Research and Methodology

Catherine Crestani

Aim: Is to perform a geophysical investigation of part of the school property (the

oval).

Seismic Refraction Method

Theory, methodology and how results are processed

The seismic refraction method is used when conducting seismic surveys. It is based
on the measurement of the travel time of seismic waves refracted at the interfaces
between subsurface layers of different velocity. It involves acoustic energy input into
the subsurface by an energy source such as a sledgehammer impacting a metallic
plate, weight drop, vibratory source, or explosive charge. The acoustic waves spread
into the surface below the ground at a velocity dependent upon the elastic properties
of the medium that they travel through. When waves reach an interface where the
density or velocity changes significantly, some of the energy is reflected back to the
surface, and the remainder is transmitted into the lower layer. When the velocity of
the lower layer is higher than that of the upper layer, a portion of the energy is also
critically refracted along the interface. Critically refracted waves travel along the
interface at the velocity of the lower layer and continually refract energy back to
surface. These waves travel faster than the waves that have been reflected. The
diagram below demonstrates how the waves are refracted using this method. The path
that the waves are refracted follows Snells Laws of Refraction.
The refracted and reflected waves are detected with receivers known as geophones.
These are laid out in a straight line on the surface and record the incoming refracted
and reflected waves. An analysis of the travel times of the first energy to arrive at the
geophones is carried out. These first arrivals are from either the direct wave, or
critically refracted waves. Below is a diagram, which displays the process undertaken
during the use of the seismic refraction method.

Geophones are set up in a straight line 2 meters apart and attached to a cable, which in
turn is connected to the seismograph. A metallic plate is placed 5m opposite the first
geophone. It is struck with a sledgehammer, causing vibrations to go through the earth
and a cable connected to the sledgehammer lets the seismograph know to turn itself
on and start recording. The geophones then detects the direct waves that are refracted
(p-waves are only taken into consideration as they move the fastest) sending the
reading back to the seismograph which then transmits the vibrations into a graph on
the screen. The first arrival times is then able to be depicted and plotted onto a graph
to determine the type of layer the medium is as well as its depth. To obtain a deeper
reading of the layers, of get a better interpretation of the third layer, the shot is moved
a further 10 meters away from the first geophone. This allows the waves to travel
further and be refracted before being detected. By plotting on a graph the first arrival
times of the second shot against the arrival times of the first shot taken, a more
accurate picture of the layers and their depths can be determined. The velocities and
depths can then be determined from these results and lead to an interpretation of the
different mediums.

Equipment

The Geophone: The diagram on the right is of the

components of the geophone. A geophone is used to detect the
vibrations or the refracted waves caused by the heavy object
banging the surface of the earth. It acts like a microphone, as it
is able to project these vibrations and allow them to be
records.

It works as follows: when the ground moves, the mass

(because it has inertia) wants to remain motionless. Wrapped
around the mass is a strand of wire. Surrounding the wire-wrapped mass is a magnet
that is fixed to the Earth. As the Earth moves, the magnet moves up and down around
the mass. The magnetic field of this moving magnet produces an electrical voltage in
the wire. This voltage can be amplified and recorded by a simple voltmeter. The
voltage recorded is proportional to the velocity that the ground is moving.

The Seismograph: processes the analogue signal created by the geophone when it
creates a voltage. This is then recorded onto paper in printed waveform or stored until
it can be transferred to interpretation software. The data recorded typically shows
peak particle velocity (the speed that a particle moves per unit of time), peak
displacement (the distance particles are moved by the seismic wave), peak
acceleration (rate of change in velocity per unit of time), and the frequency of the
movement (in hertz). Other vibration analysis information may be included such as
peak vector sum, and vibration frequency analysis.

Seismic source: are used to generate seismic waves. It can be dynamite, a drop
weight, a sledgehammer, a shotgun, or a rifle. The actual source used is dependent on
the desired signal to noise ratio, the human environment, the target depth desired and
the geological environment.

Applications

Seismic refractive method is used for the following applications:

o Profiling top of the medium

o Determining depth to the medium
o Determining rock rip ability
o The composition of layers

The recorded seismic data is processed and interpreted using an interpretation

software package. An example of the interpreted data is shown below. The travel
times to the refracted events or "first breaks" are plotted and the subsurface velocities
are determined. When the travel times and velocities are known, the depth to bedrock
can be calculated. The seismic refraction method has an effective depth of
investigation and is dependant on survey source size, line lengths and geophone
spacing.

The refractive waves and the original waves themselves can be affected in several
ways:

o Elasticity
o Density

The elasticity of a medium depends on the ability of it to move either in the horizontal
or vertical directions. This means the spread of waves depends on the movement of
particles. Therefore, the refractive waves path will be restricted to follow the elasticity
allowance of the medium.

The density of a medium refers to the change between to mediums. The change in
rock type will result in waves being reflected and refracted. Some of the original wave
will be reflected off the interface and back to the surface. Some will be refracted
through the interface if the wave travels from a less dense to denser medium. A small
part of the wave will approach at the critical angle or greater and will be refracted
along the interface. This wave sends a portion of the energy back to the surface and is
detected by the geophone.

Resistivity Method (Dipole-Dipole Array)

Theory and Methodology and how results are processed

The resistivity method measures the bulk electrical resistivity by introducing a current
into the ground through current electrodes that are grounded at the earth's surface and
measuring the difference of the electrical potential between the potential electrodes.
The amount of current and the potential difference is used to calculate the apparent
resistivity (ohm-meters) at the point in the centre of the array of the electrodes. It
relies on the application of Ohms Law V=IR to constrain the composition, structure,
and/or hydrology of the subsurface. Examples of the different arrays used in the
resistivity method, including the dipole-dipole rays, is shown below.

The resistivity readings are processed to produce sections of the thickness and
resistivity of subsurface electrical layers. Results are linked with real ground
interfaces such as soil and rock layering or soil-bedrock interfaces to provide detailed
information on the subsurface structure. Ultimately, it measures the detectable
resistivity of the subsurface, including effects of any or all of the following: soil type,
bedrock fractures, contaminants and ground water. When there is a variation in
electrical resistivity, it can indicate changes in composition, layer thickness or
contaminant levels.

The dipole-dipole array uses dipoles (closely spaced electrode pairs) to

measure the curvature of the potential
field. If the separation between both
pairs of electrodes is the same a, and
the separation between the centres of
the dipoles is restricted to a (n+1), the
apparent resistivity is given by:

This array is especially useful for

measuring lateral resistivity changes
and has been increasingly used in geotechnical applications. The diagram
below shows how the results of the resistivity test can be interpreted.

A strand of electrodes is set up 10 metres apart. Two electrodes at one end are
connected to a voltage, which in turn is connected to the resistivity meter and the
battery. The following two electrodes are connected to a current in the same way the
voltage is connected. The resistivity meter calculates the resistivity (in milliohms) and
runs through several cycles in order to gin an accurate reading. This is repeated to
make sure the recording was accurate, and then recorded. The current electrodes are
then moved down 10m and the electrodes remain. Another reading is taken before the
current electrodes are moved down a further 10m. This process repeats until the
current electrodes have been moved down to the very end of the electrodes that have
been set up. This process is repeated again, except the voltage electrodes are moved
down a further 10m each time. Once a set of data has been recorded, it is added to
interpretation software in order to determine if there is anything beneath the surface
through graphing the different resistivity levels.

Equipment

Resistivity Meter: is designed to give a quick, reliable measurement of the resistivity

from a small sample, expressed in Ohmmeters. This transistorised meter measures the
resistivity of fluids, slurries, and semi-solids with resistivity from 0.01 to 10 Ohm-
Meter2/Meter. It summary it measures the resistance using the principles of Ohms
law, R= V/I.

It is made up of a twin-probe
meter with a data logger and
automatic logging. The twin-
probe array consists of two
mobile probes, usually mounted
on a frame and a long cable
leading to two fixed probes,
which are placed some distance
away from the survey area. This
allows the voltage and current to
be measured and the resistance to
be detected.

Voltage electrodes: or potential electrodes are used to complete the circuit creating an
electrical potential and in turn creating a resistance to be measured. The voltage
electrodes receive some of the current from the current electrodes, presuming they
have not been stopped while traveling through the soil.

Current electrodes: injects a measured current into the ground. The current then
flows through the ground and either passes through conductive material or is stopped
by insulators. The current is measured so that when the current, if it does, reaches the
voltage electrodes and the voltage is measured, the resistance can be calculated.

Applications

The resistivity method is used for a wide range of applications including the
following:

o Determination of rock head depth and weathering grade,

o Marine geophysics survey,
o Metallic mineral explorations,
o Studying slope stability indicators such as clay-rich and enhanced moisture
zones,
o Mapping water table,
 o Studying groundwater contamination, mapping and plume (an up welling of
molten material from the earth's mantle) delineation.
o Locate and define contaminant plumes.
o Locating subsurface hazardous zones,
o Determining thickness of retaining walls, and
o Mapping underground cavities
o Environmental audits and site assessments.
o Determine electrical characteristics of surrounding area.
o Water resource management.
o Public/private remedial investigations and feasibility studies.
o Landfill closures
o Determine extent of salt-water intrusion.
o Locate fractures and faults.
o Identify areas of potentially unstable ground, i.e.: mine shafts, voids.

There are, however, problems that can affect the results of the resistivity test. The
main problem is to do with time due to exposure of the soil at a selected spot. Soil is
affected from the weather and is a limitation when using the resistivity method. This
is because resistivity picks up the level of moisture in the soil; two surveys carried out
on the same spot will not necessarily give the same results as the conditions change.
Sometimes, decent results will only be obtained at certain times of the year, under
certain weather conditions. If a site is too dry, you will get no contrast in the readings
because everything will be equally dry, despite what features are present. Conversely,
if a site is too wet, there will again be no contrast because buried features will have
little effect on the low resistance provided by the sodden topsoil.

Other problems are caused from a misinterpretation of the geology of the site. Rocks
that have a lot of fracturing will make it harder to determine the resistivity of the soil.
Another property of some rocks such as chalk is their permeability. In especially dry
conditions, chalk will actually let moisture back up into the soil, but if there is a ditch,
especially one containing blocky material then this process is disturbed, which will
actually leave the ditch with a higher resistance than the surrounding area. Uneven
drift geology such as the deposit or removal of sediment can generate a wide range of
readings across the site. This can be remedied using a high pass filter when processing
results, but some features may not show up at all.

Electromagnetic method

Theory and Methodology and

how results are processed

Electromagnetic (EM) systems

measure ground conductivity
through electromagnetic
induction. The systems are made
up of transmitter and receiver
coils spaced at standard
configurations. The transmitting
coil outputs a primary electromagnetic field, which in turn induces a secondary field
in the ground. The receiving coil measures both the magnitude of the secondary field
and the ratio between the primary and secondary fields (in-phase component).
Quadrature fields (fields that are constructed in a square equal in area to the given
surface) are proportional to ground conductivity, which is sensitive to bulk changes in
the physical character of a rock or rock formation, groundwater or ground
contamination. Metal produces strong secondary fields making the in-phase
component useful for finding buried metal targets.

The EM-31 is attached to the back of the person whom is conducting the survey. They
then walk up and down in straight lines over the area, which is to be surveyed. The
EM-31 then analyses the information and records it. This is then turned into a 2D and
3D diagram to compare the conductivity of the different areas along the running track.

Equipment

EM-31: consists of a transmitter coil mounted at one end and a receiver coil mounted
at the other end of a 12-foot long plastic boom. Electrical conductivity and in-phase
field strength are measured and stored along with line and station numbers in a digital
data logger. The EM-31 can explore to depths of about 5.5 metres, but is most
sensitive to materials at about 0.5 to 1.5 metres below ground surface. Both the
conductivity and in-phase components exhibit characteristic differences over near-
surface metallic conductors. These differences are of a narrow zone having strong
negative amplitude centred over the target and a broader zone of weaker, positive
amplitude on either side of the target.

Applications

The Electromagnetic method is used for the following applications:

o Locate buried tanks and pipes
o Locate pits and trenches containing metallic or non-metallic debris
o Define landfill boundaries
o Define oil production sumps and mud pits
o Map conductive soil and groundwater contamination
o Characterize subsurface hydrogeology
o Map buried channel deposits
o Map geologic structure
o Conduct groundwater exploration
 o Locate conductive fault and fracture zones

Whether or not these tests work is dependent on the conductivity of the materials,
which can be affected by water and the concentration of dissolved electrolytes
Clays and silts typically exhibit higher conductivity values because they contain a
large number of ions. Sands and gravels usually have fewer free ions in a saturated
environment and, therefore, have lower conductivities. Metal objects, display very
high conductivity measurements, which provide an indication of their presence.

Another thing that influences whether this method works is the configuration of the
EM receiver and transmitter coils. The configuration is dependant on the objectives of
the survey. One common configuration for shallow environmental investigations
utilizes transmitter and receiver coils that are attached to the ends of a rigid fiberglass
rod at a fixed distance. The equipment is then moved across the area of investigation.
This configuration is particularly suitable for detection of metal pipes.

There are limitations of EM methods that are primarily a result of the interferences,
typically caused when this method is applied within 1.5 to 6 metres of power lines,
buried metal objects (including rebar), radio transmitters, fences, vehicles, or
buildings.

The success of this method depends upon subsurface conductivity contrasts: the
difference in conductivity between a metal and if surrounding natural or fill material
is adequate for detection.

Bibliography

http://civcal.media.hku.hk/.../ geophys/_hidden/geo1.htm
http://csep1.phy.ornl.gov/sw/node7.html
http://epsc.wustl.edu/classwork/454/pdfs/lecture_phillips_resistivity.pdf
http://hydrate.eas.gatech.edu/sapelo/methods.dir/dcresistivity.html
http://www.amiadini.com/newsletters/environmental-enlightenment-070.html
http://www.cflhd.gov/agm/geoApplications/SurfaceMethods/933ResistivityMethods.h
tm
http://www.chevron.com/learning_center/primer/primer14.shtml
http://www.driller.com/seismographexplained.htm
http://www.geovision.com/electrom.htm
http://www.geovision.com/PDF/M_Seismic.PDF
http://www.geophysical.biz/emeth1.htm
http://www.geophysics.co.uk/ mets3.html
http://www.geosurvey.co.nz/services.html
http://www.geotechnology.com/srefract.htm
http://www.hager-richter.com/resistivity.htm
http://www.hku.hk/science/temp/LSChan/resistivity.pdf
http://www.homeusers.prestel.co.uk/aspen/sussex/georesistivity.html
http://www.mines.edu/fs_home/tboyd/GP311/MODULES/SEIS/NOTES/geophone.ht
ml
http://www.pgc.nrcan.gc.ca/seismo/seismos/intro.htm
http://www.ofite.com/products/Drilling/Resistivity/Resistivity-Meter.htm
http://www.state.nj.us/dep/njgs/geophys/elec.htm
http://www.state.nj.us/dep/njgs/geophys/seis.htm