m r i , th ta ni
A l mt ma trn vung cp li. Vcta hng

(ail, Uj2, ...,a )

rn

c gi l /ln /i ca ma tran A. Vcttr ct

(a.|j, a 2 j , a j )
m

c gi i c/. / 7 ca ma t r i ! / 1 .
 Ma trn ni trn thng c k hiu gn l A = {aij) .
mxn

Tp hp t t c cc ma trn m hng, li ct vi cc phn t trong K

c k hiu l M{m X Ti, K), hay Matm. X n, K).
Ta nh ngha hai php ton cng v nhn vi v hng trn M(m X
Ti, K) nh sau:

au ^ bu ... b ln \

a\
2
a-2n b'2] ... bn 2

Y Qml "nin 'nin

an + bu .. aln + bin ^

a-21 + h Q-2n + fr'2n

a a
^ m + ^ml mn + m 7 y

an a 12
\ / aa\ aai2
Q2n aa i aa 2 aa 2n
2 2
, (oe

^ Gml
rn2 a
mn / \ aa
m a
& m2 aa.mu y

M n h 1.2 M(?n X n, K) c rang 6? /lai p/p ton ni trn l mt

khng gian vct trn trng K i s c / i i u 67<7

dim M(m X TI, K) = ra X n .

C h n g minh. D dng kim tra khng nh M(m X ri, K) l mt K-

khng gian vct. L u rng phn t trung lp ca php cng trong
M(m X n , K ) l
/ 0 0 ... 0 \
0=
0 0 ... 0
v phn t i ca A - ( a j j ) m x n l A - (-a ) y m x n .

86
 chng minh khng nh v s chiu ca M(m X ra, K) ta xt
m a t r n Ej ( < < ra, < j < ri) gm ton phn t 0, loi t r
phn t duy nht bng nm trn giao ca hng v ct j. Gi s
= (O) m x n G M(m X n,K). Ta c

m n

i=l j=l

Nh vy h {Eij\\ < < in, < j < n) l mt h sinh ca M(m X n, K ) .

Mt khc, mi rng buc tuyn tnh
m n

i=l j=l

ko theo ? = ( 6 i i ? ) m x n = 0. Tc l t y = 0 vi mi i , j . Diu ny chng

t (Ej\ < < ra, < j < ri) c lp tuyn tnh.
Cho hai ma trn A - ( j j ) e M(m X TI, K), B (bjk) e M(n X p, K).

nh n g h a 1.3 Tch AB ca ma trn A v ma trn B l ma t r n

= (c fc) M(m
t X p, K) vi cc phn t c xc nh n h sau
n
Cik ^Y^Oijbjk, ( < i < rn^l < k < p).
j=i

nh ngha ny c minh ha bng hnh v sau y:

()

87
V d:

a b c x t \ f
ax + by + cz at + bu + cu \
ri e V u = dx + ey + f z di + cu + fv
V 9 ti V z V ) ^ gx + hy + iz gi + hu + iv
N h n x t : iu kin nh ngha c ma trn tch AB l
s ct ca A = s hng ca B.
C t h x y ra trng hp tch AB th nh ngha c, m tch BA
th khng.
T r n g hp c bit, khi A v B u l cc ma trn vung cp
n th c hai tch AB v BA u nh ngha c. Nhng ni chung
AB - BA. Chng hn, vi n 2, ta c

C c a n g thc sau y a c hiu theo ngha: nu mt v a c xc

nh th v kia cng vy v hai v bng nhau.

{AB)C - A(BC),

A{B X f Bi) = AB + AB'2,

{A x +A )B
2 ---- A\B \ A B.
2

C h n g ta chng minh ng thc t h nht. Hai ng thc cn l i

c xem n h nhng bi tp.
Gi s A - {aij) ,B
mxn = {bjk)nx ,C P {Ckt)pxq. Khi p h n t
n m h n g ct li ca ma t r n (AB)C l

fe=i j=

88
Cn phn t nm hng ct ca ma t r n A(BC) l

n p

j= k=\

Hin nhin c hai phn t ni trn u bng

n p

j=lfc=l

V iu ng vi mi , L nn (AJ5)(* A ( C ) .
Nhng nhn xt ni trn dn ta t i khng nh sau v cho cc ma
t rn vung.

M n h 1.4 Tp hp cc ma trn vung M(n X n, K) cng vi cc

php ton cng v nhn ma trn lp thnh mt vnh c n v. Vnh
ny khng giao hon nu n > .

Lu rng phn t n v ca vnh M(li X ri, K) l m t r n sau y

/ l o ... 0 \
0 ... 0
E = E n =

V0 0 ... ,

N c gi l ma trn n v cp li.

n h n g h a 1.5 Ma t r n A M(n X 7i,K) c gi l m t ma trn kh

nghch (hoc ma trn khng suy bin) nu c ma trn BE M(nx n , K)
sao cho AB - BA - E. n K h i , ta ni B l nghch o ca A v k
nu B - A~ . L

Nhn xt rng nu A kh nghch th ma trn nghch o ca n c

xc nh duy nht. Tht vy, gi s B v B' u l cc nghch o ca
A K h i

B = BE n = B(y45') = (Bi4)B' = ' - B'. n

89
 Trong chng sau chng ta s h ra mt i u kin cn v r t
n gin cho mt ma t r n vung l k h nghch.
Sau y l v d v mt lp cc ma t r n k h nghch.

M n h 1.6 Gi c l ma trn chuyn t c s ( a , . . . , f t ) sang c

1 n

s (a',a' )n ca khng gian vct V. Khi , c l mt ma trn kh

nghch, vi nghch o l ma trn chuyn C" t c s (a[, ...,a' ) n sang
c s (ai,ct ). n

C h n g minh. Gi s c = (d), = (4,.). Ta c

n u n n n
a
'j = Y^CiOi = Y , n 2 'ki 'k
c c a
= c
2(J2 'ki ij) 'k- c a

i=l i= fc=l Jt=l i=l

V biu th tuyn tnh ca mi vt qua c s l duy nht, n n ta nhn

c

c c
nu k = j,
'ki ij kj
i=i 0 n u k 7^ j.
Ngha l C = E . n Tcmg t , t r o i vai t r ca hai ca s cho nhau,
1
ta c C = En. Nh vy, c kh nghch v c~ = c .
N h n x t : G i s ( a i , ...,<*n) l mt c s c a khng gian vct V, v
c (Cj) l mt ma t r n vung cp n v k h nghch. K h i h vcta
( o ^ , a ' ) xc nh b i
n a'j = 5D!=1 Cij&i cng l m t ca s ca V. T h t
vy, nu c = (c'ij) l ma trn nghch o ca c th CL = D=1 ' i j ' i -
c a
Do
(a[,...,a' ) n l mt h sinh ca V . H n y G s phn t n g bng
s chiu ca V, nn n l m t c s ca V. Tt. nhin, c chnh l ma
t r n chuyn t c s ( a i , :.,a ) n sang c s (a', ...,a' ).
n

Trong ngn ng tch ma trn, s k i n c l ma t r n chuyn t c s

(ai, ...,C ) n sang c s ( a [ , ...,a' ), n t c l h n g thc a'j = I^r=i CijCti

( j = , c vit gn n h sau

(ai ...at' ) = (1n ...a )C.

n

90
 x a =
Hn na, nu a = J2tz=\ i i Hj=i x'jtt'ji th ta c

/ x\ \ ( x \ \
a = (a\ ...a' )
n = (O] ...a )C
n = (ai ...a )n

\ x
' n V X
n
Do b i u th t u y n t n h ca mi vcta qua c s l duy nht, nen

Xi \
f
x\ \
=c
K 'n x

i n h n g h i 1.7 Ta k hiu b i GL(n,K) tp hp t t c cc ma t r n

kh nghch trong Mn X n, K).

M n h 1.8 GL(n,K) lp thnh mt nhm i vi php nhn cc ma

trn.

C h n g m i n h . Trc ht ta chng minh rng CL(ii,K) khp kn i

vi php nhn ma t r n . G i s A, B G G'L(n, K). Khi . tn t i cc
1 1
ia t r n A ' , " 6 M{n X Ti, K). Ta c

X l l
[AB)(B~ A~~ ) = A{BB' )A^ = AE A~ n = AA~ = E,
n
] l l l
(B~ A~ )(AB) = B~\A~ A)B = B~ E B n = = En.

Nh vy, v 4 cng k h nghch, h n na ( A B ) 1

= 1
' .
Ta bit r n g p h p nhn cc ma trn vung (ni ring php nhn
cc ma t r n trong GL(n, K)) c tnh kt hp.
Phn t t r u n g lp ( o n v) i vi php nhn trong GL(n, K) chnh
l ma t r n n v E n e GL(n,K).
Theo nh ngha ca GL(n, K ) , mi ma t r n trong n u c nghch
o. H i n nhin, nghch o A' 1
ca mi ma t r n A e GL(n, K) cng
l mt phn t ca GL(n, K ) .

91
mh n g h a 1.9 iai ma trn vung A,A' Mn X n,K) c gi l
ng dng nu c mt ma trn kh nghch c GL(ii, K) sao cho i4'
('M'.

D thy rng ng dng l mt quan h tng ng.

Trong tit sau chng ta s chng minh rng mi lp tng ng
ca cc: tha trn theo quan h ng dng c t tng ng mt i
mt vi mt t ng cn tuyn tnh ca mt. khng gian vct hu hn
chiu no .

2 n h xa t u y n t n h
(H s V v w l cc khng gian vector trn trng K.

nh ngha 2.1 (Anh x tuyn tnh).

nh x f V * w c gi l mt nh x tuyn tnh (hoc r hn,
mt nh x K-tuyn tnh), nu

/(+/?) = /() f /(/?),

/(ao) = o/(rt),

vi mi ft, /t G V v mi v hng a K.
nh x tuyn tnh cng c gi l ng cu tuyn tnh, hay ong
cu cho em gin.

Nhn xt rng hai iu kin trong nh ngha nh x tuyn tnh

tng ng vi iu kin san:

f{aa + b) = ( {) + bf(0), Vo. 0 Va. 6 K.

Cc tnh cht sau y ca nh x tuyn tnh c suy ngay t nh

ngha. Gi s / : V H l mt nh x tuyn tnh. Khi , ta c
7

92
 (1) /(0)=0.

Tht vy, / ( 0 ) = / ( 0 + 0) = / ( 0 ) + / ( 0 ) . Theo lut gin c,

/ ( 0 ) = 0.

(2) / ( - ) = - / ( < * ) , Va V.

Tht vy, / ( ) + / ( - ) = / ( + ( - ) ) = / ( 0 ) = 0. Do ,
/(-a) = -/(a).

(3) / ( a ^ i + + a ) n n = ^ / ( a j ) + + a / ( a ) , n n Va ...,a
l5 n 6
K,Va ,...,Q
1 n 6 V.

ng thc ny c t h c chng minh bng quy np.

V d 2.2 (a) nh x 0 : V - xc nh b i cng thc 0(a) = 0

vi mi Oi 6 V l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
7

(b) nh x ng nht id v : V > V, irfv(fv) = O; l mt n h x tuyn

tnh.

(c) o h m hnh thc

JL
dX
d
-j-(a x
(LA n
n
+ + axxx + ao) = na x ~ +
n
n 1
+ a,

l mt nh x tuyn tnh.

(d) Php lin hp phc c : c ' c, 2 t 2 l mt nh x R-tuyn tnh,

nhng khng phi l mt nh x C-tuyn tnh. Thv vy,
2
= c ( - l ) = c ) ic(i) = i ( - i ) = 1.

(e) Gi s A - (dij) M(m X n,K). K h i nh x

: K" -> K , m

/ Xi \

93
 l mt nh x tuyn tnh.

(f) Cc php chiu

pr : V X Va -> V,
pri(vuV ) 2 - V

l cc nh x tuyn tnh, vi = 1,2.

(g) Gi s w l mt khng gian v c t a con ca V. K h i p h p chiu

7T :V -> vyw,
7r() = = ft + w
l mt nh x tuyn tnh.

n h n g h a 2.3 Gi s V v w l cc K-khng gian vct. T p hp

t t c cc nh x tuyn tnh t V vo w irc k hiu l ( V , VK) (hoc
Hpm(V,W)).

V (v, W) cha nh x 0, nn C(V, W) 0.

Ta trang b cho (v, H^) hai php t o n cng v nhn vi vo hng
c nh ngha nh sau

( / + <?)() = / ( ) + </(<*),

(a/)(cv) - a/(o) Oi 6 V, a 6 K,

vi mi / , j e (V,W).
D dng kim tra l i rng C(V, W) l mt K-khng gian vct i
vi hai php ton .
nh l sau y ch ra mt tnh cht quan trng ca n h x tuyn
tnh.

i n h l 2.4 Mi nh x tuyn tnh t V vo w c hon ton xc

nh bi nh ca n trn mt c s. Ni r hn, gi s (QJ, ...,(*) l
mt c s ca V, cn u>i,...,u; n l cc vct bt k ca w. Khi ,
n ti duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh f : V w sao cho /(a,:) (V
(i - , 2,..., ra).

94
C h n g m i n h . S tn ti: N u t = O + + o. a , n n th ta t

/(*) = ait] + - f Qu.

n n

D dng t h l i rng f : V * w l mt nh x tuyn tnh, v {d) Li

( - 1,2 l i ) .

Tnh. duy nht: Nu / v l cc nh x tuyn tnh t V vo w vi

/ ( f t , ) (cVj) - Li (i , 2 , n ) , t h v i m i n --- O O ] f f a n . n n ta
c
ri n n
/() = / E ^ ^ ) = S o t / i f t t ) = 53^(^1)
=1 . =1
n

f l D
= ? E . i ) = gio)-

i n h n g h a 2.5 M t ng cu (tuyn tnh) / : V ng thi l

mt n n h c gi l m t n cu (tuyn tnh). Mt ng cu
(tuyn tnh) ng t h i l mt t o n nh c gi l mt ton cu (tuyn
tnh). M t ng cu (tuyn t n h ) ng thi l mt song nh c gi
l mt ng cu (tuyn t n h ) .

Nu / : V > w l mt n g cu, th / ~ 1
: w V cng l mt
ng cu; n c gi l nghch o ca / . Do mi ng cu cn
c gi l mt ng cu kh nghch. Nu c mt ng cu / : V * w,
th ta ni V n g cu v i w v vit V = w.
Quan h l mt quan h tirng n g .
Nhn xt r n g ng cu / : V * w l mt ng cu nu v ch nu
c mt ng cu g : w * V sao cho gf = idv v fg = idw- Khi ,
= T h t vy, n u / l mt ng cu th f ~ f = iv, f f ~ idw l l

Ngc li, n u c mt ng cu : w V sao cho g - idy, fg = idw,

th / va l mt a n cu (do gf = id), va l mt ton cu (do
fg = id ). w V t h , / l mt n g cu. K h i , nhn hai v ca ng
_ 1
thc gf = idy vi / t bn p h i , ta thu c q -

95
M n h 2.6 Gi s V v w l cc khng gian vct hu han chiu.
Khi .
V = W dim V d i m XV.

C h n g m i n h . G i s V = w, t c l c m t a n g c n t u y n t n h / :
V w. K h i , n u ( 1 , ( V ) l mt c s c a \ ' t h ( / ( i ) , . . . . / ( o J ) r

l m t c s ca l y . T h t vy, m i vector 0 w c d n g /? --- / ( r v ) v i

a n o t r o n g w. V V c b i u t h t u y n t n h Y - (la -- f a r t .n

nn

/? = f(ot) = + + (inCn) = O i / ( f t ) -t + a f((\ ).

n n

Nu /? cn c b i u t h t u y n t n h 0 - b\f(nt) + H 6 / ( o ) , n th
l
a = f ~ ( P ) = + + n^n- V ( ( * ! , . . . , Y) l mt c s a V

cho nen ai = & i , . . . , a = 6 . n N h vy, mi v c t /? b i n t h t u y n tnh

d u y n h t qua h ...,/( r t
n)), I'lPH l'i n y l m t c s c a l i ' Ni
ring, dim V = dim w .
N g c l i , g i s d i m V - dim W r,. C h n c c c s (rv.cv ,) r

ca V v (01,/? ) n c a l i ' . A n h xa t u y n t n h duy n h t 9 : r > 14'

c x c n h h i <p(oi) / ? 1 , < p ( o r ) - /? l m t n g can tuyn
t n h . T h t vy, nghch o a ip l n h x t u y n t n h i\ ' w > \ crc
x c n h b i i u k i n ij'(0) - Ct\,/'(/?n) "- <> D

T n g n g t m i n h x t u y n t n h v i ma trn ca n nia t a s a p
n h ngha l m t v d i n h n h v n g can t u y n t i n h . Nh (lng
c u n y m n g i ta c tin"' t n h t o n c th vi cc n h x t u y n t n h .
G i s V v w l c c K - k h n g gian v c t v i c c c s t n g ng
l ( r t ] , ( \ ) n v (/!,...,/?,,,). Theo nh l 2.4, nh x luyn tnh / :
V * w c x c n h d u y nht, h i / ( ( V i ) , . . . , / ' ( n ) . Cc vetcr n y l i
c b i n th t.uvn t n h d u y nht. qua ca s (i,.... f )
m ca H":
m

(./ = ")
h I

t r o n g Oj E K. Ni gn l i , n h x t u y n t n h f : V * w c xc
n h d u y n h t b i h t h n g cc v o h n g < < m, < < /,},

96
 ling i rc x p t h n h ma t r n sau y:

/ au 12 a In

21 22 27,
A (ay)r

Y "mi ^'7u2 "nin

Ta g i A l ma t r n ca n h x t u y n t n h f : V * w t r o n g cp c s
(n ,a )
n v (/?],...,/?,).
N u vector o c toa ( . 7 ' ] , . T ) t r o n g c s ( ] , . . . , t t ) t h toa n
cua / ( n r ) t r o n g c s (/?!,..., f ) c t n h b n g c n g t h c
m

n
a x
Vi - 2 i j 3 (* = 1,2,...,/)

Tht vy,

--

n ni

j -1
t n

- i-1

V b i u t h t u y n t n h c a mi vc. thuc V ([lia c s ( i , . . . , / m ) l

d u y n h t , n n ta t h u c c n g t h c x c n h . . . , / T H ) qua ma trn
,4 v (.T , . T n ) ni c'r t r n .
T r o n g n g n n g tch ma t r a n , sir k i n A (a,-j) m x n l ma t r n ca
nh x tuyn tnh :Y * w t r o n g cp c s ( d ] , a n ) v (/I,/? T O ),
t c l h n g t h c f(j) - Z"ii tt
ijA 0 - l , . . . , n ) c r/uy c v i t
nh sau:

/ n a 1 2 ... a lr \

( / ( ! ) . . . /())--- ( A ...flu)

97
Cong thc tnh toa (/!, . . . , / ) ca m trong c s (01, ...,0m) qua
toa (a?!, . . . , x ) ca trong c s ( c * i , c v ) c din t l i trong
n n

ngn ng ma trn nh sau:

/ V \ au 12 a\r, \ x \ x

-2i 22 . an2

X Vm V a . \ x
n
i n h l 2.7 nh x t tng ng dng cu vi ma trn ca n
A M ( f ) trong mt cp c s c dinh ca V v w l mt ng cu
tuyn tnh t C(V, W) ln M(tu X n, K). Ni ring, dim ( V, W) --
dim V X dim w.

C h n g minh. Gia s trong cp c scV ( O , ...,r>) ca V v (B, ...,3 )m

ca w cc ng cu / v c cc ma t r n tng ng l A - (j) mxn

v B '(6j)mxn- tc l:

HI

' ;.-
rt

Khi

(/ t //Ho.) SK- M A ,
---
"I

- J^fHiijfy,
(--.-.
(j-1,...,").

Nh vy, ma trn ( n i a / f y l / I- B, ma t r n (nia a / l aA (trong cp

c s cho). Ni cch khc:

/W ( / + . ( / ) = M ( / ) 4- MO/),
M(a/) aA/(/).

98
Cc h thc ny chng t rng php t tng ng mi ng cu vi
ma trn ca n trong mt cp c s c nh l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
Mt khc, theo nh l 2.4, nh x ni trn l mt song nh. Tm
l i , l mt ng cu tuyn tnh.

M n h 2.8 Nu f : V > w v g : w > z l cc nh x tuyn tnh,

th gf : V > z cng l mt nh x tuyn tnh.

Chng m i n h . Tht vy, ta c

g f ( a a + bp) = g(af(a) + bf((3))

= a(gf)(a) + b(gf)(P),

vi mi o, b K v mi a, p V.

M n h 2.9 Gi s ng cu f c ma trn A trong cp c s (ai,

n ) . {01, A n ) v ng cu g c ma trn B trong cp c s ( / ? ! , m ) ,
(71, . . . , 7 / ) . Khi , ma trn ca ng cang/ trong cp c s (ai, ...,a ), n

(71,...,7^) chnh l ma trn tch BA.

Chng m i n h . Theo gi thit, ta c

f( i) Q
= J^ jiPi,
a

(
9(0j) = Y, kjVk-
b

fc=i

T , do g l mt nh x tuyn tnh, ta c

j=l j=l ;
m J? m
= H a
ji E M * = se b a
kj jihk-
j=i fc=i fc=i j=i

99
 Gi c (c k i )( X n l ma t r n ca g t r o n g cp c s (c*i,a ) n

(71,...,7/). Khi

fc=i

V b i u t h t u y n t n h ca {gf){ct) qua c s ( 7 1 , . . . , 7 / ) l duy nht,

nn ta thu c
" m

ki - Y^hjUji, ( < k < , < < n).

H n g t h c n y t n g n g v i n g t h c ma t r n

c = BA

N u m t t r o n g hai v ca cc n g t h c sau y g i a c c n h x
t u y n t n h l c ngha t h v kia cng vy. K h i , t a c c c n g t h c
(d k i m tra):

h(gf) = (%)/,

( / i + /2) = g f \ + 92,-

(91 + g) = 9if + 92-

nh ngha 2.10 M i n g c u ( t u y n t n h ) t k h n g g i a n v c t V
vo c h n h n c g i l m t t ng cu ( t u y n t n h ) ca v._ M t t
n g c u ca V n g t h i l m t n g c u c g i l m t t ng cu
ca V.
K h n g gian v c t t t c cc t n g c u ca V c k h i u l
End{V). T p h p t t c c c t n g c u ca V c k h i u l GL{V).

D d n g k i m t r a l i r n g End(V) l m t v n h i v i hai p h p t o n
cng v n h n . ( h p t h n h ) c c t n g c u . N c g i l vnh cc
t ong cu ca V. V n h n y c n v l ly v k h n g giao h o n n u
dimV>l.
cho gn, t a s g i ma t r n ca / End{V) t r o n g cp c s
( d i , a n ) , ( a i , . . . , a ) l ma t r n ca /
n trong c s ( ] Ct ).
n

100
 i n h l 2.11 Gi s V l mt K-khng gian vct vi dim V = n. Khi
nh x t tng ng mi t ng cu f 6 End(V) vi ma trn ca
n M ( f ) trong c s ( < * ! , a ) l mt ng cu vnh t End(V)
n vo
M(n X n,K).

C h n g m i n h . y l mt h qu trc tip ca nh l 2.7 v Mnh

2.9.
Nhn xt rng / End{V) l mt ng cu nu v ch nu tn t i
ng cu g G Endiy) sao cho

id
9 = 9 = v-

Khi g = f - \
Do nhn xt ny ta d dng kim tra rng GL(V) l mt nhm i
vi php n h n l php hp t h n h cc nh x. GL(V) c gi l nhm
tuyn tnh tng qut ca khng gian vct V.
Theo nh l 2.11, / End(V) l mt ng cu nu v ch nu
M ( / ) e,M(n X n , K ) l mt ma t r n kh nghch.
Tng ng / *- M ( f ) ni trong nh l 2.11 c m t trong biu
sau:

End(V) ng cu vnh Mn X n , K )

u u
GL(V) ng cu nhm GL(n, K).

M n h 2.12 Gi s A l ma trn ca t ong cu : V * V trong

c s ( a } a n ) , v c l ma trn chuyn t c H ( V , t t ) sang c n

l
s ([, ...,a' ). n Khi , ma trn ca f trong CT s (a\,f>4) lC~ AC.

Chng minh. c l ma trn chuyn t c s ( ! , . . . , ) sang c s

( a i , C k ' n ) ca khng gian vct V, ngha l ta c

(" ... n ) = (1 - ot )C.

n

loi
Nhn hai v ca ng thc trn vi c 1
t bn p h i , ta t h u c

{a ...a )
l n = {a\...a' )C-\
n

T ng cu / End{V) c ma t r n l A trong c S ( 1 , a n ) , ngha

l

( / ( a i ) ... / ( a ) ) = ( a i ...
n a )A.
n

V / l mt ng cu, cho nn ta c

(M-no) = (M ... f(a ))C

n

= (ni ... a )AC

n

l
= K ...a' )C- AC.
n

Do tnh duy nht ca biu th tuyn tnh ca mi vct qua mt c s,

l
cho nn C~ AC chnh l ma trn ca / trong c s (a[, ...,a' ). n
Mt h lun trc tip ca mnh trn l n h sau.

H qu 2.13 Hai ma trn vung ng dng vi nhau nu v ch nu

chng l ma trn ca cng mt t ng cu ca mt khng gian vct
trong cc c s no ca khng gian ny.

3 Hat n h n v n h ca n g cu
Chng ta m u t i t ny bng nhn xt, n gin sau ay.

M n h 3.1 Gi s : V > w l mt ng cu. Khi , nh bi f

ca mi khng gian vct con ca V l mt khng gian vct con ca
w. Nghch nh bi ca mi khng gian vct con ca w l mt khng
gian vct con ca V.

C h n g minh. G i s T l mt khng gian v c t a con ca V. Khi ,

f(T)
0, bi v n cha vct 0. Hn na, n u *', 3' l nhng vct

102
ca ) th chng c dng a ' . = / ( ) , /?' = /(/?), trong ft,/? T.
Khi , v / l mt ng cu, cho nn vi v hng bt k a E K, ta c

oi + & = / ( ) + /(/?) = / ( 4- /?) / e n ,

c*' - o/
( ) =f(aa)ef(T).

Vy / (T) l mt khng gian vct con ca w.

By g i gi s l l mt khng gian vct con ca w. Khi ,
x
f () 0, b i v n cng cha vct 0. Nu a,0 f~ {U)
x
th
r
/(fv),/(7?) G ' . V / l m t ng cu, cho nn vi mi v hng a G K,
ta c

not + /?) / ( ) + /(/?) e /,

/(an) a / ( ) e l

V t h Oi + 8 v act G / 1 7
(' '). Vy / ^ / ) l m t khng gian vct cn
ca V .
Ht n h n v nh ca mt ng cu l nhng khng gian vct c
bit quan trng i v i vic kho st ng cu . Chng c nh
ngha n h sau.

n h n g h a 3.2 G i s / : V * w l mt ng cu.

l
(a) Ker(f) = f~ (0) = {x e v\f(x) = 0} c V c gi l ht nhn

(hay hch) ca / . S chiu ca Ker) c gi l s khuyt ca

r
(b) 7 m ( / ) = / ( V ) = {f{x)\x e V] c w c gi l n/i ca / . S
chiu,ca m ( f ) c gi l /lng ca / v c k hiu l r a n k ( / ) .

Hai nh l sau y nu nhng iu kin cn v mt ng cu

l mt t o n cu hay mt n cu.

n h l 3.3 ng cu : V w l mt ton cu nu v ch nu
r a n k ( / ) = dim w.

103
Chng m i n h . - T h e o n h ngha, / l m t t o n c n n u v ch nu
Im) w. V I p i ( f ) l m t k h n g gian v c t con ca w , cho nn
n g t h c n i t r n t n g n g v i r a n k ( / ) : = d i p f(V) - dim w.
T h t vy, n u f(V) = w t h h i n n h i n d i m / ( V ) = dimMk'. Ngc:
l i , g i s d i m o u y ) l m t k h n g gian v c t a con ca
w', nen m i c s ca / ( V ) cng l m t h c l p t u v ri t n h t r o n g w
v i s p h n t b n g d i m / i V ) = dim w. Ni cch k h c , m i c s ca
/ ( V ) cng l m t c s ca w. V y / ( V ) = vv.

i n h l 3.4 i vi ng cu : V w cc iu kin sau y l

tic ng u ng:

(i) / l mt. n cu.

() Ker) = {0}.

(Ui) nh bi f ca mi h vct c lp tuyn tnh l mt h v.ct

c lp tuyn tnh.

(iv) nh bi f ca mi c s ca V l mt h. uct c lp tuyn

tnh.

(v) nh bi f ca mt c s no ca V l mt h vct c lp
tuyn tnh.

(vi) rank(/) = dim V.

C h n g m i n h . (?:) => ( t i ) : G i s o 6 Kr.r(f). Khi/(rt) - 7(0) ---- 0.

V / l m t a n c u , cho nn o - 0. Do K e r ( f ) {0}.
(t) (Ui) : G i s ( a i , . . . , t t f c ) l m t h v c t c l p t u y n tnh
t r o n g V. N u c m t r n g buc t u y n t n h gia c c n h b i / ca c c
phn t
k
Oi/(a<) = 0 (Oi 6 K),

104
th /(Eti O<*i) = 0- V Ker) = {0}, cho nn E?=1 0^0 = 0. T ,
ta c a i = = k = 0, b i v h v c t ( a i , a k ) c lp t u y n tnh.
N h t h , h ( / ( o i l ) , / ( f e ) ) cng c l p t u y n t n h .
C c suy l u n (Ui) (iv), (iv) (v) u h i n n h i n .
(v) (vi) : G i s ( a i , . . . , a ) l m t c s ca V sao cho (/(ai),
/(o )) n l m t h c l p t u y n t n h . R r n g h n y sinh ra / ( V ) . Ta
c
rank(/) = d i m / ( F ) = r a n k ( / ( i ) , . . . , / ( ) ) = n = d i m V.
n

(vi) (i) : G i s ( a i , ...,*n) l m t c s c a V . Ta c

r a n k ( / ) = rank(/(o; ), . . . , / ( ) ) = dim V = n ,
1

cho nen h v c t ( / ( ! ) , . . . , f ( a ) ) c
n lp tuyn tnh. G i s a =
j l = H, 6jCVj v / ( ) = /(/?). K h i ,

0 = lia) - / ( / ? ) = / ( - ) = / ( ( o , - i K = ( a , - 60/(0,).

T ai i , . . . , O n = , b i v ( / ( 1 ) , . . . , / ( * n ) ) c l p t u y n t n h .
i u n y c ngha l ft = .8. V y / l m t n c u .

n h l 3.5 (nh l v n g c u c c k h n g gian v c t ) . Gi s :

V w l mt ng cu. Khi , nh x f : V / K e r ( f ) > w, xc
nh bi / ( [ ] ) = / ( ) , l mt n cu. N cm sinh ng cu f :
V/Ker) =* Im).

C h n g m i n h . T r c t i n , cn chng t r n g / c n h ngha k h n g
p h thc vic chn i b i u ca l p [or. T h t vy, n u [ a | = \a'\, th
Q - a' e Ker). Ni c c h k h c f ( a - ' ) = 0, hay l / ( ) = / ( ' ) .
V / l m t n g c u , n n d d n g k i m t r a / cng l m t n g c u .
G i s 7 ( H ) = 7(1/?]), t c l / ( ) = /(/?); k h i f{a -0)= o. V
t h a 3 E K e r ( f ) , ngha l tt] = [/?]. i u chng t r n g / l m t
a n cu. H n na, t n h ngha ca / t a c I m ( f ) = rn). Cho
nen, n u xt / n h m t n g c u t V / K e r ( f ) t i m) th l m t
n g cu.

105
H qu 3.6 i vi ng cu bt k f : V * w, ta c

dim V - dim Ker(f) + dim Irn).

C h n g minh. Theo nh l trn, ta c

d i m / m ( / ) = d i m / m ( 7 ) = dim V/Ker) = dim V - dim Kern

H qu 3.7 Gi s f : V > w l mt ng cu. Khi , vi mi

khng gian vct con ca V, ta c

dim / ( / ) < dim /.

Ni cch khc, nh x tuyn tnh khng lm tng chiu ca cc khng

gian vct.

C h n g minh. Xt hn ch f\ ca nh x / trn khng gian vct con

u, ta c

dim L = dim Keru) + dim Imu) > dim Irn(f lu) = d i m / ( / ) .

H qu 3.8 Gi s f : V > V l mt t ong cu ca khng gian vct

hu hn chiu V. Khi , cc khng nh sau y l tung ng:

(i) f l mt ng cu.

() f l mt n cu.

(Ui) f l mt ton cu.

C h n g minh. Theo nh l 3.4, / l mt n cu nu v ch nu

dim Ker(f) 0. M t khc, theo nh l 3.3, / l mt ton cu khi v
ch khi d i m / m ( / ) = dimV". Theo H qu 3.6, hai iu kin ni trn
t n g ng vi nhau. Do , chng cng t n g n g vi s kin /
l mt ng cu.

106
N h n x t : H qu trn khng cn n g nu V l mt khng gian vct
v hn chiu. T h t vy, ng cu

if : K\x\ -* K[X\
n n + l
tp(X ) = x (T. = 0,1,2...)

l mt n cu nhng khng l mt ton cn. Ngc l i , ng cu

v> : K[X} - K|'|

n n
i>(X ) = X -> (n = 0,1,2...),

- 1 =
trong quy c X = V'0) 0) l mt ton cu nhng khng l mt
n cu.
Trn c s h qu ni trn, cc nh l 3.3 v 3.4 cho ta hng lot
iu kin mt t ng cu tuyn tnh ca mt khng gian vct hu
hn chiu l mt ng cu.

i n h ngh 3.9 (Hng ca ma trn). Gi s

A l mt, ma t r n in hng
ri ct vi cc phn t
trong trng K. Hng c
a h n vct ct ca A
1
trong K" c gi l hng cua ma trn A v c k hiu l r a n k A

nh l sau y cho ta mt phng p h p tnh hng ca cc ng

cu.

nh l 3-10 Gi s ng cu : V > w c ma trn l A trong mt

cp c s no ca V v w. Khi :

r a n k / rank A

C h n g minh. Gi s
/ c ma trn l A trong cp c s ( a i , ( I n ) ca
V v (/?!>> 3 ) ca w.
m Theo nh ngha, ta c

r a n k / - dim I m ( f ) - rank(/(c*t),..., / ( r v ) ) . n

107
V (/?!,..., 0m) l mt c s ca w cho nn nh x

tp : w -> K , m

/ 6, \

j=i

l mt n g cu tuyn tnh. (Tht vy, nh x chuyn c s ( / ? ] , 0 ) m

1
t h n h c s chnh tc ca K" .)
ng cu if a / ( ( l i ) vo ct t h ca ma trn A, bi v

/ au \
Tri

= GjiPj ^ i
j=i

V cc n g cu tuyn tnh u bo ton hng ca mi h vct, nn ta

c
rank/ = rank(/(a!),...,/(a )) = rankA n

4 K h n g gian v c t i ngu
Y chnh ca t i t ny l ta c t h nghin cu mt khng gian vct thng
qua t p h p t t c cc hm tuyn tnh trn khng gian ny. Ni mt
cch n m na, tp hp cc hm nh th lp nn ci gi l khng gian
vct i ngu, n c t h coi l "nh i xng qua gng" ca khng
gian vct cho.
G i s V l mt khng gian vct trn trng K.

i n h ngh 4.1 Khng gian V* = C(V,K) cc nh x tuyn tnh t V

vo K c gi l khng gian vct i ngu ca V. M i phn t ca
V* c gi l mt dng tuyn tnh trn V.

Ta b i t rng V* l mt khng gian vct vi s chiu bng

dim V* - dim V dim K = dim V.

108
Nh t h V* ~ V nu dim V < oo. iu ny khng cn n g nu V l
mot khng gian vct vo hn chiu. Tnh khng t nhin ca a n g cu
ni trn s c tho lun phan sau ca tit ny.
Gi s f : V * w l mt ng can. Ta nh ngha n h x / * :
w* f V" bi cng thc san ay

(/)() = v 9 6 w\ Vo e V.

Ta s ch ra rng /* l mt ng cn t l i ' * vo V*. T h t vy. vi moi

vo hng a, 6 K v mi I / / , /' l i ' * t a c

r ( a v ? + nl'){n) - (av?H W0(/())

M / ( o ) ) + //'(/(n))

a / ( ) + r(V')()
- (n*0 + &/(*'))(").
He thc ny ng vi mi cv ] ' , nen ta thu c

/ * ( a ^ + . 6 t f . ) - / * ( v ) f &/*(</*)

iu ny chng t / * l mt ng cn.

i n h ngha 4.2 / * : w* V* c gi l r/n cu (hay nh x) i

nqu ca ong cu / : V * W'\

Nu ta k hiu gi tr ca dng tuyn tnh 0 V* t r n vct ev G V

hi (o,0) K. th cong tin re ng nh ngha * v the vit l i t h n h

<,/(>)> - </(),*>>.

Y ngha ca tnh i ngu c thy r trong cch din t ny.

Ngi ta gi nh x (-,-) ; V" X V K l php ghp cp i ngu.
iY l mt, nh x song tuyn tnh. lc l n tuyn tnh vi t n g bin
khi c nh bin cn l i .

109
 Gi s V c s chiu bng TI, vi mt c S l (ru,o ). n Trn ca
s nh l 2.4, ta nh ngha cc dng tuyn tnh tt*,fv* V* bi h
iu kin sau ay:

, nu i ~ j,
(Oi, **) = <%
0, nn .

M n h 4.3 Gi s ( a i , . . . , a ) / m/, co* .s ca V . A7i r/ ( * , a * )

l mt c s ca V*.

C h n g m i n h . T h t vy, mi 9 V* tha nhn biu th t u y n tnh sau

y:

r i

e' chng t iu ta ch can chng minh rang hai v c gi tr n h

nhau trn cc vct ca c s ( 1 , O i ) . Tht vy n

(o >a> )
r t - i>;- >^
; j = i

=-. ( a i , ) = : ( t t i ) , ( <i<H).

Nh th, h gm n vct ...,<>*) sinh ra khng gian vector ? chiu

V*. Do , h ny l mt c s ca V*.

n h n g h i 4.4 C s ( < * * , o * ) a khng gian V* i rc gi l r ,<i<7

(oV rct vi c s ( ( V , r t ) ca khng giu r .

Ta c ng cu tuyn tnh

V V*
n ri

. i

ng cu ny khng t nhin; v n ph thc vo c s (f> I , )

chon.

no
 Tuy vy, n g cu V * V**, bin t h n h a**, trong a** c
xc nh b i h thc sau

l mt, n g cu t nhin, v n c nh ngha khng ph thuc vo

c s.
e chng minh rng tcrng lng ni trn l mt ng cu, cn t h
li rang

(ao + bpy = aa** + b", Va,6 e K, Vo,/? e V.

T h t vy, h thc t r n c chng minh bng cc ng thc sau, trong

} l phn t b t k trong V*:

<V?,(ao + bpy*) = (ao I 6/9, y>>

= (la, ) bp, )

- to>,aft"+&/5T).

Nhn xt, rng dim V'** = dim V* = dim V. V th, chng minh
rang t n g ng V V'** ni t r n l mt ng cn, ta ch cn chng t
n l mt n cu. Ni r h n , ta ch cn chng minh rng nu a** 0
th a 0. G i s phn chng a 7^ 0. Ta chn mt c s ( a i , . . . , a ) ca n

V sao cho a] n. K h i , v i ip = a*, ta c

= <o,> = ( ; , > .

ng thc n y chng t CY** / 0. iu v l ny bc b gi thit phn

chng.

N h n x t 4.5 V i m i tt G V , phn t Q'** 6 V** c xc nh hon

ton v ch p h thuc vo rv. Ngc li, T* ch c xc nh khi
chon mt c s ca V v ft* p h thuc vo c s ny. Tuy vy, ta c
the coi
t = (tt ) ,

in
trong . i n g u t h nht. c l y theo mt ca s ( o , . . . . r i , , ) n o
ca V. cn i n g u t h hai c lay theo ca S i n g a n (rv*, . . . , ( V * )
da V*. M i p h p i n g u n h t h e n p h t h u c v o c s chn.
n h n g k t q u ca hai lan i n g u lin t i p t h l i k h n g p h u t h u c b t
k c s n o .
' c h n g m i n h a n g t h c t r n t a g i s
ri

n
x><<-

K h i . T* ----- v (<>*)* = S'vi ( , * ) * . T h e o n h ngha (-lia

(>**, t a c

(rt*,** (0,0*)
ri

Gia sir o** c b i n t h t u y n t n h

--"

K h i t a c

'--
ti

T suy ra o.j bj vi 1.2 /. K t cpi l (X** ('>*)* a

Ta c n n h ngha san a y trc: k h i p h t , b i u ( l n h l c h n h ca t i t

ny.

nh n g h a 4.6 ('huyn v. cu ma t r a i l A (u.,j) 6 X (in X ti., K l rua

1
trn a) e A'/(w X m,K) c xc nh bi h thc

<4* ij (' >" . , "-

112
 Ni m t cch khng hnh thc, chuyn v mt ma trn A tc l vit
cc vct h n g c a n t h n h cc vct ct ca ma trn mi A . Khi , l

CC vctor ct ca A cng t r t h n h cc vct hng tng ng ca A . l

M t h q u t r c t i p ca nh ngha trn l

(y = A,

vi m i ma t r n .
V du:
2 \
0 3 V 9 8
1 9 8 4
0 8 5
2 8 5 4 /
3 4 4

i n h l 4.7 G i A-?i np c u / : V * w c ma trn l A trong cp c

s ( o i , . . . , a ) ,
n (/?!, ...,/? ).
m K7i , ong cu i ngu''f* : vv*'
c 7/7.a rn / v4' trong cp c s (/?*, ...,/?*J, (*,rv*).

C h n g m i n h . V / c ma t r n l i4 trong cp c s ( a i , a ) , n

3 ), cho n n
m

r)
(i = l,...,n).
fc=i
Theo iili ngha ca n h x i ngu, ta c

<o*/'(ff)> - </(,),#)
m
= GC y&'#> = Oy.
a

S dng cng thc c a ra trong chng minh Mnh 4.3 p dng

cho vct = /*(/?*), ta t h u c

/'(#) = i K n o ;
n

113
 M t khc, gi B = (bji) M(n X ra, K) l ma t r n ca / * trong cp
c s ( a , . . . , < ) , ta c

M
V c t a /*(/?*) c biu th tuyn tnh duy n h t qua c s ( t t j , ...,tt*). cho
nn
= Oy, (i = , m , ./ - , ...,n).

l
iu ny c ngha l JB = A .
nh l sau y cho thy cc khi nim n cu v t o n cu l i
ngu vi nhau.

n h l 4.8 Gi f* : w* > V* l ng cu i ngu ca ng cu

f:V-+W. Khi : -

(i) f l mt n cu nu v ch nu f* l mt ton cu.

(a) f l mt ton cu nu v ch nu f* l mt n cu.

(Ui) f l mt ng cu nu v ch nu f* l mt ng cu.

c gi h y t tm mt chng minh trc tip cho nh l ny. Trng

chng sau ta s chng minh rng rankyl rankA', i vi mi ma trn
A. K t hp ng thc vi nh l 4.7 ta s c mt chng minh gin
t i p cho nh l ni trn.

Bi t p
1. T n h tch ca hai ma tran sau ay:

0 4 7 1 -2 8 -5 4 \
2 1 7 6 7 8 5 5
1 0 8 3 0 3 8 4

V0 1 9 6 -8 9 -X 9 /
T n h cc ly tha sau y

114
 cosy? sin ip \
(
sin (f COS <p { 0 Ay

k
(t 0 ... 0 \
0 a2 ... 0

0
. 0 ... On
/

n-l
1 1 0 0 ... 0 0 \
0 1 1 0 ... 0 0
0 G 1 1 ... 0 0

1 0 0 0 ... 0 1
5. Cho hai ma t r n A v B vi cc phn t trong K. Chng minh
rng nu cc tch AB v BA u c ngha v AB = BA, th A v
B l cc ma t r n vung cng cp.

6. Ma t r n tch AB s thay i t h no nu ta

(a) i ch cc h n g t h v t h j ca ma trn A ?

(b) cng vo h n g t h ca A tch ca v hng c v i h n g t h

j ca, Ai

(c) i ch cc ct t h v t h j ca ma trn B ?

(d) cng vo ct t h i ca B tch ca v hng c vi ct thtr j

ca B

7. Vt ca mt ma t r n vung l tng ca t t c cc phn t n m

trn n g cho chnh ca ma t r n . Chng minh rng v t ca
AB bng v t ca BA.

115
 8. Chng minh rng nu A v B l cc ma t r n vung cng cp, vi
AB BA, th
2 2
(a) (A + Bf A + 2AB + B,
2 2
(b) {A + B)(A - B) A - B.

9. Chng minh rng nu A v B l cc ma t r n vung vi Af BA

th
n n n l n n l n 2 2 n
(A + B) =A + n,A - B + ( ~ \ ~ B + ... + B.

10. Hai ma t r n vung A v B c gi l giao hon v i nhau nu

AB = BA. Chng minh rng A giao hon v i mi ma t r n vung
cng cp vi n nu v ch nu n l mt ma t r n vo hng, tc
l A cE trong c 6 K v E l ma t r n n v cng cp vi A.

11. Ma t r n vung A c gi l mt ma trn cho nu cc phn t

nm ngoi ng cho chnh ca n u bng 0. Chng minh rng
ma t r n vung A giao hon vi mi ma t r n cho cng cp vi n
nu v ch nu chnh A l mt ma t r n cho.

12. Chng minh rng nu A l mt ma t r n cho vi cc phn t trn

ng cho chnh i mt khc nhau, th mi ma t r n giao hon
vi A cng l mt ma trn cho.

13. Gi D diag((Zi, 0,2,a ) n l ma t r n cho vi cc phn t trn

ng cho chnh ln lt bng a i , a-2, ...,a . n Chng minh rng
nhn D vi A t bn tri c ngha l nhan cc h n g ca A theo
t h t
vi Oj, a 2 , a ; cn nhn D vi A t ben phi c ngha l
nhn cc ct ca A theo t h t
v i a i , a-2,(In-

14. Tm t t c cc ma trn giao hon vi ma t r n sau y :

/ 3 0 \
0 3
V 0 0 3 j

116
.5. Chng minh rng ma t r n A = thoa mn p h n g trnh
\ c d )
2
X - (o + d)X + (ad - be) = 0.

16. Chng minh rng i vi m i ma trn vung A, tn t i mt a

thc k h c khng f { X ) sao cho f(A) = 0. Hn na, mi a thc
c t n h cht u l bi ca mt a thc fo{X) nh t h .

17. G i s n khng chia ht cho c s p ca trng K. Chng minh

rng khng t n t i cc ma t r n A, B 6 Mn X n, K) sao cho AB
BA = En.

18. G i s A l mt ma t r n vung cp 2 v k l mt s nguyn > 2.

2
Chng minh rng A k
= 0 nu v ch nu A 0.

19. Tm t t c cc ma t r n vung cp hai A sao cho A 2

= 0.

2
20. Tm t t c cc ma t r n vung cp hai A sao cho A = 2-

21. Gii p h n g t r n h AX = 0, trong A l ma trn vung cp hai

cho cn X l ma t r n vung cp hai cn tm.

22. Tm ma t r n nghch o (nu c) ca ma t r n

a b
A =
c (

23. G i s V Vi v , 2 trong V c c s ( 1 , t t f c ) , v r
2 c c s
(Qfc 1,.... n)-
+ T m ma t r n a php chiu ln V theo p h n g V2

trong c s ( a i , a n ) .

24. Chng minh rng nu V = V 14, th V ng cu vi tch trc

t i p V X v. 2

111
25. C h n g m i n h r n g t n t i duy nht t ng cu / : R 3 > R 3

c h u y n c c v c t ai = ( 2 , 3 , 5 ) , 2 = ( 0 , 1 , 2 ) , &Z = ( 1 , 0 , 0 ) t n g
n g t h n h c c v c t /?1 = (, l i 1), 3 2 (, , 1), /?3 = (2, 1,2).
T m ma t r n ca / t r o n g ca s c h n h t c ca k h n g g i a n .

n
26. T n g c u / ca k h n g gian v c t K c h u y n c c v c t c lp
tuyn tnh Gn t n g n g t h n h c c v c t a /?!, . . . , ; . n Chng
m i n h r n g m a t r n M ( f ) ca / trong mt c s n o ( e e n )
1
thoa m n h thc M ( f ) = BA" , t r o n g c c c t ca ma trn
A v ma t r n B l t o a t n g n g c a c c v c t ] , . . . , ; n v
/?!, ...,/? t r o n g ca s
n ( e l 5 e n ) .

a b,\ . ,
27. C h n g m i n h r n g p h p n h n v i ma t r n A (a) t

b n t r i , (b) t b n p h i l c c t n g c u ca k h n g gian cc ma
t r n vung cp hai. H y t m m a t r n ca t n g c u trong
ca s g m c c m a t r n sau y:

(oo)'(o )'(l 0) '( 0 l)'

28. C h n g m i n h r n g o h m l m t t n g c u c a k h n g gian
v c t c c a t h c h s t h c c bc k h n g v t q u n. Tm ma
t r n ca t n g c u t r o n g c c c s sau y:

(a) (,*,...,*),

(b) ( , (X c ) , s l i p " ) , t r o n g c l m t h n g s t h c .

29. M a t r n ca m t t n g c u t r o n g c s (e.1, . . . , e ) t h a y i t h n

n o n u t a i c h c c v c t v e,?

B
30. T n g c u / c ma t r n

/ 1 2 0 1 \
3 0 -1 2
2 5 3 1
1 2 1 3
V /

t r o n g c s ( e i , e2,63, e ) . 4 H y t m ma t r n ca / t r o n g c s
(ei, e x + e , ! + e
2 2 + e , e'l + e
3 2 + e 3 + e ).4

31. T n g c u <p c m a t r n

/ 15 l i 5 ^
20 -15 8
{ s -7 e)
trong c s ( e l t e ,63). H y t m ma t r n ca ) t r o n g ca s g m c c
2

v c t ei = 2e x + 3e 2 + e, e
3 2 = 3ei + 4 e 2 + e , e
3 3 = e.j + 2 e 2 + 2e .
3

32: Eing c u /? : C 3 * C 3 c ma t r n

N
/ -18 15
- -22 20
^ -25 22 y

t r o n g c sf g m c c v c t ! = (8, 6, 7), 2 = (16, 7, 13)

e*3 = (9, 3, 7 ) . T m m a t r n ca ) t r o n g c s g m c c v c t a

01 --= ( 1 . - 2 , 1 ) , 02 = (3, - 1 , 2 ) - , /?3 = (2,1,2).

33. C h n g m i n h r n g c c m a t r n ca m t t n g c u t r o n g h a i c
s ca k h n g gian l t r n g nhau n u v ch nu m a t r n chuyn
gia hai c S giao h o n vi ma t r n ca ng cu cho trong
m i c s ni t r n .

119
 / 3 5 \
34. T ng cu (f e End(M.2) c ma t r n I trong ca s gm
a i = (1,2), a = (2,3), v t ng cu ) e End(R )
2 c ma trn 2

6 \
trong c s gm Pi = (3,1), @2 = (4,2). T m ma trn
6 9/
ca ) + p trong c s (Ply fa)-
2 - \
35. T ng cu ip End(.2) c ma t r n trong ca s gm
\ 5 -3 /
a i = (3,7), 2 = ( , 2), v t ng cu e End^R'i) c ma
/ 3 \

trn 1 1 t r o n
c
s gm /?1 = ( 6 , - 7 ) , 02 (5,6). Tm

ma t r n ca yip trong c s chnh tc ca R. 2

36. Gi s t ng cu ip : V * V thoa m n h thc } = I f . Chng 2

minh rng V = Im(>) Ker((p).

37. Cho cc t ng cu >,ip End(V).

(a) Phi chng nu <prp = 0 th np = 0?

(b) Phi chng nu np = 0 v tnp = 0 th hoc ? = 0 hoc l' 0?

38. G i s 9? v V l cc t ng cu ca khng gian vector hu hn

chiu V. Chng minh rng >p l mt n g cu n u v ch nu if
v l) l cc ng cu. Khi

(np)- 1
=ry.

39. K hiu vt ca ma trn vung A l Tr(A). Chng minh rng nh

x TY : M(n X n,K) > K, J4 I Tr(A) l mt ng cn. Tm mt.
c s ca ht nhn ca Tr.

40. Chng minh rng vt ca hai ma t r n ng dng bng nhau. ( T

n g i ta nh ngha vt ca mt t ng cu l v t ca ma
t r n ca n trong c s bt k ca khng gian.)

120
41 Chng minh r n g n u tch ma trn AB c ngha th

{AB = BA*.

T suy ra r n g ma t r n vung A k h nghch nu v ch n u *

kh nghch, v khi

1 1
(AT = (- )*.

42. Cho cc ng cu V > w v. g : w * z. Chng minh m i

lin h gia cc ng cu i ngu:

(9fY = fY-

T suy ra rng ng cu / : V '* w kh nghch n u v ch

nu / * : w* * V* k h nghch, v khi

l l
T = (f- Y-

43. Chng minh rng nh x C(V,W) -* {W*,V*), f * * l mt

ng cu t u y n tnh.

121
 Chng 3
NH T H C V H P H N G TRNH
T U Y N TNH

nh thc l mt cng c hu hiu gii cc h p h n g trnh tuy n

tnh, v gp phn gii quy t hu h t cc bi ton nh lng cng nh
nh tnh trong Di s tuy n tnh.

Cc php th
i n h ngha 1.1 M i song nh t t p { , 2 , n ) vo chnh n c
gi l mt php th bc ri. T p hp t t c cc p h p t h bc Ti c k
hiu bi S. n

sn cng vi php hp thnh cc n h x lp t h n h mt nhm, c

gi l nhm i xng bc Ti. Nhm n y c h phn t .
Nu a S , n ta thng biu th n d i dng

\ 2 ... ri \

" \<7(1) (7(2) ... (rn) ) '

Gi s X\,X2, l cc phn t i mt khc nhau trong tp hp

{ 1 , 2 , . . . , H } . Ta k hiu bi (xi,X2, -..jXjfc) p h p t h gi nguyn cc phan
t khc X,x ,
2 ...,.Tfc, v tc ng trn cc phn t n h sau:

N c gi l mt xch di k trn t p nen {x\,x 2 ...,Xk}- Xch

( x i , 2 T , ...,Xfc) c g i l m t x c h c a p h p t h
2 n u (7 t c n g nh

(.T],x , 2 ...,*) trn cc phn t x , i , - , i ( i . 1 2 (Tuy nhin, c t h tc

ng khng tm thng trn cc phn t khc X,X2, ...,Xk-)

122
M n h 1.2 Mi php th 6 S n u l tch ca tt c cc xch khc
nhau ca n. Cc tp nn ca cc xch ny l cc tp con ri. nhau ca
{l,2,...,n}.

C h n g m i n h . V i mi X\ 6 {, 2 , n } , nu (x-i) X th (xi) l
mt xch ca . Tri l i , n u cr(rr ) ^ X i , ta t x
1 2 = "(#i). Gi s
.ri,.Ta = cr(.ri),..., = <r(jTfc_ J) l nhng phn t i mt khc nhau, cn
((xt) t r n g vi mt trong cc phn t X,x-2, ... x .
y k Ta khng nh rng
(x-k) - Xi. T h t vy, nu 7"(:ffc) Xi vi > , th cr(a'/j) = cr(xj_i).
Do T - - Xk- iu n y mau thun vi gi thit rng Xi, X'2,Xk

i mt khc nhau. N h t h (x-,X2, ...,*) l mt xch ca .

Mi phn t ca t p { 1 , 2 , r i } u thuc mt tp con, l t p nn
ca mt xch no ca . Hai tp con nh th nu c mt phn t
chung th phi t r n g nhau. Tht. vy, phng trnh (x) y hon ton
x c nh ) theo X v X theo y (do l mt song nh).

n h n g h a 1.3 P h p i ch hai phn t khc nhau i,j e {, 2 , n }

v gi nguyn cc phn t khc c gi l mt php th s cp.

Ni cch khc, mt p h p t h s cp l mt xch di bng hai:

('./)

M n h 1.4 Mi php th bc l u l tch ca mt. s php th s

cp. (Ni khc i, cc php th. s cp sinh ra nhm S .J
n

C h n g m i n h . p dng Mnh e 1.2. ta ch cn chng minh mnh

ny cho cc xch. Ta d kim t ra l i rng

T
('|,J"2 - *) - J*2 1 - i , X k ) =

- {a'\,.r-2)(:r x )---{x
2 k ,Xt).

'Trong . php t h bn p h i l c dng trc.

123
 i n h ngha 1.5 Du ca php t h e S n l s sau y

s g n ( < r ) = n ^ > S { 1 } .

Tch ny chy trn mi cp s (khng c t h t ) {,j} c {1,2, ...,n}.

Ta gi cp s {, j } c {1,2, ...,n} l mt nghch th ca, nu

cr(j) tri du vi j, tc l nu g l l b g i ^ < 0. N h vy, sgn(cr) bng
+ 1 hay tuy theo s nghch th ca a l chn hay l .
2 3 4 \

V d: (7 = c ba nghch th l { 1 , 4 } , { 2 , 4 } v { 3 , 4 } ,

cho nn sgn(cr) = 1.
nh n g h a 1.6 c gi l mt php th chn n u sgn(<x) = , n
c gi l mt php th l nu sgn(cr) = 1.

M n h 1.7 Mi php th. s cp u l mt php th l.

C h n g minh. Gi s < v

2 ... ... j ... n

r =
2 ... j ... ... n

Khi , t t c cc nghch th ca T l

{, :} vi mi A: m < k < j
{i,j} vi mi m i < < j.

Vy r c t t c ( j i) + ( j 1) =T 2 ( j ) nghch t h , do T
l mt php th l .

nh l 1.8
sgn(A/i) = sgn(A)sgn(//),

vi mi \,fj,eS .n

124
Chng m i n h . V i l m t song n h , cho n n k h i {', j } chy m t l n
qua m i c p ( k h n g c t h t ) t r o n g { , 2,..., r i } t h cng
chy mt, l n qua m i c p n h t h . Do

A ( M i ) ) A ( M j ) )
( A ) = n " = n "
i-j m M)-Mi)
Ta c

sgii(A^) = l i
* - J

H qu 1.9 Mt php th l chn hay l ti theo n l tch ca mt s

chn hay l cc php th s cp.

Nhn xt: C n h i u c c h v i t m t p h p t h t h n h tch cc p h p t h s

3
cp, c h n g h n (, j ) ( . j ) . N h n g t n h chan l ca s n h n t t r o n g
tch l k h n g t h a y i .

2 nh t h c ca ma t r n
Cho mt ma tran vung A (4|s||i vi cc phn t trong trng K.

nh n g h a 2.1 nh thc ca ma t r n c k h i u b i t A h o c
\\, l phn t sau y ca t r n g K

t ,4 \A\ -= 5Z sgn(cr)o (i i
(7 ) an.
[ )n

N u A l m t m a t r a n v u n g c p n th t y4 c g i l m t m / i thc
cp ),.

T o n g v p h i c a n g t h c t r n c t t c \S \ n = n ! s h n g .

125
V d: (a) nh thc cp 1:

det(a) = a, Va e

(b) nh thc cp 2:

a a
n 2 2 - a 2 i a 1 2 .

(c) nh thc cp 3:

^ a
(9.1n1 lio
ai2 A ll ^
ai3
t 0,21 0,22
23 flll22a33 + ^21^32^13 + 31 12^23

\ O31 a
32 a
33 / -a a a 3
n 32 2 - a. \a a 3
2 v2 3 - a a 2ai3-
31 2

Trn thc t ngi ta khng trc t i p dng nh ngha tnh cc

nh thc cp ri > 3, v vic ny qu phc tp. D i y, chng ta s
tm hiu nhng tnh cht, c bn nia nh thc. T , ta s nhn c
nhng phng p h p tnh nh thc hiu qu v t i t kim sc lao ng
hn so vi cch trc tip dng nh ngha.
n
Gi
j K l vct ct t h j ca ma t r n A, v coi t A l mt
hm ca cc vct a i , n . Ta vit

det.4 = det(c*i,0! ). n

nh thc c 3 tnh cht c bn d i y.

T n h cht (a t u y n t n h ) : nh thc ca ma tran l mt hm

tuyn tnh vi mi ct ca n, khi c nh cc ct khc. Tc l:

det,(ofi,aaj + 6/?j,or ) n a d e t ( f > i , O j , a n )

+ det(Yi,...,/3j,...,),

VI moi
D a, e K, a i , O j , 0j, ..., e K \ j = r
,li.

126
Chng minh. K hiu
( b\j

0 =

\ Ki
Ta c

, actj + b/3j,.. ;0t ) n =

= sgn(<j)a (1)1 (aa { j ) j + bb { j ) j ) a n)n

eSn
= a s n a a a
( ) ( l ) l ' U)j {n)n
<resn

+b 2 s g n ( c r ) a ( i ) i 6<r(j)j a (
n ) n

eSn
= a det(ari,...,j, ...,) + 6det(Q!,...,/?j,...,).

Tnh cht 2 (Thay phin): Nu ma trn vung A c hai ct bng

nhau, th t A = 0.
Chng minh. Gi s (K = fVj v i < j , t c l a f c j = a j k ( < fc < r).

Theo nh ngha

t A = 5 ^ sgn(-)a .( 1)1 o^fji a ( j ) j a a (n)n-

Ta ghp cc s hng trong tng thnh tng cp

sgn()a (i)i )i a^jjj a ( n)n

a a a
vi S g n ( c r ' ) < T ( l ) l (j)i cr(i)j o-(n)n

trong ' = r-, y r l php th s cp i ch

(i) v (j). Hin
nhin ta c

sgn(-') = -sgn(-),
a a
<r(l)l (i)i ( j ) j ' ' (n)n

a a
- (7(1)1 <r(j)i >{i)i (n)n-

127
N h t h t A l m t t n g c c c cp s h n g i n h a u . V y t A = 0.

T n h cht 3 ( C h u n hoa): n h t h c ca m a t r n n v b n g 1:

0 ... 0 \
0 ... 0
t En t 1.

y0 0 ... l y

C h n g m i n h . K h i u ej ch p h n t n m h n g c t j ca E . n Ta

co
nu = j ,
0 nu i ^ j.

Theo n h ngha

t En = 2 ssa()e i)i a en.

{ )n

eSn

T n g n y ch c n g m t s h n g k h c k h n g , n g v i p h p t h
n g
n h t < j ( l ) = , ( n ) = ri. D u ca p h p t h n y b n g 1. N h v y

det n = = 1.

N h n x t 2.2 T r o n g t i t sau t a s c h n g t r n g n h t h c l h m d u y
n h t t r n cc ma t r n v u n g c 3 t n h c h t n i t r n .

H q u 2.3 () ( T n h p h n i x n g ca n h t h c ) . Nu i ch
hai ct ca mt ma trn th nh thc ca n i du:

d e t ( . . . , a t , . . . , j , . . . ) = det(..., c t j , a i , ...)

(li) Nu cc vct ct ca mt ma trn ph thuc tuyn tnh th nh

thc ca ma trn bng khng. Ni ring, nu ma trn c mt ct
bng 0 th nh thc ca n bng 0.

128
 (ui) Nu thm vo mt ct ca ma trn mi t hp tuyn tnh ca cc
ct khc th nh thc ca n khng thay i.

Chng minh. ( i ) T h e o c c t n h c h t c a b n c a n h thc, t a c

0 = det(...,aj + ...,, +Oj,...)

= det(..., Ct,.... ct,...) + det(..., Ocj,.... Ctj,...)

+ det(...,fv , ...,ttj,...) + det(...,rt,-,...,Oj, ...)

?

Hai n h t h i r c u t i n c a v p h i b a n g 0, do t n h t h a y p h i n ca n h
thc. T t a t h u c

det(...,o,, ...,ftj,...) - - d e t ( . . . , r t j , . . . , , , . . . ) .

(ii) G i s c t j c a m a t r n ,4 l m t L h p t u y n t n h ca cc c t
cn l i :

Theo t n h c h t a t u y n t n h c a n h t h c , t a c

t A = y~\ di det(..., Q, Qj,...).

M i n h t h c v p h i u c h a i c t b n g n h a u , v t h t A = 0.
(iii) T h e o p h n ( i i ) t a c

a a
det(a l5 . . . , a j + Y2 i ii ...,a )n =

= det(a l5 ...,ft ) + det(fti,...,5^ajrti, . . . , )

n

- d e t ( f t i , O j , ...,n) + 0 = d e t ( o i , O j , ...,a).

T r o n g 5 t a s c h n g m i n h r n g c c t n h c h t c a n h t h c i v
i
cc h n g c n g t n g t c c t n h c h t c a n h t h c i v
i c c c t ,
n h n i t r o n g h q u t r n . M t p h n g p h p t n h n h t h c c h i u

129
qu l ng dng nhng tch cht bin i ma t r n t h n h mt ma
trn tam gic c cng nh thc. C h n g ta s t n h nh thc ca ma
trn tam gic trong v d sau y.
V d: Ma trn A c gi l mt ma trn tam gic trn nu n c
dng
^ a u a l2 ... a ln ^
0 a-22 ... a 2n

A ,

v 0 0 ... ann
trong j = 0 vi > j. Tng t , A c gi l mt ma trn tam
gic di nu Ojj = 0 vi < j. Ma t r n tam gic trn v ma t r n tam
gic d i c gi chung l ma trn lam. gic.
Chng minh rng, nu A l mt nia t r n tam gic cp n th

t v i -- ai-22 n n -

L i gii: Ta s ch xt trng hp A l mt ma t r n tam gic trn.

i vi ma t r n tam gic d i , chng minh hon ton t n g t . Theo
nh ngha nh thc, ta c

t = ] T s g n ( ) a ( T ( 1 ) ] a [ n ) n .
tS-n

V A l mt ma t r n tam gic trn, nn iu kin a.rr(\)\ c t h khc

khng l cr(l) < , do (l) - 1. G i s cpiy np r n g i n kin e
a
( i ) i ( i - i ) i - i c t h khc khng l ( ) = ],..., (i ) = . Khi
, a (i)i a ()i ch c t h khc khng nu ()
ff = , ( 1) =
v (i) < . V l mt song nh. nn iu kin ni t r n ko theo
(i) = i. Nh t h , s hng duy nht c k h nng khc khng trong
t A l s hng ng vi php th ng nht
7(1) - 1,(7(2) ---- 2 , . . . , f f ( n ) --- w.

Hin nhin, du ca php th bng (v n khng co nghch th no

c). T suy ra
t A = a a-22 n a n n .

130
3 n h xa a t u y n t n h thay p h i n
i n h n g h i 3.1 Gi s V v w l cc khng gian vct trn trng
X Anh x
<p : V X - X
1
V w
' \
"v*"
l i * -

k ln
c gi l a tuyn tnh (hay ni r hn: k-tu.n tnh) nu n tuyn
tnh vi tng t h n h phn trong tch V X X V khi c nh cc t h n h
phan cn l i , tc l nu

yj(ft],..,,oftj+ft a le) -= a>(a ...,n ,... n )

u 1 s k

+ 6y?(Oi,...,A, ...,*)

vi mi a, 6 K, tti,or*:,/?j / v vi mi = ,

Nu w K th ? c gi l mt <in<7 k-tuyn tnh trn v\

V d: Gi s / ? ] , : V * K l cc nh x tuyn tnh. Khi

t : V X - X V - K
V v

k ln

^(Vi,...,rtj,...,a ) f c = 'i(i)-"V*(fc)

l mt dng fc-tuyn tnh trn v \

n h n g h a 3.2 nh x ;-tuyn tnh y : V X X r > VI' c gi
l thay phin nu

S
( o , . . . , o , . . . , a j , . . . , ) ----- 0,
1 i fc

khi Ot - v i cp ch s j no .

V d:

(a) nh x ng nht khng 0 : V X X V w l tuyn tnh v

thay phiu.

131
 (b) nh t h c t n
: K X X K n
K l m t h m T.-tuyn t n h v
thay phin.

Mnh 3 . 3 Gi s (p l mt nh x k-tuyen tinh thay phin. Khi

() if c tnh phn i xng, tc l

</?(!,..., (-Vi,...,Oj,...,CVfc) = -ip{otl, ...;0!j, . . . , O i , ...,*),

vi mi Qi,...,Qfc G V v mi cp ch s i -

() Nu h a i , . . . , r t f c ph thuc tuyn tnh th

>(a ...,a )
u k - 0.

C h n g m i n h . M n h c ching minh b n g cch l p l i cc lp lun

t r o n g c h n g m i n h H q u 2.3.

N h n xt 3.4 N u Char(K) th mt nh x a tuyn t n h ip :

V X X V w l t h a y p h i n k h i v ch k h i n p h n i x n g . Tht
vy, theo m n h t r n , tnh phn i xng l h qu a tnh thay
phin. N g c l i , g i s cp p h n i x n g , t c l

(/?(!,..., , - , . . . , Q j , . . . , r t f c ) - -<p(ati, ...,otj, ...,a, ...,a ),

k

v i m i O i , * f c e V v m i c p ch s 7^ j . L y Ofj = j , t a c

ip(ati,..., Q j , Q j , a k ) = ip(c*i,...,ati,...,aci,...,a ). k

T
2 t p ( c t i , O i , c V j , c * f c ) = 0. V Char(K) - 2 c h o nn ng

t h c t r n ko theo

? ( c * i , . O i , ...,a )
k - 0.

i u n y c n g h a l } c t n h t h a y p h i n .
N u Char(K) = 2 th tnh thay phin mnh h n tnh p h n i xng.

132
 K h i n i m nh thc n h m t h m a t u y n tnh thay phin ca c c
vct c t c a m t m a t r n v u n g c t n g q u t h o a n h sau.
Gi s dim V = n v e = ( e i , n ) l m t c s c a V. G i s

etj Z)tL] >ij i n i c c k h c

( a i . . . Q ) = (1 ...e )A,
n

trong A = ( o i j ) n x n .

i n h n g h i 3 . 5 T a g i t A l nh thc ca h vct 0ti,...,a n trong

c s (hay i v i c S e), v k h i u l det (a!i, . . . , ) . e

Nh vy

det (tti,a)
e = t A = 2 8gn(-)o (i)i a (n)n, ff

0-6 s

trong a , = icr=i y - e

Theo 2 t h d e t e l m t d n g n - t u y n t n h t h a y p h i n t r n V.
n
K hiu bi A (vy t p h p t
t c c c dng n - t u y n t n h thay p h i n
' r n V. N l p n n m t k h n g g i a n vector t r n K i v i p h p cng n h
x v n h n n h x v i v h n g c n h ngha n h sau:

(> + ip) ( a . . . , a ) u n = ip(a ...,a )

u n + */>(<*!,...,a ), n

(a(f)(ai, ...,a ) n = ay?(ai,tt),

n
v i m i cp,ip E A (vy, a EK.

n h l 3.6 M u d i m V = n / i d i m A ( V ) * = 1. / / e m n a , nu e =
n r

n
( , . . . , ) / m i c se* c a V , th ( d e t ) Z m i c s ca
t A (vy.

C h n g m i n h . T a b i t t , A {V. n
G i s v A (V)*. n
Vimi

j = E?=1 a<j = l i - ) , ta c
, n n
6
?(<*!,...,Gf) = v^ii *!''^Oinnein)
ti in
a
= XI n l ' ir>n>( l> --^in)-
ti,....in

133
Nu c hai trong cc ch s l i , ...,i n bng nhau, th s hng t n g ng
bng 0, do } c tnh thay phin. V vy, tng ch cn l y trn cc b
ch s i n i mt khc nhau. K h i , m i b ch s , . . . , i n xc
nh mt php t h S n bi cng thc

<r(l) = ii,(2) = i , ...,<r(n) = i n .

2

Do <p c tnh phn i xng, nn

ip{e ...,e )
i in = (p(e ),..., e ^ n ) ) = sgn(<rV(ei, . . . , ) .

V?(oi, ...,Q) = 53 sgn(o )a ( ) ---a ( :

1 1 n ) n i^(ei,..., )
n

= >(ei,...,e )det (fti...). n e

Nh th, tp sai khc det mt nhn t '~p{e\, . . . , ) K . V y det l mt

n 5

n
h sinh ca khng gian A (V)*. Do tnh chun hoa c a nh thc, n n
det 0. V th, h gm mt vct ( d e t ) l mt c s ca khng gian
f

n
vcta h (V.

H qu 3.7 (Tnh duy nht. ca nh thc). nh thc t l hm duy

nht t tp hp cc ma trn vung M(n X n , K ) vo K c cc tnh cht
a tuyn tnh, thay phin v chun hoa ni $2.

C h n g minh. Chn e = (e-1, ...,e ) l h c s chnh tc ca K . Nu n

n

coi nh thc ca ma trn A l mt h m ca cc vct ct ai,....a n ca

n, th
t A = d e t ( f V i , r t ) . e

Ni cch khc t = det . e

Gi s if : M(n X n , K ) ' K l mt h m a t u y n tnh, thay phin

v chun hoa theo ngha ni 2. Ta cng coi ^(A) l hm ca cc
n n
c t c a A, n h v y ip 6 A ( K ) * . Theo nh l 3.6,

K = </?(e ,...,e )det = Y?(t 1 , e )

1 n e t.

Nhng > c chun hoa, tc l f-n) = , cho nn ) - t.

134
H q u 3.8 t A n
0 ?' u
v ch nu cc vct ct ca A c lp
n
tuyn tnh trong K .

C h n g m i n h . N u c c v c t c t OL\, ...,ct n ca A p h thuc t u y n t n h ,

t h theo H q u 2.3 t a c d e t ( a i , a n ) = 0.
N g c l i , g i s C V ] , C t n c l p t u y n t n h . K h i ft = ( a i , a n )
n n
l m t c s ca K . G i e = ( e i , . . . , e ) l c s c h n h t c ca K . K h i
n

n n
t - d e t e l p n n m t c s ca ( K ) * . Ta c

det a --- c d e t , (c e K ) .

Do c d e t ( i , f t ) " = d e t f t ( r t i , . . . . ) t En - .
n Vy

detA - d e t ( a ! , . . . , f t ) ^ 0.

4 inh t h c ca t ng cu
n
M i p h n t ) A ( V ) * c the c coi l m t p h p o " t h t c h " c
h n g t r o n g V. C t h , (p(tti,...,) c xem n h 'th tch" ca hnh
hp n chiu t a t r n c c vector r * i , . . . , o . n

V i quan d i m t h n h t h c ca m t t n g c u / : V * V
c h n h l h s g i n n t h t c h c a c c h n h hp n - c h i u sau p h p b i n
i / . nh l sau a v n i r i u .

i n h l 4.1 Gi s f End{V), trong V l mtK-khng gian vct

n chin. Khi , c duy nht mt phn t c k hiu l d e t ( / ) e X
sao cho
>(f{<*l) /("ri)) = det(/)y>(rti,...,),
n
vi mi (/? A ( V ) * v mi a i , ...On e V.

i n h n g h a 4.2 T a g i d e t ( / ) l nh thc ca t
ong cu f .

135
C h n g minh nh l 4 . 1 . Chn bt k mt p h n t 7/ - 0 trong
A ( V ) \ V d i m A ( V ' ) * = , cho nen (T) l mt c s ca
n n n
A (vy.
Xt nh x 0 V X X V * K xc inh nht sau
s
^ "

ri ln

(o ,...,o ) = r/(/(fk),..., / ( o ) ) .
1 TI n

V / t u ven tnh, v 7} a tuyn tnh thay phin, nn 0 cng l a tuyn

tnh thay phin, tc l 0 e A (V)\ n
Nhu vy. c ( e K sao cho 0 t).
n
Mt khc, v {T) l mt. c s da A (V)*. cho nn vi mi G A"(V')*
ta c ? -- 67/ vi mt. vo hng no c K. Do

- e 7 ( / ( i ) , . . . , / ( ) ) --= c(ori,...,)
- crfT/(!,V 7 1 ) - ^ ( o - , ...,an).

Dng thc ni trong nh l irc. nghim di, i vi h n g s det)

d khng ph thuc f . Nh vy, ta ch ra sir tn t i n i a d e t ( / ) .
e chng minh tnh dnv nht ca e t ( / ) . ta chon 7/. ang thc:

),...,/()) = det(/)v?(fti,...,)

ko theo - det(/)7"/. Do biu th tuyn tnh ca qua c s (r/) l duy

nht;, nen det(/) xc nh duy nht .
nh l sau y cho thay mi lien h gia nh thc cua t ng cu
vi nh thc ca ma t r n , ng t h i ch ra mt phi rong p h p tnh
nh thc ca t ng cu.

i n h l 4.3 Nu t ng cu f : V V c ma trn l A trong mt

r H no ca V, th det,(/) = t, A

C h n g minh. Gi = ( t i , . . . , ) l c s ca khng gian V trong

n

/ c ma trn l A. Ta c f ( S j ) 12r= ij > a

Ni cch khc

( / ( e i ) . . . / ( e ) ) - ( c , . . . c ) A ri

136
 n
C h n } d e t e A ( V ) , v p d n g i n h l 4 . 1 . t a c

det(/) d e t ( / ) t En r= d e t ( / ) d e t ( - j , e ) t n

det (/(e,),,..,/(^))
e r , t,4.
H q u 4.4 Nu A v B l cc ma trn ca t ng cu f : V * V
trong nhng c s khc nhau, th t -- t B.

n h l 4.5 () d e t i r f v - -

(xi) d e t ( g f ) = det(g) det(/), V/,g e End(V).

Ni ring, nu f kh nghch th d e t ( / ') = (det(/))- i

n
C h n g m i n h . ( i ) i v i m i -P A (V')*, t a c

<p(idv(oti),..., M (a ))
v n = >(au ...,),

vi mi O i , . . . , t t n V. D o , theo n h ngha ca n h t h c ca t
n g c u , det(idv) = 1.
(ii) N u > e A (V)', n
th

d e / ^ a o n ) - >(gf(a ),...,gf{a ))
n

= det(g)ip(f(ax),f(cv )) n

= det(g)det(f)(p(a ...,a ), u n

vi m i Q j , . . . , a n V . Do d e t ( c / / ) d e t ( / ) d e t ( f ) .
N u / k h nghch t h t n t i / 1
e End(V) sao cho f f " 1
ly. T
1 1 1
d e t d e t - ) = det/" ) = d e t ( i r f v ) = 1. H q u l d e t " ) =

(det(/))

137
C h n g m i n h . G i s e ( i , . . . , ) l mt ca s ca k h n g gian vector
r. Gi c l ma t r n c a / t r o n g c s :

Ni each k h c . C' l ma t r n m vct. ct t h ca n l vc t a toa

cua f ( z j ) (.rong c S (=1 ).
' l a c

c-t(/) det(/)det det(/)de ,c)

e(/(,), M) etc.
N h n xt r n g , /' l mt. n g c u t u y n t n h n u v ch n u (/())

/ ( c , ) ) l m t h v c t c l p t u y n t n h . i u n y t n g n g v i
r

s kin h vector ct ca c' c l p t u y n t n h . t c l t n g n g vi

del c det.(/) / 0.

5 C c t n h cht s u h n ca n h t h c
'ni ny dnh de nghin cu su thm cc tnh cht cua nh thc ca
nia i r n .

n h l 5.1 Gi M A. B e M{ X /.,x). Khi d

(i) v\{AI) doi doi l.

( H A kh nghch i).ru c ch Hu t A 0. Hn va

doi(A ') (t ) '.

C h n g m i n h . ( i ) l m i h q u (MUI c c nh l 4.3 v L .
(ii) l mt h ( [ l u i (MUI -Dinh l K i v a p h n ( i ) .

i n h l 5.2 (Dinh hc cua trui Iran chuyn v).

1
doi ( ) t . VA M(v X //..:<).

138
C h n g m i n h . G i s A (a.jj) , nxn
t
A = (j)nxn- T h e o n h ngha
nh t h c . t a c

det(^) - J2 S g n ( ) a 4 ( 1 ) 1 a {n)n

i Sr.

s n r a
( ) l ( l ) <W(n)-
eSn

N u k ----- (j), t h - a~ (k), l

v j<T(j) a -i( f c ) f c .
1
t u; = cr" . B i
v x ir, cho nen sgnu; = sgncr. H n na, k h i <7 chy m t l t t r n
S' th ~ c n g c h y m t l t t r n S . Do
l
n

det(A') = J2 s g n ( o ; ) a w(1)1 a^nn

Jz.Sn

= detyl (theo n h ngha).

Theo n h l t r n , t t c c c t n h c h t ca n h t h c i v i c c ct
ca n van n g i v i c c h n g ca n . C h n g h n , n h t h c l m t
h m a t u y n t n h , t h a y p h i n v c h u n hoa i v i c c h n g ca n . . .
Bay g i t a xt b i t o n t n h n h t h c c p n t h n g qua c c n h
thc c p n h h n .
Clio A = (a.jj) 6 M{n X n, K) v k l m t s n g u v n b t k t h o a m n
< " < n. Xt, hai b ch s

< < 2 < < ik < n,

</h < h < <jk < n.

C c p h n t n m t r n giao ca c c h n g li, v c c c t j i , ..., jk ca

ma l n A l p nen m t ma t r n c p k ( c g i l m t ma t r n con cp
k c a .4), v n h t h c ca m a t r n con , c k h i u l D
d c gi l m t n h t h c con c p k ca A.
N u xoa t t c c c h n g l i , i k v c c c t j i , j f c t h p h n cn l i
c a ma t r n A l p n n m t m a t r n v u n g c p n k, m n h t h c ca
n c k h i u l D ^ y ' f * v c g i l n h t h c con b c a Dil'zik-
j
Ta g i (-)* '- D izf
{ J)
k
l
phn b i s ca trong
.s(y,,/)(, + +) + i + +>)

139
 i n h l 5.3 (Khai t r i n Laplace). Gi s chn rak ct (tng ng,
k hng) trong mt nh thc cp n ( < k < ri). Khi , nh thc
cho bng tng ca tt c cc tch ca cc nh thc con cp k ly ra t
k ct. (tng ng, k hng) chn vi phn b i s ca chng. Ni
r hn, ta c:
() Cng thc khai trin nh thc theo k ct ji < < j:
k

W)
detA= (-i)*< zfc^;;:;,fr
il<-<i k

(t) Cng thc khai trin nh thc theo k hng l < < i:
k

s J )
doi A (-i) ' t:t;:t
ii<<jfc

C h n g m i n h . Ta s ch chng minh cng thc khai t r i n Laplace theo

; hng. T , p dng nh l 5,2, ta thu c cng thc khai t r i n
theo k ct.
Trc ht, ta chng minh cng thc khai trin Laplace theo k hng
c bit i -- , i-1 2, k.
K hiu vct. ct t h j ca ma trn A l Oi. Vi mi b ch s
< j\ < < jk < n, ta gi ][,.,., j l b ch s { 1 , 2 , n } \ { j u ...,jk}
c xp theo t h t tng dn:

1< j[<---<f <n. (

Xt hm sau a y

s J ) l k
v(A)= (a ...,a )=
V u n (-l) ' ttD :: .
h<-<ik

D t h y rng T l mt hm a tuyn tnh i vi ! , . . . , .

Nu A - E (ma t r n n vi), th D "" l,
k
jk

0 nu v ch nu
ji --- , j 2 = 2 , j f c = :. Khi = v D'^ k = 1. Do . // c
tnh chua!! hoa, tc l T}(E ) . n

Ta s chng minh 7? c tnh thay phin.

140
 Trc ht gi s Q = a r r+1 . L y mt s hng bt k trong tng
xc nh T, n u t r, jt+1 = r + th 1
D '"'kk
= 0; cn nu j'u = r,
= r + th -l]"' = 0 (trong c hai trng hp, nh thc tcmg
ng bng 0 v n hai ct bng nhau). Cc s hng cn l i c ghp
t h n h t n g cp: s hng c jt = r, j' = r + c ghp vi s hng c u

it = r + , j' = r (cc ch s khc ca hai s hng ny n h nhau). Khi

u

k
, hai s hng c ghp cp c phn D^'"'k Di.'.T bng nhau (v
9 ,J
Q r = Qr+i), v c du ( 1 ) ( ) tri nhau (v ch s jt ca chng tng
ng bng r v r + 1). Do chng l cc phn t i nhau. Tm l i ,
} ( a i , Q ) = 0 nu a
n r 0t i r+ v i r b t k ( < r < r).

T , theo phng php dng chng minh H qu 2.3, ta c

](ai,...,a a i,...,a ) T r+ n = -rj(ai,...,a ,a ,...,a ),

r+1 r n

vi mi Q i , ...,a-n K" v mi r ( < r < ri).

By gi ta s chng minh rng 77 c tnh thay phin, tc l

T (au ...,r, ,s, , n ) = 0,

nu ct,- = a s vi cp ch s r / s bt k. T h t vy, ta l n l t hon v

a 3 vi CH _1 ri vi j - 2 . a
S r < vs v tr ca t i.
r+ Ta c

r - 1
77(ai,...,a ,...,a ,...,a ) = ( - l ) * ~
r a n 7 ; ( a i , . . . , a , a , a ) = 0,
r a n

bi v Q,, v a s ng k nhau trong v gia.

Theo H qu 3.7, nh thc l hm duy nht trn cc ct ca ma
trn c cc tnh cht a tuyn tnh, thay phin v chun hoa, cho nn

t ( a t ! , a n ) = T){a u a ).n

chnh l cng thc khai t r i n Laplace theo ; hng i\ = , ...,ifc = k.

Cui cng, ta xt trng hp k hng ty = (L, ,ifc). K hiu
/ ' = ( , t ) . Ta ln lt hon v hng vi (ix 1) hng ng trc
n ( a h n g \ v hng v gi nguyn v tr tng i ca cc hng

141
cn l i ) , r i l i l n l t h o n v h n g i 2 v i (i 2 2) h n g n g t r a c n . . .
C u i c n g , l n l t h o n v h n g i k v i (i k k) h n g n g t r c n .
Sau p h p b i n d i , c c h n g c a v cc hng ,...,k
v v t r t n g i ca c c h n g cn l i c g i n g u y n . Ma trn A
c b i n i t h n h ma t r n A v i t = (-1)<<1-1>+-+(**-*) t A ' .
Ta cng c

= (_i)(*i+-+*fc)-(i+-+*)(_]_)'i' ) /

= s:;f(A').

D n g khai t r i n Laplace theo ; h n g , ...,k ca m a t r n ' , t a c

<1 1
t A = (-l)< - >+""K**-*> t ; ! '

i\<-<ik
l s ( / , J )
= 2 ( - ) ^ ; : ( ^ ; : ; j ( ^ ) -
ji<-<jfc

nh l c h o n t o n chng m i n h .
V du: T n h i n h t h c Vandermonde

Xi ~n-l
rr
_n-l
x 2 *2

XI X- n-l

L i gii: Ta l m cho h u h t cc p h n t t r n h n g c u i c a n h t h c
t r t h n h b n g k h n g b n g cch l y ct t h (n 1) n h n v i x n ri
cng v o ct n , sau l y ct t h (n 2) n h n v i x n ri cng v o
ct (r 1),..., cui c n g l y ct t h n h t n h n v i x n r i cng v o ct

142
2. Sau bin i , ta thu c

Xi x n X(x\ x)n

x 2 - x n x (x2 2 x)n #2 2
( x
2 ~ x
n )

D n =
%n \\p^n -fi)
1 - 0 0 0

Khai t r i n Laplace theo hng t h n, ri a cc tha s chung ca mi

hng ra ngoi du nh thc, ta c

n + 1
D n = (-l) ( ^ i - x )(x n 2 - ) (x_! - x ) n

n-2
Xi XX X
n-2
x 2 Xo
X

n-2
x
3?n-l n - l

T ta thu c cng thc truy ton

Ai = (x n - X)(x n - x) 2 (x n - X x)D -i.

n n

X u t p h t vi Di , v bng quy np s dng cng thc trn, ta c

Ai = [ { x i - X j ) .

i>j
M t ng dng quan trng ca khai t r i n Laplace l cng thc tnh
ma t r n nghch o.

n h l 5.4 Nu ma trn vung A (aij) G Mn X n,K) c nh thc

khc 0 ti A kh nghch v

( u \
l

A~ =
t A
\ &ln ... nn J

trong jj l phn b i s ca dij.

143
C h n g m i n h . K hiu ma t r n ni trong nh l l B. Theo nh l
Laplace v khai t r i n t A theo hng , ta c

Qun H + (knin = t A, Vi.

Hn na, v i m i j / i, x t ' m a t r n thu c t A bng cch thay

hng j b i h n g v g i nguyn cc h n g khc, k c hng i. Ma trn
ny c hai h n g v j u bng (ail, &in)- Do , nh thc ca n
bng 0. Khai t r i n Laplace nh thc n y theo hng j, ta c

<h\j - h (knjn = 0, Vi ^ j.

K t hp hai n g thc trn, ta thu c AB E.

n T n g t, bng
cch p dng khai t r i n Laplace theo ct, ta c BA = E.
n

x
Tm l i , A k h nghch, v A~ = B. -
Trong phn sau, chng ta s gii t h i u mt p h n g p h p khc tm
ma trn nghch o bng cch gii h phcmg trnh t u y n tnh.

N h n x t 5.5 Ma t r n v phi ca nh. l 5.4 c gi l ma t r n

ph hp ca A. K hiu ma t r n ph hp ca A (khng k nhn t
- 1
( d e t ) ) l B', theo chng minh nh l trn, ta c

AB' = B'A = det(A)E,

trong <\-E l ma t r n n v cng cp vi .

6 inh thc v Hang ca ma t r n

Chng ta nh ngha hng ca mt ma t r n l hng ca h vct ct
ca n. Dinh l sau y cho p h p t n h hng ca ma t r n thng qua nh
thc. ng t h i n t c s cho khng nh: hng ca ma t r n cng
bng hng ca h vct hng ca ma t r n .

i n h l 6.1 Gi s A l mt ma trn m hng, n ct vi cc phn t

trong trng K. Khi , hng ca ma trn A b
ng cp cao nht ca cc

144
nh thc con khc 0 ca . Ni r hn, rankA = r nu c mt nh
thc con cp r ca A khc 0, v mi nh thc con cp > r (nu c)
ca A u bng 0.

C h n g m i n h . Vic i ch cc ct r rng khng lm thay i r a n k A

Vic i ch cc hng cng vy, bi v i ch cc h n g t n g ng vi
n
vic i ch cc toa ca cc vct ct trong K , l mt ng cu
tuyn tnh ca K . n

M t khc, i ch cc hng v cc ct ca A cng khng lm thay

i cp cao n)it ca cc nh thc con ca A.
V th, cho d t r n h by v khng gim tng qut, ta c t h gi
s nh thc con cp r gc tri trn ca A k h c 0, v mi nh thc
con cp (r + 1) ca A u bng 0. .
Khi , r ct u tin ca A c lp t u y n tnh. (Nu tri l i , .th
nh thc cp r gc tri trn ca A bng 0.) Ta s chng minh rng
ct t h j ca A, k hiu j , b i u th t u y n t n h qua r ct u tin, vi
r < j < n. e lm iu , v i mi thoa m n < i < ra, ta xt nh
thc sau y :
an \
t
Or
V a
ii CL r
a /
nh thc ny lun bng 0. T h t vy, n u < i < r, th nh thc c
2 hng bng nhau; cn nu r < < m, th n l mt nh thc con cp
(? + 1) ca A. Khai t r i n Laplace nh thc n y theo hng cui, v gi
l phn b i s ca Ojfc, ta c
k

Xian-i + xa
r ir + \cLij = 0.
-

y A = Xj / 0, v l nh thc con cp r gc tri trn. Lu

rng A i , A , u khng ph thuc vo . T
r

-a . r

145
Theo nh ngha hng ca ma trn, rankA T.

H qu 6.2 Hang ca mt ma trn bng hng ca h cc vct hng

ca n.

C h n g minh. Ta c

rankv4 = ranL4* (theo nh l 6.1)

l
= Hng ca h vct ct ca A
= Hng ca h vct hng ca A.

7 H phng trnh tuyn tnh - Quy tc

Cramer
Mt h thng c dng

a Xin + a 1 2 2 H + 0, x n n = b

a x a x
m l l + m2 2 + + CL X
mn n

trong b l cc phn t cho trc trong trng K, c gi l mt

h phng trnh tuyn tnh g
m ra phng trnh vi n an X i , x n . K
hiu
( x x \ h \
A iflij)mx.ni ~ , 0

\ Xn J \ Om J

Khi , h phng trnh ni trn c th vit di dng phng trnh

vct
Ax = /3.

Mt nghim ca h ny l mt vct x 6 K" sao cho Ax = 0. Mt

h phng trnh c t nht mt nghim c gi l mt h phng trnh
tu ang thch.

146
 H p h n g trnh Ax 0 c gi l h phu ng trnh tuyn tnh
thun nht Hn kt vi h Ai (3.
Theo kinh nghim, ta cm nhn rng h phng trnh tuyn tnh
Ax = 0 c nghim duy nht nu s phng trnh ca h bng s n,
v khng c phng trnh no ca h l "h qu" ca cc phng t r n h
khc. iu ny c din t chnh xc trong nh ngha sau y.

n h n g h a 7.1 H phng trnh tuyn tnh Ax = p c gi l mt

h khng suy bin (hay mt h Cramer) nu n c s phng trnh bng
s an (ni cch khc, nu A l mt ma t r n vung) v nu t A 7^ 0.

i n h l 7.2 H phng trnh tuyn tnh khng suy bin Ax = /3 c mt

nghim duy nht, c tnh bng cng thc

t Aj
Xi
t A , ( < j < n),
troig Aj l ma trn nhn uc t ma trn A bng cch thay ct th
bi ct h s t do (3.

C h
n g m i n h . V etA / 0, nn A l mt ma t r n kh nghch. K h i

1 l
Ax = 0 <^> A~ Ax = A~ p
L
x = A~ f3.

Theo nh l 5.4, ta c

u ... -nl

A~ =
t A
V &ln &nn

1
trong j l phn b i s ca dij trong t A. T X A^ ^ c
ngha l

X j
( i j h + jb2 2 - h njb )
n

t A
_ t A
, ( < 3 < n).
dt

147
ang thc cui nhn c bng cch khai t r i n Laplace nh thc ca
Aj theo ct t h j.
V du: Gii h p h n g trnh sau y :

X + y + 32 + 4< = -3
X + y 52 + 2t
2x + y + 3z + l = -3
2x + 3y + U + A = 2.

L i gii: Trc ht ta t n h nh thc ca ma t r n h s

3 4 1 1 3 4
5 2 0 0 2 -2
t
3 2 0 -1 -3 -6
2 3 li 5 0 1 5 -3

0 2 -2 0 -2
- -3 -6 = 0
to
-9
5 -3 1 5 -3

3+1 2 -2
(-1) = 2-(-9)-2-(-2) = -14.
2 -9

Theo quy tc Cramer, h p h n g trnh c nghim duy nht

-3 3 4
5 2
-3 3 2
2 3 li 5 28
X -2,.
t ,4 -14

-3 3 4
5 2
2 -3 3 2
2 2 l i 5
y = 0,
t ,4 14

148
 -3 4
2
2 -3 2
2 3 2 5 14
t .4
1 1 3 - 3
1 1 5 1
2 1 3 - 3
2 3 l i 2 14
=
t A

8 H phng trnh tuyn tnh

- P h n g p h p k h Gauss
Phng php Cramer ch p dng c cho cc h phng trnh tuyn
tnh khng suy bin (ni ring, cc h ny c s phng trnh bng s
n). Th nhng r t nhiu h phng trnh tuyn tnh m ngi ta gp
li suy bin. Phng php kh Gauss, m ta s trnh by di y,
c u im l c th p dng cho h phng trnh tuyn tnh ty .
Nhc im ca phng php ny l khng a ra c thng tin no
v nghim ca h phng trnh trc khi gii xong h .
Ni dung ca phng php kh Gauss nh sau.
Ta gi hai h phng trnh l tng ng nu nghim ca h ny
cng l nghim ca h kia v ngc li.
Nhn xt rng nu ta p dng cc php bin i sau y, c gi l
cc php bin i s cp, trn mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh, ta nhn
c mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh tng ng vi h ban u.

(1) oi ch hai phng trnh ca h.

(2) Nhn mt phng trnh ca h vi mt v hng khc 0 thuc

trng K.

149
 (3) Cng vo mt phng trnh mt t hp t u y n t n h ca cc phng
trnh khc trong h.

By gi t xt ^ H t h phng trnh t u y n tnh tng q u t

anXi + CL12X2 - + a.\ x n n

OmiXi + a 2X2 m H + o-mn^n

Ta gi A (aij) mxn l ma trn cc h s, v

/ an a 12

21 22 62
A =

\ Q"tnl a
m2 bm

l ma trn cc h s m rng ca h p h n g trnh ni trn.

Gi s c mt h s no dij - 0. Khng gim tng q u t (nu cn,
i ch cc phng trnh v n h s l i cc n) ta c t h coi n ^ 0.
Khi , nhn phng trnh t h nht vi ( f ^ ) ri cng vo phng
trnh t h (i = 2,...,ra), ta nhn c h p h n g t r n h t n g n g
c dng
aiXi + ax n 2 + 1- a x n n b

a
'rn2 2 X
~l *+ a
'mn n X
b' .
m

Lp l i lp lun trn i vi h con gm (n 1) p h n g trnh cui v i

c c n . T ,
2 ...,x .
n

Sau mt s hu hn bc, h p h n g t r n h Ax p c a v
mt h t n g ng, vi ma t r n m rng c dng

150
 / a n
* * * .. * \
0 22 * * . h
. * * .. *
0 0 .. ctf*f * .. * br
0 0 ... 0 0 .. 0 K+1

V 0 0 ... 0 0 .. 0 J
trong n 0 (i = , . . . , r ) , v cc du * k hiu cc phn t c th
khc 0 trong trng K.
Nu mt trong cc v hng +1, ) b khc 0, th h phng trnh r m

vo nghim.
Nu b i r+ = = b m = 0, th h phng trnh c nghim. Hn na,
mi nghim ca h phng trnh u c th nhn c bng cch gn
cho ...,xn nhng gi tr tuy thuc trng K (nu n > r), ri gii
duy nht Xi,...,x r theo nhng gi tr gn cho X +1, . r n (C th,
x c tm t phng trnh t h r,..., Xi c tm t phng trnh th
r

nht.)*
V du: Gii h phng trnh

Xi + 3x2 + 5^3 2x = 3
Xi + 5X2 9^3 + & E 4 =
2xi + 7x + 3rr + T 2 3 = 5
5xi + 8x 2 + 4x 3 + 5x 4 = 12.

L i gii: Dng phng php kh Gauss, ta thy h phng trnh trn

tng ng vi

Xi + 3x + 2 2^4 = 3
2x 14.T3 + 10r
2 4 = -2
l i 7.T3 + 5x 4 = -
?>X2 p l l + 15^4 = 3

151

Xi + 3x 2 + 5X3 2^4 = 3
x2 7X3 + 5^4 =
0x 2 + 0 x + 0x 3 4 = 0
0^2 + 0x 3 + 0x 4 = 0

{ Xi
2

x ,
3 x
=
=

4
6 26^3 + 17rc

tuy .
+ 7x 3 5^4
4

N h n x t 8.1 cho gn, trong qu trnh gii h p h n g trnh tuy n

tnh, ta ch cn ghi nhn s bi n i ca ma t r n h s suy rng. Chng
hn trong v d trn, ta ch cn vi t

1 3 5 -2 3 5 -2 3

1 5 -9 8 1
1

0
3

2 -14 10 -2

> ky

2 7 3 1 5 0 1 -7 5 -1

V5 18 4 5 12 J ^ 0 3 -21 15 -3
1 3 5 -2 3
0 1
Xi = 6 - 26x + 17.T
a

-7 5 -1
= 1 + 7:C3 rca
0 0 0 0 0 x
2

4 t u y .
^0 0 0 0 0 l #3,

N h n x t 8.2 Tng ng vi cc p h p bi n i sa cp t r n h phng

trnh tuy n tnh l cc php bin i s cp t r n ma t r n . l cc
php bi n i thuc mt trong cc dng sau y

(1) i ch hai hng (hoc hai ct) ca ma t r n .

(2) Nhn mt hng (hoc mt ct) ca ma t r n v i m t v hng

khc 0.

(3) Cng vo mt hng (hoc mt ct) mt t h p t u y n t n h ca cc

hng (tng ng: cc ct) khc.

152
 D t h y r n g c c p h p b i n i s cp khng lm thay i hng ca
ma t r a n . N h n x t n y d n t i m t cch t n h h n g ca ma t r n r t c
ch t r o n g t h c h n h .
C t h l , m i m a t r n A = (aij)mxn sau m t s h u h n p h p b i n
i s c p u c t h a v m t ma t r n d n g ( t a m gic t r n suy rng)

^ n * . . . * * ... * \
0 a2 2

* *
0 0 a rr
0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0
V 0/

t r o n g j ^ 0 (i = , . . . , r j , v c c d u * k h i u c c p h n t c t h
k h c 0 t r o n g t r n g K.
B n g c c h t r c t i p d n g n h ngha ca h n g hoc d n g nh l
6.1, t a d t h y r n g h n g ca m a t r n ni t r n b n g r.

N h n x t 8.3 P h n g p h p k l u r Gauss c n g d n g v o vic t m

ma t r n nghch o .
G i s c n t m nghch o ( n u c) ca ma t r n A = (dij) M(n X
l; K ) . Ta xt h p h n g t r n h

J2<kjXj=y i (i=l,...,n).

K h i , A k h nghch n u v ch n u h p h n g t r n h t r n c n g h i m
vi m i v p h i / i , . . . , y - n H n na, n u nghim ca h c cho b i
c n g t hc
n
xi = ^2b y ij j (i = l,...,n),

l
t h ma t r n nghch o ca A c h n h l A~ = (bj) . nxn (Cng thc b i u
t h t n g m i n h Xi,...,x n qua y i , ...,/n c t h crc t m b n g cch d n g
p h n g p h p k h Gauss.)

153
 n
Tht vy, ta xt php bin i tuyn tnh : K > K " , T H- A T . N
n
c ma trn l A trong c s chnh tc ca K . H phng trnh Ax y
c nghim vi mi y nu v chi nu A l mt ng cu tuyn tnh, iu
ny xy ra khi v ch khi A kh nghch. Hn na, ta c Ax y tng
l
ng vi ;r - A~ y. x
Do A~ (bij) n x n .

N h n x t 8.4 Trong thc hnh, vic dng phng p h p k h Gauss e

tm ma trn nghch o c c t h hoa nh sau.
e tm nghch o (nu c ) ca ma trn A (a.(j)nxn- trc h t ta
lp ma trn n hng 2n ct:

/ an 0,12 0 ... 0 \
O21 %2 0 ... 0
(A,E )
n =

0 0 ...

Tip theo, dng hai loi php bin i hng sau y

(a) Nhn mt hng vi mt v hng khc 0,

(b) Cng vo mt hng mt t hp tuyn tnh ca cc hng khc,

a ma trn ni trn v dng

/ 0 ... 0 611 612 bin \

0 0 bu
>21 ^22

0 0 Kn )
Ki b2
n

Khi . ma trn B (bj) n x n chnh l A 1

. Tht vy, ct t h k ca ma
trn A~l
chnh l nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh
n
] T ctijXjk - ik ( i = , 2 , n ) .

154
Mun tm A' 1
ta cn gii l h phng trnh n h t h ng vi k = , n .
Cc h p h n g trnh ny c vit gp l i t h n h mt phng trnh ma
t r n duy nht
AX = En,

trong X = {Xjk)nxn- Hin nhin (A, En) chnh l ma t r n h s m

rng ca phng trnh ma t r n . Hai loi php bin i hng k
trn a ma t r n (A, En) v ma t r n (En, B) c ngha l phng trnh
AX = En t n g ng vi phng trnh E x n = B. Ni cch khc,
1
" = E X
n B chnh l ma t r n nghch o " .
Ma trn A khng c nghch o nu v ch nu ma t r n (A,E )
n

khng t h a v ma t r n dng (E ,B) n bng hai loi php bin i

hng ni trn.

9 Cu t r c nghim ca h phng t r n h
tuyn tnh
Ta xt cc h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht v khng thun nht
lin kt vi nhau

Ax = 0 v Ax = p,

7
trong A = ( a . / j ) m x n e M(m X n , K ) , j e K ". Nh vy, c hai h
phng trnh ni trn u gm m phng trnh v n n.

i n h l 9.1 Tp hp L tt c cc nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn

tnh thun nht Ax = l mt khng gian vct con ca K , c s chiu n

thoa mn h thc dim L = n r a n k A

C h n g m i n h . Ta xt nh x tuyn tnh

m
: K" - K ,
X I Ax.

155
 n
R rng L = i e r l mt khng gian vct con ca K . Hn na, v
nh x tuyn tnh A c ma trn l A trong c s chnh tc ca cc khng
n 1
gian vct K v K" , cho nn

n
dim L = dim Ker = dim K - dim Im
= ri rank A

inh l 9.2 Gi s L l khng gian vct con gm cc nghim ca h

phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht Ax = 0, v x l mt nghim ca
h Ax /5. Khi tp hp cc nghim ca h Ax 0 l

x + L = {x + a
e L}.

Chng minh. y l mt nghim ca h Ax = p nu v ch nu y x

l mt nghim ca h Ax = 0, tc l nu v ch nu y x 6 L. Bao
hm thc cui cng tng ng vi y x + L.

nh ngha 9.3 Vi cc gi thit ca nh l trn,.2 c gi l mt

nghim ring ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh khng thun nht Ax = 3.
Cn x + cu, vi a 6 L, c gi l nghim tng qut ca h phng
trnh .

inh l 9.4 (Tiu chun Kronecker - Capelli). H phng trnh tuyn

tnh I p c nghim khi v ch khi ranL4 = TnkA, trong

an a 12
a
in bi \
A =

l ma trn cc h s
m rng ca h.

Chng minh. Gi Ctj l vct ct th j ca A, cn p l vct ct t

do (tc l ct cui cng ca A. Ta c

rankA = r a n k ( c v i , a ) < r a n k ( o ; i , a , (5) = rankA.

n n

156

/
D u b a n g x v r a n u v ch n u p b i u t h t u y n t n h qua c c v c t
O i , a . G i X , . T l c c h s ca b i u t h , t c l

/3 = xai H + x ot .
n n

H t h c n y t n g n g v i vic x (x, l m t nghim
ca h p h n g t r n h Ax = f3.

Bi t p
T h c h i n c c p h p n h n sau y , v i t cc p h p t h t h u c t h n h
t c h ca n h n g x c h r i r c v t n h d u ca c h n g .

1 2 3 4 5 W 1 2 3 4 5
1.
2 4 5 1 3 / ^ 4 3 5 1-2

I 2 3 4 5 W 1 2 3 4 5
2.
3 5 4 1 2 / V 4 3 1 5 2

3. (l,2)(2,3)---(n,n-1).

4. ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) ( 2 , 3 , 4 ) ( 3 , 4 , 5 ) (n - 2,n - l,n).

5. Cho h a i c c h sp t h n h d y a i , a 2 , . . . , a n v 6 , 6 ) " - ^ n ca Ti s
1 2 ?

t nhin u tin. C h n g m i n h r n g c t h a c c h sp n y v
c c h sp k i a b n g c c h s d n g k h n g q u n p h p t h s cp.

6. V i g i t h i t n h b i t r n , chng m i n h r n g c t h a c c h sp
n y v c c h sp k i a b n g c c h s d n g k h n g q u nin l ) / 2 php
c h u y n v t r ca h a i p h n t n g k nhau.

7. Cho v d v m t c c h sp n s t n h i n u t i n t h n h d y sao
cho d y n y k h n g t h a v d y sp t n h i n b n g c c h d n g
t h n n p h p t h s c p .

157
8. B i t s nghch t h ca d y a i , a 2 , a n b n g k. H y t m s nghch
th ca dy a,
n O n - 1 , a i .

9. T n h cc n h t h c sau y

2 -5 4 3 3 -3 -2 -5
3 -4 7 5 2 5 4 6
(o) (b)
4 -9 8 5 5 8 7
-3 2 -- 5 3 4 4 5 6

T n h c c n h t h c sau y b n g cch ua ve dng tam gic:

1 2 3 ... n ao ai a 2 ... On

-1 0 3 ... n X X 0 ... 0
(a) -1 -2 0 ... n ) (b) 0 --X X ... 0

-1 -2 -3 ... 0 0 0 0 ... X

ai a2 a-3 .. a n

#2 0 .. 0

(c) 0 -22 x3
.. 0

0 0 0 x n

11. T n h n h t h c ca ma t r n v u n g cp n v i p h n t n m h n g
i ct j b n g | i - j|.

12. T n h c c n h t h c sau y b n g phung php rt ra cc nhn t

tuyn tnh:
2 3 ... n
a? + 1 3 ... l
(a) 2 x + 1 ... //

2' Z + 1

158
 +x
1-x
(b)
V/
1-y

13. Tnh cc nh thc sau y bng cch s dng cc quan h hi

qui:

db ai 62 ai&3 ... aib n

ab x 2 02^3 ... a >

2

(a) ai 63 3&3 ... 3&n

abx n ab
2 n ... a

o ai a 2 ... On

-Vi Xi 0 ... 0
(b) 0 x 2 ... 0

0 0 0 ...

14. Tnh cc nh thc sau y bng cch biu din chng thnh tng
ca cc inh thc no :

X + ai 02 a 3
On

0-1 X+ a 2
a 3 Om

(a) ai a2 X + a3 . On

ai 02 a 3 . x + dn

Xi 0,2 3 On

ai X-I a 3 ...
(b) ai 02 z 3 ... On

Oi a 2 s ... "En

159
 Tnh cc nh thc sau y :
1
ai Xi ri ... x-
1
a 2 x 2
...
15.

On En k .
_n- 1
x
n

16.
n
1 If X1
TI
1 x\ X
to

1 x
n k n
Xn

3 - 1 s+l
1 Xi X1
s- 1 3+1
1 X2 X
2 X Ju 2
(6)

X sn- 1
s+1
1 Xfi v X xi

a r ^ X i 1) x(x 1) X n-1 ( X i - 1)
0:2(22 - 1) ^2(^2 - 1) a? _ 1
(a?2-l)
17.

x (x -l)
n n x(x -l) n ^ ( n - l )

1+ Xi + a? 1+3?
+ z 1+^2 1+ 4
18. 2

+ z n + rr*

cos(/?i cos2y?i ... cos(n )*/?!

cos<j cos2</?2 ... C O s ( n l)</?2
19. 2

.1 cos<^ n cos2</? n ... cos(n l ) ( ^ n

160
 xiVi + Site ..: 1 + a>ifo
+ 32/1 x y
2 2 ... +Z2/n
20.

l + Xny! l +xy n 2 ...

1
(ai +6)-
1
(02 + n ) - 1

21. (a +
2 &i) _ 1
(a + b )~
2 2

1
(dn+x)- 1
(an + fea)- ... (On+n)- 1

22. Dy Fibonacci l dy s bt u vi cc s hng 1,2 v mi s

hng, k t s hng th ba, u bng tng ca hai s hng ng
ngay trc n. Chng minh rng s hng th n ca dy Fibonacci
bng nh thc cp n sau y:

10 0 0 0
- 1 1 0 0 0
0 - 1 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 -

23. Tnh nh thc sau y bng cch vit n thnh tch ca hai nh
thc:
So Si 5 2 *n-l 1
Si s 2 S3 . . s n
X

s . 2
s 2 S3 4
s
n+l X

n
s n Sn+1 Sn+2 2n-l x

trong sk - x\ + x - \-x.

161
24. Chng minh rang

ai a 2 a 3

a n ai a 2
n-

a _i
n a n ai On-2 = f(e )f(e ) 1 2 f(e ),
n

2 a
3 4 ai
n
trong / ( ' ) = Oa + a A' + + o'
2 v c , c , ...,c
1 2 l cc
cn bc / khc nhau ca 1.

25. Dng khai t r i n Laplace chng minh rng nu mt nh thc cp

7. c cc phn t nm trn giao ca k hng v . ct xc nh no
n bng 0. trong k + >.n, th nh thc bng 0.

26. Gii h phng trnh sau y bng phng php Cramer v phng
p h p kh:

3xi + x +x 2 3 + 2x 4 +3 = 0,

3xi + 5x + 2 3.T3 + 5.T4 + 6 = 0,

6x1 + 8x + .Ta + 5rr + 8 2 4 = 0,

3xi + 5:r + 2 3.T3 + 7.7-4 + 8 = 0.

27. Chng minh rng mt a thc bc n trong K[A' c hon ton

xc nh bi gi tr ca n t i (l + 1) im khc nhau ca trng
K. T m v d v hai a thc khc nhau cng bc n nhn cc gi
tr bng nhau t i mi dim ca K, nu s phn t ca K khng
vrrl qu li.

Gii cc h phng trnh sau y bang phng p h p thch hp:

28. ax + by + cz + dt p,
-bx + y + dz ct = <7,
-cx dy + az + bt = ?,
-dx + cy bz + at s.

162
 l
29. x n + aiX -i n + | x _ 2 +'+a"
n x x + o" = 0,
l
x n + a : c _ i + axn-2
2 -I h a%~ Xi + a = 0,

rr + a x _ i + a x - 2 +
n n n h< + a = 0.

30. D t 8{k) = l n
+ 2" + + (k - \ ). n
Hy thit lp p h n g trnh

k n
= + cr^-iifc) + + C X f e ) + ao(fc)

v c h n g m i n h r n g
f<n-2 r' 1

C n" " 3
1
/~m-2 /-tn-3
n
k~ l
u
n - l 1
/"in-3

<'*> = 0 1
n 2
k~ L
n-2

k 2
0 0 . ' q 1
k 0 0 . . 0 1

2 3
3 1 . X t khai t r i n J J = + bX + b x 2 + bx 3 + . Ta t b 2n =
t r o n
^ cn)! ' jBn c gi l s Bernoulli t h 71. C h n g m i n h
rng

1
2!
1 0 0 0
1 1
3! 2!
1 0 0
1 1
= (-ir {2n)\ l

4! 3!
1
2! 1 0

1 1 1 1
(2n+l)! (2n)! (2n-l)l (2n-2)! 2!

ch ra r n g
1
2! 1 0 0 ... 0
1 1
3! 2! 1 0 ... 0
1 1 1
&2n-l = 4! 3! 2!
1 ... 0 = 0

1 1 1 1 1
(2n)! (2n-l)! (2n-2)! (2n-3)! ... 2!

v i moi li > 1.

163
32. D i n t h s a n trong khai t r i n

~ x
= X + a x 2
2
ax 3
3
+ ,

n h mt nh thc cp n, t t n h nh thc thu c.

33. K h n g d n g ma t r n ca t n g c u , h y c h n g m i n h t r c t i p
r n g n u / l m t t n g c u c a k h n g gian v c t h u h n chiu
V v / * l n g c u i n g u ca / , t h d e t ( / * ) = d e t ( / ) . ( G i :
X t n h t h c c a m a t r n ({d, j ) ) n x n , t r o n g *!,...,* e V,
nV*.)

34. T n h h n g ca c c m a t r n sau y b n g p h n g p h p b i n i
s c p v p h n g p h p d n g n h t h c con:

3 -1 3 2 5 \
2 -1 3 -2 4
5 -3 2 3 4
(a) 4 -2 5 1 7 (6)
2 1 -3 -5 0 -7
l -1 1 8 2
J
V 7 -5 1 4 1
/

35. T m g i t r ca sao cho m a t r n sau y c h n g t h p n h t

/ 3 1 4 \
A 4 10
7 17 3
2 2 4 3
/

36. T m h n g ca ma t r n sau y n h m t h m p h t h u c A:

N
. X - 2
2 - 1 A 5
v 10 -6 l y

37. C h n g m i n h r n g n u h n g ca m t m a t r n b n g r t h m i n h
t h c con n m t r n giao ca b t k r h n g c l p t u y n t n h v r
ct c l p t u y n t n h ca ma -tran u k h c 0.

164
38. Cho A l mt ma t r n vung cp n > v A l ma t r n ph hp
(gm nhng phn b i s ca cc phn t ) ca A. Hy xc nh
r a n k n h mt h m ca rank A

39. Chng minh rng nu cc vector

i = (oj.i,a , ...,an) i n
f2 ( = 1,2, ...,s; s < ra),

thoa m n iu kin | j j | > JZi^j \a%j\, th chng c lp t u y n tnh.

40. Chng minh rng nu v B l cc ma t r n cng s h n g v s

ct th
rank(i4 + B) < rank(A) + rank(5).

41. Chng minh rng mi ma t r n c hng r c t h vit t h n h tng

ca r ma t r n c hng , n h n g khng t h vit t h n h tng ca
mt s t h n r ma t r n c hng 1.

42. Chng minh b t ng thc Sylvester cho cc ma t r n vung cp

71 bt k A v B:

rank(A) + rank(J3) n < rank(yLB) < mm{rank(^),rank(B)}.

43. Chng minh rng nu t r n g K c c s khc 2 v A l mt ma

2
t r n vung cp n vi cc p h n t trong K sao cho A E, th
rank(i4 + E) + rank(i4 E) = n. T m phn v d cho k t lun ni
t r n khi c s ca K bng 2.

44. Tm ma t r n nghch o ca cc ma t r n sau y bng p h n g

p h p nh thc v p h n g p h p bin i s cp:

1 2 -1 -2
0 3 \
3 8 0 -4
(a) 2 3 5 (b)
2 2 -4 -3
3 5 7
V 3 8 -1 -6 /

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 N g h i n c u t n h t n g t h c h ca c c h p h n g t r n h sau, t m m t
n g h i m r i n g v n g h i m t n g q u t c a c h n g :

45. 3x - 2y + 5z + 4 = 2,
6T - y + 4z + 3 = 3,
9x-6y + 3z + 2t = 4.

46. 8.T + 6t/ + 5z + 2 - 21,

3x + 3y + 2z + t = l,
4x + 2y + 3z + t = 8,
3x + by + z + t = 15,
7x + 4y + 5z + 2t 5= 18.

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