APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

TO SOLID GEOMETRY

9.1 THE EQUATIONS OF A CURVE IN SPEC

Let us consider the vector 0=r whose origin is coincident with the coordinate origin and
whose terminus is a certain point A (x, y, z) ( Fig. 196). A vector of this kind is called a radius vector.

Let us express this vector in terms of the projections on the coordinate axes :

r= xi+yj+zk (1)

Let the projection of the vector r be functions of sorne parameter t :

x= (t)

y= (t) (2)

z= (t)

Then formula (1) may be rewritten as follows :

r = (t) i + (t) j + (t) k (1)

or, in abbreviated from,

r = r (t) (1)

As t varies, x, y, and z vary ; and the point A ( the terminus of the vector r ) will thece out a line in
space that is called the hogograph of the vector r = r (t). Equation (1) or (1) is called the vector
equation of the line in space. Equations (2) are known as the parametric equations of the line in space.
With the aid of these equations, the coordinates x, y, z of the corresponding point of the curve are
determined for each value of t.

Note. A curve in space can also be defined as the locus of points of the intersection of two
surfaces . it can therefore be given by two equations of two surfaces:

1 = (x, y, z) = 0 (3)

2 = (x, y, z) = 0

Thus, for example, the equation

x + y + z = 4, z = 1

are the equations of a circle obtainedat the intersection of a sphere and a plane ( Fig. 197).

Thus, a curve in space may be represented either by parametric equations (2) or by two
surface equations (3).
If we eliminate the parameter t from equations (2) and get two equations connecting x, y, z, we will
thus make the transition

Gambar Fig 197

From parametric representation of a line to the surface representation. And conversely, if we put

x = (t), where (t) is an arfuction, and find y and z as functions of t from equations

1 [ (t) , y, z) = 0, 2 [ (t) , y, z) = 0

Let us write the equation of the helix, denoting by x, y and z the coordinates of its variable
point M and by t the angle AOP (see Fig. 198). Then

tan
x = a cos t, y = a sin t , z = PM =

= at . since
where denotes the acute angle of the triangle C2 AC. Noting that is an arc of a
circle of radius a corresponding to the central angle t .

Fig. 198

and denoting tan by m, we get the parametric equations of the helix in the from

x = a cos t, y= a sin t, z = amt

(here t is the parameter), or in the vector form:

r = ia cos t + ja sin t + kami

It is not diffcult toeliminate the parameter t from the parametric equations of the helix: equare the
first two equations and add. We find 2 + 2 =2 . This is the equation of the oylinder on which the
helix lies. Then, dividing termwise the second equation by the first and substituting into the obtained
equation the value of t found from the third equation, we find the equation of another surface on
which the helix lies:

= tan

This is the so-called helicid. It is generated as the trace of a halt-Nne parallei to the xy-plane
if the aend point of this half-line lies on the z-axis and if the half-line itself rotates about the
z-axis at a constant angular velocity, and rises with constant velocity so that its extremity is
translated along the z-axis. The helix is the line of intersection of these two surfaces and so
can be rep-reseted by two equation :

2 + 2 = 2 , = tan

 9.2 THE LIMIT AND DERIVATIVE

OF THE VECTOR FUNCTION OF A SCALAR ARGUMENT.

THE EQUATION OF A TANGENT TO A CURCE.

THE EQUATION OF A NORMAL PLANE

Reverting to the formulas (1) and (1) of the preceding section, we have

r = (t) i + (t) j + (t) k

or

r = r (t)

when t varies, the vector r varies in the general case both in magnitude and direction. We say that r

is a vector function of the scalar argument t . Let us suppose that

lim (t) =

Fig. 199 lim (t) =

tt

lim x (t) = x
tt

Then we say thatb the vector r = + j + x is the limit of the vector r = r (t) and we write
(Fig.199)

lim () =
tt

From the latter equation follow the obvious equations

lim| r (t) - r| = lim [() ]2 + [ () ]2 + [ () x] = 0

tt tt

And

lim| r (t) | = | r |
tt

Let us now take up the question of the derivative of the vector function of a scalar argument,

r = (t) i + (t) j + (t) k

assuming that the origin of the vector r (r) lies at the coordinate origin. We know that the latter
equation is the equation of some space curve.

Let us take some fixed value t corresponding to a definite point M on the curve, and let us
change t by the increment ; we then get the vector

( + ) = ( = ) + () + ()
Which defines a certain point 1 on the curve (Fig .200). let us find the increment of the vector

= ( + ) ()

= [( + ) ()]
Fig. 200
+[( + ) ()]

+[( + ) ()]

= r (t) ,
In fig. 200, where 1 = = ( + ), this increment is shown by the vector

1 = ().

()
let us consider the ratio of the increment in the vector function to the increment in the

scalar argument ; this is obviously a vector collinear with the vector (), since it is obtained from
1
the latter by multiplication by the scalar factor . we can write this vector as follows :

() ( + ) () ( + ) () ( + ) ()
= + +

If the functions (), (), () have derivatives for the choses value of t , the factors of i, j, k will
in the limit become the derivatives (), (), () as 0. Therefore, in this case the limin

of as 0 exists and is equal to the vector () + () + ():

lim = () + () + ()
tt

The vector defined by this equation is called the derivativa of the vector r (t) with respect to the

scalar argument t. The derivateve is denoted by the symbol or r.

Thus, = = () + () + () (2)

= + + (2)

Let us determine the direction of the vector ,

Since as 0 the point 1 approacher M , the direction of the secant 1 yields, in the limit,
the direction of the tangent.

Hence, the vector of the derivative lies along the tanget to the curve at M. The length of the


vector is defined by the formula

| | = [()] + [ ()] + [()] (3)
From the results obtained it is easy to write the equation ofthe tangent to the curve

r = xi + yj + zk

at