Problem 1 :

(a)

A phenomenon which engineers always want to minimize the undesirable drag effect is
cyclist on a bicycle.In order to move forward, the cyclists must push through the mass of air
in front of them. This is because drag force is acting backward as they are cycling forward.
Therefore, by minimising the drag effect, it enable them to save energy when cycling and the
most importantis to increase their speed significantly at a shorter period of time.

(b)

Below show the drag force, D formula:

1
= 2
2

where :

=Drag Force; = Drag Coefficient ; = Cross sectional area (Frontal Area) ;

v=Velocity of fluid

In order to reduce the aerodynamic drag, D for a cyclist travelling at constant speed in the
same conditions, a reduction in drag coefficient, CD, and/or frontal area, A, is required as
shown in above formula. These two variables can be combined into one single variable for
drag area, CD A, as changes in the frontal area will also affect the flow over the bike and
cyclist.Below are some factors that affect the drag force.

The position of the cyclist

This is because human body is not very streamlined. The upright position showed a higher
drag area for the back and chest, due to their greater contribution to the frontal area in this
position. Hence, body position affects pressure drag, which dominates on a cyclist, so a
reduction in frontal area and pressure drag is more beneficial than a reduction in skin friction
drag. Besides, angle of attack is introduced means the direction or the angles in which the
rider is attacked by the wind (wind resistance). Higher angle of attack will give a higher drag
force as the body system produce a large boundary layer and no longer streamlined. Hence,
the aerobar is used to have a low and crouched position with a flat back, forearms parallel to
the horizontal, and a tucked head help streamline the shape of the cyclist which reduce the
frontal area of the body system.The changes in handlebar position had a greater reduction in
drag than changes in seat position, and by moving the handlebars both down and forwards by
few centimetre reduced the average drag by 5.8%.The cyclist also can keep their hands close
together on the aerobar to minimise the gap between two hands.In order to improve their
performance of cycling, there are some ways to tackle the angle of attack in different
situation of road as shown as below diagram but with the help of the aerobar .

Clothing of cyclist

Attire of cyclist will lead to frictional drag because the contact of moving air with the
surfacewhen cyclist cycle in a lower speed where the Reynolds number is relatively low, this
creates laminar flow that passed through the body system. However, collision between air
particles and the surface happens as air flows over the cyclist skin(rough surface). Friction
force is created that slow down reduce the speed of bicycle. As a result, normal clothing is
not suitable. The design, fit and aerodynamic attributes of cyclist's clothing can all contribute
to an improved cyclist performance, with a reduction in drag force of 10% [Oggiano et al.,
2009, Kyle, 2003a]. The design of an aerodynamic tight suit should have seams parallel to the
flow or in separated flow zones. It also must be close fitting to minimise wrinkles, be made of
smooth, rubberised material, cover body hair, and have any graphics out of the airflow For
example, Lycra suit is designed to ensure the air flows pass through the surface is as smooth
as possible to allow the air flows move smoothly without swirl according to the streamlined
shape of the system.

Tyres and wheels of bicycle

The wheels influence the flow around the rest of the bike and cyclist, so it is
important for cyclist to use the most aerodynamic wheels .Small wheels are lighter and
stronger, but have a higher rolling resistance than larger wheels. Besides, spoked wheels
experience pressure drag from separation on the rear facing surfaces of the rim, the hub, and
the spokes. Thus, the disc wheel had designed which has the lowest drag The rolling
resistance is also created by tyres when in contact with the roadway surface. Higher rolling
resistance lead to higher pressure drag. In order to reduce the rolling resistance, the
deformation of the can be reduced by the uses of tread patterns and geometries. Hence, the
drag coefficient can be reduced. The ratio of wheel diameter to tyre tube cross sectional
diameter( shape factor ), influences the drag on the wheel, where a higher shape factor (large
wheel with narrow tyre) increases the drag .Thus, the drag the width of the tyre should be
equal to the width of the rim, otherwise separation will occur. Finally, the tyres should be
inflated to the proper pressure by using automatic tire inflation systems or automatic tyre
pressure monitor.

(c)

The external flow systems of golf ball (smooth sphere) is chosen which occupied
aerodynamics phenomena Both pressure drag and frictional drag can be co-existed in this
system and is depend on the Reynolds number which one is more significant. Overall drag
force, D in a system is given by the equation below:

= +

= total drag force ; = Frictional Drag ; = Pressure drag.

Friction drag is due directly to the shear stress on the object; while pressure drag is
due directly to the pressure on the object. For the golf ball, it normally travels in a very high
Reynolds number which fall in the range of 9.0 x 104 to 2.15 x 105, which means that the
viscosity effect is much less than the inertia effect of the golf ball. Therefore, the pressure
drag, is more significant than of frictional drag, . Pressure drag is caused by the
compression of air particles in front of an object while moving through a fluid. This causes a
difference in pressure between front pressure and back pressure of an object eventually leads
to a pressure drag.

golf ball

Figure 1A : Flow system of a smooth golf ball (high Reynolds

number)
 From the figure 1A, the area of the smooth golf ball affected by the viscous forces is
forced farther downstream until it involve only a thin (<<D) laminar boundary layer on the
front portion of the golf ball and an irregular, unsteady wake region that extends far
downstream of the golf ball. The velocity gradients within this boundary layer are much
larger than those in the remainder of the flow field. In this situation, turbulent wake region is
formed after the separation point which lead to greater pressure drag. For a smooth golf ball,
the flow is laminar initially and undergo transition to turbulent flow which eventually
separate faster. A changes in pressure gradient will result in rapid laminar boundary layer and
separation.

In order to reduced overall drag force on the surface, dimples on golf balls are designed.
This is because dimples on golf ball will cause turbulent flow on its surface which allows air
to flow near the surface longer and delay the separation point. Thus, the size of the turbulence
wake region decreases Hence, a significant drop in drag coefficient which leads to drag force
can be determined. Although roughness of the golf balls will increase friction
drag(insignificant),but a high reduction of pressure drag can be compensated which is
significant in this high Reynolds number. For clearer view, the below Figure 1b can be
referred. In addition, deep-dimpled golf ball should be used in launching of golf ball. This to
reduces further the drag force and allows further distance of golf ball trajectory.

Figure 1b : Different effect of dimples on the golf

ball
Problem 2:
a.)

An open-channel flow is classified as uniform flow (UF) if the depth of flow does not
vary along the channel (dy/dx = 0).Uniform flow (UF) will be present in a portion of open
channel (called a reach of channel) with a constant flow rate of liquid passing through it,
constant bottom slope, and constant cross-section shape & size. With these conditions present,
the average velocity of the flowing liquid and the depth of flow will remain constant in that
reach of channel. For reaches of channel where the bottom slope, cross-section shape, and/or
cross-section size change, non-uniform flow will occur. Whenever the bottom slope and
channel cross-section shape and size become constant in a downstream reach of channel,
another set of uniform flow conditions will occur there.

In other word, if the depth varies with distance (dy/dx 0), it considers as non-
uniform flow or varied flow. If the bottom slope and the energy line slope are not equal, the
flow depth will vary along the channel, either increasing or decreasing in the flow direction.
Physically, the difference between the component of weight and the shear forces in the
direction of flow produces a change in the fluid momentum which requires a change in
velocity and, from continuity considerations, a change in depth. Whether the depth increases
or decreases depends on various parameters of the flow, with many types of surface profile
configurations possible. This can be illustrated in Figure 2.(general)
 For non-uniform flow, it can be further classified into gradually varying flow (GVF)
and rapidly varying flow (RVF).For gradually varying flow (GVF), the flow depth changes
slowly with the distance along the channel (dy/dx <<1), in context that the bed slope and the
channel friction become significant and it is not that easily to be visualized the change in flow
depth, dy. This can be shown in the figure 3.

Figure 3: gradually varying flow sketch (yu yD)

If the flow depth changes significantly and considerably over a relatively short
distance (dy/dx~ 1), it is known as rapidly varying flow(RVF). So, the bed slope and the
channel friction can be ignored. It occurs where there is a mismatch between the depth
imposed by upstream section and downstream section. Hydraulic jump is one type of the
exampleof rapidly varying flow.

Figure 4 : Rapidly varying flow (hydraulic pump).

b.)

Figure P2:

Type of flow in each section above:

(a) rapid varying flow

(b) uniform flow
(c) rapid varying flow
(d) uniform flow
(e) rapid varying flow
(f) gradually varying flow
(g) rapid varying flow
(h) rapid varying flow
(i) gradually varying flow
Problem 3:
a)
Centrifugal pumps consist of a set of rotating vanes called an impeller which
is enclosed inside a stationary volute(casing)and are used to impart energy to a fluid through
centrifugal force. As the engine starts, the water is then forced out through the discharge
nozzle due to the speed of the impeller. Hence, the partial vacuum is created which enable the
atmospheric pressure to force water up the suction hose and flow through the suction inlet
into the eye of the impeller to replace the displaced water. The centrifugal force is formed
and exerted on the water as the water hits the rotating impeller. The water is then moved out
from the impeller eye and along the impeller vanes to their extreme tip where the liquid is
then forced against the inside walls of the volute and out through the discharge of the pump.
When water is drawn into the pump in continuous flow, it moves through the pump as the
pressure that occurs at the pump inlet and impeller eye decreased. The shape of the volute
casing is wider at the discharge nozzle than that where the liquid is first forced by the
impeller against the volute. The velocity of water increased as it hits the side of the volute
from the impeller. Due to this motion, kinetic energy is formed. The shape of the volute
allows the liquid to expand which the motion of the water can be slowed down. Kinetic
energy is transformed into pressure as the water slows down in the volute. This pressure then
forces the liquid out of the pump discharge nozzle into the outlet pipe lines. By forcing fluid
through without cupping it, centrifugal pumps can achieve very high flow rates. For more
clearer view can refer to below figure and picture.

Figure 4: Overall view of centrifugal pump

Each part of centrifugal pump flow in detail :

b(i)
point 2

point 1

By using the energy equation :

+ + + = + + + ( + ) Equation 1a

whereas :

1 , 2 = Pressure at each respective point ; = Pump head for system ;

= Specific Weight of Water ; = Friction Factor ; 1 , 2 = Velocity at each respective
point ; = Length of Pipe ; = Minor Loss Coefficient ; D = Diameter of pipe

1 , 2 = Height from reference point at respective point

By referring the question and appendix 1b, the values are obtained as shown in below table:

Symbol Value
1 20 kPa
2 0 kPa (Exposed to Atmospheric)
1 5 m/s
2 0 m/s ( No more flow at the end )
1 0m (reference Point)
2 12 m (height of the system from the figure)
9.80 kN/m3
25 m (main pipe line)
g 9.81 m/s2
D 510-2 m

a) Find friction factor, :

i) Calculate the Reynolds number, Re of water flow :

VD 999 3 (5 )(5102 )
Re= =
= 2.22991105 4000 (Turbulent Flow)
1.12102 2

ii) From the appendix 6b(table 8.1), galvanized iron has equivalent roughness, of 0.15mm

iii) Calculate the relative roughness,

0.15103
= = 0.003
5102

-By referring moody chart, the value of the relative roughness and the Reynolds number that
calculated is used to obtain the friction factor of the pipe is 0.026.

b) By referring appendix 6b (table8.2),find sum of minor loss coefficient, :

K L = Entrance Flow + gate valve + 4(ball valve, fully opened)

+ 4(Long Radius 90Elbows, flanged) + 3(Line flow Tees, flanged)

+ Exit Flow

= 0 + 0.15 + 4(0.05) + 4(0.2) + 3(0.2) + 1 = .

c)Substitute values from the above into Equation 1a :

m 2 m 2
20 kPa (5 ) (0.026)(25) (5 )
s
+ m + 0 + = 0 + 0 + 12 + [ [ + 2.75 ] ]
9.80
kN
2(9.81 ) 5 102 2 (9.81 )
m
3 2 2

= 28.753 m

b(ii) Specific Speed , Ns =
[ ]

*Assume : ha = hp = 28.753 m ( value from part b(i) )

-Given from the question, rotational speed (angular velocity), = 450 rpm

i) Convert from rpm (revolution per minute) to rad/s (radian per second) :

Given : 1 revolution = 2 radian

450 2 1
therefore, = 60 = 47.124 rad/s
1 1

ii) Calculate flow rate, Q:

2
(5102 )
Q= Area Velocity = 5 = .
4

iii) Specific Speed, Ns:

3
( 47.124 rad/s ) x 0.0098175

Ns = m
3 = 0.06784 (dimensionless)
[9.81 2 28.753 ]4

b(iii) Based on the calculated specific speed, Ns above which is 0.06784, the selected
centrifugal pump is not suitable to be used. This is because it is not in the range of (0.2 to 8.0)
as shown in the figure below (based on bottom scale ).
References

1) (n.d.). Retrieved from Science-Stories/Cycling-Aerodynamics/Forces-and-speed:

http://sciencelearn.org.nz/Science-Stories/Cycling-Aerodynamics/Forces-and-speed

2) Chang-Hsien Tai, Chih-Yeh Chao, Jik-Chang Leong, & Qing-Shan Hong. (n.d.). Effects of
golf ball dimple configuration on aerodynamics, trajectory, and acoustics.

3) Drag of Blunt Bodies and Streamlined Bodies. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.princeton.edu/~asmits/Bicycle_web/blunt.html

4) Drag on a sphere. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-

12/airplane/dragsphere.html

5) Harun Chowdhury, Bavin Loganathan, Yujie Wang, Israt Mustary, & Firoz Alam. (2016).
A study of dimple characteristics on golf ball drag. Procedia Engineering 147 , 90.

6) Open Channel Hydraulics For Engineer. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://leanhtuan.com/pdf/OCHC%204.pdf

7) Underwood, L. (June, 2012). Aerodynamics of Track Cycling. Retrieved from

http://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10092/7804/Thesis_fulltext.pdf;jsessionid=D3C51
5B86AF19FB2D613296A89C5855A?sequence=1

8) Veilleux, T. (2005, September 19). How do dimples in golf balls affect their flight?
Retrieved from Scientific American: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-
dimples-in-golf-ba/