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Precambrian Research 160 (2008) 108126

Rodinia descendants in South America

Reinhardt A. Fuck a, , Benjamim Bley Brito Neves b , Carlos Schobbenhaus c
a Instituto de Geociencias, Universidade de Braslia, 70910-900 Braslia, Brazil
b Instituto de Geociencias, Universidade de Sao Paulo, 05508-080 Sao Paulo, Brazil
c Servico Geologico do Brasil-CPRM, 70830-030 Braslia, Brazil

Received 5 December 2006; received in revised form 10 January 2007; accepted 23 April 2007

Abstract
Geological structures and Precambrian rock units thought to be related to Rodinia Supercontinent evolution were recognized in three main
domains of South America: (i) Mesoproterozoic fold belts ca. 1.51.1 Ga old and corresponding foreland cover successions and coeval cratonic
intrusions exposed in the southwestern portion of the Amazonian Craton make up the most complete and best preserved record of interpreted
Rodinia amalgamation in South America. Recently obtained paleomagnetic data place this part of the Amazonian Craton close to the southernmost
segment of Laurentias Grenville margin. Inferred collision of both continents is reflected in the Nova Brasilandia and Aguape-Sunsas fold belts,
as well as in the Llano Uplift area. (ii) In eastern South America small crustal fragments of inferred Rodinia ascent were variably reworked during
Neoproterozoic Brasiliano orogenic events, rendering it difficult to recognize and map Meso-Neoproterozoic (Grenvillian) mobile belts. So far,
the best candidates to represent possible fragments of such mobile belts were recognized in the Punta del Este, Uruguay, terrain, in the Serra do
Itaberaba, Sao Paulo, eastern Brazil area and in the Cariris Velhos, northeastern Brazil area. (iii) The third domain comprises a number of scattered
basement exposures within the Andean Cordillera, from Venezuela and Colombia (Guajira, Santa Marta) in the north to northwest Argentina
(Pampia, Arequipa-Antofalla) in southern South America. Although deeply reworked and fragmentary in exposure, these basement inliers seem
to represent the largest litho-structural record of the Meso-Neoproterozoic orogenic collage in South America, apparently making up the western
border of the South American Platform.
2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: South America; Rodinia; Meso-Neoproterozoic orogenic collage; Neoproterozoic break-up

1. Introduction
There are many problems in recognizing crust fragments
which took part in Rodinia Supercontinent amalgamation and,
later on, after break-up and dispersal, ended up as part of South
America. Two stand out as the most relevant: (i) the identifi-
cation of direct descendant segments of Rodinia fragmentation,
rearranged within the Gondwana framework and (ii) the iden-
tification of Mesoproterozoic mobile belts which took part in
the net of orogenic belts that accomplished the amalgamation of
Rodinia Supercontinent (Fig. 1).
Major exposed blocks of South American shield areas, such
as the Amazonian, Sao Francisco, and Rio de la Plata cratons,
were recognized early on as possible Rodinia descendants and
regarded as such by most authors of Rodinia reconstruction mod-
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: reinhardt@unb.br (R.A. Fuck), bbleybn@usp.br
(B.B. Brito Neves), schobben@df.cprm.gov.br (C. Schobbenhaus).
els (Hoffman, 1991; Moores, 1991; Unrug, 1996; Dalziel, 1997,
2001). However, a number of smaller continental blocks of dif-
ferent geological and geographical origins and environments,
like the Sao Lus and Lus Alves cratonic fragments, the Rio
Apa block, as well as reworked segments, such as Goias, Granja
and Guanhaes massifs, have not been considered in the classic
Rodinia reconstruction models of the last decade.
In addition, there are several large crustal blocks hidden
beneath large sedimentary basins, like the Paranapanema and
Parnaba blocks, concealed underneath the Phanerozoic Parana
and Parnaba basins, respectively, which are also absent in all
Rodinia reconstructions. Therefore, it is rather difficult or even
impossible to reach the goal of a reliable map of Rodinia, if a
large number of its descendant fragments are not included in the
reconstructions.
A major part of Mesoproterozoic mobile belts was deeply
regenerated within the Andean Cordillera, either within the
Andean zone itself, like the basement windows in the north-
ern part of the Andean Chain, or within pre-Andean domains
(Aleman and Ramos, 2000; Ramos and Aleman, 2000; Ramos,

0301-9268/$ see front matter 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.018
 R.A. Fuck et al. / Precambrian Research 160 (2008) 108126 109

Fig. 1. Sketch map of Rodinia in South America. (1) Archean rocks (>2500 Ma); Paleoproterozoic orogenic belts: (2) (22002000 Ma), (3) (20001800 Ma), (4)
(18001600 Ma); (5) Passive margin deposits (1100900 Ma); Intracratonic basin deposits: (6) (16001300 Ma), (7) (13001100 Ma), 8. (1100900 Ma); (9) Rift
related rocks (900700); Oceanic arc related rocks: (10) (16001300 Ma), (11) (900700 Ma); (12) Continental arc related rocks (1100900 Ma); (13) AMCG suite
rocks (16001300 Ma); (14) High grade metamorphic rocks of uncertain tectonic setting (13001100 Ma).

2004, 2005), as, for instance, in the Pampean domain, in central
Argentina. Only rather small fractions of Mesoproterozoic belts
were preserved within the stable domains of the South Ameri-
can Platform, and many of them were partially or even totally
reworked within Neoproterozoic Brasiliano orogens.
Here we present a more complete picture of crustal masses
making up South America, which, to the best of our knowledge,
and based on available geologic, geophysical, and geochrono-
logical data, took part in the amalgamation and demise of
Rodinia. In our compilation, the most recent geological maps
of South America were used, among others the Geological Map
of South America (Schobbenhaus and Bellizzia, 2001), the new
1:2,500,000 geological map of Brazil (Bizzi et al., 2001), and the
recently released complete set of 1:1,000,000 geological sheets
of the whole of Brazilian territory (Schobbenhaus et al., 2004),
as well as a series of recently published papers in different inter-
national and national magazines. Geophysical data provided by
Petrobras, CPRM, and Universidade de Sao Paulo (Instituto de
Astronomia, Geofsica e Ciencias Atmosfericas) were also used.
Aside from that, many colleagues from Brazil and South Amer-
ica helped us out with valuable information and important recent
references.
2. Descendant blocks of Rodinia break-up and dispersal
Before discussing the case of Rodinia break-up and dispersal,
it is useful to recollecting dispersal of Pangea, and the complex
geographical and geological picture emerging from the long,
110 R.A. Fuck et al. / Precambrian Research 160 (2008) 108126

discontinuous and diachronous process of its break-up and dis-
persal after the Triassic. A complex framework of continental
blocks and fragments of varied size resulted from the pro-
cess, including many small pieces, identified as microcontinents,
microplates, terranes, etc., which subsequently may have been
involved in the development of accretionary and collisional oro-
genic belts.
Detailed analysis of the history of Western Gondwana also
reveals that it comprises a complex arrangement of a great diver-
sity of large, intermediate, and small crustal segments, including
basement inliers, crust slices, terranes, tectonic highs, etc., in the
internal and external zones (cratons, quasi-cratons, massifs, etc.)
of the Neoproterozoic Brasiliano and Pan-African fold belts,
many of which include descendant fragments from Rodinia.
Different assemblages of Neoproterozoic blocks can be put
together, such as that of Fig. 2, a cartoon from Almeida et
al. (2000) or those from Brito Neves et al. (1999). These car-
toons display presumed paleogeographic arrangements before
the Brasiliano orogeny and after amalgamation of Gondwana,
respectively. Due to possible omissions and mistakes, these car-
toons have to be seen as what they actually are, and not as graphic
models.
Similarly break-up of Rodinia and dispersal of the resul-
tant fragments is translated in large descendants, as well as
several of intermediate dimensions, which are in general rec-
ognized as such and included in attempted reconstitutions of
the former supercontinent. However, there are also a large
number of smaller pieces, often forgotten in supercontinent
reconstructions, hampering cartographic representation, model
elaboration, and the better understanding of geological history.
Many times these smaller pieces of former supercontinents are
even ignored because they are not known in the international
literature.
Behavior of the smaller fragments in subsequent Neopro-
terozoic and Phanerozoic orogenic events is often inversely
proportional to their size, corroborating Coward and Ries

Fig. 2. Cartoon showing Neoproterozoic (post-Tonian, pre-Ediacaran) paleogeography. Rodinia descendant fragments are indicated, as well as possible ocean
domains. (1) Neoproterozoic blocks (plates, microplates, microcontinents, terranes); Brasiliano Neoproterozoic fold belts and rock associations: (2) marginal fold
belts QPC; (3) volcano-sedimentary belts, BVAC, greenstone >QPC; (4) ophiolitic remnants; (5) magmatic arcs; (6) covered and unknown areas (from Almeida et
al., 2000).
 R.A. Fuck et al. / Precambrian Research 160 (2008) 108126
Fig. 3. Tectonic sketch of the Paranapanema Block, basement of the Parana
Basin, inferred from geophysical surveys and subsurface data: GM, Goias mas-
sif; SFC, Sao Francisco Craton (from Quintas, 1995; Mantovani and Brito Neves,
2005).
(1986) statements on colliding blocks in general. Smaller blocks
were more deeply affected and reworked during Neoproterozoic
and Phanerozoic orogenies. The same is true for most of the crust
fragments involved in slightly older thermal events, such as the
Grenvillian and Cariris Velhos blocks. They may be thoroughly
reworked in younger Neoproterozoic orogenic events due to their
relatively hotter state. As a result, the previous geological his-
tory of such crustal blocks is frequently hard to be recognized
and recovered.
Blocks underlying the large Paleozoic basins (e.g., Parana-
panema, Fig. 3, Parnaba, Fig. 4) have been ignored in all
reconstructions of Rodinia. Similarly, crustal blocks more or less
deeply reworked during Neoproterozoic orogenies (e.g., Goias
and Pernambuco-Alagoas massifs, Rio Grande do Norte ter-
rane), as well as the regenerated blocks within the Andean Chain
(e.g., Arequipa/Antofalla, Pampia) have been left out in practi-
cally all reconstitution schemes of Rodinia. However, some of
these forgotten blocks are as large and as important as those
considered in classic reconstructions. Recent compilations give
a good idea of the plurality of these blocks and their importance
in fits of the real world, in contrast to the classic reconstitution
of Rodinia and Gondwana (Almeida et al., 2000; Brito Neves,
2003).
In the case of South America, usually only the Amazonian,
Sao Francisco, and Rio de la Plata blocks were recorded in
Rodinia fits of the last decade. Paranapanema (Fig. 3), Parnaba
(Fig. 4), and many other blocks of intermediate and small sizes
should be included in future fits, as we have tried to do during
our mission along the IGCP 440 project. The same holds true for
Africa, where again only the larger blocks have been considered.
On the other hand, in most Rodinia reconstructions the blocks
were included in schematic fits with their present geographic
111
Fig. 4. Tectonic sketch of the Parnaba Basin basement inferred from geo-
physical survey (adapted from Nunes, 1993). Legend: (1) Gurupi belt; (2)
Araguaia belt; (3) Borborema Province; (4) Granja Massif; (5) Goias Massif;
(6) Sao Lus-W Africa Craton; (7) Sao Francisco Craton; (8) Parnaba block;
(9) Cambro-Ordovician rift structures; (10) Neoproterozoic rift structures (?).
forms, without taking into consideration regenerated portions,
accretionary and collisional additions, as well as many kinds of
lateral accretion as a whole, resulting from Neoproterozoic or
even younger orogenies. An additional problem is the fact that
all blocks are considered as simple monolithic entities, with-
out taking into account the nature of their crust, their thickness,
their thermo-tectonic condition (thermal age) and rheology, the
nature of their margins, the part they played during orogeny,
etc.
3. Andean basement
A number of windows with basement exposures and base-
ment inliers are known for some time within the Andean
Cordillera and pre-Andean areas (see Dalla Salda and Dalziel,
1993; Aleman and Ramos, 2000; Ramos and Aleman, 2000;
Ramos, 2005 and references therein). Available age determina-
tions place them in the late Mesoproterozoic (e.g., Kroonenberg,
1982; Restrepo and Toussaint, 1988). One common feature of
these basement exposures is the Grenville signature, based
on Nd-isotope data (Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997) and Pb-isotope
composition (Ruiz et al., 1999). Robust U-Pb age data obtained
in recent years support the interpretation that Mesoproterozoic
crust forming and high-grade metamorphic events prevailed
in these basement remnants (Cordani et al., 2005; Cardona et
al., 2006; Jimenez-Meja et al., 2006; Ordonez-Carmona et al.,
2006). This fact has been used to support the SWEAT hypothe-
sis (Moores, 1991), suggesting that Laurentia was placed to the
west of Gondwana until early Phanerozoic times (Moores, 1991;
Tosdal, 1996; Ramos and Basei, 1997; Cordani et al., 2005).
112 R.A. Fuck et al. / Precambrian Research 160 (2008) 108126

Fig. 5. Tectonic setting of the Colombian Andes with accreted terranes and windows of basement exposures, most of which with late Mesoproterozoic age indications.
Adapted from Kroonenberg (1982), Restrepo and Toussaint (1988), Aleman and Ramos (2000), Cordani et al. (2005) and Ordonez-Carmona et al. (2006).

However, these could be crust fragments of Laurentia affinity,
not Laurentia itself, since, in the absence of paleomagnetic data,
it is hard to be sure. Plate velocities calculations underline the
great difficulty in admitting that Laurentia circumscribed Gond-
wana to the west. On the other hand, it has to be stressed that
these basement rocks have undergone a complex tectonic history.
Displacement rates are generally unknown and they may have
been involved in more than one Phanerozoic orogeny (Hercinian,
Andean, etc.) and even in pre-Phanerozoic orogenies, like the
late Neoproterozoic Brasiliano orogeny.
In the northernmost Andean Chain around 16 basement
exposures are known in the Eastern and Western cordilleras
(Kroonenberg, 1982; Restrepo and Toussaint, 1988; Aleman
and Ramos, 2000; Ramos and Aleman, 2000; Cordani et al.,
2005; Cardona et al., 2006; Jimenez-Meja et al., 2006; Ordonez-
Carmona et al., 2006). They appear to the west of 70 W, as well
as to the west of the inferred limit of the Amazonian Craton
(Fig. 5). It is believed that the Mesoproterozoic rocks of the
Andaqu terrane remained attached to the Amazonian Craton
after the Grenville orogeny, whereas other areas grouped in the
Chibcha terrane, although formed during the Grenville orogeny,
remained either as part of another continental block or as dis-
persed islands amalgamated to the Amazonian Craton during
a Paleozoic orogeny (Ordonez-Carmona et al., 2006). In any
event, the picture may have been much more complicated, when
it is recalled that Avalonian blocks that seem to have been part
of South America in Rodinia ended up in eastern North Amer-
ica (e.g., Mallard and Rogers, 1997). In our reconstitution these
fragments from the Garzon Massif to Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta and the Guajira Peninsula are interpreted as possible
continuation of the Mesoproterozoic domain of the Amazonian
Craton (Fig. 1).
 R.A. Fuck et al. / Precambrian Research 160 (2008) 108126 113

In the area of Arequipa-Antofalla, in the central Andes,
south of Lima, two groups of reworked basement exposures
have been identified (Ramos and Vujovich, 1993; Tosdal, 1996).
One of these groups comprises about 15 basement exposures
belonging to the Arequipa-Antofalla block, a presumed cra-
ton/plate during Neoproterozoic collage (e.g., Arequipa, Belen,
Choja, Limon Verde, Antofalla, etc., approximately between 15
and 28 S). It is believed that they are part of a larger block,
which interacted with the Pampia block in late Neoprotero-
zoic, giving birth to the western Pampean belt. Geological and
geochronological data (Tosdal, 1996) have confirmed that the
Arequipa-Antofalla block is a fragment of a Mesoproterozoic
Grenvillian orogenic belt, whose interaction with the Pampia
craton during the Neoproterozoic Brasiliano orogeny led to the
western Pampean belt, and with the South American platform
during the Hercinian orogeny gave birth to the Famatinian belt.
Recent work defined three crustal domains in the Arequipa-
Antofalla basement (Loewy et al., 2004): the northern domain
contains juvenile Paleoproterozoic intrusions metamorphosed
at 1.821.79 Ga; the central domain contains a Mesoprotero-
zoic juvenile component, incorporating crust from the northern
domain, and both domains were metamorphosed between 1.2
and 0.94 Ga; the southern domain comprises Ordovician rocks.
According to Loewy et al. (2004), Arequipa-Antofalla accreted
onto Amazonia during the 1.0 Sunsas Orogeny (Fig. 6).
The other group of basement exposures refers to the Pampia
Craton (Fig. 6), proposed by Ramos and Vujovich (1993). It
is interpreted as the remnant of a Neoproterozoic plate, placed
between Arequipa-Antofalla and Rio de la Plata cratons, and
separated from the Amazonian Craton by the inferred Sucre

Fig. 6. Sketch map of northern Argentina and of neighboring countries displaying Proterozoic cratons, and Neoproterozoic mobile belts that resulted from their
interaction (adapted from Ramos and Vujovich, 1993).
114 R.A. Fuck et al. / Precambrian Research 160 (2008) 108126

triple junction (Ramos and Vujovich, 1993). Existence of the
Pampia block is well constrained by geological data from the
western and eastern Pampean belts, the latter represented by
the Neoproterozoic Cordoba magmatic arc. New geological and
geochronological data (Ramos and Basei, 1997) suggest that
Pampia comprises an assemblage of juvenile island arc materi-
als, supporting the hypothesis that it is an important late Meso-
proterozoic fragment, and probably was part of the Grenvillian
orogenic amalgamation. Its collision with the Rio de la Plata Cra-
ton is constrained to ca. 530 Ma (Leal et al., 2003). Largely cov-
ered by Phanerozoic deposits, the Pampia block was generally
ignored in all Rodinia reconstructions up to the present (Fig. 6).
4. The western domain of Amazonia
In northern South America, a supposed continuation of Lau-
rentia, appears the best geologic and geochronologic record
of what is believed to be the result of Rodinia amalgamation
of possible remnants from the break up of a previous super-
continent (Nena, Gower, 1992; Columbia, Rogers and Santosh,
2002). Resultant structures are well exposed in the southwestern
part of the Amazonian Craton, in Rondonia and Mato Grosso,
Brazil, and in Bolivia. The Amazonian Craton displays a notori-
ous chelogenic disposition, building up from the seed Archean
core, the Central Amazonia Province. To the northeast it is
surrounded by the Paleoproterozoic Transamazonian Maroni-
Itacaiunas Province. To the southwest, the Archean core is
limited by the ca. 1.852.0 Ga Ventuari-Tapajos Province, which
farther SW is followed by the ca. 1.551.8 Ga Rio Negro-Juruena
Province (Tassinari and Macambira, 1999, 2004; Tassinari et al.,
2000). Younger Mesoproterozoic additions (Fig. 7), recording
several orogenic events, occur to the southwest (Rizzotto, 1999;
Scandolara et al., 1999; Santos et al., 2000; Geraldes et al., 2001;
Payolla et al., 2002):
(i) Cachoeirinha accretionary event 1.51.55 Ga;
(ii) Santa Helena accretionary event 1.421.45 Ga;
(iii) Rondonia and San Ignacio collisional event 1.31.35 Ga;
(iv) Nova Brasilandia and Sunsas accretionary and collisional
events 1.01.1 Ga.
It is worth recalling that similar events and ages are well
known from North America, reinforcing the notion of a previ-
ous Laurentia-Amazonia link, as conveyed in a recent correlation
exercise by Van Schmus (2001). Another important feature in
southwestern Amazonia is the presence of post-Rodinia sed-

Fig. 7. Geologic map of the SW part of the Amazonian Craton. (1) Cenozoic cover; (2) Paleo-Mesozoic cover; (3) Neoproterozoic fold belt; (4) Meso-Neoproterozoic
basins (1.00.97 Ga); (5) Rondonia (Younger Granites), Costa Marques and Guape granite suites (1.00.91 Ga); (6) Santa Clara and Rio Pardo granite suites
(1.081.0 Ga): (7) Nova Floresta basalt and gabbro (1.2 Ga); (8) Aguape/Sunsas groups; (9) Nova Brasilandia belt; (10) Santa Helena granitoid suite (1.421.48 Ga);
(11) Cachoeirinha granitoid suite (1.581.52 Ga); (12) undifferentiated granite suites and basement units (1.81.3 Ga). Modified from Geraldes et al. (2001), Bizzi
et al. (2001), Tohver et al. (2002), Rizzotto et al. (2004a,b), Boger et al. (2005). Provinces sketchmap after Tassinari and Macambira (1999). A: Ariquemes; J: Jauru;
GM: Guajara Mirim.
 R.A. Fuck et al. / Precambrian Research 160 (2008) 108126
imentary covers, the so-called Palmeiral stage (Brito Neves,
2002; Tohver et al., 2002). These covers appear to have been
laid down in a large basin at the end of the Mesoproterozoic,
following the Nova Brasilandia accretion and collision event
(Rizzotto, 1999). They have been disrupted subsequently, dur-
ing Tonian taphrogenesis. Resultant graben, e.g. Sao Lourenco,
Pacaas Novos, Uopiones, etc., are witness to the ensuing conti-
nental break-up process, associated with intraplate anorogenic
granite magmatism (e.g., Santa Clara and Costa Marques granite
suites, Rondonia Younger Granites), which mark the transition
from Mesoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic times. In other words,
besides being the most complete geological record of Rodinia
agglutination in South America, the western domain of the Ama-
zonian Craton displays also the best record of its break-up (Brito
Neves, 2002).
5. Central and Eastern Brazil
Geological records of Mesoproterozoic age in central Brazil
are scarce. Earlier assumptions of a Mesoproterozoic orogenic
event, the Uruacuano orogeny (Almeida et al., 1976, 1981),
Fig. 8. Geologic sketch map of the Braslia belt related units after Pimentel et al. (2000).
115
based mainly on poorly constrained RbSr isotopic data, were
proved wrong. Available data indicate that the western bor-
der of the Sao Francisco Craton was a passive margin, facing
a large ocean basin in early Neoproterozoic times. The origi-
nal sedimentary pile is now part of the Braslia Belt, formed
during the Late Neoproterozoic Brasiliano collage. Opening of
the former basin is not well constrained, but its closure was
under way ca. 900 Ma (Pimentel and Fuck, 1992a,b; Pimentel
et al., 2000). The core of the Braslia Belt includes an appar-
ently allochtonous older crust fragment, the Goias Massif, of
unknown provenance. It comprises Archean granite-greenstone
terrains in the south and Paleoproterozoic orthogneiss basement
in the north, covered by folded younger Proterozoic supracrustal
rocks (Fig. 8). The eastern margin of the Goias massif is marked
by large mafic-ultramafic layered complexes and associated
volcanic-sedimentary sequences. Detailed geologic, geochemi-
cal, and isotopic data have shown that the upper layered series of
the layered complexes of Cana Brava, Niquelandia, and Barro
Alto, and volcanic-sedimentary sequences of Palmeiropolis,
Indaianopolis, and Juscelandia, dated at 12501280 Ma, are the
product of continental rifting processes that transition to open-
116 R.A. Fuck et al. / Precambrian Research 160 (2008) 108126

ing of ocean basins (Moraes et al., 2003, 2006; Pimentel et al.,
2003, 2004). Break-up events at ca. 800 Ma are also recorded in
this area, represented by the lower layered series of Cana Brava,
Niquelandia and Barro Alto complexes (Pimentel et al., 2004).
Within the Sao Francisco Craton (Fig. 9) Mesoproterozoic
events are poorly known, mainly because reliable age determina-
tions are lacking. Infilling of the precursor basin of the Espinhaco
range started around 1750 Ma (Schobbenhaus et al., 1996), but
later developments are poorly constrained. Despite the presence
of intrusive and volcanic rocks within the Espinhaco Super-
group sedimentary pile, reliable ages are scarce (Brito Neves
and Alckmim, 1993). The Brotas de Macaubas gabbro sill within
the Mangabeira Formation, Paraguacu Group, was dated at ca.
1500 Ma (Babinski et al., 1999). RbSr age determination of phl-
ogopite from kimberlite intruded at the base of the Tombador
Formation, Chapada Diamantina Group, sets a maximum age
of ca. 1150 Ma (Pereira and Fuck, 2005) for the deposition of
this formation. Closing of the basin infilling between 1200 and
1100 Ma is based on poorly constrained RbSr age determina-
tions (Babinski et al., 1999).
Folding of the Espinhaco Supergroup before the Neoprotero-
zoic Brasiliano orogeny is controversial (Brito Neves, 2003).
However, the foreland fold-and-thrust belt recorded in Irece
basin (Fig. 9) in the central-northern part of the Sao Francisco
Craton is characterized by EW structures, approximately at
right angles with NNW-SSE folding observed in the underlying
Espinhaco strata, suggesting a unconformity (Romeiro Cesar
and Zalan, 2005). Unconformity relations are less clear within
the Espinhaco range in Minas Gerais. Mafic intrusions, which
cut through the Espinhaco Supergroup, but not the overlying

Fig. 9. Intracratonic basin related units of the Chapada Diamantina plateau, E Brazil: (1) Neogene sediments; (2) Cryogenian Una Gr./carbonate rocks, pelite,
diamictite; (3) Probably Stenian (1.21.1 Ga) Chapada Diamantina Gr./diamond bearing conglomerate, quartzite, pelite; (4) Kimberlite (1.15 Ga); (5) Basic
intrusive (1.5 Ga); (6) Espinhaco Supergr./Paraguacu Gr./conglomerate, quartzite, pelite; (7) Espinhaco Supergr./Rio dos Remedios Gr./felsic volcanics, quartzite
(1.75 Ga); (8) Basement rocks (>1.8 Ga); (9) Thrust fault. Adapted from Schobbenhaus (1993); kimberlite age from Pereira and Fuck (2005). BM: Brotas de Macaubas,
RC: Rio de Contas.
 R.A. Fuck et al. / Precambrian Research 160 (2008) 108126
Neoproterozoic Jequita glacial deposits and Bambui Group
carbonates, were dated at ca. 900 Ma (Machado et al., 1989),
indicating a ca. 200 Ma gap between both sequences. However,
in this area all structures became parallel during the Brasiliano
orogeny, and the suggestion of a previous Espinhaco defor-
mation and its origin became the core of much debate and
controversy.
6. Meso-Neoproterozoic events recorded in the
basement of the Brasiliano collage
The South American platform is the product of the Neopro-
terozoic Brasiliano collage (Brito Neves and Cordani, 1991;
Almeida et al., 2000). Apart from very few exceptions, base-
ment rocks of the Brasiliano mobile belts were deeply reworked
during Neoproterozoic folding, metamorphism, melting and
magmatism events. Because of this, the South American plat-
form has been divided schematically in two major domains: the
Brasiliano domain includes the central and central-eastern parts
of the platform, whereas the pre-Brasiliano domain comprises
the northwestern (Amazonian craton) portion of the platform
(Brito Neves, 1991). This explains why Mesoproterozoic rock
units and structures are well preserved in Bolivia, Rondonia
and Mato Grosso, whereas they are hard to find and to charac-
terize within the Brasiliano domain, where reworking occurred
frequently deep within the crust. The largest reworked Mesopro-
terozoic remnants were found in the Borborema Province, and
in the Mantiqueira Province, mainly in the Ribeira river valley
and in Uruguay. We suggest that these findings do not repre-
sent everything there is. Bearing in mind that Mesoproterozoic
remnants have younger thermal ages, therefore being prone to
regeneration during the following Brasiliano collage, according
to the Coward and Ries (1986) statement, other Mesoprotero-
zoic rock units were not detected up to now probably due to their
regeneration.
Fig. 10. Transversal Domain of central Borborema Province singling out the Alto Pajeu Terrane and Cariris Velhos Ortogneiss in NE Brazil. Terranes: RGN,
Rio Grande do Norte: SJC, Sao Jose Caiano; PB, Pianco-Alto Brgida; RG, Riacho Gravata; AP, Alto Pajeu; AM, Alto Moxoto; RC, Rio Capibaribe; PEAL,
Pernambuco-Alagoas (Brito Neves et al., 2000).
117
6.1. Borborema provinceCariris Velhos orogeny
The Borborema Province, in the northeast of South Amer-
ica, is a typical branched system of orogens of the ca. 600 Ma
Brasiliano (Pan African) collage. Related deformation, meta-
morphism, melting, and especially the widespread granite
plutonism, are factors for obscuring previous Meso- and Neo-
proterozoic events.
The basement of the province is the product of three major
Paleoproterozoic orogenic events, which took place at ca. 2.35,
2.15, and 2.0 Ga (Fetter et al., 2000; Brito Neves et al., 2000).
These events are accounted as part of the Paleoproterozoic
collage, which admittedly led to the hypothetical Atlantica
Supercontinent (Rogers, 1996), or the more recently proposed
Columbia Supercontinent (Rogers and Santosh, 2002, 2004).
Incipient break-up and formation of extensional basins occurred
subsequently during the Statherian, between 1.8 and 1.6 Ga, like
the precursor basin of the Oros-Jaguaribe belt (Brito Neves et
al., 1995a,b).
Evidence for extension and fragmentation of the basement,
leading to the formation of different crust segments, is recorded
in the central part of the Borborema Province, within the so
called Transversal Domain, limited to the north by the Patos
lineament, and to the south by the Pernambuco lineament. The
northern crust segment (Rio Grande do Norte terrane) and the
southern segment (Sao Francisco Craton) have preserved most
of their Paleoproterozoic framework (Brito Neves, 2005). In the
intermediate central domain or transversal zone, between two
major lineaments, important continental and oceanic volcanic-
sedimentary basins were developed during the Mesoproterozoic.
An apparently complete Wilson cycle was developed in the area,
ending with ocean closure ca. 0.97 Ga, during the Cariris Velho
orogeny (Brito Neves et al., 2000, 2005). These rocks were com-
pletely reset and intruded by numerous granite bodies during
the Brasiliano collage. The Cariris Velhos orogenic system is
118 R.A. Fuck et al. / Precambrian Research 160 (2008) 108126
presently represented by a ca. 800 km long, WSW-ENE trending,
linear belt, marked by hundreds of granite intrusions of different
size and shape (Fig. 10). In this belt, exposed diagonally across
the Transversal Domain, late Mesoproterozoic-early Neopro-
terozoic arc-related granites intrude Paleoproterozoic basement,
as well as late Mesoproterozoic metavolcanic and metasedimen-
tary rocks of the Alto Pajeu and Riacho Gravata terranes (Santos
et al., 1997a,b). Alto Pajeu is mainly made of orthogneiss and
migmatized schist and paragneiss, representing metagreywacke
and associated felsic and intermediate metavolcanic rocks. Ria-
cho Gravata comprises mainly felsic metavolcanics (60% or
more) associated to psamitic and pelitic metasedimentary rocks,
as well as mafic volcanics and occasional ultramafic rocks
(Santos et al., 1997a,b; Brito Neves et al., 2000, 2005). South-
eastwards from the Alto Pajeu is a Paleoproterozoic remnant
hundreds of kilometers long (>20,000 km2 ), the Alto Moxoto
terrane, comprising Paleoproterozoic orthogneiss and alumi-
nous metapelite, deeply reworked and restructured during the
Brasiliano collage, with a few late Neoproterozoic granite intru-
sions. Similar large blocks as yet not recognized, reset and
reworked during the Neoproterozoic orogeny, are probably
present within the Brasiliano collage.
A very complex crustal fragment, the Pernambuco-Alagoas
massif, is exposed southwards of the Pernambuco lineament. It
comprises at least two Archean nuclei, surrounded by fragments
of Paleoproterozoic belts and remnants of late Mesoproterozoic-
early Neoproterozoic orthogneiss (Brito Neves et al., 2000; Silva
Filho et al., 2002). Tens of large granite batholiths intrude the
orthogneiss complexes. A few are of Mesoproterozoic age, but
most are Neoproterozoic in age, including a few arc-related
intrusions to the south and southeast of the Pernambuco-Alagoas
massif.
Late Mesoproterozoic-early Neoproterozoic metamorphosed
supracrustal sequences and granite intrusions are exposed also
within the Brasiliano Riacho do Pontal Belt bordering the Sao
Francisco Craton westward of the Pernambuco-Alagoas massif.
6.2. Mantiqueira Province
The Mantiqueira Province is a complex Brasiliano orogenic
system, extending from southern Bahia, east Brazil to southern
Uruguay. The northernmost part of the province is made of the
Aracua Belt, developed at the margin of the Sao Francisco Cra-
ton. Reworked Archean terrains of the Gouveia and Guanhaes
blocks appear to be fragments of the nearby Sao Francisco Cra-
ton (Pedrosa Soares and Wiedemann-Leonardos, 2000; Heilbron
et al., 2004). Adjacent reworked Paleoproterozoic orthogneiss
(Porteirinha and Mantiqueira complexes) and granulite (Juiz de
Fora Complex) have been interpreted as possible fragments of
a large Paleoproterozoic belt, partially preserved within the Sao
Francisco Craton in Bahia and Minas Gerais.
Further south, close to the city of Sao Paulo, metamorphosed
andesite from the Serra do Itaberaba Group (Fig. 11) within
the Ribeira Belt has been dated at 1395 10 Ma (U-Pb zircon,
Juliani et al., 2000). The basal part of this group comprises
MORB-type mafic metavolcanic rocks, including pillowed
basalts, hyaloclastite, volcaniclastic rocks, rhyolite, andesite,
tuff, metapelite, and banded iron formation. Widespread pre-
metamorphic hydrothermal alteration has been recorded (Juliani
et al., 2000). The upper units of the sequence include Mn- and Fe-
rich metapelite, carbonate rocks, tuff, felsic volcanics, capped by
a large unit of quartzite and arkose. The sequence is interpreted
as having been laid down in an ocean basin environment, ini-
tially related to a mid-ocean ridge, with the later units associated
with ocean closure.
Southwards the Neoproterozoic Ribeira Belt includes other
stratigraphic units which also contain mafic rocks of Mesopro-
terozoic age (Fig. 11). Mafic volcanic rocks, dikes and sills
within the Agua Clara and Votuverava formations and the Perau
Complex have ca. 1.48 Ga U-Pb zircon ages (Weber et al., 2004;
Basei et al., submitted). According to the authors, these rocks
display T-MORB geochemical signature and were formed in
extensional environments. To the south the Mesoproterozoic
units are abutted against the Curitiba Massif (Fig. 11), which
comprises ca. 2.1 Ga migmatized orthogneiss and amphibolite
intruded by ca. 1.8 Ga igneous rocks deeply reworked during
the Brasiliano collage, especially along the Lancinha fault zone
(Basei et al., 2000). The Curitiba Massif served as continental
margin for the Ribeira Belt and acted as a microplate. South-
wards it is separated by the Pien magmatic arc from the Lus
Alves Craton (Fig. 11), another Brasiliano microplate, which is
underlain by mostly Archean orthogneiss protoliths with a few
mafic and ultramaphic layered bodies, overprinted by ca. 2.3
and 2.1 Ga granulite facies metamorphism. Although affected
by late Neoproterozoic tectonics and intruded by a number of
late- to post-tectonic granites, Lus Alves has not lost its cratonic
character, as was the case of the Curitiba Massif. Eastwards, Lus
Alves is bordered by Neoproterozoic magmatic arc granitoids,
and to the south it served as basement for the Itaja foreland
basin, related to the evolution of the Brasiliano Dom Feliciano
fold belt. To the west it disappears below the Phanerozoic Parana
Basin (Fig. 11).
The ca. 300,000 km2 Paranapanema block (Fig. 3) is also hid-
den below the Parana basin. Its size and form have been inferred
from gravimetric data (Mantovani and Brito Neves, 2005), which
also indicate that it is separated from the Rio de la Plata and
Lus Alves cratons. To the west it appears to be limited by the
southwards continuation of the Goias Magmatic Arc, whereas,
its northeastern border is marked by arc rocks which make up
the late Neoproterozoic Socorro-Guaxupe high-grade nappe. To
the east it bears features of an Atlantic-type continental margin
partially preserved in the Brasiliano Ribeira fold belt. Judging
from scarce isotopic data of drill-core samples (Cordani et al.,
1984) and TDM model ages from Cretaceous flood basalts of
the Parana basin (Mantovani and Brito Neves, 2005), the Parana
block basement is Paleoproterozoic in age.
The Rio de la Plata Craton (Almeida et al., 1973; Dalla Salda
et al., 1988; Basei et al., 2000; Cingolani and Dalla Salda, 2000)
is mostly covered by Phanerozoic deposits. Main basement
exposures are in Uruguay, with minor ones in Argentina and
south Brazil. The core of the craton is represented by the Piedra
Alta terrane, Uruguay (Fig. 12), which comprises juvenile Pale-
oproterozoic orthogneiss associated with three Paleoproterozoic
E-W-trending supracrustal belts. The basement is intruded by a
 R.A. Fuck et al. / Precambrian Research 160 (2008) 108126
Fig. 11. Geologic map showing distribution of Mesoproterozoic and other units within the Ribeira belt in SE Brazil (adapted from Juliani et al., 2000; Perrotta et al.,
2004).
undeformed mafic dyke swarm ca. 1.78 Ga old. The Sarandy del
Y shear zone separates these rocks from the adjoining Nico Perez
block (Fig. 12), which comprises remnants of Archean granite-
greenstone terrain (Hartmann et al., 2001), Paleoproterozoic
orthogneiss and supracrustal volcano-sedimentary sequences,
intruded by the 1.76 Ga Illescas rapakivi granite. Ca. 1250 Ma
KAr muscovite age from mylonite suggests Mesoprotero-
zoic thermal-tectonic events (Basei et al., 2000 and references
therein). Middle to late Neoproterozoic granite intrusions, as
well as young KAr and RbSr age determinations are evi-
dence of strong reworking during the Neoproterozoic Brasiliano
orogeny. Further north, the Ibare shear zone separates the juve-
nile Neoproterozoic Sao Gabriel block from the Taquarembo,
Brazil and Rivera, Uruguay blocks. In the latter blocks, Pale-
oproterozoic granulite facies rocks are exposed, containing
Archean protoliths, which give place southwards to amphibo-
lite facies orthogneiss and supracrustal sequences. Brasiliano
orogeny-related reworking is indicated by sedimentary cover,
felsic volcanics and a number of Neoproterozoic to Cambrian
granite intrusions. Paleoproterozoic orthogneiss, occasionally
associated with metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks, is also
exposed in the Martin Garca Island and in the Sierra Tandilia,
119
Buenos Aires Province, Argentina (Cingolani and Dalla Salda,
2000). They are covered by Neoproterozoic and Ordovician plat-
form sequences. Southwards the Precambrian rocks are limited
against the Paleozoic Sierra de la Ventana fold-and-thrust belt.
The basement of the Rojas belt in eastern Uruguay is called
Punta del Este terrane (Fig. 12, Preciozzi et al., 1999; Basei et
al., 2000). It comprises high-grade tonalite gneiss and migmatite
formed between 0.9 and 1.0 Ga, suggesting that it is related with
the Namaqua belt of southwest Africa (Preciozzi et al., 1999).
Enclaves of mafic and ultramafic rocks and garnet-sillimanite-
cordierite-bearing gneiss have been found within the orthogneiss
and migmatite terrain, which is intruded by late Neoproterozoic
isotropic granites. Westwards the Punta del Este terrane is over-
thrusted by the Neoproterozoic Aigua batholith (Fig. 12), which
is part of the magmatic arc of the Neoproterozoic Dom Feliciano
Fold Belt (Basei et al., 2000).
Mesoproterozoic crust underlies the Malvinas-Falkland
Islands, which are a small, emergent part of a fragment of con-
tinental crust known as the Falkland Microplate (Fig. 1). It is
divided in two parts by the Falkland Sound fault. The crys-
talline basement of the microplate, unconformably overlain by
Phanerozoic deposits, is only exposed on land at Cape Meredith,
120 R.A. Fuck et al. / Precambrian Research 160 (2008) 108126

Fig. 12. Sketch map showing relationship of tectonic units of Uruguay and southern Brazil: (1) Phanerozoic cover; (2) Neoproterozoic isotropic granites; (3) Dom
Feliciano Belt (A, Aigua batholith); (4) 1.78 Ga mafic dikes; (5) Shist belt and intrusive granites (Lavalleja Group); (6) Piedra Alta Terrane (PA) and Nico Perez
Block (NP); (7) Punta del Este Terrane (PET) (1.00.9 Ga): Mesoproterozoic basement covered by low-grade supracrustal rocks of Rocha Group; (8) shear fault; (9)
thrust fault (adapted from Preciozzi et al., 1999; Basei et al., 2000).

West Falkland. It comprises a sequence of layered, amphibo-
lite facies felsic and intermediate gneisses and amphibolite,
rare calc-silicate rock and schlieren of sillimanite-garnet-biotite
gneiss, interpreted as representing a volcanic pile of calc-
alkaline affinity (Thomas et al., 1997). U-Pb SHRIMP zircon
age of 1118 8 Ma is interpreted as age of extrusion of rhyolite
protolith of felsic gneiss (Jacobs et al., 1999). Intrusive gran-
odiorite gneiss was dated at ca. 1090 Ma, syntectonic granite
gneiss at ca. 1070 Ma, and post-tectonic granite at ca. 1000 Ma
(Jacobs et al., 1999). Syn- to post-tectonic granitoid intrusions
are comparable in age to similar rocks from the Natal Metamor-
phic Province, SE Africa and West Dronning Maud Land, East
Antarctica (Jacobs et al., 1999).
7. Dispersal of Rodinia
Evidence of rifting, break-up and drifting in the several
descendant blocks of Rodinia in South America is scarce and
controversial. However, from available data we do know that
break-up was diachronous, occurring at different time inter-
vals in different blocks. The same is true for dispersal and later
collage. There does not seem to be a magical age number for
break-up and dispersal (Fig. 1).
In southwestern Amazonia there is evidence of rifting, mafic
and alkaline magmatism, anorogenic granite intrusions, and
basin subdivision, indicating break-up and dispersion since
ca. 1000 Ma, soon after closing of the late Mesoproterozoic
Nova Brasilandia orogeny. However, the main rifting episode,
recorded in the Puncoviscana and Tucavaca belts, is much
younger, having been constrained to the end of the Neoprotero-
zoic (see Ramos, 2000; Baldo et al., 2006).
Along the coast of Bahia, at the eastern edge of the Sao Fran-
cisco Craton, mafic dyke swarms from Salvador to Ilheus seem
to be the result of a mantle plume active ca. 1.0 Ga, leading to
break-up (Correa Gomes et al., 1996).
In the southern Espinhaco range the Pedro Lessa mafic mag-
matism, represented by dykes and sills, cuts through Espinhaco
Supergroup sedimentary formations, but not through Neopro-
terozoic diamictite and carbonate deposits of the Bambu Group.
Badelleyte U-Pb age of ca. 906 Ma was obtained in one of these
intrusions (Machado et al., 1989). Similar fissural tholeiitic mag-
matism is also recorded in northern Minas Gerais and Bahia, but
there are no reliable age determinations available.
At the western border of the Sao Francisco Craton there is
stratigraphic record of a continental passive margin (Fuck et al.,
1993a,b, 1994; Dardenne, 2000; Pimentel et al., 2001; Valeriano
et al., 2004) of uncertain age, probably younger than 1.0 Ga.
This is clear indication that the former Sao Francisco paleo-
continent or peninsula had been rifted apart and separated from
some other, as yet unknown, continental mass and was facing a
large ocean basin to the (present) west. Age data of detrital zircon
grains from samples of several units from the southern part of the
 R.A. Fuck et al. / Precambrian Research 160 (2008) 108126
Neoproterozoic Braslia Belt give a maximum age of ca. 980 Ma
for sedimentation at this margin (Valeriano et al., 2004). Further
west, subduction of oceanic lithosphere of this large ocean basin
was underway at ca. 900 Ma, which is the age of the oldest island
arc rocks dated so far in the Goias Magmatic Arc (Pimentel and
Fuck, 1992a,b; Pimentel et al., 2000, 2004; Laux et al., 2005).
Within the Borborema Province (Medio Coreau and Cen-
tral Ceara domains), in eastern Minas Gerais, and in northwest
Argentina (Puncoviscana domain), as well as in several other
areas, there is record of break-up and separation of continental
masses diachronically between 810 and 750 Ma. On the other
hand, in the Serido and Riacho do Pontal fold belts, Borborema
Province, and in Mato Grosso (Puga Formation) there is evi-
dence of later break-up events, which took place between 650
and 630 Ma, probably only then completing dispersal of con-
tinental blocks formerly belonging to Rodinia. Concurrently,
rather well constrained orogenic events were taking place in
other parts of South America at 900850 Ma, 790750 Ma,
650630 Ma, 600580 Ma, and ca. 520 Ma (Brito Neves et al.,
1999; Pimentel et al., 2000, 2004; Pedrosa Soares et al., 2000;
Heilbron et al., 2004). These events represent orogenic peaks and
are well recorded in the evolution of Neoproterozoic structural
provinces in South America. However, their beginnings are not
well constrained, and therefore it is not possible as yet to ratify a
limiting age for Rodinia. On the other hand, a unique age for the
break-up of Rodinia does not seem to be the case, since it appears
to have been developed diachronically, as was also the case of
its assembling. As knowledge of the late Mesoproterozoic and
Neoproterozoic Brasiliano orogenic systems in South America
increases, more evident becomes the diachronic and long-living
character of amalgamation of Rodinia Supercontinent, as well
as of its break-up and subsequent dispersal of resulting conti-
nental masses. The same insight comes from better known areas
in other continents, like Australia (Myers et al., 1995), eastern
Grenville in North America, where the process lasted from ca.
1230 to 955 Ma (Gower, 2001), and the Mocambique Belt in
eastern Africa (900550 Ma, Stern, 1994).
From available data, it appears that amalgamation processes
are rather long, having taken for instance ca. 350 Ma or more to
be completed in the case of Gondwana. The same appears to be
true for break-up and dispersal in the case of Rodinia. Moreover,
both processes overlap in time. Therefore, concurring events of
amalgamation of one supercontinent and dispersal of the other
were taking place in the same time span in different parts of
what is now South America. Diachronism appears to be more the
rule than the exception, in agreement with the dynamics of our
planet. In spite of scarcity of data, diachronism and overlapping
of Rodinia break-up and amalgamation of Gondwana was also
the case of South America.
8. The quest of paleomagnetic data
Insufficiency of paleomagnetic data for the Proterozoic, in
terms of their number, quality, and distribution in time and
space (Meert, 2001), has allowed a large degree of freedom for
supercontinent reconstitution, leading to the many existing dis-
agreements. According to recent reviews (DAgrella Filho et al.,
121
1998, 2001), best data sets refer to Laurentia, with reliable appar-
ent polar wander path (APW) known for the period between 830
and 500 Ma, and East Gondwana, mainly Australia, where APW
is well known for the period between 770 and 550 Ma. Even
so, distribution is not uniform in space and time, and precision
is not as one would like it to be. Consequently, reconstitution
of the AustraliaEast AntarcticaLaurentia connection during
Rodinia time resulted in three different formulations, namely
SWEAT (Moores, 1991), AUSWUS (Brookfield, 1993), and
AUSMEX (Wingate et al., 2001). Although all these proposed
fits were based on coherent geologic and geochronologic data
sets, paleomagnetic data are still unable to discriminate the ideal
alternative.
The paleomagnetic data set for Western Gondwana is gener-
ally of poor quality and distribution (DAgrella Filho et al., 1998,
2001; Meert, 2001). Paleomagnetic poles are of low ranking,
according to international convention, hampering their adequate
use and inequivocal interpretation. Also useful data for large
time intervals of important geotectonic units are lacking. Obtain-
ing paleomagnetic poles older than 600 Ma has been difficult,
due to activation and regeneration processes during Brasiliano
orogeny, leading to resetting of paleomagnetic and isotopic data
of both basement and Proterozoic cover. Among others, this is
the case of the Neoproterozoic Bambu Group covering the Sao
Francisco Craton, where inferred fluid circulation at the end of
the Neoproterozoic lead to important resetting (Trindade et al.,
2004).
Available data sets for Congo, Sao Francisco, and Rio de la
Plata blocks are hampered by varied problems, not least of which
are the poor age constraints. There are no reliable paleomagnetic
data for the Amazonian Craton between 800 and 600 Ma. Dis-
cussion and interpretation rely on the supposed connection with
Laurentia, whose APW is rather well constrained for that time
interval. Position of Congo and Kalahari blocks is generally
uncertain. At least four different positions have been suggested
in the last years (Powell et al., 2001).
9. Reworking imposed on Rodinia descendants
The so-called Brasiliano provinces display a very complex
scenario of tectonic setting and paleogeography. Defined 25
years ago (Almeida et al., 1981), they need conceptual revision,
and their connections in South America and Africa (Almeida
et al., 2000) need to be reassessed. The possibility of natural
divisions is recognized in most of them, adequate both in terms
of increasing knowledge and diversity of geographic and tec-
tonic paleoenvironments. Geochronologic data tell us of many
orogenic events, going back to ca. 900 Ma, in parallel with
Rodinia break-up events, and lasting well into the Cambrian,
until ca. 520490 Ma, when post-orogenic extension processes
were occurring in many parts of South America (Brito Neves et
al., 1999; Ramos, 2000).
Definition of a formal succession of common orogenic events
in each province bears many problems. Available data show that
there is great diversity in space and time, starting with formation
of precursor basins and subsequent interaction of lithosphere
plates in each province. In the same way as there are problems
122 R.A. Fuck et al. / Precambrian Research 160 (2008) 108126

Table 1
Saga of Rodinia descendants in the building up of West Gondwana
No. Cratons, blocks, terranes Deformation, reworking Additional aspects

1 Amazonian, Sao Lus-West Africa,
Kalahari
2 Sao Francisco-Congo, Rio de la Plata,
Paranapanema, Rio Apa
3 Rio Grande do Norte (+ Central Hoggar),
Troia-Taua, Goias Massif, Lus Alves
4 Sobradinho, Guanhaes, Curitiba,
Pernambuco-Alagoas, Alto Moxoto
5 Gouveia, Juiz de Fora, Quirino-Dorania,
Aurizona/Ticunzal
6a Espinhaco Belt, Serra do
Itaberaba/Aguas Claras, Punta del Leste
6b Garzon-Santa Marta,
Arequipa-Antofalla, Terreno
Occidentalia (Belem, Choja, Pie de Palo,
L. Verde, etc.), Pampia
Abundant occurrences within the
basement of the Brasiliano Provinces
Segments/descendants with maximum
preserved integrity
Segments with preserved important
litho-structural integrity. Some territorial
losses
Blocks/areas entirely reworked during
the Brasiliano collage. Strong but partial
ductile deformational processes
Blocks/areas strongly reworked.
Advanced ductile deformational
processes
Blocks/areas with complete ductile
deformation
Mesoproterozoic-Early Neoproterozoic
belts reworked during the Brasiliano
collage
Paleoproterozoic and early
Mesoproterozoic belts reworked during
the Hercynian and Andean orogenies
Litho-structural features and isotopic
signatures of pre-Neoproterozoic
terranes
Minimum territorial losses by regeneration
near surrounding Brasiliano Belts. Mafic
dike swarms
Substantial territorial losses. Reworking of
marginal and even interior portions of the
original block. Original shapes and
dimensions of the continental blocks difficult
to reconstitute
Mostly Paleoproterozoic terranes with
Archean seed-nuclei. Important structural
episodes and granitic plutonism The smaller
blocks seldom behave as allochthonous
terranes
Paleoproterozoic terranes (minor Archean
seed-nuclei) exhibiting Brasiliano structural
trends Preponderant thermal, tectonic and
magmatic Brasiliano processes
Infra-structure of the Brasiliano fold belts
cropping out, by local tectonic and erosional
contingencies. Original segments of
Paleoproterozoic Belts (minor Archean
nuclei) may occur
Preponderant Brasiliano overprint, only local
exhibition of the original structures
Brasiliano reworking could exist. The
Phanerozoic deformational processes are
dominant
Multiple and complex deep crustal
reworking (structural, thermal and
magmatic)

in stipulating a precise age of Rodinia break-up, we have to rec-
ognize that problems of the same order will be met in gradual
assembly of Gondwana. As already observed above, it is not easy
to understanding the crust levels of reworking to which Rodinia
descendants were submitted. Comparison is risky due to het-
erogeneity of knowledge, but it will be done, at least to boast
debate and stimulate improved formulations in the future. The
discrimination list (Table 1) follows suggestions by Marschak
et al. (1999), and takes reference to tectonic-magmatic activ-
ity imparted by the Brasiliano Orogeny. Adopted subdivision
is based on Marschak et al. (1999) type I: continental crust not
submitted to penetrative deformation or metamorphism after the
Proterozoic (post-Ordovician time would be the more proper
term for the South American Platform in West Gondwana), but
affected by Proterozoic thermo-tectonic activity. Only in case
6b (Table 1) is there clear incidence of Marschak et al. (1999)
type A, with continental crust presently residing in an active
margin.
For several reasons, like inadequate geologic mapping,
absence or deficiency of geophysical and geochronological data,
presence of Proterozoic and Phanerozoic cover, among others,
adequate tectonic zoning of many blocks has yet to be done. This
should include discriminating and mapping of full cratonic areas
(orthoplatforms), foreland zones, activated, regenerated, decra-
tonized areas, etc. An interesting exercise was developed for the
Sao Francisco Craton (Alkmim et al., 1993). Similar develop-
ments should be available for other blocks in the near future.
However, a quest for caution should be beared in mind. Many
cratonic areas held as preserved from later orogenic events were
not really entirely preserved, therefore requiring tectonic zoning
differentiation.
In the case of the Amazonian block, the largest segment
derived from Rodinia break-up in South America, its classifi-
cation among those of lowest reworking level (Table 1) may be
merely consequence of lesser knowledge. It is known that Ama-
zonia served as foreland for the Araguaia-Paraguay orogenic
system at the end of the Neoproterozoic. Amazonia behaved
as a relatively rigid block, having been penetrated by alkaline
mafic-ultramafic magmatism along the axis of the Amazon Basin
(Cordani et al., 1984), and by a dike swarm in the Tapajos
river area at that time (Santos et al., 2002). It is worth also
mentioning the case of the Goias block. Recent studies show
the presence of Archean and Paleoproterozoic domains, which
have been partially or completely regenerated during Brasil-
iano Orogeny (Pimentel et al., 2000, 2004), including collision
with Neoproterozoic island arc systems, previously thought to
be older basement.
Pre-Neoproterozoic litho-structural and isotopic traces are
displayed in the bottom part of Table 1 as recognized cases of
extreme reworking. Evidence of Archean, Paleoproterozoic, and
 R.A. Fuck et al. / Precambrian Research 160 (2008) 108126
Mesoproterozoic protoliths has been found frequently within
Brasiliano mobile belts, especially in using tools as Sm-Nd and
U-Pb isotopic determinations, either ID-TIMS or SHRIMP age
determinations. In many cases of Brasiliano belts, higher TDM
model ages or older inherited zircon grains indicate the presence
of Paleoproterozoic or Archean material within the basement.
Acknowledgements
RAF and BBBN are CNPq research fellows; RAF
acknowledges support from FINATEC. Comments and helpful
suggestions from J.J.W. Rodgers and V.A. Ramos are greatly
appreciated.
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