PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect the Data

Supplemental Notes
Prepared by: Warren F. Bacariza, RN, LPT

Learning Competencies:

The learner:

1. chooses appropriate quantitative research design

2. describe sampling procedures and the sample
3. constructs an instrument and establishes its validity and reliability
4. describes intervention ( if applicable )
5. plans data collection procedure
6.plans data analysis using statistics and hypothesis testing (if appropriate)
7. presents written research methodology
8. implements design principles to produce creative work

research design
- serves as the structure of the study
- gives direction to the study
- makes research more systematized

2 main research designs:

1. Qualitative research design

- done in order to generate new ideas with regards to a certain phenomenon
- statistical analysis and mathematical computations are not used in this type of design

2. Quantitative research design

- uses statistical analysis and mathematical computations
- in order to generate a conclusion

Types of Quantitative Research

1. Survey research
- uses interviews, questionnaires, polls, and other similar instruments in order to gather
data
- instruments
- usually distributed to a random sample in a population to obtain accurate
results

Ways to collect data:

a. in person c. e-mail
b. social media d. on the phone

2. Correlational research
- study the connection between two variables
- possible that there is no direct cause and effect relationship between the variables
3. Causal-comparative research
- verify a suspected cause and effect relationship between variables
- compares the variables but it does not focus on the relationship
4.Experimental research
- based on a formed hypothesis
- aims to prove or disprove the hypothesis

SAMPLING DESIGN

entire population
- nearly impossible to collect data
sample
- used for data collection instead
- small representation of the population being studied

Factors affecting the size and method of sample selection:

a. length of time alloted for doing the research
b. type of research being done
c. characteristics of the population being studied
d. resources available

quantitative studies
- make use of larger sample sizes because it relyon statistics and numbers

sample
- should be chosen randomly
- should be in proportion to the population size
- used in order to make data collection easier and possible to do

Advantages:
a. reduces the cost of research
b. data collection much easier and faster
c. better manipulation and control of data
d. easier to avoid errors
e. easier to analyze data
Disadvantages:
a. could have some biases due to some external factors
b. require the researcher to know about statistics

Selecting sample groups

2 choices when sampling:
a. Probability sampling
- the researcher has complete information and access to the population
b. Non-probability sampling
- the researcher has limited knowledge and/or access to the population
- sometimes use in quantitative studies
- due to limited time and resources
- selecting respondents based on what is convenient for the researcher
- may be purposive sampling
- also known as judgmental, selective, or subjective
sampling
random sampling
- still subjected to few inaccuracies
- since the respondents are chosen by chance and flactuations
can occur
- the reason why significance level/level of significance is use
- the probability of rejecting the null
hypothesis in a statistical test when it is true
Example: .01
- means that there is a 99%
chance of it being true
Steps in hypothesis testing:

1. Specify the hypotheses.

2. Determine the power and sample size for the test.
3. Choose a significance level (also called alpha)
4. Collect the data.
5. Compare the p-value from the test to the significance level.
6. Decide whether to reject or accept the null hypothesis.

Different Probability Sampling Method

1. Random sampling (lottery method)

- every single member of the population has an equal chance to get selected as a
respondent
- requires the researcher to name or number the entire population and select randomly
from them (in a bowl or hat)
- best method of selecting a sample (done in a single step)
- eliminates the bias and it represents the entire population
- hard to do
lottery
- done for small number of members
computer aided random selection
- done for large number of members
2. Startified sampling
- the population is divided into different groups (strata)
- the researchers would take equal number of
people to represent each of the groups
- can be difficult to accomplish
- only possible when:
- researchers know what proportion of the study population belongs to each
group
3. Systematic sampling
- sample members from a larger population are selected according to:
a. random starting point
b. fixed periodic interval
sampling interval
- calculated by dividing population size by the desired sample size
- all of the members of a population are listed and numbered
Example:
Selecting a random group of 100 students from a population of 1,200
students at a school
Sampling interval (fraction)
1200/100 = 12
# of first student
- chosen randomly
Example: by blindly picking 1 out of 12
pieces of paper, numbered 1 to 12;
If number 6 is picked
- then every twelfth student
will be included in the sample
- 6, 18, 30, 42, 54, 66, etc.
4. Cluster sampling
- list of groupings of study units (cluster)
- can be randomly selected
- the selection of group of study units instead of the selection of study units
- may include individual
Clusters
- often:
geographical units
- districts
- villages
organizational units
- clinics
- training groups
Steps in cluster sampling:
1. The researcher selects groups or clusters
2. The researcher selects the individual subjects from each cluster by either:
- simple random
- systematic random sampling
The researcher can even opt to include the entire cluster and not just a
subset from it.
Example: A survey on academic performance of high school students
in the Philippines.
Steps:
1. Divide the entire population (population of Philippines)
into different clusters (cities).
2. The researcher selects a number of clusters
depending on his research through simple or systematic
random sampling.
3. Then, from the selected clusters (randomly selected
cities), the researcher can either include all the high school
students as subjects or he can select a number of subjects
from each cluster through simple or systematic random
sampling.
Important thing to remember in cluster sampling technique:
- give all the clusters equal chances of being selected

Types of Cluster Sample:

1. One-stage Cluster Sample

- the researcher includes all the high school students from all the randomly selected
clusters as sample
2. Two-stage Cluster Sample
- the researcher only selects a number of students from each cluster by using simple
or systematic random sampling

Differences between cluster and stratified sampling

- lies with the inclusion of the cluster or strata
Stratified sampling
- all the strata of the population is sampled
Cluster sampling
- only a number of clusters are selected
- only a number of clusters are sampled

Non-Probability Sampling
- a sampling technique that does not give all the individuals in the population equal
chances of being selected
Subjects are selected on the basis of their:
a. accessibility
b. by the purposive judgment of the researcher
Downside of non-probability sampling:
- unknown proportion of the entire population was not sampled
- may not represent the entire population accurately
Non-Probability Sampling Methods:

1. Convenience sampling
- most common of all sampling methods
- samples are selected because they are accessible to the researcher
- samples are chosen because they are easy to recruit
- easiest, cheapest and least time consuming

2. Consecutive sampling
- very similar to convenience sampling except:
- it includes ALL accessible subjects as part of the sample
- the BEST of all non-probability samples
- it includes ALL subjects that are available
- makes the sample a better representation of the entire
population

3. Quota sampling
- the researcher ensures equal or proportionate representation of subjects depending
on which trait is considered as basis
Example: basis of quota: college year level
Sample size = 100
- The researcher must select 25 1st year students, 25 2nd
year students, 25 3rd year students and 25 4th year students.
Bases of quota:
usually:
- age
- gender
- race
- religion
- socioeconomic status

4. Judgmental sampling
- more commonly known as purposive sampling
- subjects are chosen to be part of the sample
- with a specific purpose in mind
- the researcher believes that some subjects are more fit for the research compared to
other individuals

5. Snowball sampling
- usually done when there is a very small population size
- the researcher asks the initial subject
- to identify another potential subject who also meets the
criteria of the research
 INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT

Quantitative data instruments:

a. surveys
b. polls
c. questionnaire,etc...

Steps:

1. Background
- involves looking into the:
- purpose
- objectives
- research questions
- hypothesis of research
- gives a good idea on what type of data to collect
- helps create a more effective questionnaire

2. Questionnaire Conceptualization
- involves formulating some questions and statements for the questionnaire
- the contents from the framework and the RRL
- converted into questions
- can be used to gather data
- must be in line with the objectives of research

3. Format and Data Analysis

- writing statements and questions
- developing a way to measure and quantify the data that willbe gathered (scales of
measurement)
- creating and formatting the questionnaire
- medium,layout,font style, and font size

4. Establishing Validity
- looking over the draft and making sure that it will be able to measure the data
correctly and properly

Guide questions to make sure that the questionnaire is done correctly (Journal of Extension):
a. Is the questionnaire valid? In other words, is the questionnaire measuring what it
intended to measure?
b. Does it represent the content?
c. Is it appropriate for the sample/population?
d. Is the questionnaire comprehensive enough to collect all the information needed to
address the purpose and goals of the study?
e. Does the instrument look like a questionnaire?
Help improve the readability and validity of the material:
a. Fog Index
b. Flesch Reading Ease
c. Flesch-Kinkais Readability Formula
d. Gunnin-Fog Index

5. Establishing Reliability
- involves making sure that the questionnaire is reliable
- making sure that the questionnaire is accurate and precise in collecting and
measuring the data
- doing pilot test
- giving out the questionnaire to a few people to make sure that it will perform
correctly
 RELIABILITY OF DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT

Reliability
- a measure of the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent results after
repeated trials
Instrument
- considered reliable
- when it can measure a variable accurately and obtain the same results
over a period of time
Cronbachs alpha
- most common measure of reliability
- usually interpreted as the mean of all possible split-half coefficients
Pilot test
- conducted to determine the reliability of research instruments
- instruments are administered to an independent sample
- a sample which is not part of the final
sample but which enjoys the same
characteristics as the study sample
Reliability
- may be estimated through a variety of methods:

1. Single-administration method
- requires only one assessment
- include split-half method
- uses two halves of a measure that is odd and even items as alternative
forms
- involves:
a. administering a test to a selected sample of individuals
b. splitting the test in half (odds and evens)
c. correlating scores on one half of the test with scores on the other half of the test
correlation between the two set of scores
- used to estimate the reliability of the instruments

2. Multiple-Administration method
- includes test-retest method
- involves administration of the instrument twice within a given time interval
(could be after two weeks)
2 sets of scores
- correlated to establish the reliability of the instruments

Cronbachs Alpha Reliability

- coefficient normally ranges between 0 and 1
The closer Cronbachs alpha coefficient is to 1.0
- the greater the reliability of the items in the scale
George and Mallerys Rule of Thumb
- >.9 = excellent
- > .8 = Good
- >.7 = Acceptable
- >.6 = Questionable
- >.5 = Poor
- >.4 = Unacceptable
Example: 30-item questionnaire
- reliability can be establish with the help of SPSS ( Statistical
Package for Social Sciences) - an application that comes in handy in processing
the random subsets of items and in computing the resulting correlations
Steps after coding the 30-item questionnaire ( SPSS version 11.5 ):
1. Analyze
2. Scale
3. Reliability Analysis
4. Select all items and click the arrow button on the right
5. Select alpha
6. Click OK
7. Alpha results will show
Example of the result:
Cronbachs alpha reliability coefficient for a 30-item questionnaire

Reliability - Scale ( Alpha )

Reliability Coefficients

N of cases = 15.0 N of items

Alpha = .7396

Conclusion:
- reliability was computed with the help of SPSS using
Cronbachs alpha for a 30-item questionnaire
- an alpha of .7396 was obtained upon computation
- questionnaires accepted as reliable
Tips in Instrument Development:
1. Determine the purpose
2. Decide what you are measuring
3. Know your respondents
4. Choose a collecting method

DATA COLLECTION

quantitative data
- can be collected using a number of different methods and from a variety of sources

2 types of data

1. Primary data
- also known as first hand data
- data were collected directly from the sources and are the original data

2. Secondary data
- those which have been collected by someone else and have been passed through
statistical processes

Survey
- the most common method of gathering data, diagnosing and solving of social problems in
quantitative studies
- captures information through the input of responses to a research instrument
containing questions ( example: questionnaire )
- can be:
a. input either by the respondents themselves
Example: complete online survey
b. the researcher can input the data
Example: phone survey, mall intercept
Main methods for distributing surveys:
a. postal mail
b. phone
c. website
d. in person

DATA ANALYSIS

- a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the goal of:
- underlining essential information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting
decision making
- it is the process which follows after data collection

Steps involved in analyzing quantitative data:

1. Data Cleaning
- done to remove ambiguous elements

content analysis
- applied to capture information from the open-ended questions which are also subject
to quantification in a quantitative research

2. Data Coding
- refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers
- so that responses can be put into a limited number of
categories
- a vital step where the collected data is translated into values suitable for computer entry
and statistical analysis

variables
- created from data to simplify the analysis
- meant to summarize and reduce data, attempting to represent the essential
information

Spreadsheets ( Excel ) applications which help the process of data

Statistical Packages ( SAS & SPSS ) coding and analysis

3. Data Presentation
tables and figures
- used to summarize the coded data
spreadsheets and advanced statistical packages
- functions are provided within the program
- summarize data into either tables or figures
quantitative data
- summarized in order to help the process of data presentation
- involves the use of descriptive statistics
such as:
a. frequencies
b. percentages
c. means
d. standard deviation
- also presented using inferential
statistics such as:
a. t-tests
b. Analysis of Variance
c. Multiple Analysis of Variance
d. Regression
e. factor analysis
4. Data Interpretation and Discussion
- follow once the data is presented
Data interpretation
- involves the provision of comments on the results obtained from the investigation
- done based on the key findings of the study
- requires deep understanding of literature and issues under investigation
- must be within the framework of what the data analyzed, suggests and not an
exaggeration
- should be done in context and supported by literature

Guidelines in writing research methodology: ( flow )

a. Describing the samples/participants
b. Describing the materials you used in the study
c. Explaining how you prepared the materials
d. Describing the research design
e. Explaining how you made measurements and what calculations you performed.
f. Stating which statistical tests you did to analyze the data