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Gabbroic dikes
and veins in dunite,
Zambales ophiolite,
Yildirim Dilek1 and Harald Furnes2 Philippines (width of
view 1 m).
O
phiolites are suites of temporally and spatially associated ultramafic, origin as differentiated, ocean-
mafic, and felsic rocks that are interpreted to be remnants of ancient floor magmatic units. The Dutch
geologist de Roever (1957) and
oceanic crust and upper mantle. Ophiolites show significant varia- then the Swiss geologist Vuagnat
tions in their internal structure, geochemical fingerprints, and emplacement (1964) argued that the associa-
mechanisms. These differences are controlled by (1) the proximity, when tion of these rocks was a result of
mantle melting, which produced
formed at the magmatic stage, to a plume or trench; (2) the rate, geometry, basaltic rocks on top and residual
and nature of ocean-ridge spreading; (3) mantle composition, temperature, peridotites at the bottom.
and fertility; and (4) the availability of fluids. The oceanic crust preserved By the mid-1960s, the recognition
in ophiolites may form in any tectonic setting during the evolution of ocean of sheeted dike complexes, fossil
magma chambers in plutonic
basins, from the riftdrift and seafloor spreading stages to subduction initi-
sequences, and refractory harzbur-
ation and terminal closure. An ophiolite is emplaced either from down- gites in mantle units was instru-
going oceanic lithosphere via subduction-accretion or from the upper plate mental in formulating a model for
the formation of ophiolite within
in a subduction zone through trenchcontinent collision. Subduction zone
the framework of the plate tectonic
tectonics is thus the most important factor in the igneous evolution of ophio- theory. The ophioliteoceanic
lites and their emplacement into continental margins. crust analogy was confirmed at the
first Penrose Conference on ophio-
KEYWORDS : suprasubduction zone ophiolite, boninite, mid-ocean ridge ophiolite, lites (Anonymous 1972). However,
plume-type ophiolite, continental margin ophiolite, ophiolite pulse Miyashiro (1973) questioned the
ruling model of a mid-ocean ridge
setting for the genesis of ophiolite
INTRODUCTION
and proposed, based on geochemical interpretations, that
Ophiolites are the remnants of ancient oceanic crust the Troodos oceanic crust on Cyprus was a product of
and upper mantle that were tectonically emplaced into island arc magmatism. This was a revolutionary but contro-
continental margins. They display the only evidence for versial development in the ophiolite concept and led to the
magmatic, tectonic, and hydrothermal processes associ- defi nition of suprasubduction zone ophiolites in the early
ated with seafloor spreading prior to 170 Ma because no 1980s. Observations of in situ oceanic crust in spreading
oceanic lithosphere older than this age is preserved in the environments within the upper plates of subduction zones
modern oceans. The occurrence of sheeted dikes, side-by- in the western Pacific during the 1980s and 1990s were
side tabular intrusions of magma, is the primary evidence particularly important for demonstrating the influence
for the seafloor spreading origin of ophiolites. Ophiolites of subduction on the magmatic evolution of ophiolites.
are therefore the best archives of the evolutionary history Thus, this remarkable transformation in the scientific
of ocean basins from their riftdrift and seafloor spreading understanding of ophiolites since 1821 has contributed
stages to subduction initiation and fi nal closure. Their significantly to major advances in various Earth science
recognition as structural analogues for oceanic crust played disciplines.
a significant role in the advancement of the plate tectonic
theory in the 1960s, and geoscientists have used ophiolites Ophiolites have also been indispensable for human cultures
in investigating the nature of mid-ocean ridge processes, and civilizations because of the wealth of mineral and
mantle chemistry, the paleogeography of ancient ocean ore deposits they host. The precious metals gold, silver,
basins, and the tectonic evolution of orogenic belts. and platinum-group elements (PGEs), the ferrous metals
chromium, manganese, and titanium, and the base metals
Brongniarts (1821) early defi nition of an ophiolite was cobalt, copper, and nickel occur widely in the ultramafic
based on a suite of ultramafic, gabbroic, diabasic, and mafic rocks of ophiolites. The discovery of copper in the
volcanic rocks in the Italian Apennines. Subsequently, Troodos ophiolite contributed to the development of the
Steinmann (1927) noted the common occurrence of Bronze Age (~2400 BC) and triggered a critical era in
serpentinite, basalt, and chert (Steinmanns Trinity) human history during which the use of bronze brought
in the Mediterranean mountains, and interpreted their about drastic changes in farming, hunting, and warfare.
Nonmetallic chrysotile asbestos and jade are mainly
found in serpentinized peridotites. Asbestos, in the form
1 Department of Geology & Environmental Earth Science of various serpentine minerals, was widely used as an
Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA
E-mail: dileky@miamioh.edu effective insulator because of its resistance to fire, heat,
and electrical damage; this changed when asbestos was
2 Department of Earth Science & Centre for Geobiology recognized as a human carcinogen. Jade is an important
University of Bergen, 5007 Bergen, Norway
E LEMENTS 94 A PR IL 2014
Ophiolites can be classified to the fi rst order as subduction- melting of little-depleted lithospheric mantle and slowly
related and subduction-unrelated types. Ophiolites whose upwelling asthenosphere. This OCT lithosphere may be
magmatic construction was not affected by subduction preserved in orogenic belts as CM ophiolites.
processes include continental margin (CM), mid-ocean
Continued lithospheric extension and magmatism in
ridge (MOR), and plume-type (P) ophiolites (TABLE 1). These
the aftermath of continental breakup lead to seafloor
types correspond to the ophiolites developed at normal
spreading, and new oceanic crust forms by decompres-
mid-ocean, plume-related mid-ocean, continental margin,
sion melting of uprising asthenosphere. Variations in
and subducted ridges, as defined by Pearce (2014 this issue).
magma supply rates and the thermal structure beneath
Subduction-related ophiolites include suprasubduction
the spreading axes control the mode of magmatic accretion
zone (SSZ) and volcanic arc (VA) ophiolites (TABLE 1). The
and the architecture of oceanic crust produced (FIG. 2A2). In
SSZ type encompasses ophiolites formed in subduction-
fast-spreading ridges (e.g. East Pacific Rise), where magma
initiation (forearc) and backarc basin settings.
supply is robust, continuous magmatism keeps pace with
plate separation, and synchronous extension and diking
Subduction-Unrelated Ophiolites produce a Penrose-type oceanic crust with a transitional
Tectonic extension and rifting may lead to continental Moho (FIG. 2A2). In intermediate-spreading ridges (e.g. Costa
breakup and development of an incipient ocean. Magmatic Rica Rift), oceanic crust has a thinner volcanic sequence
activity associated with this breakup and embryonic but a thicker sheeted dike complex in comparison to fast-
oceanic crust formation produces an oceancontinent spreading crust (FIG. 2A 2). In slow-spreading ridges (e.g.
transition (OCT) zone, where the subcontinental litho- Mid-Atlantic Ridge, SW Indian Ridge), extensional faulting
spheric mantle lherzolite is directly overlain by basaltic and crustal attenuation may outpace magmatism episodi-
lavas and intruded by small gabbroic plutons and mafic cally, resulting in the exhumation of serpentinized upper
dikes (FIG. 2A1; Manatschal and Mntener 2009). Formation mantle peridotites and gabbros on the seafloor (Dilek and
of these crustal rocks, all with mid-ocean ridge basalt Furnes 2011). Slow-spreading oceanic crust may, therefore,
(MORB) compositions, involves small degrees of partial
E LEMENTS 95 A PR IL 2014
be thin and deformed, and the Moho may be represented island arc tholeiite (IAT), and to the youngest boninitic
by an alteration front or a detachment fault. Pillow lavas affi nities (FIG. 2 C1; Dilek et al. 2008; Dilek and Thy 2009;
locally rest directly on exhumed, serpentinized peridotites Ishizuka et al. 2014).
and gabbros. Thus, MOR ophiolites may show major varia-
The earlier, MORB-like rocks are the products of decompres-
tions in their structural architecture and crustal thick-
sional melting of deep and fertile lherzolitic mantle and
ness, depending on the spreading rate of the lithosphere
show no subduction influence. IAT magmas are strongly
(FIG. 2A 2).
influenced by slab-dehydration-driven mantle metasoma-
All MOR ophiolites plot along the mantle array in a Ta/ tism, repeated episodes of partial melting of peridotites in
Yb versus Th/Yb diagram and may display N-MORB (e.g. the mantle wedge, melting of subducted sediments, and
Masirah ophiolite) or E-MORB (e.g. Macquarie ophiolite) mixing of highly enriched liquids from the lower fertile
geochemistry (FIG. 2B2). The trench-proximal Taitao ophio- source with refractory melts in the melt column. Shallow
lite in southern Chile (Le Moigne et al. 1996) is geochemi- partial melting of ultrarefractory harzburgites produces
cally transitional between N-MORB and E-MORB (FIG. 2B2) hydrous, Si- and Mg-rich boninitic magmas in the latest
and also shows slight crustal contamination, representing stages. In a multielement diagram (Lu through Cs), the
a C-MORB affi nity (Pearce 2014). fi rst-produced basalts display a relatively flat pattern, and
the younger IAT and boninitic rocks show a progressive
P-type ophiolites form at plume-proximal oceanic ridges or
depletion (relative to the first-produced basalts) in LuNd
as part of oceanic plateaus, and they contain massive lava
and CeTa, and a strong enrichment in Pb, Th, and Cs
flows with minor pillowed lavas, mostly picritic basalt in
(FIG. 2D1).
composition. Gabbroic to ultramafic plutons and sills are
intrusive into a thick volcanic sequence (FIG. 2A3). Pillow A volcanic arc (VA) ophiolite contains a middle crust with
breccias, hyaloclastites, and chertshale layers are interca- dioritic, tonalitic, and granodioritic intrusions (Nakajima
lated with basaltic lava flows at higher stratigraphic levels. and Arima 1998) and an uppermost crust with abundant
P-type ophiolites display geochemical variations between andesitic to rhyolitic lavas and pyroclastic rocks (FIG. 2 C2).
N-MORB and ocean island basalt (OIB; FIG. 2B3). The dioritictonalitic middle crust is produced by partial
melting of the hydrated, earlier-formed mafic crust as a
The subduction-unrelated ophiolites display large varia-
result of the infiltration of arc magmas. In the Th/YbTa/Yb
tions in the Th/Yb versus Ta/Yb discrimination diagram
diagram, these ophiolites straddle the boundary between
(FIG. 2 B ). Their multielement patterns (Lu through Cs)
the IAT and calc-alkaline (CA) fields, and in the multiele-
vary from nearly flat, as shown by the CM Ligurian and
ment diagram, the element concentrations are higher than
the MOR Masirah ophiolites, to steep, as defi ned by the
those in SSZ ophiolites (FIG. 2D2).
Macquarie ophiolite (FIG. 2B). These variations in incompat-
ible element behavior are related to the degree of partial The magmatic and geochemical evolution of SSZ and VA
melting and the mantle temperature and fertility. ophiolites is controlled, therefore, by the mode and nature
of (1) partial melting of the mantle above the subduction
Subduction-Related Ophiolites zone, and (2) the dehydration of and element flux from
Suprasubduction zone (SSZ) ophiolites represent oceanic the subducted slab into the overlying mantle. Repeated
lithosphere formed in the extended upper plates of subduc- episodes of partial melting cause a progressive change in
tion zones, analogous to the modern Izu-Bonin-Mariana the composition of the mantle, from fertile lherzolite to
and Tonga-Kermadec arctrench rollback systems (Stern ultrarefractory harzburgite, and consequently the mantle
and Bloomer 1992; Ishizuka et al. 2014 this issue; Pearce source and the magmas derived from it become depleted
2014). Specific tectonic settings of SSZ oceanic crust forma- in incompatible elements. In the meantime, dehydration
tion include the forearc, the backarc, and the incipient of the subducting oceanic slab and partial melting of
arc. Backarc tectonic environments may evolve as trench- subducted sediments lead to the incorporation of the light
proximal or trench-distal spreading centers showing rare earth elements (LREEs) and the mobile elements Cs,
variable subduction influence (Dilek and Furnes 2011). Pb, Ba, Th, and U into the mantle wedge (Hawkesworth et
Extrusive and dike rocks of forearc ophiolites show time- al. 1997; Pearce 2014). The conservative elements Nb, Ti,
progressive compositional and geochemical variations, Y, and the heavy REEs (HREEs) are largely unaffected by
from the oldest mid-ocean ridgelike (MORB-like) to the this process and hence become progressively depleted in
Mid-ocean ridge Plume-proximal MOR Iceland N-MORB and P-MORB lavas Olivine + plag cpx
types
N-MORB, E-MORB C-MORB
Trench-proximal MOR Taitao (Chile) Olivine + plag + cpx
lavas
Nicoya (Costa Rica); Bolivar
Plume-type P-MORB lavas Olivine + plag + cpx opx
(Colombia)
Troodos (Cyprus); Kizildag Olivine + plag + cpx + opx
Subductionrelated
E LEMENTS 96 A PR IL 2014
the mantle source during the repeated episodes of melting. (2) the nature and geometry of plate boundaries involved,
However, the solidus of the wedge peridotites is lowered and (3) the size and character (e.g. oceanic versus conti-
considerably due to the input of slab-derived fluids, facili- nental) of the interacting plates (Wakabayashi and Dilek
tating further partial melting, and the depleted mantle 2003). Subduction zone tectonics is an essential driver
becomes progressively enriched in highly mobile incom- for incorporating preexisting oceanic lithosphere into
patible elements. The sharp increase in the incompatible continental margins. The oceanic lithosphere of MOR-
element concentration, the marked positive Pb anomaly, and P-type ophiolites is tectonically transferred from a
and the negative Nb anomaly displayed by VA ophiolites downgoing plate to the upper plate via subduction-accre-
in comparison to SSZ ophiolites (FIG. 2D2) are mostly time- tion. The oceanic lithosphere in SSZ and VA ophiolites is
dependent phenomena because of the prolonged subduc- always part of the upper plate of a subduction system, but
tion history (~2030 My) of VA ophiolites as opposed to it gets emplaced into a continental margin in a downgoing
the relatively shorter subduction history (<10 My) of SSZ plate via collisional processes. We examine here the
ophiolites (Dilek and Furnes 2011). emplacement mechanisms of some subduction-unrelated
and subduction-related ophiolites through subduction-
OPHIOLITE EMPLACEMENT MECHANISMS accretion and collisional processes (FIG. 3).
Among the most important factors controlling the mecha-
nisms of ophiolite emplacement are (1) the age, thickness,
and thermal state of oceanic lithosphere to be emplaced,
E LEMENTS 97 A PR IL 2014
Continental Margin Ophiolites: this boundary during the last 6 million years has resulted
Ligurian Ophiolites in the tectonic displacement and uplift of the MOR crust
(FIG. 3B). The transpressional, transform plate boundary
The Middle Jurassic ophiolites in the northern Apennines here connects along-strike, to the north and south, with
and the western Alps formed during and following the two active trenches and is thus in the process of being
rifting of Adria (or Apulia) and Africa from Europe that led converted into an intraoceanic subduction zone (Meckel
to the opening of the Piemont-Liguria ocean (Manatschal et al. 2003).
and Mntener 2009). These CM ophiolites were subse-
quently imbricated with trench deposits (schistes lustrs The late Miocene Taitao ophiolite in southern Chile was
in the Alps/Apennines) and telescoped along west-vergent emplaced into the active margin of South America as a
thrust faults in the late Cretaceous as a result of regional result of ridgetrench interaction (FIG. 3C ; Le Moigne et
shortening associated with a newly developed subduction al. 1996). Subduction of an oceanic ridge may result in
zone near the Adria continental margin (FIG. 3A). In the the emplacement of a piece of young and buoyant oceanic
western Alps, a ribbon continent (the Sesia-Margna exten- lithosphere as an ophiolite in the upper plate (Van den
sional allochthon) and the OCT zone crust were partly Beukel and Wortel 1992). As the Chile Rise collided with
subducted beneath the Adria margin, metamorphosed to the Peru-Chile Trench around 5.6 Ma, a slice of hot oceanic
eclogite facies, and exhumed later following the continent lithosphere was decoupled from the downgoing oceanic
continent collision (Alpine orogeny). slab and was incorporated into the South American conti-
nental margin as a MOR ophiolite.
Mid-Ocean Ridge Ophiolites:
Macquarie and Taitao Ophiolites Plume-Type Ophiolites: Western Colombia
The Macquarie ophiolite in the Southern Ocean (FIG. 3B) The Cretaceous peri-Caribbean ophiolites, exposed in
and the Taitao ophiolite in southern Chile (FIG. 3C ) are Venezuela, western Colombia, Costa Rica, Hispaniola, and
two young MOR ophiolites that experienced different Puerto Rico, represent fragments of the Caribbean oceanic
processes of tectonic displacement and emplacement. plateau (Kerr et al. 1998). The thick (~20 km) oceanic crust
The Macquarie ophiolite (11.59.7 Ma) is exposed along of this plateau was formed on the Farallon plate above the
the transform fault boundary between the Australian and Galapagos mantle plume during 10089 Ma (Hastie and
Pacific plates (Meckel et al. 2003). Transpression across Kerr 2010). This thick and buoyant oceanic crust resisted
subduction and was decoupled from its lithospheric mantle,
D
F
C
E
E LEMENTS 98 A PR IL 2014
which continued to subduct, and tectonic slices of basaltic the Wilson cycle. Therefore, it is not uncommon to see
lavas, gabbros, and ultramafic rocks were accreted into the CM, MOR, and SSZ ophiolites nested along and across the
upper-plate continental margin (Hastie and Kerr 2010). In suture zones in these belts.
western Colombia, basaltic, doleritic, and gabbroic rocks
The distribution of certain ophiolite types during particular
are tectonically intercalated with metasedimentary rocks
time periods coincides with major tectonic and magmatic
of the accretionary prism of the northern margin of South
events in Earth history. For example, the formation of the
America (FIG. 3D).
late Paleozoic and Jurassic CM ophiolites was coeval with
the dismantling and rifting of the northern edge of western
Suprasubduction Zone Forearc Ophiolites: Gondwana. The development of the JurassicCretaceous
Oman Ophiolite P-type ophiolites overlapped in time with the emplacement
The ~15 km thick Oman ophiolite is a remnant of the of giant dike swarms and the formation of large igneous
Tethyan oceanic lithosphere (Goodenough et al. 2014 this provinces (LIPs) (Kerr et al. 1998; Vaughan and Scarrow
issue); it forms the uppermost tectonic nappe in an imbri- 2003) and with the breakup of Pangea through discrete
cated stack of oceanic rocks in the southeastern part of episodes of continental rifting (Dalziel et al. 2000).
the Arabian Peninsula (FIGS. 3E, 4). The Oman ophiolite
rests tectonically on a discontinuously exposed metamor- The main ophiolite pulsesthat is, peak times of ophio-
phic sole or a subophiolitic mlange. The metamorphic lite genesis and emplacement in the early Paleozoic, the
sole beneath the ophiolite shows inverted temperature and late Jurassic, and the Cretaceous reflect the timing of SSZ
pressure gradients, indicating that it is a composite of rock ophiolite formation, which was contemporaneous with the
slices formed at different depths and juxtaposed later by
thrust faulting (Hacker et al. 1996). Pressuretemperature
data suggest high-temperature metamorphism at the incep-
tion of oceanic subduction beneath the hot subophiolitic
mantle in the upper plate. The forearc oceanic lithosphere
of the Tethyan Ocean was displaced from its tectonic setting
above this new subduction zone and was emplaced onto
the Arabian margin during the continenttrench collision.
E LEMENTS 99 A PR IL 2014
closure of some ocean basins and major orogenic events abundances of these various ophiolite types do not reflect
(Dilek and Furnes 2011). The early Paleozoic SSZ ophio- the proportions of the different types of oceanic litho-
lites in the Appalachian and Caledonian orogenic belts sphere that were generated. Rather, these abundances are
evolved in the Iapetus Ocean and its seaways between a result of ophiolite formation, emplacement, and preserva-
North America, Greenland, and Baltica-Avalonia as they tion, as discussed earlier. For example, the vast majority of
were closing. The Paleozoic SSZ ophiolites in Iberia, central MOR-generated oceanic lithosphere has been subducted.
Europe, northwestern Africa, and northern Anatolia devel- Hence, MOR ophiolites are scarce (in comparison to other
oped in the Rheic Ocean between the Baltica-Avalonia, ophiolite types) in the rock record, even though MOR crust
Laurasia, and Gondwana continental masses. The Paleozoic is the most common type in the modern ocean system.
SSZ ophiolites in the Uralides developed in the Uralian
Ocean, which separated the Baltica-Eastern Europe and ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Kazakhstan-Siberian continental masses (Windley et al.
We thank the authors for their contributions to this issue of
2007). The late Jurassic to late Cretaceous SSZ ophiolites
Elements, and John Valley and Pierrette Tremblay for their
in the AlpineHimalayan orogenic belt (FIG. 4) formed in
editorial support. Thorough reviews by Y. Ogawa, P. Thy,
various seaways of the Tethyan oceanic realm, preceding
J. Wakabayashi, and B. F. Windley helped us improve
the collisions of Apulia, Arabia, India, and other Gondwana-
this paper.
derived microcontinents with Eurasia.
Although there appear to be spatialtemporal relation-
ships between the formation and distribution of ophiolite
types and major tectonic and magmatic events, the relative
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